REGULACION DE VOLTAJE

ING RUBEN DARIO ARIAS

CURSO REGULACION DE VOLTAJE ITEM 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Introduccin Puentes de tiristores Fuentes de excitacin Descripcin bsica de un AVR Funcionamiento en modo Manual Funcionamiento en modo Automtico Circuitos de proteccin Limitadores Ajustes de loops de control Pruebas en vaco Pruebas con carga Diagrama Unifilar AVR TOTAL (Horas) CONCEPTO

INTRODUCCIN A power supply system consists of three main components: 1) power generation units, 2) a grid and 3) loads, which are the customers. The primary aim of a power supply system is to meet the demands for energy imposed by the customers. The function of the grid depends on the size of the power supply system. If the amount of generated, distributed and consumed energy is of considerable size, the grid is divided in a transmission grid (high voltage) and a distribution network (medium and low voltage). The activities related to .large., deregulated, power supply systems, i.e. generation, transmission and distribution, are in general widely different. Therefore, these activities are (or may be) covered by different supply organisations, e.g. power generation companies, transmission system operators and distribution system operators. The function of the transmission grid is to transmit energy from large power generation plants to the distribution networks, whereas the distribution networks distribute the energy from the transmission grid or from small/local power generation plants to the customers. The main objective of the power generator companies is to produce power at a cost efficient price. Meanwhile the two other organisations have a number of objectives to pursue, which may be summarised by the following goals: to achieve an acceptable level of reliability, quality and safety for the power supply at an economic price . since the price a customer has to pay is determined by the costs of the associated generation, transmission and distribution. Moreover, the transmission system operators are responsible for the overall energy production planning in their own area. To be able to fulfil the objectives of reliability, quality and safety for the power supply at an economic price, the system operator of the transmission grid has to attend to a number of tasks, e.g.: To form and specify Power Station Specifications. To plan further development of the transmission grid. To contribute to optimal allocation of resources, includ ing balancing of the requirements on various types of plants. To ensure the properties essential for the power system operation as regards reliability, power quality and security of supply in the short term as well as in the long run. On a distribution network level, the same tasks are valid for the system operator of the distribution network. The key issues for the last task are: power system control and power system specifications. The purpose of power system specifications is to ensure certain abilities and characteristics in the power input for use in the operation and control 2

of the power system. In this way, it becomes possible to operate and control the power system under various load conditions and disturbances. Thus, the main control aspects are power system stability and power quality. In the rest of the report, focus will be on power quality. Other important issues, which will not be discussed, are various economic items.

4.2 Power Quality and other Demands to Grid Connection The used term .Power Quality. is usually considered to include two aspects of power supply, namely Voltage Quality and Supply Reliability (CIGRE WG14- 31, 1999). The Voltage Quality part includes different disturbances such as: rapid changes, harmonics, interharmonics, flicker, unbalance and transients, whereas the reliability part involves phenomena with a longer duration, like interruptions, voltage dips and sags, over and under voltages and frequency deviations.

Figure 52 gives a simplified view of the characterisation of Power Quality. To give a complete idea of Power Quality, also a third phenomenon may be introduced, i.e. information (Thomsen, 1999).

Information about planned outages and information after faults and disturbances, give the customer a better impression of the quality of supply, and of the supplier. So as to complete the term Power Quality a figure like Figure 53 can be drawn.

With the emergence of computers, a high level of automation with sensitive loads and modern communication, reliable electricity supply with a good voltage quality has become necessity. Electricity is fundamental to economic activity, to the standard of living and quality of life. Over the last ten years the customers perception of reliability has changed. Outage times of a few cumulative hours per year are no longer considered as an characteristic of an extremely reliable supply for an increasing number of sensitive customers, in particular industrial and commercial customers. A few cycles interruption or a voltage reduction to less than 90 % may cause serious problems for industrial customers. The number of voltage dips and swells and their duration becomes more important than the cumulative outage time per year (CIGRE WG14-31, 1999). The variety of disturbances that may affect customers. equipment are the parameters that describe Voltage Quality and Reliability, and these parameters, and equipment to compensate for their influence, will be described in the following. 4.2.1 Categorisation and characterisation of disturbances in the grid According to (Dugan et al., 1996) and (Thomsen, 1999) the different disturbances may be classified as in Table 8.

These categories and the description of the different disturbances in Table 8 are important to classify measurement results and to describe the actual phenomena, which may cause the Power Quality problem. 5

These disturbances are not all new, and the utilities are aware of them. However, they have to take a new look because of the rapidly changing customers. needs and the nature of loads (CIGRE WG14-31, 1999). This may force the utilities to be able to provide value-added options to industrial and commercial customers relating to their specific needs. The way to give some customers better service than others is by using Custom Power equipment to secure better reliability and improved voltage quality. Another way to categorise the different disturbances is to look at possible causes for each kind of disturbance and to look at the consequences they might give. They are summarised in Table 9.

