proper nouns

backnext Names of people, places and organisations are called proper nouns. We spell proper nouns with a capital letter: Mohammed Ali; Birmingham; hina; !xford "ni#ersit$, the "nited Nations We use capital letters for festivals: hristmas; %eepawali; &aster; 'amadan; (hanksgi#ing We use a capital letter for someone)s title: * was talking to Doctor Wilson recentl$. &#er$thing depends on President !bama. When we gi#e the names of books, films, pla$s and paintings we use capital letters for the nouns, adjectives and verbs in the name: * ha#e been reading +(he !ld Man and the ,ea). Beatrix -otter wrote +(he (ale of -eter 'abbit) .ou can see the Mona /isa in the /ou#re. ,ometimes we use a person)s name to refer to something the$ ha#e created: 'ecentl$ a Van Gogh was sold for fifteen million dollars. We were listening to Mozart. *)m reading an Agatha Christie.

irregular verbs
backnext Most #erbs ha#e past tense and past participle in 0ed 1 worked, pla$ed, listened2. But man$ of the most fre3uent #erbs are irregular: Base form be begin break Past tense was4were began broke Past participle been begun broken

Base form bring bu$ build choose come cost cut do draw dri#e eat feel find get gi#e go ha#e hear hold keep know lea#e lead let lie lose make mean meet pa$ put run sa$ see sell send set sit speak spend stand take teach tell think

Past tense brought bought built chose came cost cut did drew dro#e ate felt found got ga#e went had heard held kept knew left led let la$ lost made meant met paid put ran said saw sold sent set sat spoke spent stood took taught told thought

Past participle brought bought built chosen come cost cut done drawn dri#en eaten felt found got gi#en gone had heard held kept known left led let lain lost made meant met paid put run said seen sold sent set sat spoken spent stood taken taught told thought

Base form understand wear win write

Past tense understood wore won wrote

Past participle understood worn won written

uestion forms
backnext We make 3uestions b$: 5: mo#ing an au!iliar" to the front of the clause: &#er$bod$ is watching (he$ had worked hard 8e9s finished work 8e has been singing (he windows have been cleaned 66 #s e#er$bod$ watching7 66 $ad the$ worked hard7 66 $as he finished work7 66 $as he been singing7 66 $ave the windows been cleaned7

&#er$bod$ had been working hard 66 $ad e#er$bod$ been working hard7 &nglish is spoken all o#er the world 66 #s &nglish spoken all o#er the world7

:: ; or b$ mo#ing a modal to the front of the clause: (he$ %ill come 8e might come (he$ %ill ha#e arri#ed b$ now ,he %ould ha#e been listening (he work %ill be finished soon 66 &ill the$ come7 66 Might he come7 66 &ill the$ ha#e arri#ed b$ now7 66 &ould she ha#e been listening7 66 &ill the work be finished soon7

(he$ might ha#e been in#ited to the Might the$ ha#e been in#ited to the 66 part$ part$7

<: (he present simple and the past simple ha#e no auxiliar$. We make 3uestions b$ adding the auxillar$ do/does for the present simple or did for the past simple:

(he$ li#e here =ohn li#es here &#er$bod$ laughed

66 66 66

Do the$ li#e here7 Does =ohn li#e here7 Did e#er$bod$ laugh7

verb phrases
backnext (he #erb phrase in &nglish has the following forms: 52 a main verb: Verb We * &#er$bod$ We are like saw. laughed. here. it the accident

(he #erb ma$ be in the present tense 1are, like2 or the past tense 1saw, laughed2. A #erb phrase with onl$ a main #erb expresses simple aspect :2 an au!iliar" verb '(be() and a main verb in *ing form: Au!iliar" (be( &#er$bod$ We is were Verb '+ing) watching laughing

A #erb phrase with >be> and 0ing expresses continuous aspect. <2 an au!iliar" verb '(have() and a main verb %ith past participle: Au!illar" (have( (he$ ha#e &#er$bod$ has 8e had Verb 'past participle) en?o$ed worked finished themsel#es. hard. work.

A #erb with >ha#e> and the past participle expresses perfect aspect. A #erb with have/has expresses present perfect, and a #erb with had expresses past perfect.

@2 an au!iliar" verb '(have( , (been() and a main verb in the *ing form: Au!iliar" (have( , (been( &#er$bod$ 8e has been had been Verb '+ing) working singing hard

A #erb with >ha#e> and >been> and the present participle expresses perfect continuous aspect. A #erb with have/has expresses present perfect continuous, and a #erb with had expresses past perfect continuous. A2 a modal verb 1can, could, ma$, might, must, shall, should, will, would2 and a main verb: Modal Verb (he$ 8e will might Main verb come. come.

B2 We can use modal verbs with the auxiliaries >be>, >have>, and >have been>: Modal (he$ 8e ,he will might must Au!iliar" be ha#e ha#e been Verb listening arri#ed listening

present tense
backnext (here are two tenses in &nglish 0 past and present. (he present tenses in &nglish are used:

to talk about the present to talk about the future to talk about the past when we are telling a stor$ in spo-en &nglish or when we are summarising a book, film, pla$ etc.

(here are four present tense forms in &nglish:

Present simple. -resent continuous: -resent perfect: -resent perfect continuous:

# %or* am working * ha#e worked * ha#e been working

We use these forms:

to talk about the present: 8e %or-s at Mc%onald)s. 8e has %or-ed there for three months now. 8e is %or-ing at Mc%onald)s. 8e has been %or-ing there for three months now. /ondon is the capital of Britain.

to talk about the future: (he next train leaves this e#ening at 5CDD hours. *)ll phone $ou when * get home. 8e/s meeting -eter in town this afternoon. *)ll come home as soon as * have finished work. .ou will be tired out after $ou have been %or-ing all night.

We can use the present tenses to talk about the past...

present simple
backnext

(he present tense is the base form of the #erb: * %or- in /ondon. But the third person 1she4he4it2 adds an -s: ,he %or-s in /ondon.
Use

We use the present tense to talk about:

something that is true in the present:

*/m nineteen $ears old. 8e lives in /ondon. */m a student.

something that happens again and again in the present:

* pla" football e#er$ weekend. We use words like sometimes, often. always, and never (adverbs of frequency) with the present tense: * sometimes go to the cinema. ,he never pla$s football.

something that is always true:

(he human bod$ contains :DB bones. /ight travels at almost <DD,DDD kilometres per second.

something that is fixed in the future.

(he school terms starts next week. (he train leaves at 5E@A this e#ening. We fl" to -aris next week.
Questions and negatives

/ook at these 3uestions: %o $ou pla$ the piano7 Where do $ou li#e7 %oes =ack pla$ football7 Where does he come from7 %o 'ita and Angela li#e in Manchester7 Where do the$ work7

With the present tense, we use do and does to make questions. We use does for the third person (she/he/it) and we use do for the others.

We use do and does with 3uestion words like where, what and why: But look at these 3uestions with who: Who li#es in /ondon7 Who pla$s football at the weekend7 Who works at /i#erpool it$ 8ospital7 /ook at these sentences:

* like tennis, but * don)t like football. 1don)t F do not2 * don)t li#e in /ondon now. * don)t pla$ the piano, but * pla$ the guitar. (he$ don)t work at the weekend. =ohn doesn)t li#e in Manchester. 1doesn)t F does not2 Angela doesn)t dri#e to work. ,he goes b$ bus.

With the present tense we use do and does to make negatives. We use does not (doesnt) for the third person (she/he/it) and we use do not (dont) for the others.

omplete these sentences with don)t or doesn)t:

present continuous
backnext (he present continuous tense is formed from the present tense of the #erb be and the present participle 1-ing form2 of a #erb: 0se 5. We use the present continuous tense to talk about the present:

for something that is happening at the moment of spea-ing: */m just leaving work. *)ll be home in an hour. -lease be 3uiet. (he children are sleeping.

for something which is happening before and after a gi#en time: At eight o)clock we are usuall" having breakfast. When * get home the children are doing their homework.

for something which %e thin- is temporar": Michael is at uni#ersit$. 8e/s stud"ing histor$. */m %or-ing in /ondon for the next two weeks.

for something which is ne% and contrasts with a pre#ious state: (hese da$s most people are using email instead of writing letters. What sort of clothes are teenagers %earing nowada$s7 What sort of music are the" listening to7

to show that something is changing, growing or developing: (he children are gro%ing 3uickl$. (he climate is changing rapidl$. .our &nglish is improving.

for something which happens again and again: *t/s al%a"s raining in /ondon. (he$ are al%a"s arguing. George is great. 8e/s al%a"s laughing. 1ote: We normall$ use always with this use.

