1

Intentional Islanded Operation of Converter Fed Microgrids

Charles K. Sao, Student Member, IEEE, and Peter W. Lehn, Member, IEEE
Abstract This paper develops a dynamic model of a converter fed islanded microgrid and proposes a control scheme to regulate its voltage and frequency. The model, which is formulated in an instantaneously synchronized reference frame, shows that the microgrid voltage depends on the real power balance between the converter and the load while reactive power balance determines the frequency. These results are used to synthesize a microgrid voltage and frequency control scheme that allow converters with standard inductor interface and dq frame current control to operate in intentional islanding mode without using a frequency generator in the controller. Keywords Instantaneous Synchronization, Instantaneous Frequency, Voltage Source Converter, Microgrid, Intentional Islanding

I. INTRODUCTION Many new distributed power sources, such as wind turbine generators and fuel cells, do not generate 60 Hz ac voltage. Thus, they require voltage source converters (VSCs) as part of the circuitry to interface them with the power grid. A section of the power grid with such power sources may be called a microgrid if it is capable of operating as an electrical island. In grid connected operation, interface converters operate as controlled current sources. Regulation of the point of common coupling (PCC) voltage magnitude and frequency is left to the grid. These converters operate at 60 Hz only because they are synchronized to the PCC voltage vector, which rotates at 60 Hz as dictated by the grid. In an islanded microgrid, there is no external grid to set the voltage and frequency, and these quantities must be regulated by the converters. Available literature on operation of converter fed power networks is mainly in the context of uninterruptible power supplies (UPSs). In islanded operation, a UPS employs a voltage control scheme that regulates the magnitude of its output voltage. Some UPSs have inner current loops to protect the switches [1], [2], [3] while others directly control the bridge terminal voltage to regulate the output voltage [4], [5], [6], [7]. All the above UPS control schemes employ a frequency generator in the controller, such as a crystal oscillator, that assign an output frequency of 60 Hz. Most existing papers on intentional islanding operation of converter fed microgrids propose to operate the converters as voltage sources. Like in a typical UPS, the converters regulate their output voltage magnitude while a frequency generator sets the frequency at 60 Hz [8], [9], [10]. A more sophisticated converter control scheme is presented in [11], where the angle between the converter and network uxes is set to regulate the frequency of an islanded microgrid. However, the paper does not relate the microgrid frequency to the angle between the two uxes. Moreover, no control mechanism exists to limit overcurrent in the converter. This paper uses a reference frame, which is instantaneously synchronized to the microgrid bus voltage, to develop a dynamic model of an islanded microgrid. Contrary to a conventional power system, the model shows that the microgrid voltage depends on the real power balance between the converter and the

load while the frequency is determined by the reactive power balance. Such steady state relations have been identied in the literature on islanding detection [12], [13], [14], [15], [16], [17] although none of these publications offers a dynamic model of an islanded microgrid. Based on the developed dynamic model, a microgrid voltage and frequency control scheme is synthesized to allow converters with standard inductor interface and dq frame current control to operate in intentional islanding mode. Section II of the paper presents the system structure while section III develops the dynamic equations of an islanded microgrid based on instantaneous synchronization. Section IV proposes a supervisory control scheme to regulate the voltage and frequency of the microgrid. It also includes the control design procedure and circuit simulation results. II. SYSTEM STRUCTURE AND CONVERTER MODEL This section describes the conguration of a simplied microgrid, shown in Fig. 1. It consists of a collector bus, a converter, a bus capacitor, CB , and a load. The capacitor ensures that the voltage pulsations at the terminals of the converter do not appear across the load. For simplicity, the load is assumed to be balanced, and it is represented as a parallel combination of resistance R and inductance L, as is the norm in islanding detection literature [12], [14], [16], [17]. The line impedance between the collector bus and the load is much smaller than the load impedance and is neglected. The converter is connected to the collector bus through an interface inductor, which is not shown here. It is assumed in this paper that: 1. The converter employs pulse width modulation. 2. The converter switches well above the fundamental frequency of the ac supply and the resonant frequency of the microgrid. 3. The dc side of the converter is connected to a strong dc bus with sufciently high voltage. 4. The converter is regulated by a high bandwidth current controller. 5. The system is balanced. Given these assumptions, a fundamental frequency model of the converter is justied, where the converter is modeled as an averaged current source. Note that the high frequency converter current dynamics have been neglected in order to focus exclusively on the dynamics and control of the islanded microgrid. III. ISLANDING BEHAVIOR OF THE POWER NETWORK The section derives a linearized model of the islanded network in Fig. 1. Modelling the converter as a current source, the large signal dynamics of the network are given by: dvBabc dt = iLabc i1abc vBabc + RCB CB CB (1)

1-4244-0493-2/06/$20.00 2006 IEEE.

vB

Load

Outputs of the system to be regulated are given by:

iL

i1
CB
VSC 1 R

|vBd | B A. Steady State Solution

= =

vBd i1q iLq CB vBd

(12) (13)

Fig. 1. A converter fed power network in islanded mode.