In Table 9, the distortion caused by DC-offset is not taken into account. This is not considered by IEC. The DC-offset may occur from geomagnetic disturbance or due to the effects of half-wave rectification. Also voltage setting on equipment with iron cores, or short circuits close to the generators can give DC-offset in the voltage. The consequence of a DC-offset is that transformer cores may be biased, so they can saturate in normal operation, leading to heating and loss of transformer life. DC-current can also cause electrolytic erosion of grounding electrodes and other connectors (Dugan et al., 1996). Also interharmonics are not mentioned in Table 9. Interharmonics are sinusoidal voltages and currents having a frequency that are not an integer multiple of the frequency of the supply voltage. Depending on the source of the interharmonics, they appear as discrete frequencies or as a wideband spectrum. The main source of interharmonics is static frequency converters, cycloconverters and arcing devices. Interharmonics may affect power line carrier signalling, and can induce flicker in display devices such as cathode ray tubes (Dugan et al.,1996). Finally, power frequency variations are not mentioned in Table 9. The frequency of the power system is directly related to the rotational speed of the generators supplying the network. Frequency variations occur when the dynamic balance between load and generators change, the size and duration depending on the load characteristics and the response of the generation control. Large frequency deviations may be caused by faults on the bulk power transmission system, disconnection of large blocks of load, or a large source of generation going off-line. On modern interconnected power systems, this kind of frequency variation is rare, but the phenomenon may occur on isolated systems. All the different Power Quality terms are now defined and the origin of the different disturbances is also mentioned. One could also claim that reactive power should be a Power Quality parameter, but in the literature, it is not defined as an independent Power Quality parameter, since the voltage is chosen here as the Power Quality parameter. It may be relevant to take the reactive power into consideration, since the magnitude of the losses in the network and the sizes of transformers and generators may be increased, due to the reactive power in the network. The losses in the network result in large voltage drops, giving rise to poorer Voltage Quality. With the above terms of Power Quality, the effect of the reactive power must be considered under the term voltage fluctuation, and the effect of reactive power must then be compensated with regard to this term (Thomsen, 1999).

4.2.2 Equipment used to enhance the Power Quality.

In this section, the focus will primarily be on the distribution level (up to 60 kV), where equipment used to enhance the Power Quality is called Custom Power Systems (CUPS), as opposed to equipment used on the transmission level, which is called Flexible ACsystems (FACTS). Anyway for some of the apparatus used on the distribution level, corresponding apparatus exists on the transmission level, and this relationship is shown in a later table. There are many different types of apparatus, which may be used to enhance the Power Quality, and these may be divided into three groups: On/off apparatus, switches Stepwise controllable apparatus Continuously controllable apparatus

4.2.3 On/off apparatus, switches

On/off apparatus is installed typically at industrial or commercial facilities, with a dual, medium voltage supply, to switch between service from one source to the other. Electromechanical switches normally take from 1 to 10 seconds to switch. Such electromechanical switches are too slow to protect sensitive electronic devices, which are sensitive to, for instance, voltage sags and swells. Here solid-state switches based on GTO thyristor technologies are emerging in transfer switch, fault current limiter, and breaker applications (CIGRE WG14- 31, 1999). At 600V level and below the Voltage Static Transfer Switch, which uses low voltage power electronic devices, is being used. The use for mediumvoltage power electronics for similar applications has evolved in the recent past. In the case of local generation or in case where a transfer between asynchronous sources is needed, solid state breakers may be useful. These are able to interrupt current and they use GTO.s or equivalent. Solid state circuit breakers are often used in connection fault current limiters to reduce the fault current, and thereby reduce the voltage sags on the unfaulted system segments.

4.2.4 Stepwise controllable apparatus

Stepwise controllable apparatus may either regulate the voltage by use of an electronic controlled voltage tap changer, or by the use of stepwise-coupled capacitors as in Static Var Compensators or in Thyristor Switched Capacitors. Such apparatus may also be used for compensation of reactive power. In smaller systems, the electronic switches may be replaced by mechanical switches.

4.2.5 Continuously controllable apparatus

This group of apparatus will normally include a voltage source converter, controlled by various control strategies. The connection to the network grid is usually done by use of transformers. New power electronic devices such as Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBT), Insulated Gate Commutated Thyristors (IGCT), and MOS controlled Thyristors (MCT) are used in the converters.

Depending on the topology used for the converters they are split up into two groups: 1) Shunt converters. 2) Series converters. The shunt converter injects current into the network at its coupling point. This current injection may then be used to compensate for different disturbances. Typical shunt connected apparatus may be the following: Static Var Compensator SVC, Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM) and for harmonic compensation Active Harmonic Filters (AHF). The series converter injects a voltage with a certain phase lag or lead to the line between the supply and load. The resulting power flow in the circuit where the voltage is injected will be changed, dependent on the resulting voltage and phase-shift across the load. The most frequently used series apparatus is the Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR). Shunt connected compensators are useful for cancelling out disturbances in the network current, whereas the series compensators are useful for cancelling out voltage disturbances at the load side. The two kinds of apparatus may also be combined. The apparatus is then called a Unified apparatus, for instance a Unified Power Quality Conditioner (UPQC). Finally, the active compensator may be combined with passive filter elements. Then the apparatus is called hybrid apparatus. Some of the compensators also have an energy storage device connected, to be able to deliver active power, and not only reactive power. In this way also voltage dips and voltage fluctuations may be compensated. Depending on the amount of energy stored, different sizes and duration of the dips can be compensated. On some occasions a shunt apparatus in connection with a series apparatus can replace the energy storage device.

Tomado de: Conceptual survey of Generators and Power Electronics for Wind Turbines L. H. Hansen, L. Helle, F. Blaabjerg, E. Ritchie, S. Munk- Nielsen, H. Bindner, P. Srensen and B. Bak-Jensen.

Voltage and Reactive Power Control Basics Dynamically maintaining constant (or controlled) voltage in a power system is a fundamental requirement of power quality. Passive (resistive-inductive, resistivecapacitive) loads and active loads (motors) require both active and reactive power flows in the power system. While composite load power dependence on frequency is mild, the reactive load power dependency on voltage is very important. Typical shapes of composite load (active and reactive power) dependence on voltage are shown in Figure 6.19.