:. We use the present continuous tense to talk about the future:

for something which has been arranged or planned: Mar$ is going to a new school next term. What are "ou doing next week7

<. We can use the present continuous to talk about the past:

When we are telling a stor": When we are summarising the stor$ from a book, film or pla$ etc.:

present perfect
backnext

(he present perfect is formed from the present tense of the #erb have and the past participle of a #erb: (he present perfect continuous is formed with have/has been and the -ing form of the #erb:
Use

We use the present perfect tense:

for something that started in the past and continues in the present:

(he$/ve been married for nearl$ fift$ $ears. ,he has lived in /i#erpool all her life. 1ote. We normall$ use the present perfect continuous for this: ,he has been living in /i#erpool all her life. *t/s been raining for hours.

for something we have done several times in the past and continue to do:

*/ve pla"ed the guitar e#er since * was a teenager. 8e has %ritten three books and he is working on another one. */ve been %atching that programme e#er$ week. We often use a clause with since to show %hen something started in the past: (he$/ve been sta"ing with us since last week. * have %or-ed here since * left school. */ve been %atching that programme e#er$ week since it started.

when we are talking about our experience up to the present:

1ote: We often use the ad#erb ever to talk about experience up to the present: M$ last birthda$ was the worst da$ * have ever had. 1ote: and we use ne#er for the negati#e form: $ave "ou ever met George7 .es, but #/ve never met his wife.

for something that happened in the past but is important at the time of speaking:

* can)t get in the house. */ve lost m$ ke$s. (eresa isn)t at home. * think she has gone shopping. *)m tired out. */ve been %or-ing all da$. We use the present perfect of be when someone has gone to a place and returned: A: Where have "ou been7 B: *)#e just been out to the supermar-et. A: $ave "ou ever been to ,an Hrancisco7 B: No, but #/ve been to /os Angeles.

But when someone has not returned we use have/has gone: A: Where is Maria7 * ha#en)t seen her for weeks. B: 2he3s gone to -aris for a week. ,he)ll be back tomorrow. We often use the present perfect with time adverbials which refer to the recent past: just; only just; recently; ,cientists have recentl" discovered a new breed of monke$. We have just got back from our holida$s. or ad#erbials which include the present: ever 1in 3uestions2; so far; until now; up to now; yet 1in 3uestions and negati#es2 $ave "ou e#er seen a ghost7 &here have "ou been up to now7 $ave "ou finished $our homework $et7 No, so far */ve onl$ done m$ histor$. &A41#1G. We do not use the present perfect with an adverbial which refers to past time which is finished: * ha#e seen that film $esterda$. We ha#e ?ust bought a new car last week. When we were children we ha#e been to alifornia. But we can use it to refer to a time which is not $et finished: 8a#e $ou seen 8elen toda$7 We ha#e bought a new car this week.

past tense
backnext (here are two tenses in &nglish 0 past and present. (he past tense in &nglish is used:

to talk about the past

to talk about h"potheses 0 things that are imagined rather than true. for politeness.

(here are four past tense forms in &nglish: Past simple. -ast continuous: -ast perfect: -ast perfect continuous: We use these forms:

# %or-ed * was working * had worked * had been working

to talk about the past: 8e %or-ed at Mc%onald)s. 8e had %or-ed there since =ul$.. 8e %as %or-ing at Mc%onald)s. 8e had been %or-ing since =ul$.

to refer to the present or future in conditions: 8e could get a new ?ob if he reall$ tried. *f =ack %as pla"ing the$ would probabl$ win. and h"potheses: *t might be dangerous. ,uppose the$ got lost. * would alwa$s help someone who reall$ needed help. and %ishes: * wish it %asn/t so cold.

*n conditions, h"potheses and %ishes, if we want to talk about the past, we alwa$s use the past perfect: * would ha#e helped him if he had as-ed. *t was #er$ dangerous, What if $ou had got lost7 * wish * hadn/t spent so much mone$ last month.

We can use the past forms to talk about the present in a few polite e!pressions: &xcuse me, * %as %ondering if this %as the train for .ork. * ?ust hoped $ou %ould be able to help me.

past simple
backnext Forms

With most #erbs the past tense is formed b$ adding Ied: call 66 called; like 66 liked; want 66 wanted; work 66 worked But there are a lot of irregular past tenses in &nglish. 8er are the most common irregular #erbs in &nglish, with their past tenses:
infinitiv e be begin break bring bu build choose come cost cut do draw drive eat feel find get give go have hear hold keep know leave lead let lie irregular past was/were began broke brought bought built chose came cost cut did drew drove ate felt found got gave went had heard held kept knew left led let la

infinitiv e lose make mean meet pa put run sa sell send set sit speak spend stand take teach tell think understan d wear win write Use

irregular past lost made meant met paid put ran said sold sent set sat spoke spent stood took taught told thought understoo d wore won wrote

We use the past tense to talk about:

something that happened once in the past:

* met m$ wife in 5EJ<. We %ent to ,pain for our holida$s. (he$ got home #er$ late last night.

something that happened again and again in the past:

When * was a bo$ * %al-ed a mile to school e#er$ da$. We s%am a lot while we were on holida$. (he$ alwa$s enjo"ed #isiting their friends.

something that was true for some time in the past:

* lived abroad for ten $ears. 8e enjo"ed being a student. ,he pla"ed a lot of tennis when she was $ounger.

we often use phrases with ago with the past tense:

* met m$ wife a long time ago.

Questions and negatives

We use did to make 3uestions with the past tense: When did "ou meet $our wife7 Where did "ou go for $our holida$s7 Did she pla" tennis when she was $ounger7 Did "ou live abroad7 But look at these 3uestions: Who disco#ered penicillin7 Who wrote %on Kuixote7 Hor more on these 3uestions see uestion forms We use didn/t 1did not2 to make negatives with the past tense: (he$ didn/t go to ,pain this $ear. We didn/t get home until #er$ late last night. * didn/t see $ou $esterda$.

past continuous
backnext (he past continuous is formed from the past tense of be with the -ing form of the #erb: We use the past continuous to talk about the past:

for something which continued before and after another action: (he children %ere doing their home%or- when * got home.

ompare: * got home. (he children did their homework. and (he children did their homework when * got home. As * was watching tele#ision the telephone rang. (his use of the past continuous is #er$ common at the beginning of a stor$: (he other da$ # %as %aiting for a bus when ; /ast week as # %as driving to work ;

for something that happened before and after a particular time: *t was eight o)clock. * was writing a letter. ompare: At eight o)clock * wrote some letters. *n =ul$ she was working in Mc%onald)s.

.to show that something continued for some time: M$ head %as aching. &#er$one %as shouting.

for something that was happening again and again: * %as practising e#er$ da$, three times a da$. (he$ %ere meeting secretl$ after school. (he$ %ere al%a"s uarrelling.

with #erbs which show change or gro%th: (he children %ere gro%ing up 3uickl$. 8er &nglish %as improving. M$ hair %as going gre$. (he town %as changing 3uickl$.

past perfect
backnext We use the #erb had and the past participle for the past perfect: * had finished the work. ,he had gone . (he past perfect continuous is formed with had been and the +ing form of the #erb: * had been finishing the work 2he had been going. (he past perfect is used in the same wa$ as the present perfect, but it refers to a time in the past, not the present. We use the past perfect tense:

for something that started in the past and continued up to a gi#en time in the past: When George died he and Anne had been married for nearl$ fift$ $ears. ,he didn)t want to mo#e. ,he had lived in /i#erpool all her life.

We normall$ use the past perfect continuous for this: ,he didn)t want to mo#e. ,he had been living in /i#erpool all her life. &#er$thing was wet. *t had been raining for hours.

for something we had done several times up to a point in the past and continued to do after that point: 8e was a wonderful guitarist. 8e had been pla"ing e#er since he was a teenager. 8e had %ritten three books and he was working on another one. * had been %atching the programme e#er$ week, but * missed the last episode.

We often use a clause with since to show when something started in the past: (he$ had been sta$ing with us since the pre#ious week. * was sorr$ when the factor$ closed. * had worked there since * left school. * had been watching that programme e#er$ week since it started, but * missed the last episode.

when we are reporting our experience and including up to the 1then2 present:

M$ eighteenth birthda$ was the worst da$ * had e#er had. * was pleased to meet George. * hadn)t met him before, e#en though * had met his wife se#eral times.

for something that happened in the past but is important at the time of reporting: * couldn)t get into the house. # had lost m$ ke$s. (eresa wasn)t at home. 2he had gone shopping.

