MALE REPRODUCTIVE ANATOMY Summary Male reproductive anatomy includes: Paired testes Produce spermatozoa and hormones Paired

red duct system (epididymis and deferent ducts) Transport spermatozoa Accessory glands Secretion Urethra Transport seminal plasma Penis and associated muscles Delivery of semen Skin adaptations (prepuce and scrotum) Hormones result in sexual dimorphism, e.g. testosterone in males. Describe the structure of the testis, epididymis, scrotum and spermatic cord Testes The testis is a solid, smooth, ellipsoid organ and is orientated dorsocaudally in the dog. The epididymis is the coiled portion of the external duct system and adheres to the dorsolateral surface of each testis. Each testis is separately suspended in the scrotum by the spermatic cord, which consists of the deferent duct, vessels and nerves covered by the peritoneum. Testicular Parenchyma The testicular parenchyma is soft and yellow-brown. It consists of contorted canals called seminiferous tubules in a connective tissue matrix. The cells lining the tubules produce spermatozoa. Testis Structure The testicular support structure is a dense CT framework. There are 3 main components: Tunica albuginea surrounds the testis and holds the spherical shape (white tunic) Mediastinum testis median rod of CT (can be more lateral in some species) Testicular septa separates the lobes of the testis by coursing between the tunica albuginea and the mediastinum testis

Describe the arrangement of the duct system that transports spermatozoa through the male reproductive tract Convoluted seminiferous tubule Lobule (spermatozoa created here) Straight seminiferous tubule Mediastinum Rete testis Cranial direction Efferent ductules Out of testis Epididymal duct Ductus deferens Epididymis Consists of: Head (caput) cranial region Body (corpus) dorsal longitudinal surface Tail (cauda) caudal region In the head and body, spermatozoa undergo changes that allow them to become fertile. In the tail, spermatozoa is diluted in a buffer solution and stored ready for ejaculation. The epididymis must be firmly attached to the testis. The head is attached by ductules. The medial side of the body has a peritoneal reflection for attachment. The tail is attached by the proper ligament of the testis. The lateral side also houses the testicular bursa. Ductus deferens The epididymis becomes the ductus deferens at the testicle and moves craniodorsal in the body. Just past the bladder, the ducts turn caudally and merge towards each other as they near the prostate. They never fuse to form a single duct but lie next to each other, connected by peritoneal folds. Ampulla At the distal end of the ductus deferens, there is a slight swelling of glandular tissue. This is the ampulla.

Understand the process of testicular descent and the resultant positional arrangement of the testes and testicular attachments Testicular Descent Testicular descent begins during embryological development. Initially the testes are located dorsally in the abdominal cavity near the kidneys. The gubernaculum is a mass of undifferentiated CT that is attached to a testis. 1. The testes are initially retroperitoneal in the dorsal abdominal cavity 2. During embryological development, the peritoneum wraps around the gubernaculum and testis 3. The gubernaculum grows through the inguinal canal, taking parietal and visceral peritoneum with it 4. When it reaches the skin, the gubernaculum grows pulling the testis to sit in/near the inguinal canal 5. The gubernaculum regresses and forms a skin pocket. The combination of two skin pouches is the scrotum. 6. Around birth, as the gubernaculum shrinks it pulls the testis through the inguinal canal until it sits in the scrotum. Remnants of the gubernaculum attach the testis to the scrotal wall

Failure of Descent When a testicle (or both) fails to descent, it is termed cryptorchidism. It can be uni- or bi-lateral. It can be caused by genetic predisposition, and is more prevalent in certain breeds, e.g. greyhound. Cryptorchid animals should not be bred from and undescended testes should be removed surgically as they can form/become tumours. At 35-40 days the testes should be completely descended, but give until 6 months to descend. If bilateral cryptorchidism is present, the testes still produce testosterone but spermatozoa need a lower body temperature, and so these animals are infertile. Testicular Attachments Visceral vaginal tunic is the peritoneum directly surrounding the testis; adheres to the tunica albuginea Parietal vaginal tunic is the peritoneum of the wall of the scrotum Cavity of vaginal tunic is the space between the vaginal tunics Internal spermatic fascia arises from the m. transverses abdominus External spermatic fascia arises from the m. external abdominal oblique