As loads require reactive power, the power system has to provide for it. In essence, reactive power may be provided or absorbed by the following: Control of excitation voltage of SGs by automatic voltage regulation (AVR) Power-electronics-controlled capacitors and inductors by static voltage controllers (SVCs) placed at various locations in a power system As voltage control is related to reactive power balance in a power system, to reduce losses due to increased power-line currents, it is appropriate to produce the reactive power as close as possible to the place of its utilization. Decentralized voltage (reactive power) control should thus be favored. As the voltage variation changes, both the active and reactive power that can be transmitted over a power network vary, and it follows that voltage control interferes with active power (speed) control. The separate treatment of voltage and speed control is based on their weak coupling and on necessity. One way to treat this coupling is to add to the AVR the so-called PSS, with input that is speed or active power deviation.

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6.7 The Automatic Voltage Regulation (AVR) Concept AVR acts upon the DC voltage Vf that supplies the excitation winding of SGs. The variation of field current in the SG increases or decreases the emf (no load voltage); thus, finally, for a given load, the generator voltage is controlled as required. The excitation system of an SG contains the exciter and the AVR (Figure 6.20). The exciter is, in fact, the power supply that delivers controlled power to SG excitation (field) winding. As such, the exciters may be classified into the following: DC exciters AC exciters Static exciters (power electronics) The DC and AC exciters contain an electric generator placed on the main (turbinegenerator) shaft and have low power electronics control of their excitation current. The static exciters take energy from a separate AC source or from a step-down transformer (Figure 6.20) and convert it into DC-controlled power transmitted to the field winding of the SG through slip-rings and brushes. 11

The AVR collects information on generator current and voltage ( Vg, Ig) and on field current, and, based on the voltage error, controls the Vf (the voltage of the field winding) through the control voltage Vcon, which acts on the controlled variable in the exciter. 6.8 Exciters

The DC exciter (Figure 6.21), still in existence for many SGs below 100 MVA per unit, consists of two DC commutator electric generators: the main exciter (ME) and the auxiliary exciter (AE). Both are placed on the SG main shaft. The ME supplies the SG field winding (Vf ), while the AE supplies the ME field winding. Only the field winding of the auxiliary exciter is supplied with the voltage Vcon controlled by the AVR. The power electronics source required to supply the AE field winding is of very low power rating, as the two DC commutator generators provide a total power amplification ratio around 600/1. The advantage of a low power electronics external supply required for the scope is paid for by the following: A rather slow time response due to the large field -winding time constants of the two excitation circuits plus the moderate time constants of the two armature windings Problems with brush wearing in the ME and AE Transmission of all excitation power (the peak value may be 4 to 5% of rated SG power) of the SG has to be through the slip-ring brush mechanism Flexibility of the exciter shafts and mechanical couplings adds at least one additional shaft torsional frequency to the turbine-generator shaft Though still present in industry, DC exciters were gradually replaced with AC exciters and static exciters. 6.8.1 AC Exciters AC exciters basically make use of inside-out synchronous generators with diode rectifiers on their rotors. As both the AC exciter and the SG use the same shaft, the full excitation power diode rectifier is connected directly to the field winding of 12

SG (Figure 6.22). The stator-based field winding of the AC exciter is controlled from the AVR. The static power converter now has a rating about 1/20(30) of the SG excitation winding power rating, as only one step of power amplification is performed through the AC exciter. The AC exciter in Figure 6.22 is characterized by the following: Absence of electric brushes in the exciter and in the SG Addition of a single machine on the main SG-turbine shaft Moderate time response in Vf (SG field-winding voltage), as only one (transient) time constant (Td0) delays the response; the static power converter delay is small in comparison Addition of one torsional shaft frequency due to the flexibility of the AC exciter machine shaft and mechanical coupling Small controlled power in the static power converter: (1/20[30] of the fieldwinding power rating)

The brushless AC exciter (as in Figure 6.22) is used frequently in industry, even for new SGs, because it does not need an additional sizable power source to supply the exciters field winding. 6.8.2 Static Exciters Modern electric power plants are provided with emergency power groups for auxiliary services that may be used to start the former from blackout. So, an auxiliary power system is generally available. This trend gave way to static exciters, mostly in the form of controlled rectifiers directly supplying the field winding of the SG through slip-rings and brushes (Figure 6.23a and Figure 6.23b). The excitation transformer is required to adapt