We use the past perfect to talk about the past in conditions, h"potheses and %ishes: * would ha#e helped him if he had as-ed. *t was #er$ dangerous. What if "ou had got lost7 * wish # hadn/t spent so much mone$ last month.

perfective aspect
backnext We use the present perfect to show that something has continued up to the present (he$/ve been married for nearl$ fift$ $ears. ,he has lived in /i#erpool all her life. ; or is important in the present: */ve lost m$ ke$s. * can)t get into the house. (eresa isn)t at home. * think she has gone shopping. We use the present perfect continuous to show that something has been continuing up to the present: *t/s been raining for hours. We/ve been %aiting here since six o)clock this morning. We use the past perfect to show that something continued up to a time in the past: When George died he and Anne had been married for nearl$ fift$ $ears. ... or was important at that time in the past: * couldn)t get into the house. * had lost m$ ke$s. (eresa wasn)t at home. ,he had gone shopping.

We use the past perfect continuous to show that something had been continuing up to a time in the past or was important at that time in the past: &#er$thing was wet. *t had been raining for hours. 8e was a wonderful guitarist. 8e had been pla"ing e#er since he was a teenager. We use will with the perfect to show that something will be complete at some time in the future: *n a few $ears the$ %ill have discovered a cure for the common cold. * can come out tonight. *3ll have finished m$ homework b$ then. We use would with the perfect to refer to something that did not happen in the past but would ha#e happened if the conditions had been right: *f $ou had asked me * %ould have helped $ou. * %ould have helped $ou, but $ou didn)t ask me. .ou didn)t ask me or * %ould have helped $ou. We use other modals with perfecti#e aspect when we are loo-ing bac- from a point in time when something might ha#e happened, should ha#e happened or would ha#e happened. (he point of time ma$ be in the future: We)ll meet again next week. We might have finished the work b$ then. * will phone at six o)clock. 8e should have got home b$ then. the present: *t)s getting late. (he$ should have arrived b$ now. 8e)s still not here. 8e must have missed his train. or the past: * wasn)t feeling well. * must have eaten something bad. * checked m$ cell phone. ,he could have left a message.

continuous aspect
backnext Both tenses ha#e a continuous form. (hese continuous tenses are formed with the #erb be and the *ing form of the #erb:

We use continuous aspect:

for something happening before and after a gi#en time. 8e/s getting on the train. [before and after the moment of speaking *t was 3uarter past ten. We %ere %atching the news on tele#ision.

for something continuing before and after another action: Mother %ill be coo-ing the dinner when we get home. We %ere %aiting for the bus when it started to rain.

for something continuing for some time: &#er$bod$ %ill be %aiting for us. (he$ had been %or-ing hard all da$.

for something happening again and again: (he$/ve been doing that e#er$ da$ this week. (he children %ere al%a"s shouting. 8e %ill be practising the piano e#er$ night.

for something temporar": We are renting an apartment until our house is read$.. 8e %as %or-ing in a garage during the #acation.

for something ne%: We ha#e mo#ed from Birmingham. We/re living in Manchester now. 8e had left uni#ersit$ and %as %or-ing in his father)s business.

to describe something changing or developing: &#er$thing has been getting more difficult. 8e %as gro%ing more badItempered e#er$ da$.

active and passive voice

backnext 5ransitive verbs ha#e both active and passive forms:

active (he hunter killed the lion. ,omeone has cleaned the windows

passive 66 (he lion was killed b$ the hunter. 66 (he windows ha#e been cleaned

(he passi#e forms are made up of the #erb be with a past participle: be &nglish (he windows /unch (he work (he$ is ha#e been was being will be might ha#e been past participle spoken cleaned ser#ed finished in#ited soon to the part$ all o#er the world

We sometimes use the #erb get to form the passi#e: Be careful with the glass. *t might get broken. -eter got hurt in a crash. *f we want to show the person or thing doing the action we use by: ,he was attacked b" a dangerous dog. (he mone$ was stolen b" her husband. We can use the indirect object as the sub?ect of a passi#e #erb: active * ga#e him a book for his birthda$ ,omeone sent her a che3ue for a thousand euros 66 66 passive 8e was gi#en a book for his birthda$. ,he was sent a che3ue for a thousand euros.

We can use phrasal verbs in the passi#e: active (he$ called off the meeting. passive 66 (he meeting %as called off. 8e %as loo-ed after b$ his grandmother.

8is grandmother loo-ed after him. 66

active (he$ %ill send him a%a" to school.

passive 66 8e %ill be sent a%a" to school.

,ome #erbs #er$ fre uentl" used in the passive are followed b$ the to+infinitive: be supposed to be scheduled to be expected to be allowed to be asked to be told to

=ohn has been as-ed to make a speech at the meeting. .ou are supposed to wear a uniform. (he meeting is scheduled to start at se#en.

to , infinitive
backnext We use the toIinfiniti#e: L to express purpose 1to answer >Wh$...7>2: 8e bought some flowers to give to his wife. 8e locked the door to -eep e#er$one out. We sometimes sa$ in order to or in order not to: We set off earl$ in order to a#oid the traffic. (he$ spoke 3uietl$ in order not to wake the children ; or we can sa$ so as to or so as not to: We set off earl$ so as to a#oid the traffic. (he$ spoke 3uietl$ so as not to wake the children. L after certain verbs 1see #erbs followed b$ infiniti#e2, particularl$ #erbs of thin-ing and feeling: choose, decide, expect, forget, hate, hope, intend, learn, like, love, mean, plan, prefer, remember, want, would like, would love ; and #erbs of sa"ing:

agree, promise, refuse (he$ decided to start a business together. 4emember to turn the lights out. ,ome #erbs are followed b$ a direct object and the infiniti#e1see #erbs followed b$ infiniti#e2: advise, ask, encourage, invite, order, persuade, remind, tell, warn, expect, intend, would prefer, want, would like ,he reminded me to turn the lights out. 8e encouraged his friends to vote for him. L after certain adjectives. ,ometimes the toIinfiniti#e gi#es a reason for the ad?ecti#e:

disappointed glad sad happ$ anxious pleased surprised proud unhapp$ We were happ" to come to the end of our ?ourne$ F We were happ$ because we had come to the end of our ?ourne$ =ohn was surprised to see me F 8e was surprised because he saw me

6ther adjectives with the toIinfiniti#e are:

able unable due eager keen

likel$ unlikel$ read$ prepared unwilling willing "nfortunatel$ * was unable to %or- for o#er a week. * am reall$ tired. *)m read" to go to bed.

We often use the toIinfiniti#e with these ad?ecti#es after it to give opinions:

difficult eas$ possible impossible hard right wrong kind nice cle#er sill$ foolish *t)s eas" to pla" the piano, but it)s #er$ difficult to pla" well. 8e spoke so 3uickl$ it was impossible to understand him. We use the preposition for to show who these ad?ecti#es refer to:

difficult eas$ possible

impossible hard *t was difficult for us to hear what she was sa$ing. *t is eas" for $ou to criticise other people.

We use the preposition of with other ad?ecti#es: *t)s -ind of "ou to help. *t would be sill" of him to spend all his mone$. L As a postmodifier 1see noun phrases2 after abstract nouns like:

abilit$ desire need wish attempt failure opportunit$ chance intention * ha#e no desire to be rich. (he$ ga#e him an opportunit$ to escape. ,he was anno$ed b$ her failure to ans%er the uestion correctl".

L We often use a toIinfiniti#e as a postmodifier after an indefinite pronoun 1,ee indefinite pronouns2: When * am tra#elling * alwa$s take something to read. * was all alone. * had no one to talk to. (here is hardl$ an"thing to do in most of these small towns.

+ing forms
backnext

We can use the -ing form of the #erb: L as a noun: * lo#e s%imming. 2%imming is #er$ good for $our health. .ou can get fit b$ s%imming regularl$. -ing nouns are nearl$ alwa$s uncount nouns

as an adjective: (he main problem toda$ is rising prices. (hat programme was reall$ boring. 8e saw a woman l"ing on the floor.

Because the -ing noun or ad?ecti#e is formed from a verb it can ha#e an$ of the patterns which follow a #erb, for example:

... an object: 7earning 8nglish can be difficult. * like pla"ing tennis. * saw a dog chasing a cat.

... or an adverbial: .ou can earn a lot of mone$ b" %or-ing hard. (here were se#eral people %aiting for the bus.

... or a clause: * heard someone sa"ing that.