Skin and Associated Sub-Cutaneous Tissues The skin of the testes is thin with sparse hair. It houses well developed sebaceous glands. Dartos m. layer of smooth muscle sub-cutaneously Sometimes called tunica dartos When contracts it pulls the testes in Cremaster m. skeletal muscle in spermatic cord; arises from internal abdominal oblique m. Pulls testes up/retracts Scrotal septum divides the scrotum into two separate cavities housing one testis in each Spermatic Cord Testicular artery (direct branch from aorta) path through abdominal cavity is straight, then after inguinal canal is contorted Testicular vein (Right v. drains into caudal vena cava; Left v. into Left renal v.) Lymphatic drainage Sympathetic nerve fibres Cremaster muscle Ductus deferens CT Surrounding peritoneum Pampiniform Plexus Counter-current heat exchange from testicular a. (warm blood from body) to testicular v. (cooler blood from testes). Ensures that blood going to the testes is cool and blood returning to the body is warm.

Describe the arrangement and structure of the prostate and pelvic urethra of the dog Urethra Pelvic Urethra Preprostatic before the prostate, has a purely urinary function Prostatic passes through the prostate The prostatic part of the pelvic urethra has mucosal folds. When the urethra is distended, these spread out and disappear. There is one fold that does not disappear during distention, the dorsal urethral crest. Additionally, the colliculus seminalis is where the urethra, ductus deferens, seminal vesicles and the body of prostate empty into; it is a ridge that does not disappear during distention. Spongiose Urethra The part of the urethra enclosed in the penis. After entering the bulb of the penis, the urethra is always surrounded by corpus spongiosum. Prostate Accessory sex gland that secretes seminal plasma that allows sperm to swim (also secreted by epididymis). It creates a rectogenital pouch with the colon and a vesicogenital pouch with the bladder. The prostate is divided into left and right lobes internally by a median septum, apparent externally by a dorsal sulcus. Connective tissue lamellae further divide lobes into lobules, each consisting of several compound glands that drain independently into the urethra. The prostate is also present as a disseminate portion of scattered glands in the submucosa of the pelvic urethra. The prostate is dependent on testosterone. The deferent ducts do not have any direct communication with the prostate as they only pass through. They enter the prostate on either side of the colliculus seminalis. Both the urethra and the deferent ducts pass through the dorsal half of the prostate. In uncastrated dogs, prostatic hyperplasia can occur can treat with drugs or by castration.

Describe the components of the penis and prepuce of the dog and their functional significance Penis The copulatory organ that houses the extrapelvic part of the urethra and functions to insert semen into the female vagina. Has 3 parts: Root crura Body corpus Apex glans The penis is attached caudally to the ischiatic tuberosities at the root of the penis. Erectile Tissue The corpora cavernosa penis is a pair of erectile tissue rods. Caudally, at the root of the penis, the rods are separate and form a pair of crura (feet). Each crus attaches to its respective ischiatic tuberosity. In the body of the penis, the corpora cavernosa are joined. The rods are covered externally by a thick dense connective tissue tunic, the tunica albuginea. The interior is a honeycomb arrangement of connective tissue trabeculae filled with vascular spaces. This tissue is filled with blood to become rigid during erection. Ventrally, a deep longitudinal groove exists between the corpora cavernosa. The corpus spongiosum is the third rod of erectile tissue in the penis. It has a thinner tunica albuginea and thus is capable of greater expansion during erection. At the root of the penis, the corpus spongiosum lies between and caudal to the corpora cavernosa; this forms the bulb of the penis. In the body of the penis, the corpus spongiosum penis lies within the ventral longitudinal groove. In the glans of the penis, the corpus spongiosum glandis forms two erectile structures that fully surround the os penis. The more caudal of the structures is the bulbus glandis, the more cranial is the longa glandis. The bulbus glandis is the more distensible of the two, and forms a bulbus swelling that serves to lock the penis into the vagina of the bitch during copulation. Os Penis Within the glans penis, the corpora cavernosa fuse and are replaced by the os penis, that continues to the tip of the penis. The caudal part bears a deep ventral groove, the urethral groove, while the cranial part ends in a cartilaginous tip.