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the voltage from the auxiliary power source or from the SG terminals (Figure 6.23a). It is also feasible to supply the controlled rectifier from a combined voltage transformer (VT) and current transformer (CT) connected in parallel and in series with the SG stator windings (Figure 6.23b). This solution provides a kind of basic AC voltage stabilization at the rectifier input terminals. This way, short-circuits or short voltage sags at SG terminals do not much influence the excitation voltage ceiling produced by the controlled rectifier. In order to cope with fast SG excitation current control, the latter has to be forced by an overvoltage available to be applied to the field winding. The voltage ceiling ratio (Vfmax/Vfrated) characterizes the exciter. Power electronics (static) exciters are characterized by fast voltage response, but still the Td time constant of the SG delays the field current response. Consequently, a high-voltage ceiling is required forall exciters. To exploit with minimum losses the static exciters, two separate controlled rectifiers may be used, one for steady state and one for field forcing (Figure 6.24). There is a switch that has to be kept open unless the field-forcing (higher voltage) rectifier has to be put to work. When Vfmax/Vfrated is notably larger than two, such a solution may be considered. The development of IGBT pulse-width modulator (PWM) converters up to 3 MVA per unit (for electric drives) at low voltages (690 VAC, line voltage) provides for new, efficient, lower-volume static exciters. The controlled thyristor rectifiers in Figure 6.24 may be replaced by diode rectifiers plus DCDC IGBT converters (Figure 6.25). A few such four-quadrant DCDC converters may be paralleled to fulfill the power level required for the excitation of SGs in the hundreds of MVAs per unit. The transmission of all excitation power through slip-rings and brushes remains a problem. However, with todays doubly fed induction generators at 400 MVA/unit, 30 MVA is transmitted to the rotor through slip-rings and brushes. The solution is, thus, here for the rather lower power ratings of exciters (less than 3 to 4% of SG rating). The four-quadrant chopper static exciter has the following features: It produces fast current response with smaller ripple in the field -winding current of the SG. It can handle positive and negative field currents that may occur during transients as a result of stator current transients. The AC input currents (in front of the diode rectifier) are almost sinusoidal (with proper filtering), while the power factor is close to unity, irrespective of load (field) current. The current response is even faster than that with controlled rectifiers. Active front-end IGBT rectifiers may also be used for static exciters. 14

Exciters Modeling While it is possible to derive complete models for exciters as they are interconnected electric generators or static power converters for power system stability studies, simplified models have to be used. 15

The IEEE standard 421.5 from 1992 contains IEEE Recommended Practice for Excitation System Models for Power Systems.

Basic AVRs The basic AVR has to provide close-loop control of the SG terminal voltage by acting upon the exciter input with a voltage, Vcon. It may have 1,2,3 stabilization loops and additional inputs, besides the reference voltage Vref of SG and its measured value with load compensation Vc:

The load compensator introduces the compensation of generator voltage variation due to load and also the delay TT due to the voltage sensor. Other than that, a major field-winding voltage Vf loop is introduced. The voltage regulator may be of many types (a leadlag compensator, for example) with various limiters. Figure 6.34a and Figure 6.34b show the IEEE 1992 AC1A excitation system (with automatic voltage regulator). 16

A few remarks are in order: The feedback loop uses Vef instead of Vex (exciters excitation voltage) or SG field-winding Vf. A windup limited single constant block with gain KA is imposed to limit the output variable VA. VUEL is the underexcitation limiter input. VOEL is the overexcitation limiter input. (1 + sTC)/(1 + sTB) is the voltage regulator implemented as a simple lead lag compensator. A non-windup limiter Vr max, Vr min is applied to the exciter excitation supply voltage. The IEEE 1992 type ST1A excitation system model is shown in Figure 6.35. It represents a potential source-controlled rectifier. A transformer takes the power from the SG terminals and supplies the controlled rectifier. The exciter ceiling voltage is thus proportional to SG terminal voltage Et. The rectifier and voltage 17

regulation is represented by KC (KC = xex in previous structural diagrams). The field current IF is limited through gain KLR at the current limit ILR. Again, nonwindup and windup limiters are included, along with underexcitation (VUEL) and overexcitation (VOEL) limiters. The controlled rectifier model is considered only through the non-windup limiter VRmax, VRmin. The IEEE 451.2 standard from 1992 contains a myriad of models for existing excitation systems. More are added in Reference [4].

Summary Control of SGs means basically active power (or speed) and reactive power (or voltage) control. Active power (or speed) control of SGs is performed through turbine close -loop speed governing. Reactive power (or voltage) control is done through field -winding voltage (current If) close-loop control (AVR). Though, in principle, weakly coupled, the two controls interact with each other. The main decoupling means used so far is the so-called power system stabilizer (PSS). The PSS input is active power (or speed) deviation. Its output enters the AVR control system with the purpose of increasing the damping torque component. When the SG operates in connection with a power system, two more control levels are required besides primary control (speed governing and AVRPSS). They are automatic generation control (AGC) and economic dispatch with security assessment generation allocation control. AGC refers to frequency-load control and inter-tie control. Frequency-load control means to allocate frequency (speed)/power characteristics for each SG and move them up and down through area control error (ACE) to determine how much power contribution is asked from each SG ACE is formed by frequency error multiplied by a frequency bias factor R added to inter-tie power error Ptie. ACE is then PI controlled to produce load-frequency 18