(he -ing noun can be used:

as the sub?ect of a #erb: 7earning 8nglish is not eas$.

as the ob?ect of a #erb: We en?o$ learning 8nglish. ommon #erbs followed b$ an -ing ob?ect are:

admit suggest

like

hate

start begin

a#oid finish

en?o$ dislike as the ob?ect of a preposition

,ome people are not interested in learning &nglish. (he -ing ad?ecti#e can come:

in front of a noun: * read an interesting article in the newspaper toda$. We saw a reall$ e!citing match on ,unda$. (he commonest 0ing ad?ecti#es used in front of the noun are amusing boring linteresting surprising worr$ing exciting shocking terrif$ing disappointing frightening

tiring anno$ing after a noun: Who is that man standing o#er there7 (he bo" tal-ing to Angela is her $ounger brother.

and especiall$ after #erbs like see, watch, hear, smell etc. * heard someone pla"ing the piano. * can smell something burning.

tal-ing about the present

backnext 1. We use the present simple: to talk about something happening regularly in the present:

(he children come home from school at about four. We often see $our brother at work.

to talk about something happening continually in the present:

(he$ live next door to us. 8e %or-s for the -ost !ffice.

to talk about things which are generally true:

Water boils at 5DD degrees elsius. (he Nile is the longest ri#er in Africa.
2. We use the present continuous: to show that something in the present is temporary:

We are living in a rented flat at present. M$ wife usuall$ goes in to the office, but she is %or-ing at home toda$.

for something happening regularly in the present before and after a given time:

*/m usuall" getting read$ for work at eight o)clock. When * see George he/s al%a"s reading his newspaper.

for something happening before and after the moment of speaking:

* can)t hear $ou. */m listening to m$ i-od. Be 3uiet. (he children are sleeping.
3. We use modal verbs to talk about the present when we are not sure of something:

* don)t know where 8enr$ is. 8e might be pla"ing tennis. Who)s knocking at the door7 * don)t know. #t could be the police.

tal-ing about the past

backnext 1 Talking about past events and situations:

We use the past simple:

when we are talking about an event that happened at a particular time in the past

We arrived home before dark (he film started at se#en thirt$.

when we are talking about something that continued for some time in the past

&#er$bod$ %or-ed hard through the winter. We sta"ed with our friends in /ondon. When we are talking about something that happened several times in the past we use

the past simple:

Most e#enings we sta"ed at home and watched %M%s. ,ometimes the$ %ent out for a meal.

! or used to

Most e#enings we used to sta$ at home and watch %M%s. We used to go for a swim e#er$ morning.

... or would

Most e#enings he %ould ta-e the dog for a walk. (he$ %ould often #isit friends in &urope. WA'N*NG: We do not normall$ use would with stative verbs. We use the past continuous:

when we are talking about something which happened before and after a given time in the past

*t was ?ust after ten. * %as %atching the news on (M. At halfItime we %ere losing 5ID.

when we are talking about something happening before and after another action in the past:

8e broke his leg when he %as pla"ing rugb$. ,he saw =im as he %as driving awa$.
2 The past in the past

When we are loo-ing bac- from a point in the past to something earlier in the past we use the past perfect: 8elen suddenl$ remembered she had left her ke$s in the car. When we had done all our shopping we caught the bus home. (he$ wanted to bu$ a new computer, but the$ hadn/t saved enough mone$. (he$ would ha#e bought a new computer if the$ had saved enough mone$.

3 The past and the present:

We use the present perfect:

when we are talking about the effects in the present of something that happened in the past:

* can)t open the door. */ve left m$ ke$s in the car. =enn$ has found a new ?ob. ,he works in a supermarket now.

When we are talking about something that started in the past and still goes on:

We have lived here since :DDC. 1and we still li#e here2 * have been %or-ing at the uni#ersit$ for o#er ten $ears.
4 The uture in the past

When we talk about the future from a time in the past we use:

would as the past tense of will

8e thought he %ould bu" one the next da$. &#er$one was excited. (he part$ %ould be fun.

was/were going to

=ohn %as going to drive and Mar$ %as going to follo% on her bic$cle. *t was Hrida$. We %ere going to set off the next da$.

the past continuous:

*t was ,eptember. Mar$ %as starting school the next week. We were #er$ bus$. (he shop %as opening in two weeks time.

tal-ing about the future

backnext 5. When we -no% about the future we normall$ use the present tense.

We use the present simple for something scheduled or arranged:

&e have a lesson next Monda$. (he train arrives at B.<D in the morning. (he holida"s start next week. *t is m" birthda" tomorrow.

We can use the present continuous for plans or arrangements: #/m pla"ing football tomorrow. 5he" are coming to see us tomorrow. &e/re having a part$ at hristmas.

:. We use %ill to talk about the future:

When we make predictions: #t %ill be a nice da$ tomorrow. * think Brazil %ill %in the World up. *)m sure "ou %ill enjo" the film.

(o mean want to or be willing to: * hope "ou %ill come to m$ part$. George sa$s he %ill help us.

(o make offers and promises: #3ll see $ou tomorrow. &e3ll send $ou an email.

(o talk about offers and promises: 5im %ill be at the meeting. Mar" %ill help with the cooking.

<. We use (be) going to:

(o talk about plans and intentions: #/m going to drive to work toda$. 5he" are going to move to Manchester.

When we can see that something is li-el" to happen: Be carefulN 9ou are going to fall. /ook at those black clouds. * think it/s going to rain.

@. We often use #erbs like would like, plan, want, mean, hope, expect to talk about the future: What are $ou going to do next $ear7 #/d li-e to go to "ni#ersit$. &e plan to go to Hrance for our holida$s. George %ants to bu" a new car. A. We use modals may, might, and could when we are not sure about the future: # might sta" at home tonight, or # might go to the cinema. &e could see Mar$ at the meeting. ,he sometimes goes. B. We can use should if we think something is li-el" to happen: &e should be home in time for tea. 5he game should be o#er b$ eight o)clock. C. lauses with time %ords: *n clauses with time words like when, after, and until we often use a present tense form to talk about the future: *)ll come home %hen # finish work. .ou must wait here until "our father comes. (he$ are coming after the" have had dinner. J. lauses with if: *n clauses with if we often use a present tense form to talk about the future: We won)t be able to go out if it rains. #f Barcelona %in tomorrow the$ will be champions. &A41#1G: We do not normall$ use will in clauses with if or with time %ords: *)ll come home %hen # will finish %or-. We won)t be able to go out if it will rain rains. But we can use will if it means a promise or offer: * will be #er$ happ$ if "ou %ill come to m$ part$. We should finish the ?ob earl$ if George %ill help us. E. We can use the future continuous instead of the present continuous or going to for emphasis when we are talking about plans, arrangements and intentions:

5he"/ll be coming to see us next week. # %ill be driving to work tomorrow.

verbs in time clauses and if clauses

backnext

Merbs in time clauses and conditionals follow the same patterns as in other clauses e!cept:

"n clauses with time words like when, after, until we often use the present tense forms to talk about the future:

*)ll come home %hen # finish work. .ou must wait here until "our father comes. (he$ are coming after the" have had dinner.

in conditional clauses with if or unless we often use the present tense forms to talk about the future:

We won)t be able to go out if it is raining. #f Barcelona %in tomorrow the$ will be champions. * will come tomorrow unless # have to loo- after the children.

We do not normall use will in clauses with if or with time words:

*)ll come home when * will finish work. We won)t be able to go out if it will rain. rains. *t will be nice to see -eter when he will get home gets home. .ou must wait here until $ou father will come comes.

but we can use will if it means a promise or offer:

* will be #er$ happ$ if $ou %ill come to m$ part$. We should finish the ?ob earl$ if George %ill help us.
!i ! clauses and h"potheses

,ome clauses with if are like h$potheses so we use past tense forms to talk about the present and future. We use the past tense forms to talk about the present in clauses with if :

for something that has not happened or is not happening: % #e cannot get a $ob because he has not tried. % &ack is not pla ing so the will probabl not win.

#e could get a new $ob if he reall tried "f &ack was pla ing the would probabl win

"f " had his address " could write to " do not have his address so " cannot % him write to him.

We use the past tense forms to talk about the future in clauses with if:

for something that we believe or know will not happen: % We won't go b train because it is too expensive.

We would go b train if it wasnt so expensive

" would look after the children for ou at " can't look after the children % the weekend if " was at home because " will not be at home.

to make suggestions about what might happen:

*f he came tomorrow we could borrow his car. *f we invited =ohn, Mar$ would bring Angela. When we are talking about something which did not happen in the past we use the past perfect in the if clause and a modal #erb in the main clause:
"f ou had seen him ou could have (ou did not see him so ou could not % spoken to him speak to him (ou could have sta ed with us if ou had come to )ondon % (ou couldn't sta with us because ou didn't come to )ondon.

"f we hadn't spent all our mone we We have spent all our mone so we % could take a holida . can't take a holida "f " had got the $ob we would be living in *aris % " did not get the $ob so we are not living in *aris.

*f the main clause is about the past we use a modal with have:

"f ou had seen him ou could have (ou did not see him so ou could not % spoken to him. speak to him. (ou could have sta ed with us if ou had come to )ondon. "f ou had invited me " might have come. % (ou couldn't sta with us because ou didn't come to )ondon.

%(ou didn't invite me so " didn't come.

*f the main clause is about the present we use a present tense form or a modal %ithout have:
"f " had got the $ob we would be living in *aris now. % " did not get the $ob so we are not living in *aris now.

"f ou had done our homework ou (ou did not do our homework so ou % would know the answer. do not know the answer.