Muscles Bulbospongiosus transversely oriented skeletal muscle covering the bulb of the penis, extending cranially along the ventral surface of the caudal half of the penis. It partly encloses the caudal part of the corpus spongiosum. Sits deep to the retractor penis m. Ischiocavernosus paired skeletal muscles enclosing the crura of the penis, from the ischiatic tuberosity to the corpus cavernosum. Sits laterally. Ischiourethralis small paired skeletal muscles arising from the ischiatic tuberosity to insert on a small median fibrous ring surrounding the penile veins. When this muscle contracts, it constricts the fibrous ring and hence venous drainage. This occurs during erection. Retractor penis paired smooth muscle from the first 2 caudal vertebrae, passing caudal to the bulb of the penis and ventral to the body to insert on the ventral surface of the penis at the junction of the body and the glans. Sits superficial to the bulbospongiosus m.

Blood Vessels Internal pudendal a. gives rise to: A. of bulb of penis corpus spongiosum, penile urethra Deep a. of penis corpus cavernosum Dorsal a. of penis glans Superficial v. of glans (drains longa glans) external pudendal v. Dorsal v. of penis (drains bulbus glans) internal pudendal vv. Erection Stage 1 Increase arterial flow corpora cavernosa fills - Intromission Stage 2 Restricted drainage bulbus glandis and longa glandis fill 1. Contraction of ischiourethralis mm. 2. Contraction of bulbospongiosus and ischiocavernosus mm. 3. Pressure from female vaginal tract

Prepuce The fold of skin covering the penis when in a flaccid state. Consists of an internal lamina and external lamina (hairy outer skin). A fornix is present where the laminae meet. Describe the histological structure of the testis and the process of spermatogenesis (in sequence) Testicular Histology Visceral Vaginal Tunic Single layer mesothelial cells Adheres to the t. albuginea beneath it Tunica Albuginea Consists of dense connective tissue, has a large number of collagen and some elastic fibres; is vascular Septula and Mediastinum Testis consist of CT the septula are continuous with the t. albuginea the mediastinum testis contains rete testis and vessels. Rete Testes Channels Simple squamous cuboidal epithelium Interstitial Tissue Interstitial tissue is part of the testicular parenchyma. Present between seminiferous tubules and consists of loose, vascular CT. Non vascular cells include fibrocytes, free mononuclear cells and leydig cells. Leydig cells (interstitial endocrine cells) are large polymorphous cells with spherical nuclei. They are often found in clusters. They produce androgens, such as testosterone, which diffuse into seminiferous tubules due to close association with blood vessels. Seminiferous Tubules Seminiferous tubules are part of the testicular parenchyma and are lined by stratified germinal epithelium surrounded by a lamina propria. It contains 2 cell lines: Sertoli cells (sustentacular cells) are supportive cells do not undergo meiosis. Their function is to provide nutrition, protection and support to spermatogenic cells. Sertoli cells are tall, extending the full thickness of the germinal epithelium. They are pale staining with an oval/pear shaped nucleus and a prominent nucleolus. Their cytoplasm is not visible except with special stains, and they have lateral and apical cytoplasmic processes. Spermatogenic cells are cells that replicate and differentiate into mature sperm. Spermiation is the process of spermatozoa being released into the lumen of the convoluted seminiferous tubules. Peritubular cells of the basal lamina participate in transport and spermiation. Straight seminiferous tubules are lined by simple squamous to columnar epithelium.