set points for each SG by allocating pertinent participation factors i (some of them may be zero). The amount of inter-tie power exchange between different areas of a power system and the participation factors of all SGs are determined in the control computer by the economic dispatch with security assessment, based on lowest operation costs per kilowatt-hour or on other cost functions. Primary (speed and voltage) control is the fastest (seconds), while economic dispatch is the slowest (minutes). Active and reactive power flow in a power system may be augmented by flexible AC transmission systems (FACTS) that make use of power electronics and of various energy storage elements. Primary (speed and voltage) control is slow enough that third- and fourth-order simplified SG models suffice for its investigation. Constant speed (frequency) closed loop is feasible only in isolated SGs. SGs operating in a power system have speed -droop controllers to allow for power sharing between various units. Speed droop is typically 4 to 5%. Speed governors require at least second-order models, while for hydraulic turbines, transient speed-droop compensation is required to compensate for the water starting time effect. Speed governors for hydraulic turbines are the slowest in response (up to 20 sec and more for settling time), while steam turbines are faster (especially in fast valving mode), but they show an oscillatory response (settling time is generally less than 10 sec). In an isolated power system with a few SGs, automatic generation control means, in fact, adding an integrator to the load-frequency set point of the frequency/power control to keep the frequency constant for that generator. AGC in interconnected power systems means introducing the inter-tie power exchange error Ptie with frequency error weighted by the frequency bias factor to form the area control error (ACE). ACE contains PI filters to produce Pref that provides the set point level of various generators in each area. Consequently, not only the frequency is controlled but also the inter-tie power exchange, all according to, say, minimum operation costs with security assessment. The time response of SG in speed and power angl e for various power perturbations is qualitatively divided into four stages: rotor swings, frequency drops, primary control (speed and voltage control), and secondary control (inter-tie control and economic dispatch). The frequency band of speed-governor control in power systems is generally less than 2 Hz. Spinning reserve is defined as rated power of all SGs in a system minus the actual power needed in certain conditions. If spinning reserve is not large enough, frequency does not recover; it keeps decreasing. To avoid frequency collapse, load is shedded in designated substations in one to three stages until frequency recovers. Underfrequency relays trigger load shedding in substations. Active and reactive powers of various loads depend on voltage an d frequency to a larger or smaller degree. Equilibrium of frequency (speed) is reached for active power balance between offer (SG) and demand (loads). Similarly, equilibrium in voltage is reached for balance in reactive power between offer and demand. Again, if not enough reactive power reserve exists, voltage collapse takes place. To avoid voltage collapse, either important reactive loads 19

are shedded or additional reactive power injection from energy storage elements (capacitors) is performed. The SG contribution to reactive power (voltage) control is paramount. Voltage control at SG terminal AVR is done through field -winding (excitation) voltage Vf, (current If) control. The frequency band of automatic voltage regulators (AVR) is within 2 to 3 Hz, in general The DC excitation power for SGs is provided by exciters. Exciters may be of three main types: DC exciters, AC exciters, and static exciters. DC exciters contain two DC commutator generators mounted on the SG shaft: the auxiliary exciter (AE) and the main exciter (ME). The ME armature supplies the SG excitation through brushes and slip-rings at a full excitation power rating. The AE armature excites the ME. The AE excitation is power electronics controlled at the command (output) of AVR. DC exciters are in existence for SGs up to 100 MW, despite their slow response due to large time constants of AE and ME and commutator wear due to the low control power of AE. AC exciters contain an inside-out synchronous generator (ME) with output that is diode-rectified and connected to the SG excitation winding. It is a brushless system, as the ME DC excitation circuit is placed on the stator and is controlled by power electronics at the command (output) of AVR. With only one machine on the SG shaft, the brushless AC exciter is more rugged and almost maintenance free. The control power is 1/20 (1/30) of the SG excitation power rating, but the control is faster, as now only one machine (ME) time constant delay exists. Static exciters are placed away from the SG and are connected to the excitation winding of SG through brushes and slip-rings. They are power electronics (static) ACDC converters with very fast response. Controlled rectifiers are typical, but diode rectifiers with capacitor filters and fourquadrant choppers are also feasible. Static exciters are the way of the future now that slipring brush energy transmission at 30 MW was demonstrated in 400 MVA doubly fed induction generator pump-storage power plants. Also, converters up to this rating are already feasible The basic AVR acts upon the exciter input and may have one to three stabilizing loops and, eventually, additional inputs. The sensed voltage is corrected by a load compensator. A leadlag compensator constitutes the typical AVR stabilizing loop. Various exciters and AVRs are classified in IEEE standard 512.2 of 1992. Alternative AVR stabilizer loops such as PID are also practical. All AVR systems are provided with underexcitation (UEL) and overexcitation (OEL) limiters. Exciter dynamics and AVRs may introduce negative damping generator torques. To counteract such a secondary effect, power system stabilizers (PSSs) were introduced. PSSs have speed deviation or accelerating power deviation as input and act as an additional input to AVR. The basic PSS contains a gain, a washout (high -pass) filter, and a phase compensator in order to produce torque in phase with speed deviation (positive damping). The role of the washout filter is to avoid PSS output voltage modification due to steady-state changes in speed. Accelerating-power-integral input PSSs were proven better than speed or frequency or electric power deviation input PSSs. 20

 Besides independent speed-governing and AVRPSS control of SGs, coordinated speed and voltage SG control were introduced through multivariable optimal control methods. Advanced nonlinear digital control methods, such as fuzzy logic, ANN, synthesis, H, and sliding-mode, were proposed for integrated SG generator control. Power-electronics-driven active/reactive power flow in power systems may be defined as FACTS (flexible AC transmission systems). FACTS may make use of external energy storage elements such as capacitors, resistors, and inductors (normal or of superconductors material). They also assist in voltage support and regulation. FACTS may enhance the dynamic stability limits of SGs but interfere with their speed governing and AVR. The steam (or gas) turbines have long multimass shafts of finite rigidity. Their characterization by lumped 4,5 masses is typical. Such flexible shaft systems are characterized by torsional natural frequencies above 6 to 8 Hz, in general, for large turbine generators. Series compensation by capacitors to increase the transport capacity of long power lines leads to the occurrence of offset AC currents at natural frequency fn solely dependent on the degree of transmission-line reactance compensation by series capacitors (XC/XL < 0.5). It is the difference f0 fn, the slip (rotor) frequency of rotor currents due to this phenomenon that may fall over a torsional free frequency to cause subsynchronous resonance (SSR). Subsynchronous resonance may cause shafts to break or, at least, cause their premature wearing. The slip frequency currents of frequency f0 fn produced by the series compensation effect, manifest themselves as if the SG were an induction generator connected at the power grid. As slip is negative (fn < f0), an equivalent negative resistance is seen by the power grid. This negative resistance may overcompensate for the transmission line resistance. With negative overall resistance, the transmission- line reactance plus series compensation capacitor circuit may ignite dangerous torque pulsations. This phenomenon is called induction generator self-excitation and has to be avoided. A way to do it is to use a strong (low resistance) damper cage in SGs. Various measures to counteract SSR were proposed. Included among them are the following: damping circuit in parallel with the series capacitor, thyristorcontrolled shunt reactors or capacitors, selected frequency damping in AVR, superconducting magnetic energy storage, and protective relays to trip the unit when SSR is detected through generator speed or by current feedback sensors oscillations. Coordinated digital control of both active and reactive power with various limiters, by multivariable optimal theory methods with self-learning algorithms, seems to be the way of the future, and much progress in this direction is expected in the near future. Emerging silicon-carbide power devices [34] may enable revolutionary changes in high-voltage static power converters for frequency and voltage control in power systems