%ishes and h"potheses

backnext Wishes

We use past tense forms to talk about wishes:

We use past tense modals would and could to talk about wishes for the future:

* don)t like m$ work. # %ish # could get a better ?ob. (hat)s a dreadful noise. # %ish it %ould stop. * alwa$s ha#e to get home earl$. # %ish m" parents %ould let me sta$ out later.

We use past tense forms to talk about wishes for the present:

* don)t like this place. # %ish # lived in somewhere more interesting. (hese seats are #er$ uncomfortable. # %ish %e %ere travelling first class. 8ver"one %ishes the" had more free time. :ohn %ishes he %asn/t so bus$. # %ish it %asn/t so cold.

We use the past perfect to talk about wishes for the past:

# %ish # had %or-ed harder when * was at school. Mar" %ishes she had listened to what her mother told her. # %ish # hadn/t spent so much mone$ last month.
#"potheses $things that %e imagine&

When we are talking about h$potheses:

We use present tense forms after phrases like what if, in case and suppose to talk about the future if we think it is likely to happen:

(hose steps are dangerous. 2uppose someone has an accident. We should lea#e home earl$ in case %e are late.

We use a past tense form to talk about the future after suppose and what if to suggest something is not likely to happen:

*t might be dangerous. 2uppose the" got lost. &hat if he lost his ?ob. What would happen then7

We use modals would, could for a h pothesis about the future:

We can)t all sta$ in a hotel. #t %ould be #er$ expensi#e. %ri#e carefull$. 9ou could have an accident.

We use would in the main clause and the past in a subordinate clause to talk about the imagined future:

# %ould al%a"s help someone who reall$ needed help. # %ould al%a"s help someone if the" reall" needed it.

We use modals with have to talk about something that did not happen in the past:

* did not see Mar$, or # might have spo-en to her. *t)s a pit$ =ack wasn)t at the part$. $e %ould have enjo"ed this part$. Wh$ didn)t $ou ask me. # could have told $ou the answer.

the verb be
backnext (he #erb be has the following forms:

-resent simple:

* am We are Affirmati# .ou are .ou are e 8e4,he4*t (he$ are is Kuestion form: Am *7 Are $ou7 Are we7 Are $ou7 *s he4she Are the$7 it7

* am not4 *)m not We are .ou are not4aren)t not4 .ou are Negati#e: aren)t not4aren)t 8e4,he4*t (he$ are is not4 not4aren9t isn)t -ast simple (he past participle: -resent perfect: -ast perfect: * was We were .ou .ou were were (he$ 8e4,he4*t were was been. has4ha#e been had been

(he #erb be is used in the following patterns: 5. with a noun: M$ mother is a teacher. Bill linton %as the president of the ",. :. with an adjective: (his soup is #er$ tast$. (he children %ere good. :.5 with the -ing form to make the continuous aspect

We %ere %al-ing down the street. &#er$thing was wet. *t had been raining for hours. :.: with the -ed form to make the passive #oice (he house %as built in 5JED. (he street is called Montagu ,treet. (his car %as made in =apan. <. with a prepositional phrase: =ohn and his wife are from Manchester. (he flowers are on the table.

lin- verbs
backnext ,ome #erbs are followed b$ either a noun or an ad?ecti#e: ,he was a good friend. ,he was #er$ happ$. 8e became headmaster. 8e became angr$. F NOMON F N O M O Ad?. F NOMON F N O M O Ad?.

(hese #erbs are called lin- verbs. ommon #erbs like this are:

be become appear feel look remain seem sound

,he seemed an intelligent woman. ,he seemed intelligent. 8e loo-ed hungr$. 8e loo-ed a good pla$er. After appear and seem we often use to be: ,he appeared to be an intelligent woman. 8e seemed to be angr$. ,ome link #erbs are followed b$ an adjective. ommon #erbs like this are:

get go grow taste smell $e got hungr$ in the e#ening. 2he gre% stronger e#er$ da$.

dele!ical verbs li-e have, ta-e, ma-e and give

backnext -atterns with common #erbs and nouns7 We often use common #erbs like have and take with nouns like a shower, a drink: * too- a shower F * showered. ,he had a drink F ,he drank something. We call these dele!ical verbs because the important part of the meaning is taken out of the verb and put into the noun. We often put ad?ecti#es in front of the noun: * took a cold shower. ,he had a nice, refreshing drink. (he #erbs used most fre3uentl$ in this wa$ are:

ha#e take make gi#e

We also use go and do as delexical #erbs, but the$ ha#e different patterns: ,hall we go swimming this afternoon7 !r shall we go for a walk7 *t)s $ou turn to do the cooking. *)ll ha#e to do m$ hair before the part$. L We use have with: ;ood and drin-. a meal; breakfast, lunch, dinner, a snack, a cup of tea 5al-ing. a chat, a con#ersation, a discussion, a talk, &ashing. a bath, a shower, a wash, a scrub 4esting. a break, a holida$, a rest Disagreeing. argument, dispute, fight, 3uarrel * had a good brea-fast before * left home. We had a long tal- about the problem. (he kids should have a bath before the$ go to bed. ,he generall$ had a short holida" in =ul$ or August. (he$ had a serious uarrel about their father)s will. L We use take with: &ashing. a bath, a shower, a wash 4esting. a break, a holida$, a rest * alwa$s ta-e a cold sho%er in the morning .ou look tired. .ou need to ta-e a brea-. ; and with these %ords: care, care of, a chance, a risk, a decision, a photograph, trouble, a turn, turns We too- hundreds of photographs on holida$. =ane alwa$s ta-es a lot of trouble with her homework. L We also use have and take with nouns formed from #erbs:

* think $ou should have a loo- at this. ,he too- a bite of the cake. *)m thirst$. *)m going to have a drin- of water. * had a listen to that new % in the car. (he$ are going to have a s%im. L We use give with: 1oises. a cr$, a laugh, a scream, a shout, a whistle ;acial e!pressions. a smile, a grin, a look, a glance $itting. a kick, a punch, a slap, a push, a knock, a blow Affectionate actions. a hug, a kiss, a stroke, 5al-ing. ad#ice, an answer, information, an inter#iew, a lecture, some news, a report, a speech, a talk, a warning. ,he gave a loud laugh. =ohn gave a happ" smile. 8e gave me a nast" -ic- on the leg. ,he gave the children a goodnight -iss and put them to bed. * ha#e to give a speech at the meeting tomorrow. L We use make with: 5al-ing. and sounds: a comment, an en3uir$, a noise, a point, a promise, a sound, a speech, a suggestion Plans. arrangements, a choice, a decision, a plan, plans 5ravel. a ?ourne$, a trip, a tour of, a #isit to L We use go with an -ing #erb or for common acti#ities: We usuall$ go %al-ing at the weekend. 8e goes running e#er$ e#ening after supper. Mum)s out. ,he)s gone shopping. L We use go for a with a #erb for common acti#ities that in#ol#e mo#ing: a jog, a ride, a swim, a run, a stroll, a walk * want to get out of here. /et)s go for a %al-. 8e)s gone for a ride on his bike. L We use do the with -ing nouns to do with %or-, especiall$ work in the house, and with other nouns to do with work: *t)s $our turn to do the coo-ing. .ou do the %ashing up and *)ll do the dr"ing.

* need to do a fe% jobs around the house. * can)t come out this e#ening. * ha#e a lot of %or- to do. L We use do with nouns when it is ob#ious what the action is: *)ll ha#e to do m" hair before we go out PF *)ll ha#e to brush m$ hair.Q 8a#e $ou done "our teeth7 PF 8a#e $ou cleaned $our teeth7Q A 3uestion like: 8a#e $ou done the car7 could mean: 8a#e $ou %ashed the car7 or 8a#e $ou mended the car7 or 8a#e $ou filled the car %ith petrol7 depending on the context.

Modal verbs
backnext (he modal #erbs are: can ma" shall %ill could might should %ould

We use modals #erbs to show if we belie#e something is certain, probable or possible 1or not2. We also use modals to do things like talking about abilit$, asking permission making re3uests and offers, and so on.

certain, probable or possible abilit$, permission, re3uests and ad#ice modals O ha#e can, could and could ha#e ma$, might, ma$ ha#e and might ha#e

can or could will or would will ha#e or would ha#e

certain, probable or possible

backnext

(he modal #erbs are can, could, may, might, shall, should, will and would. (he modals are used to show that we belie#e something is certain, probable or possible:
'ossibilit":

We use the modals could, might and may to show that something is possible in the future, but not certain: (he$ might come later. (! "erhaps/#aybe they will come later.) (he$ ma" come b$ car. (! "erhaps/#aybe they will come by car.) *f we don)t hurr$ we could be late. (! "erhaps/#aybe we will be late) We use could have, might have and may have to show that something was possible no% or at some time in the past: *t)s ten o)clock. (he$ might have arri#ed now. (he$ could have arri#ed hours ago. We use the modal can to make general statements about what is possible: *t can be #er$ cold in winter. (! $t is sometimes very cold in winter) .ou can easil$ lose $our wa$ in the dark. (! "eople often lose their way in the dark) We use the modal could as the past tense of can: *t could be #er$ cold in winter. (! %ometimes it was very cold in winter.) .ou could lose $our wa$ in the dark. (! "eople often lost their way in the dark)
(mpossibilit":

We use the negati#e can t or cannot to show that something is impossible: (hat can/t be true. .ou cannot be serious.