Spermatogenesis Spermatogonia Spermatocytogenesis Primary spermatocytes Secondary spermatocytes Spherical spermatids Elongate spermatids Spermiogenesis Spermatozoa

Meiosis

Spermatogonia Spermatogonia are rounded to slightly flattened cells with a central dark staining nucleus. They undergo mitotic division, where some daughter cells remain as stem cells and others continue mitosis. After several divisions, the daughter cells become primary spermatocytes and migrate through the blood-testis barrier. All descendants of one proliferating spermatogonia remain connected by cytoplasmic bridges during maturation, resulting in synchronised maturation. Spermatocytes Primary spermatocytes replicate DNA. They are large cells with large nuclei. They undergo meiosis 1 to create 2 secondary spermatocytes. Secondary spermatocytes undergo meiosis 2 and create 2 spermatids. I.e. Two meiotic divisions; 1 primary spermatocyte 2 secondary spermatocytes 4 spermatids

Spermatids Spermatids retain cytoplasmic bridges between cells of the same generation. Spermatids are initially spherical spermatids. They then mature and develop tails, becoming elongate spermatids. They migrate apically whilst remaining attached to a sertoli cell. The elongate spermatids mature into spermatozoa.

Spermiogenesis Spermatid spermatozoa Spermatids must form an acrosomal cap and tail (flagellum), condense nuclear chromatin and expel unnecessary material. Spermiogenesis has 4 phases that occur while attached to sertoli cell: Golgi phase Spherical spermatids Cap phase Acrosomal phase Elongated spermatids Maturation phase

1. Golgi Phase This phase involves spherical spermatids. Proacrosomal granules appear in the vesicles of the Golgi complex. They fuse into a single acrosomal vesicle, which lies near the dimple of the nucleus. Centrioles initiate the development of flagellum. 2. Cap Phase Involves spherical spermatids. The acrosomal vesicle grows to form a cap, called the acrosome that covers over half of the nucleus. The nucleus shifts eccentrically. The centrioles polarise at the opposite end. The more distal centriole gives rise to the developing flagellum. 3. Acrosomal Phase The cell body and nucleus elongate. The spermatid rotates so the flagellum faces the lumen and the head faces the periphery of the seminiferous tubules. The nucleus condenses and the centrioles move back towards the nucleus. Elongate spermatids become deeply embedded in recesses of sustentacular cells. 4. Maturation Phase Nuclear condensation is complete and the flagellum matures. Excess cytoplasm forms a residual body and is pinched off. Spermatids are no longer attached to sertoli cells.

Spermatids which have almost completed spermiogenesis. Note all the tails orientated adluminally and the cast off cytoplasmic droplets below. Another wave of spermatids is commencing the process of differentiation.

Describe the structure of the mature spermatozoon Spermatozoa Structure Head Tail Neck Middle piece Principal piece End piece

Head The head consists of a dense nucleus covered apically by an acrosomal cap. The cap has inner and outer acrosomal membranes and contains enzymes important in fertilisation for penetration of the egg. The base of the acrosome is surrounded by a postacrosomal sheath that consists of fibrous proteins rich in sulphur. Neck The neck is short and narrow. It has a centrally located centriole and nine peripheral longitudinally orientated fibres. These fibres are continuous with the outer dense fibres of the middle piece. Middle Piece The middle piece has an axoneme at its core that has a typical flagellum structure of 2 central microtubules and 9 microtubule doublets. This is surrounded by 9 dense fibres (continuous with the neck) which are then surrounded by spirally arranged mitochondria. The middle piece terminates with a thickened ring of plasmalemma. Principal Piece The principal piece is the longest section of the tail. It consists of the axoneme and the surrounding 9 dense fibres present in the middle piece. These are then surrounded by semicircular protein molecules, creating a fibrous sheath. This gradually tapers and terminates with the loss of the fibrous sheath and the dense fibres. End Piece The end piece only consists of the axoneme; this gradually tapers, reducing the doublets to singlets and then terminating. Describe the histological structure of the duct system, accessory glands, urethra and penis, and how this relates to their function Rete Testis Simple squamous to cuboidal epithelium Elastic fibres and contractile tissue are found under the epithelium to help with movement of the spermatozoa. Movement is also aided by a high concentration of spermatozoa. Efferent Ductules Efferent ductules are short, highly coiled ducts. They are lined by pseudostratified (simple in some areas) columnar epithelium with both ciliated (apical row of nuclei) and non-ciliated cells (basal row of nuclei). Lymphocytes are often seen basally and it is surrounded by loose CT. The epithelium often varies in height giving the duct a scalloped appearance. Cilia help propel the spermatozoa along and increase in number along the duct.