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Tomado de:

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PUENTES DE TIRISTORES

Diodo semiconductor
El diodo semiconductor es el dispositivo semiconductor ms sencillo y se puede encontrar, prcticamente en cualquier circuito electrnico. Los diodos se fabrican en versiones de silicio (la ms utilizada) y de germanio.

Smbolo del diodo ( A - nodo, K - ctodo)

Los diodos constan de dos partes, una llamada N y la otra llamada P, separados por una juntura llamada barrera o unin. Esta barrera o unin es de 0.3 voltios en el diodo de germanio y de 0.6 voltios aproximadamente en el diodo de silicio.

Principio de operacin de un diodo

El semiconductor tipo N tiene electrones libres (exceso de electrones) y el semiconductor tipo P tiene huecos libres (ausencia o falta de electrones) Cuando una tensin positiva se aplica al lado P y una negativa al lado N, los electrones en el lado N son empujados al lado P y los electrones fluyen a travs del material P mas all de los lmites del semiconductor. De igual manera los huecos en el material P son empujados con una tensin negativa al lado del material N y los huecos fluyen a travs del material N. En el caso opuesto, cuando una tensin positiva se aplica al lado N y una negativa al lado P, los electrones en el lado N son empujados al lado N y los huecos del lado P son empujados al lado P. En este caso los electrones en el semiconductor no se mueven y en consecuencia no hay corriente El diodo se puede hacer trabajar de 2 maneras diferentes:

Polarizacin directa
Es cuando la corriente que circula por el diodo sigue la ruta de la flecha (la del diodo), o sea del nodo al ctodo. En este caso la corriente atraviesa el diodo con mucha facilidad comportndose prcticamente como un corto circuito.

Polarizacin inversa
Es cuando la corriente en el diodo desea circular en sentido opuesto a la flecha (la flecha del diodo), o se del ctodo al nodo. En este caso la corriente no atraviesa el diodo, y se comporta prcticamente como un circuito abierto. Nota: El funcionamiento antes mencionado se refiere al diodo ideal, sto quiere decir que el diodo se toma como un elemento perfecto (como se hace en casi todos los casos), tanto en polarizacin directa como en polarizacin inversa.

Aplicaciones del diodo

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Los diodos tienen muchas aplicaciones, pero una de la ms comunes es el proceso de conversin de corriente alterna (C.A.) a corriente continua (C.C.). En este caso se utiliza el diodo como rectificador

Rectificador de media onda. Fuente no regulada

Proceso de rectificacin
La corriente y voltaje que las compaas distribuyen a nuestras casas, comercios u otros es corriente alterna. Para que los artefactos electrnicos que all tenemos puedan funcionar adecuadamente, la corriente alterna debe de convertirse en corriente continua. Para realizar esta operacin se utilizan diodos semiconductores que conforman circuitos rectificadores. Inicialmente se reduce el voltaje de la red (110 / 220 voltios AC u otro) a uno ms bajo como 12 o 15 Voltios AC con ayuda de un transformador. A la salida del transformador se pone el circuito rectificador. La tensin en el secundario del transformador es alterna, y tendr un semiciclo positivo y uno negativo

Polarizacin del diodo en sentido directo

Durante el semiciclo positivo el diodo queda polarizado en directo, permitiendo el paso de la corriente a travs de l. Ver grfico.

Si el diodo es considerado como ideal, este se comporta como un cortocircuito, (ver grfico), entonces toda la tensin del secundario aparecer en la resistencia de carga.

Polarizacin del diodo en sentido inverso

Durante el semiciclo negativo, la corriente entregada por el transformador querr circular en sentido opuesto a la flecha del diodo. Si el diodo es considerado ideal entonces este acta como un circuito abierto y no habr flujo de corriente, La forma de onda de salida de un rectificador de 1/2 onda ser como se muestra en la siguiente figura.

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PUENTE RECTIFICADOR TRIFSICO CONTROLADO El puente rectificador trifsico controlado en su funcionamiento clsico opera de la siguiente manera: Secuencia de trabajo: T1 y T5; T1 y T6; T2 y T6; T2 y T4; T3 y T4; T3 y T5, cada dispositivo conduce 1200 y cada 600 ocurre una conmutacin. Los nmeros corresponden con los nmeros que identifican a cada uno de los tiristores (figura 2), a pesar de que se pueden utilizar otros dispositivos capaces de cumplir con las exigencias tcnicas del problema, por ejemplo: IGBT.