We use couldn t4could not to talk about the past: We knew it could not be true. 8e was ob#iousl$ ?oking. 8e could not be serious.
'robabilit":

We use the modal must to show %e are sure something to be true and we ha#e reasons for our belief: *t)s getting dark. *t must be 3uite late. .ou ha#en)t eaten all da$. .ou must be hungr$. We use must have for the past: (he$ hadn)t eaten all da$. (he$ must have been hungr$. .ou look happ$. .ou must have heard the good news. We use the modal should to suggest that something is true or will be true in the future, and to show $ou ha#e reasons for $our suggestion: Ask Miranda. ,he should -no%. *t9s nearl$ six o9clock. (he$ should arrive soon. We use should have to talk about the past: *t9s nearl$ ele#en o9clock. (he$ should have arrived b$ now.

abilit", permission, re uests and advice

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(he modal #erbs are can, could, may, might, shall, should, will and would. (he modals are used to do things like talking about abilit$, asking permission making re3uests, and so on.
)bilit":

We use can to talk about someone)s skill or general abilities:

,he can spea- se#eral languages. 8e can s%im like a fish. (he$ can/t dance #er$ well. We use can to talk about the abilit$ to do something at a gi#en time in the present or future: .ou can ma-e a lot of mone$ if $ou are luck$. 8elp. * can/t breathe. (he$ can run but the$ can/t hide. We use could to talk about past time: ,he could spea- se#eral languages. (he$ couldn/t dance #er$ well. We use could have to sa$ that someone had the abilit$4opportunit$ to do something, but did not do it: ,he could have learned ,wahili, but she didn)t ha#e time. * could have danced all night Pbut didn9tQ.
'ermission:

We use can to ask for permission to do something: Can # as- a 3uestion, please7 Can %e go home now. could is more formal and polite than can: Could # as- a 3uestion please7 Could %e go home now7 may is another more formal and polite wa$ of asking for permission: Ma" # as- a 3uestion please7 Ma" %e go home now7 We use can to give permission: 9ou can go home now if $ou like. 9ou can borro% m$ pen if $ou like. may is a more formal and polite wa$ of giving permission: 9ou ma" go home now, if $ou like.

We use can to sa$ that someone has permission to do something: &e can go out whene#er we want. ,tudents can travel free. may is a more formal and polite wa$ of sa$ing that someone has permission: ,tudents ma" travel free.
(nstructions and re*uests:

We use could you and would you as polite wa$s of telling or asking someone to do something: Could "ou ta-e a message please7 &ould "ou carr" this for me please7 Could # have m$ bill please7 can and will are less polite: Can "ou ta-e a message please7 &ill "ou carr" this for me please7
+uggestions and advice:

We use should to make suggestions and gi#e ad#ice: .ou should send an email. We should go b$ train. We use could to make suggestions: We could meet at the weekend. .ou could eat out tonight. We use conditionals to gi#e ad#ice: %an %ill help $ou if $ou ask him. Past tenses are more polite: %an %ould help $ou if "ou as-ed him.
, ers and invitations:

We use can !" and to make offers:

Can # help $ou7 Can # do that for $ou7 We can also use shall ! " 2hall # help $ou with that7 2hall # call $ou on $our mobile7 We sometime sa$ ! can ### or ! could ### or ! ll (! will) ### to make an offer: # can do that for $ou if $ou like. # can give $ou a lift to the station. #/ll do that for $ou if $ou like. #/ll give $ou a lift to the station. We use would you like (to) ### for invitations: &ould "ou li-e to come round to morrow7 &ould "ou li-e another drink7 We use you must or we must for a ver" polite invitation: 9ou must come round and see us. &e must meet again soon.
,bligation and necessit"

We use must to sa$ that it is necessar$ to do something: .ou must stop at a red light. &#er$one must bring something to eat. .ou can wear what $ou like, but $ou must loo- neat and tid$. *)m sorr$, but $ou mustn/t ma-e a noise in here. We use had to for this if we are talking about the past: &#er$one had to bring something to eat. We could wear what we liked, but we had to loo- neat and tid$.

modals , have
backnext

We use a modal #erb with ha#e and the past participle: 2ubject (he$ .ou =ack and =ill Modal will might would $ave ha#e ha#e ha#e Past Participle arri#ed seen been b$ now the film late

We use a modal verb with have to refer back:

; from a point of time in the past: We were #er$ worried. ,omeone might have ta-en the car.

; from the present *t is nearl$ eight o)clock. (he$ %ill have arrived b$ now.

;or from the future:

We won)t eat until the$ arri#e. (he$ might not have had supper.

or to refer to past time:

.ou should have helped her when she asked. (he$ might have got lost. Nobod$ knows where the$ are.

can, could and could have

backnext Questions and negatives:

We make uestions b$ putting the sub?ect after can4could: $an ! "% $an you "% $ould ! " $ould you "% and so on. (he negative form is can t in spoken &nglish and cannot in written &nglish. We sometimes sa$ cannot, but it is #er$ emphatic. (he negati#e form of could is couldn t in spoken &nglish and could not in written &nglish. We sometimes sa$ could not.

We use can and can t :

+o talk about ability:

Maria can spea- four languages. * can/t s%im, but m" sister can.

+o sa that something is possible or impossible:

/earning &nglish can be difficult P! &earning 'nglish is sometimes difficult.Q hildren can be #er$ naught$ P! (hildren are sometimes very naughty.Q *t)s still light. #t can/t be bedtime.

,or requests and refusals of requests

Can # go home now7 9ou can go whene#er $ou like. .ou can borro% the car toda$, but "ou can/t have it tomorrow.

+o offer to help someone:

Can # help $ou.7 Can # carr" bag that for $ou7 We use could and couldn t as the past tense of can4can t:

+o talk about ability:

* could run #er$ fast when * was $ounger. ,he couldn)t get a ?ob an$where.

+o sa that something was possible or impossible:

!ur teacher could be #er$ strict when we were at school. [! %ome teachers were very strict. -eople could starve in those da$s. [! "eople sometimes starved. .ou couldn/t use computers in the nineteenth centur$.

+o make a polite request:

Could # go now please7 Could "ou lend me a dictionar$ please7

+o make a polite offer:

Could # give $ou a lift7 # could carr" that for $ou.

We use could have:

to show that something is possible now or was possible at some time in the past:

*t)s ten o)clock. (he$ could have arrived now. (he$ could have arrived hours ago.

ma", might, ma" have and might have

backnext Kuestions and negati#es: We make uestions b$ putting the sub?ect after ma$4might: &ay ! "% $ould ! " &ight ! "% &tc. (he negative forms are may not and might not.. We use ma$:

when we are not sure about something: =ack ma" be coming to see us tomorrow. !h dearN *t)s half past ten. We ma$ be late for the meeting. (here ma" not be #er$ man$ people there.

to make polite re uests: Ma" # borro% the car tomorrow7 Ma" %e come a bit later7

When we use may not for a refusal it is emphatic: .ou ma" notN .ou ma" not borrow the car until $ou can be more careful with it. We use might: L when we are not sure about something: * might see $ou tomorrow. *t looks nice, but it might be #er$ expensi#e. *t)s 3uite bright. *t might not rain toda$.

L As the past tense of ma" for re3uests: 8e asked if he might borro% the car. (he$ wanted to know if the$ might come later. L Hor ver" polite re uests: Might # as- $ou a 3uestion7 Might %e just interrupt for a moment7 We use may have and might have to show that something has possibl$ happened now or happened at some time in the past: *t)s ten o)clock. (he$ might have arrived now.[! "erhaps they have arrived (he$ ma" have arrived hours ago. [! "erhaps they arrived hours ago.

can or could
backnext 'ossibilit"

We use the modal can to make general statements about what is possible: *t can be #er$ cold in winter. (! $t is sometimes very cold in winter) .ou can easil$ lose $our wa$ in the dark. (! "eople often lose their way in the dark) We use could as the past tense of can: *t could be #er$ cold in winter. (!%ometimes it was very cold in winter.) .ou could lose $our wa$ in the dark. (!"eople often lost their way in the dark) We use could to show that something is possible in the future, but not certain: *f we don)t hurr$ we could be late. (!"erhaps/#aybe we will be late) We use could ha#e to show that something is4was possible now or at some time in the past: *t)s ten o)clock. (he$ could have arrived now. (he$ could have arrived hours ago.