Epididymis Spermatozoa are present in the lumen. The epithelium is pseudostratified columnar with microvilli that absorbs excess fluid. The epithelium also contains columnar principal cells with microvilli (stereocilia) and small polygonal basal cells. The principal cells are taller and the microvilli are longer in the head of the epididymis. The duct is surrounded by a small amount of loose CT and circular smooth muscle fibres. The epididymis has a golgi apparatus in its cells (between the free surface and nucleus) that produces glycoprotein that coats sperm and enables capacitation (penetration of the egg). The distal epididymis is used for storage. As you move distally from head tail: Overall diameter Wall becomes thicker and more muscular Microvilli become shorter Contraction of muscular walls and pressure move sperm through epididymis

Ductus Deferens The ductus deferens has pseudostratified columnar epithelium with more basal cells. The microvilli are gradually lost. Distally, the epithelium becomes simple. The lamina propria is very vascular and it has a well developed muscularis with fibres orientated longitundinal circular longitudinal. The muscularis constricts the lumen into a stellate shape. The ampulla contains many branched tubuloalveolar glands in the submucosa which have columnar to cuboidal epithelium.

Urethra The walls of the urethra consist of mucosa, submucosa, tunica muscularis and tunica adventitia. It is predominantly transitional mucosa with patches of simple to stratified cuboidal to columnar epithelium. The lumen is compressed due to longitudinal mucosal folds when not transporting fluids. One fold that does not disappear is the urethral crest. The submucosa is thick with many smooth muscle cells and elastic fibres and erectile tissue. The tunica muscularis consists of smooth muscle proximally and skeletal muscle distally. Prostate The urethra forms a smile-shaped lumen in the prostate. Glandular components form radial secretory regions around the urethra. The prostate is surrounded by a dense CT capsule. Internally, the glandular tissue is divided into 2 main lobes which are separated by a median septum. It contains many branched tubuloalveolar glands (serous in the dog) with simple cuboidal to columnar epithelium. The ducts have stratified columnar to transitional epithelium which may have saccular dilations of ducts where secretions are stored.

Penis The corpus cavernosum has large cavernous spaces, separated by trabeculae of fibrous CT and smooth muscle and lined by endothelium. T. albuginea is thick and made of dense fibrous CT. Numerous coiled terminal arteries, helicine arteries, are present, which have a layer of smooth muscle in their t. interna, allowing occlusion of the lumen. The corpus spongiosum is similar to the corpora cavernosa, but the cavernous spaces are large. The CT and t. albuginea have a greater elastic fibre component.