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31

GENERADOR DE PULSOS DE DISPARO Este mdulo es idntico para los dos canales de regulacin automtico y manual. El mdulo Generador de Pulsos es una unidad que genera los pulsos de disparo para un esquema rectificador trifsico controlado, , a partir de una referencia de ngulo elaborada en el PLC del canal automtico, del PLC del canal manual o del canal de respaldo. La referencia de ngulo es comparada con las seales de rampa, las cuales se derivan de la alimentacin de entrada de C.A. a travs de un transformador de acoplamiento. La salida de sta etapa comparadora activa las unidades de disparo (esquema oscilador) para el encendido de los tiristores del convertidor de potencia. (Ver figura 2)

El ajuste del punto de disparo o ngulo de conduccin relativo a la alimentacin de C.A. a travs de la seal de referencia de entrada genera un incremento o decremento en la conduccin de los tiristores y de ah el voltaje de C.D. para el campo del alternador. Un circuito detector de rotacin de fases incorrecta bloquea la referencia de ngulo inhibiendo los pulsos de disparo para los tiristores

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ESQUEMAS DE PULSOS DE DISPARO. La seal de referencia de ngulo elaborada por las funciones programadas en el canal automtico y manual es utilizada para activar al mdulo disparador Generador de pulsos el cual tiene como funciones primordiales: Elaborar los pulsos de disparo Proteger el esquema contra una secuencia incorrecta de fases El voltaje de sincronizacin utilizado en este mdulo esta aislado y en fase con respecto a las lneas principales que alimentan el puente rectificador. A partir de este voltaje de sincronizacin se generan las rampas correspondientes, (para los seis canales de disparo) las cuales se comparan con la referencia de ngulo. En forma anloga los pulsos de disparo generados por el canal manual, son llevados a cabo en el mdulo Generador de pulsos. 33

Dentro del esquema general existe una lgica de seleccin para el canal automtico o manual y las salidas de disparos provienen de uno u otro canal y dependiendo de las condiciones operativas del sistema de excitacin, alimentan a los esquemas amplificadores BOOSTERS para manejo de los semiconductores de potencia. Los mdulos Generadores de pulsos no liberan pulsos en forma simultnea solo sern liberados por el canal seleccionado, no obstante la referencia de ngulo en ambos est activada simultneamente. Para inhibir los pulsos de disparo es necesario cortar la alimentacin a los circuitos osciladores. Esta accin es llevada a cabo por la secuencia operativa. 2.3.1. AMPLIFICADOR DE PULSOS (BOOSTER) Los mdulos generadores de pulsos del esquema no tienen potencia suficiente para activar varios tiristores a la vez (caso de dos o ms tiristores en paralelo). Para que los pulsos tengan suficiente potencia, se utilizan amplificadores o BOOSTERS. Estos equipos almacenan energa durante los periodos de no aparicin de los pulsos mediante capacitores, los cuales se descargan en los transformadores de pulsos al momento del disparo. Dichos amplificadores reciben su alimentacin de transformadores especficos conectados a la salida del transformador de excitacin y monitorean su propio funcionamiento. En lo particular se genera una alarma de perdida de pulsos en caso de que hubiera desaparecido alguno de los mismos, en cualquiera de los seis canales que integran el BOOSTER.

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RFAGA DE PULSOS La rfaga de pulsos tiene como objeto disparar los tiristores con pulsos de alta frecuencia capaces de llevar los puentes de rectificacin a plena conduccin mientras dure la aplicacin de los mismos. Con la excitacin inicial y mediante el potencial tomado del banco de bateras, la unidad se excita con un voltaje igual al 10% o 20% del voltaje nominal. Con la excitacin correspondiente del transformador de excitacin y la plena conduccin de los puentes de rectificacin se excita mas la unidad traducindose en una mayor excitacin y as sucesivamente hasta lograr el voltaje nominal de la unidad. Un circuito de retroalimentacin permite regular la corriente de campo alrededor de su valor nominal. La rfaga de pulsos funciona como regulador de todo nada o en modo bang-bang mandado a los tiristores a plena conduccin dependiendo de la polaridad del amplificador de corriente. En esta forma se puede utilizar la rfaga de pulsos como tercer canal lo que permite excitar la unidad, sincronizarla y tener en forma similar el funcionamiento obtenido con el automtico o el manual. Cabe recalcar que la unidad puede ser excitada , con el esquema de control automtico o con el esquema de control manual. En cualquiera de los casos antes mencionados la rfaga de pulsos siempre ser activada mientras dure la excitacin inicial del sistema.

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FUENTES DE EXCITACIN

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Sistema Autoexcitado Digital Tipo Directo

Cor riente de Campo del Gener ador - al PLC

V-

Campo Gen

41
Acondicionador de Seal

GENERADOR 3f 2500KVA,6900V, 60Hz

* *

Interruptor

V+

Sensor de Efecto Hall

Rdesconex.

52
52

CAMPO 125V, 190A

F1
41 41 41
* * * E1 E2

Trafo de Medida Kx K2 K2
*

Al PLC

Rarr anque

T5

Batera

Trafo de Potencia 30K VA , 6900/120V

Voltaje en terminales y Corriente Cruzada

Entrada Anloga al PLC

Puente Rectificador Totamente controlado

Kreg

F2 Pulsos de Disparo
.

Entrada/Sal D ig.
Vcontrol Controlador . Programable -PLC. . T itl e .