(mpossibilit":

We use the negati#e can t or cannot to show that something is impossible: (hat can/t be true. .ou cannot be serious. We use couldn t4could not to talk about the past: We knew it could not be true. 8e was ob#iousl$ ?oking. 8e could not be serious.
)bilit":

We use can to talk about someone)s skill or general abilities: ,he can spea- se#eral languages. 8e can s%im like a fish. (he$ can/t dance #er$ well. We use can to talk about the abilit$ to do something at a gi#en time in the present or future: .ou can make a lot of mone$ if $ou are luck$. 8elp. * can/t breathe. (he$ can run but the$ can/t hide. We use could to talk about past time: ,he could spea- se#eral languages. (he$ couldn/t dance #er$ well.
'ermission:

We use can to ask for permission to do something: Can # as- a 3uestion, please7 Can %e go home now7 could is more formal and polite than can: Could # as- a 3uestion please7 Could %e go home now7 We use can to give permission:

9ou can go home now if $ou like. 9ou can borro% m$ pen if $ou like. We use can to sa$ that someone has permission to do something: &e can go out whene#er we want. 2tudents can travel free.
(nstructions and re*uests:

We use could you and as a polite wa$ of telling or asking someone to do something: Could "ou ta-e a message please7 Could # have m$ bill please7 can is less polite: Can "ou ta-e a message please7
, ers and invitations:

We use can ! " to make offers: Can # help $ou7 Can # do that for $ou7 We sometimes sa$ ! can ### or ! could ### to make an offer: # can do that for $ou if $ou like. # can give $ou a lift to the station.

%ill or %ould
backnext

We use will:

to talk about the future - to sa what we believe will happen to talk about what people want to do or are willing to do to make promises and offers

would is the past tense form of will. Because it is a past tense it is used:

to talk about the past. to talk about h potheses - things that are imagined rather than true. for politeness.

5B#. 1otes on form<

-elie s

We use will

to sa what we believe will happen in the future:

We3ll be late. We %ill have to take the train. We use would as the past tense of will:

to sa what we believed would happen:

* thought * %ould be late ;; so * %ould have to take the train.

, ers and promises

We use ! will or 'e will to make offers and promises: #/ll give $ou a lift home after the part$. &e %ill come and see $ou next week.
Willingness to talk about what people want to do or are willing to do:

We/ll see $ou tomorrow. -erhaps dad %ill lend me the car. We use would as the past tense of will:

to talk about what people wanted to do or were willing to do:

We had a terrible night. (he bab$ %ouldn/t go to sleep. 8e kept waking up and cr$ing. %ad %ouldn/t lend me the car, so we had to take the train.

to talk about something that we did often in the past because we wanted to do it:

When the$ were children the$ used to spend their holida$s at their grandmother)s at the seaside. (he$ %ould get up earl$ e#er$ morning and the$/d have a 3uick breakfast then the$ %ould run across the road to the beach.

.onditionals

We use will in conditionals with if and unless to sa$ what we think will happen in the future or present: */ll give her a call if * can find her number. .ou %on/t get in unless $ou ha#e a ticket. We use would to talk about h$potheses, about something which is possible but not real:

to talk about the result or effect of a possible situation:

*t %ould be #er$ expensi#e to sta$ in a hotel.

in conditionals with words like if and what if. "n these sentences the main verb is usuall in the past tense:

* %ould give her a call if * could find her number. *f * had the mone$ *3d bu" a new car. .ou %ould lose weight if $ou took more exercise. *f he got a new ?ob he %ould probabl" ma-e more mone$. What if he lost his ?ob. What %ould happen then7 We use conditionals to gi#e advice: %an %ill help $ou if $ou ask him. Past tenses are more polite: %an %ould help $ou if $ou as-ed him.
'hrases %ith %ould: would you, would you mind (not) -ing, for requests:

Would $ou carr$ this for me please7 Would $ou mind carr$ing this7 Would $ou mind not telling him that7

would you like .... would you like to ..., for offers and invitations:

Would $ou like to come round to morrow7 Would $ou like another drink7

I would like . Id like (you)(to) ..., to sa what we want or what we want to do:

*)d like that one please. *)d like to go home now.

Id rather (" would rather) to sa what we prefer:

*)d rather ha#e that one. *)d rather go home now.

I would think, I would imagine, I'd guess, to give an opinion when we are not sure or when we want to be polite:

*t)s #er$ difficult * would imagine. * would think that)s the right answer.

%ill have or %ould have

backnext We use the perfecti#e will have when we are looking back from a point in time when something will ha#e happened. B$ the end of the decade scientists %ill have discovered a cure for influenRa. * will phone at six o)clock. 8e %ill have got home b$ then. or looking >back> from the present: /ook at the time. (he match %ill have started. *t)s half past fi#e. %ad %ill have finished work. We use would have as the past tense form of will have: * phoned at six o)clock. * knew he %ould have got home b$ then. *t was half past fi#e. %ad %ould have finished work. We use would have in past conditionals to talk about something that did not happen: *f it had been a little warmer we %ould have gone for a swim. 8e %ould have been #er$ angr$ if he had seen $ou.

double object verbs

backnext 5. ,ome #erbs ha#e t%o objects 0an indirect ob?ect and a direct ob?ect: 2ubject M$ wife 8e 8e Verb sent brought cooked #ndirect object me his mother all his friends Direct object an email some flowers a delicious meal

(hese clauses ha#e the structure: M O N 1indirect ob?ect2 O N 1direct ob?ect2 :. We can use a prepositional phrase with to or for with an indirect ob?ect: ,ub?ect M$ wife 8e 8e Merb sent brought cooked Direct object an email some flowers a delicious meal Prepositional phrase to me for his mother for all his friends.

(hese clauses ha#e the structure : M O N 1direct ob?ect2 O -repositional phrase 1indirect ob?ect2 <. Common verbs with for and an indirect object are:

book bu$ get cook keep bring make pour sa#e find

(he$ booked a table for me at the restaurant. We made to$s for all the children. @. Common #erbs with to and an indirect object are:

gi#e lend offer pass post read sell send show promise tell 8e ga#e his programme to the man sitting next to him. (he$ sent hristmas cards to all their customers.

A. *f the indirect ob?ect is a long phrase we normall$ use to or for: 8e showed his ticket to the policeman standing b" the door. We kept something to eat and drink for all the people %ho arrived late. B. *f the indirect object is a pronoun we normall$ use the N O M O N O N pattern: * poured him another drink. (heir mother read them another stor$.

phrasal verbs
backnext ,ome #erbs are t%o part #erbs 1see lauses, ,entences and -hrases2. (he$ consist of a verb and a particle:

grow O up 66 (he children are growing up.

!ften this gi#es the #erb a ne% meaning:

take O after 66 ,he takes after her mother F ,he looks like her mother, or ,he beha#es like her mother. count O on 66 * know * can count on $ou F * know * can trust $ou, or * know * can belie#e $ou.

,ome transitive two part #erbs 1see lauses, ,entences and -hrases2 ha#e onl" one pattern: 1 'subject) , V , p , 1 'object) [)ote* ) ! noun+ , ! verb+ p ! particle N 1,ub?ect2 ,he * M$ father Merb takes can count comes -article after on from N 1!b?ect2 her mother $ou Madrid

,ome transiti#e two part #erbs 1see lauses, ,entences and -hrases2 are phrasal verbs. -hrasal #erbs ha#e t%o different patterns: L (he usual pattern is: 1 , V , 1 , p N 1,ub?ect2 ,he 8e We Merb ga#e knocked will be lea#ing 1N2 !b?ect the mone$ the glass our friends and neighbours -article back o#er behind

L But sometimes these #erbs ha#e the pattern: 1 'subject) , V , p , 1 'object) N 1,ub?ect2 ,he 8e We Merb ga#e knocked will be lea#ing -article N 1!b?ect2 back o#er behind the mone$ the glass our friends and neighbours

When the ob?ect is a personal pronoun,these #erbs alwa$s ha#e the pattern:

1 , V ,1 , p.