Prepuce The external lamina consists of unmodified hair skin; the internal lamina is a thinner skin with very few hairs but many sebaceous and sweat glands and solitary lymphatic nodules. Describe the variation in the structure, position and orientation of the testis, epididymis and scrotum between domestic mammals The testis are structurally similar between species, however, there are differences Position of Testes and Scrotum

Bull as the testis descends, it falls straight down into scrotum, sits vertically under inguinal canal Dog/Horse pulled caudally when descending Cat/Boar positioned obliquely, tail is located dorsocaudally Marsupials scrotum located cranial to penis Elephant internally. The elephant embryo has no gubernaculum, no vaginal process, no pampiniform plexus and no means of effecting testicular descent Possible reasons for external testes: Lower temp needed for spermatogenesis Adaptation to a jumping/leaping/running lifestyle, intra-abdominal testes may be compressed leading to ejaculation Scrotal Hair Coat Cat very hairy Dog/Ruminants sparse hair Location of the Mediastinum Testis Displaced to the side, adjacent to the epididymal margin and smaller in some species Relative Abundance of Different Cells Testis contains mostly seminiferous tubules, with little interstitial tissue Boar 30% interstitial cells Ram 1% interstitial cells

Relative Size (Relative to Body Size) Inter-species variation in testis:body size is large There is no correlation between the relative size of testes and location, body form or type of locomotion. There is a relationship between the relative testis size and the incidence of sperm competition (and mating system) in mammals. Sperm competition the competition between sperm of two or more males for the fertilisation of an ovum Testes are relatively small in a single male mating species Intra-species variation In humans, the testis volume positively correlated with the number of sperm ejaculated. In bulls, the scrotal circumference is used as an indicator of sperm quantity and quality Duct System The epididymal duct has a varied length between species 2cm (cat) 75cm (horse) The relationship between the testis, epididymis, ductus deferens and supporting peritoneum is basically the same apart from orientational changes due to testis migration Describe the gross and histological structure of male accessory glands and differences between dog, cat, horse, pig, sheep and ox (e.g. presence, appearance and proportions of these glands) Accessory Sex Glands - Ampullary glands A - Vesicular glands Very - Prostate Proud - Bulbourethral glands Boy All paired except for the prostate. All large glands have a thick capsule with septa. There is species variation of different combinations, different proportions, however they have the same relative positions. Ampullary Glands The ampullary glands are found in the submucosa of the distal ductus deferens. Branched tubuloalveolar glands with pseudostratified, columnar epithelium. Not seen in the cat or boar.

Vesicular Glands The vesicular gland is a lateral outgrowth of the distal ductus deferens. It is a compound tubuloalveolar gland which lies within the submucosa. The glandular epithelium is pseudostratified columnar and the epithelium in the secretory ducts is simple cuboidal (pseudostratified columnar in horse). The glands are arranged in lobules, separated by connective tissue trabeculae and tunica muscularis and serosa surrounds the gland.

Stallion forms the common ejaculatory duct with the ductus deferens which passes through the prostate. It has a smooth surface and a large central cavity Bull forms the common ejaculatory duct with the ductus deferens which passes through the prostate. It has a lobulated surface and a more compact structure Boar No common ejaculatory duct, instead separate ducts for the ductus deferens and the vesicular glands, however they still pass through the prostate. The glands are very large and obscure the sight of the ductus deferens. It has a lobulated surface and a more compact structure. Dog Not present

Prostate The prostate consists of either a compact body and/or internal diffuse portion (disseminate). The disseminate portion consists of individual glands in the submucosa of the urethra. The body is a pair of variably fused lobes with a thick CT capsule and trabeculae dividing the gland into smaller lobules. It has tubuloalveolar glands. The glandular mucosa consists of pseudostratified cuboidal columnar (serous in dog, seromucous in others) and the epithelium of the ducts is stratified columnar transitional.

Stallion well defined body with two lobes connected by a dorsal isthmus. There is an absent/reduced disseminate portion. Bull/Boar a small, caudodorsally located body (ring-shaped in the bull) and an extensive disseminate portion Small ruminants lack a prostatic body but have an extensive disseminate portion Carnivores large, well defined body, divided into 2 lobes. The degree of fusion of the lobes varies. Has a reduced disseminate portion. Its duct drains secretions into the urethra.

Bulbourethral Glands Bulbourethral glands are generally small (except in the pig) and when present, they always lie caudal to the prostate and laterodorsal to the urethra. The size of the gland relates to seminal volume.