Tar jeta de Pulsos de disparo TMC 2

Sistema Autoexcitado Digital Tipo Directo Voltaje de Campo Entrada A nloga S ize Docu ment Nu mber
A Date:

Planta Rio Nima I (Diseo Preliminar)

T hursd ay, March 1 7, 2 005 S hee t 1 of 1.5

Rev 00

Sistema De Excitacin Digital Tipo Directo

Corriente de Campo al PLC
V+ V-

Acondicionador de Seal

Campo Gen

41

GENERADOR 3f 2500KVA,6900V, 60Hz

* *

Interruptor

Sensor de Efecto Hall

Rdesconex.

52
52

CAMPO 125V, 190A Servicios auxiliares de AC, 208V, 3F 41

1 1 1
* * * E1

41

41

E2

Trafo de Medida

B1
2 2 2

Al PLC

Voltaje en terminales y Corriente Cruzada

Trafo de Potencia 30K VA , 208/120V Puente R ectificador Totamente controlado Pulsos de Disparo
.

Entrada Anloga al PLC

Kreg

F1

Entrada/Sal D ig.
Vcontrol Controlador Programable . -PLC.

Tar jeta de Pulsos de disparo TMC 2

T itl e

Sistema de Excitacin Digital Tipo Directo

. S ize A Date: Docu ment Nu mber

Planta Rio Nima I (Diseo Preliminar)

T ues day, Ma rc h 29, 200 5 S hee t 1 of 1.5

Rev 00

39

Corriente de Campo - a TMC2 V + VMedida de Corriente de Campo

Campo Gen

Sensor de Efecto H all

41

GENERADOR 3f 2500KVA,6900V, 60Hz

Interruptor

Rdesconex.

52
CAMPO 125V, 190A Servicios auxiliares de AC, 208V, 3F
1 1 1

52

41

41

41
2 2 2

B1
* * * E1 E2

Puente Rectificador Totamente controlado

Trafo de Medida
*

Trafo de Potencia 30K VA , 208/120V

* *

* *

Pulsos de Disparo

F1
Medida de Voltaje en Terminales

UP/DOW N

Tarjeta . Microcontrolada . TMC2

.

T itl e

Sistema de Excitacin Fuente de Corriente

S ize A Date: Docu ment Nu mber

Planta Rio Nima I (Diseo preliminar)

T ues day, Ma rc h 29, 200 5 S hee t 1 of 1.5

Rev 00

DESCRIPCION BASICA DE UN AVR

Un SE debe ser capaz de ejecutar las siguientes tareas : a) Mantener el voltaje terminal de la mquina en el valor definido por el operador, o debe ser capaz de mantener una determinada relacin entre voltaje y carga reactiva en toda la regin de la operacin; b) Mantener el voltaje terminal dentro de los lmites aceptables de trabajo, lo mismo en rechazos de carga plena y otros severos disturbios en el sistema de potencia (se consideran como una excepcin los instantes inmediatamente posteriores al disturbio, debido a la imposibilidad de obtener una respuesta instantnea del SE); c) Ser capaz de propiciar una excitacin rpida en la partida del grupo sin sobrepaso del voltaje terminal; d) Ser capaz de responder con desempeo adecuado, a los comandos del operador o sincronizador automtico en el momento de la sincronizacin de la unidad con el sistema;

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e) Poseer elevada velocidad de respuesta de manera que sea posible corregir las variaciones de voltaje impuestas por variacin de carga, generacin o por cierres (por llaves) en el sistema; f) Poder mantener valores de voltaje de campo superiores al valor nominal de la plena carga, mismo al existir cortocircuito trifsco en el barraje de alto voltaje de la unidad; g) Ser capaz de aplicar tensiones positivas y negativas al campo, en valores realmente superiores al valor bsico de excitacin, buscando influenciar el torque de aceleracin de manera que se mantenga la mquina en sincronismo con el sistema de potencia, inclusive, frente a severos disturbios en el mismo; h) En el caso de paralelo de unidades en la barra de alta voltaje, el SE debe ser capaz de compensar parte de la cada de voltaje en la reactancia del transformador elevador, o deber ser provisto de una caracterstica adecuada del voltaje en funcin de la carga reactiva, a fin de propiciar el paralelo de otros generadores en la propia barra terminal; i) Ser capaz de limitar dinmicamente la corriente de excitacin, de acuerdo con la caracterstica de capacidad del propio campo, independientemente de la eventual necesidad de aumento de excitacin que la malla de control del voltaje terminal imponga; j) Ser capaz de limitar dinmicamente la operacin de la mquina en regiones prximas al lmite de estabilidad, independientemente de la necesidad de decrecimiento de la excitacin que la malla de control del voltaje terminal imponga; k) Ser capaz de contribuir de manera efectiva para la amortiguacin de oscilaciones electromecnicas que aparezcan en el sistema de potencia o en la propia unidad; 1) Ser capaz de limitar dinmicamente la operacin de la mquina en condiciones de sobreflujo, limitando la relacin Volts/Hertz; m) Opcionalmente ser capaz de limitar la corriente de armadura, referente a la carga reactiva, independientemente de la necesidad de aumento o decrecimiento de excitacin que el control de voltaje imponga; n) Tambin, corno exigencia opcional, se puede exigir que el SE sea capaz de mantener el voltaje en la barra de alta voltaje dentro de una faja especificada, ofreciendo, todava, una divisin equitativa de la carga reactiva de las unidades en paralelo.

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