,he ga#e back it 66 ,he ga#e it back 8e knocked o#er it 66 knocked it o#er We will be lea#ing behind them 66 We will be lea#ing them behind

L -hrasal #erbs are nearl$ alwa$s made up of a transitive verb and a particle. Common verbs with their most fre3uent particles are: bring: about, along, back, forward, in, off, out, round, up bu$: call: cut: gi#e: out, up off, up back, down, off, out, up awa$, back, off

carr$: off, out

hand: back, down, in, on out, o#er, round knock: down, out, o#er lea#e: behind, out let: pass: down, in, off, out down, o#er, round

point: out push: about, around, o#er put: read: set: shut: take: across, awa$, down, forward, off, on, out, through, together, up out apart, aside, back, down awa$, in, off, out apart, awa$, back, down, in, on, up, o#er

think: o#er, through, up

refle!ive and ergative verbs

backnext /e le0ive verbs

5 (he reflexi#e pronouns 1see pronouns2 are:

/ingular: *lural: m self. ourself. himself. herself. itself ourselves. ourselves. themselves

We use a refle!ive pronoun after a transitive verb 1see lauses, ,entences and -hrases2 when the direct object is the same as the subject of the verb: # am teaching m"self to pla$ the piano. Be careful with that knife. 9ou might cut "ourself. (hese are the #erbs most often found with reflexi#e pronouns:

cut dr en$o hurt introduce kill prepare teach

,ome #erbs change their meaning slightl$ %hen the$ ha#e a reflexi#e pronoun as direct ob?ect:

amuse appl bus content behave blame distance express

find help see %Would ou like to take another drink0

Would ou like to help ourself to another drink0

" wish the children would behave %" wish the children would behave well. themselves. #e found himself l ing b the side of the road. % #e was surprised when he realised that he was at the side of the road.

" saw m self as a famous actor. %" imagined that " was a famous actor. /he applied herself to the $ob of %/he worked ver hard to mend the lights. mending the lights. #e busied himself in the kitchen. %#e worked busil in the kitchen. " had to content m self with a few 1uros. %" had to be satisfied with a few 1uros.

(he #erb enjoy al%a"s has an object: We all enjo"ed the part$. * reall$ enjo"ed m$ lunch. *f enjoy has no other ob?ect, we use a reflexi#e pronoun: (he$ all en?o$ed (he$ all enjo"ed themsel#es. * reall$ en?o$ed * reall$ enjo"ed m$self. 1658: We do not use a reflexi#e pronoun after #erbs which describe things people usuall" do for themsel#es: 8e %ashed in cold water. 8e alwa$s shaved before going out in the e#ening. Michael dressed and got read$ for the part$. We onl" use refle!ives with these #erbs for emphasis:

8e dressed himself in spite of his in?uries. ,he)s old enough to %ash herself.
1rgative verbs

5. 8rgative #erbs are both transiti#e and intransiti#e:

*eter closed the door +he door closed " boiled a pan of water +he pan boiled +ransitive: 2 3 4 3 2 "ntransitive: 2 3 4 +ransitive: 2 3 4 3 2 "ntransitive: 2 3 4

:. Common ergati#e #erbs are:

begin break change close drop crack dr end finish grow improve increase move open shake start stop

tear turn

# bro-e the glass. * dropped the glass and it bro-e. 5he referee blew his whistle and started the match. 5he match started at :.<D. &e gre% some tast$ potatoes. 5he potatoes %ere gro%ing well. 5he %ind shoo- the trees. 5he trees shoo- in the wind. <. Man$ #erbs to do with coo-ing are ergati#e #erbs:

bake boil cook defrost free5e melt roast

9ou should roast the meat at :DD degrees centigrade. 5he meat %as roasting in a hot o#en. # al%a"s defrost meat before * cook it. * am waiting for the meat to defrost. Melt the chocolate and pour it o#er the ice cream. 5he chocolate %as melting in a pan. @. Merbs to do with vehicles are often ergati#e:

back crash drive fl

reverse run sail start stop

*)m learning to fl" a plane. 5he plane fle% at twice the speed of sound. $e crashed his car into a tree. $is car crashed into a tree. A. We use some ergati#e #erbs with onl$ a few nouns:

catch: dress, coat, clothes, trousers etc. fire : 6un, pistol, rifle, rocket. play: guitar, music, piano, violin, 78, 848 etc. ring: bell, alarm

2he caught her dress on a nail. $er dress caught on a nail. $e fired a pistol to start the race. A pistol fired to start the race.

verbs follo%ed b" to , infinitive

backnext 1 +ome verbs are ollo%ed b" the to-infinitive:

* decided to go home as soon as possible. We all %anted to ha#e more &nglish classes. ommon #erbs followed b$ the toIinfiniti#e are: Verbs of thin-ing and feeling.

choose

decide expect forget hate hope intend learn like love mean plan prefer remember would like would love

Verbs of sa"ing.

agree promise refuse

6ther common verbs are.

arrange attempt fail help manage tend tr want

2 +ome verbs are ollo%ed b" a noun and the to-infinitive:

,he as-ed him to send her a text message. 8e %anted all his friends to come to his part$. ommon #erbs with this pattern are: Verbs of sa"ing.

advise ask encourage invite order persuade remind tell warn 9

SNote: (he #erb warn is normall$ used with not -he police warned everyone not to drive too fast. Verbs of %anting or li-ing.

expect intend would prefer want would like

6ther verbs %ith this pattern are.

allow enable force get

teach

3. 'assive in initive

Man" of these verbs are sometimes follo%ed b" a passive infinitive 'to be , past participle). * e!pected to be met when * arri#ed at the station. (he$ %anted to be told if an$thing happened. * don)t like dri#ing m$self. * prefer to be driven. Activit" =1popIup2: Match the 9to infiniti#e9 clauses to the sentence beginnings. Activit" >1popIup2: Match the 9to infiniti#e9 clauses to the sentence beginnings. Activit" ?1popIup2: Match the 9to infiniti#e9 clauses to the sentence beginnings.

verbs follo%ed b" +ing clauses

backnext

ommon #erbs followed b$ 0ing nouns are:

2erbs o liking and disliking: detest dislike

en$o hate fanc like love

# love s%imming but # hate jogging. 5he" alwa$s enjo"ed visiting their friends. A: Do "ou fanc" going for a walk7 B: * wouldn)t mind
'hrases %ith mind: wouldn't mind (% would like) don't mind (% " am willing to)

would ou mind (% will ou please!0)

* %ouldn/t mind having some fish and chips. * don/t mind %aiting for a few minutes. &ould "ou mind holding this for me7
2erbs o sa"ing and thinking: admit consider

den imagine remember suggest

!ur guide suggested %aiting until the storm was o#er. 8ver"one denied seeing the accident.
,ther common verbs are: avoid begin

finish keep miss practise risk start stop

# haven/t finished %riting this letter. 7et/s practise spea-ing &nglish.

'assive orm o 3ing

Man$ of these #erbs are sometimes followed b$ the passi#e form of +ing. being O past participle * don)t like being interrupted. !ur dog lo#es being stro-ed under the chin.

4oun 5 3ing clause

,ome #erbs are followed b$ a noun and an -ing clause: Verbs to do %ith the senses.

see watch hear smell listen to etc.

We sa% ever"bod" running awa$. * could hear someone singing. 6ther common verbs.

catch find imagine leave prevent stop

* caught someone tr"ing to break into m$ house. We couldn)t prevent them getting a%a".

verbs follo%ed b" that clause

backnext With !that!

We can use clauses with that: L after #erbs of thinking:

think believe expect decide hope know understand suppose guess imagine feel remember forget

* hope that $ou will en?o$ $our holida$. ,he didn)t reall$ think that it would happen. * knew that * had seen her somewhere before. L after #erbs of sa$ing:

sa admit argue repl agree claim den mention answer complain explain promise

suggest

(he$ admitted that the$ had made a mistake. ,he argued that the$ should in#est more in the business. (he children complained that the$ had nothing to do. 1ote: tell and some other #erbs of sa$ing must al%a"s ha#e a direct object 1see clauses, sentences and phrases2:

tell convince persuade inform remind

We tried to tell them that the$ should stop what the$ were doing. (he police informed e#er$bod$ that the danger was o#er. L as postmodifiers after nouns to do with thinking or sa$ing:

advice belief claim feeling argument hope promise report guess opinion idea

8e made a promise that he would do all he could to help. * had a funn$ feeling that something was wrong. L after some nouns to sa$ more about the noun:

fact

advantage effect possibilit chance danger evidence problem difficult

,he pointed out the danger that the$ might be left behind. (here was a chance that we would succeed 1ote: We often use a that clause to define one of these nouns after the #erb be :

danger problem chance possibilit fact

(he danger is that we will be left behind. (he fact is that it is getting #er$ late. L after some ad?ecti#es which describe feelings to gi#e a reason for our feelings:

pleased sorr happ unhapp sad excited glad disappointed afraid

* am sorr$ that $ou can)t come. &#er$bod$ was pleased that the danger was past. *t is luck$ that $ou were able to dri#e us home.
4o !that!

N!(&: We can al%a"s use a clause %ithout the word that: (he$ admitted PthatQ the$ had made a mistake. (he police informed e#er$bod$ PthatQ the danger was o#er. * am sorr$ PthatQ $ou can)t come. (here was chance PthatQ we would succeed.