Their glands are compound tubular (boar, cat, goat)/tubuloalveolar (stallion, bull, ram) mucous glands. It has an outer thick capsule, surrounded by m. bulboglandularis. Its secretory portions have simple pseudostratified columnar epithelium. The glandular units are surrounded by loose CT and denser trabeculae with some smooth muscle. It has a duct system: Collecting duct (simple cuboidal) Intraglandular duct (pseudostratified columnar) Bulbourethral duct (transitional epithelium)

Describe anatomical differences between the penis of the dog, cat, ox, sheep, horse and pig, and relate some of these to differences in penile development and the erection mechanism All eutherian mammals (mammals that have a placenta) have: A pair of corpora cavernosa penis attached to the ischiatic tuberosities; adjacent cranially, diverging to crura caudally Corpus spongiosum lying in the ventral groove between corpora cavernosa; extends as a bulb caudally, and beyond the corpora cavernosa cranially; enlarges to varying degrees as the glans penis and surrounds the penile part of the urethra Musculocavernous/Fibroelastic Penis Musculocavernous (Vascular) Fibroelastic Stallion Pigs and ruminants Corpora cavernosa: Corpora cavernosa: Extensive cavernous spaces Limited cavernous spaces T. albuginea contains smooth Thick t. albuginea with no smooth muscle muscle diameter and length on erection in rigidity but not in length or diameter The sigmoid flexure in the penis is stretched by the relaxation of the m. retractor penis muscle causing an increase in the penis length

The dog and cat are halfway between musculocavernous and fibroelastic, i.e. they do not have a sigmoid flexure but there is less expansion of the penis than with a musculocavernous penis. Extent of Glans Only the dog has the pars longa and the pars bulbus. In all other species, the glans forms a single erectile body that is continuous with the corpus spongiosum. The relative size of the glans varies and other features such as the raphe and keratinised spines may be present.

Dog pars longa and bulbus glandis present Stallion well developed glans that is mushroom shaped

Bull less developed glans which is present as a small asymmetrical pad. It is a plexus of veins, rather than true erectile tissue. Boar The glands is even more reduced than in the bull. Also has a raphe which is a non-elastic tendinous cord. It will not expand and during erection it causes the penis to form a twisted shape. The penis twists in a clockwise direction.

Cat the glans is very small and is covered in spines. The spines are oriented proximally; when entering female, causes no problem, when exiting the spines rub along the female vagina which is thought to induce ovulation. The spines are testosterone dependent, so if cats are castrated before puberty, the spines will not form.

Termination of Urethra Horse the urethra opens at the tip of a short urethral process, which sits in the fossa glandis. The urethral process does not extend beyond the glans.

Bull the glans does not cover the end of the penis, hence the urethra is not contained within the glans and projects as a urethral process Small Ruminants a long, thread-like urethral process extends beyond the apex of the penis and contains erectile tissue. Dog the urethral opens just below the tip of the glans on the ventral surface. Pig the urethra is not covered by the glans, and it sits ventral and caudal to the tip.

Os Penis The os penis is present only in the domestic carnivores, but is also present in many non-domestic animals. It replaces the distal end of the corpora cavernosa. There is dispute as to whether the cat has an os penis.

The Cat Penis The cat penis is quite small and seemingly upside down; the urethra and corpus spongiosum are dorsal to the corpora cavernosa. The penis faces almost caudally.

Muscles of the Penis The retractor penis, ischiocavernosus and bulbospongiosus mm. are consistently present. In the fibroelastic penis, the retractor penis m. inserts cranial to the sigmoid flexure.

Describe anatomical peculiarities of the prepuce of the horse and pig Horse The horse prepuce has an additional inner fold

Pig The pig has a preputial diverticulum which is a subcutaneous sac opening dorsally into the prepuce. It can contain stale urine, decomposing cellular debris and pheromones smells.