The steady state solutions of the nonlinear state space model are given by: (2) vBd0 iLd0 iLq0 = Ri1d0 = 0 = i1q0 2 ( i1q0 2 CB (Ri1d0 )2 ) + 2 L (14) (15) (16)

diLabc dt

vBabc L

The above equations can be rewritten in terms of the d and q axis components of the voltage and current space vectors in a certain reference frame B. If B rotates with angular frequency B , the resulting equations are: dvBd dt dvBq dt diLd dt diLq dt = = = = vBd + B vBq RCB vBq + B vBd RCB vBd B iLq + L vBq B iLd + L iLd i1d + CB CB iLq i1q + CB CB (3) (4) (5) (6)

The steady state outputs are: vBd0 B 0 = = Ri1d0 i1q0 2RCB i1d0 (17) i1q0 1 ( )2 + (18) 2CB Ri1d0 LCB

where vBd and vBq are the d and q axis components of vB ; iLd and iLq are the d and q axis components of iL ; i1d and i1q are the d and q axis components of i1 . Instantaneously synchronizing reference frame B to the capacitor voltage implies that B rotates at the same angular frequency as bus voltage vector vB , as dened in the Appendix. The term instantaneous frequency must be used when referring to the microgrid frequency as dened by: B =

The solutions of (16) and (18) show that, in steady state, iLq is positive and B is negative OR iLq is negative and B is positive. The rst solution corresponds to the case in which phase sequence reversal occurs to the system upon islanding. Therefore, the only feasible steady state operating point of the system is: vBd0 iLd0 iLq0 B 0 = Ri1d0 = 0 = = i1q0 i1q0 2 CB (Ri1d0 )2 ( ) + 2 2 L i1q0 i1q0 1 + ( )2 + 2CB Ri1d 2CB Ri1d0 LCB (19) (20) (21) (22)

dB dt

(7)

where B is the angle of the capacitor voltage vector (with respect to a stationary reference frame). Synchronizing reference frame B to the bus voltage vector makes vBq and its derivative equal to zero. This result may be substituted in (4) to derive an expression for B , which is: B =

Equation (19) shows that i1d0 is the sole input that inuences the steady state bus voltage amplitude vBd0 . In contrast, B 0 is a function of both inputs. However, for a given vBd0 , the product Ri1d0 in (22) is constant. Thus, the only variable that can be manipulated to inuence the steady state frequency is i1q0 . B. Linearized System Model To facilitate the synthesis of voltage and frequency control schemes for the islanded system using classical control tools, (9) to (13) are linearized about the operating point vBd0 , iLd0 , iLq0 and B 0 . The linearized system model can be written in standard state space form in terms of the state vector x, input vector u and output vector y as: x = where Ax + Bu; y = Cx + Du (23)

i1q iLq CB vBd

(8)

Setting vBq = 0 in (3) and (4) and substituting (8) in (5) and (6) results in the nonlinear state space model of the system: dvBd dt diLd dt diLq dt iLd i1d vBd + RCB CB CB vBd i1q iLq iLq + = CB vBd L i1q iLq iLd = CB vBd = (9) (10)

x = (11) y =

vBd vBd

iLd B

iLq
T

u=

i1d

i1q

(24)

i1d

+-

i Ld
L v Bd

R 1 + sRCB

v Bd

TABLE I C ONVERTER R ATING AND THE L INEARIZATION P OINT

2 i1q

K3

+ 2 + +
i1q

1 s

i Ld

i Lq K 2 K1 s

v Bd K4

K5

Parameters and Variables RMS of Base Voltage RMS of Base Current Load Resistance Load Inductance Collector Bus Capacitance Collector Bus Voltage d axis Component of iL q axis Component of iL System Bus Frequency d axis Component of i1 q axis Component of i1

Values VBase = 115 VLL IBase = 25 A R = 3.98 L = 17 mH CB = 300 F vBd0 = 115 VLL iLd0 = 0 A iLq0 = -14.62 A B = 60 Hz i1d0 = 23.6 A i1q0 = -4 A

P.U.

1.5 p.u. 2.41 p.u. 0.3 p.u. 1 p.u. 0 p.u. -0.58 p.u. 1 p.u. 0.94 p.u. -0.16 p.u.

Fig. 2. Small signal block diagram representation of the linearized system model.

The matrices A, B , C and D are found to be: 1 1 C1 0 RC CB B B 2 A = L 0 K1 B = 0 0 0 K2 0 C = 1 K 4 0 0 0 K5 D= 0 0 0 K5

0 K3 0 (25)

Fig. 4 shows the responses of vBd and B to a 1 A step change in i1q as predicted by the linearized system model and time domain circuit simulation. There is a close match between the two sets of plots, indicating that the linearized system model and its underlying nonlinear equations are accurate. IV. THE PROPOSED CONTROL SCHEME It is stated in section III.A. that the system voltage is primarily inuenced by the active current i1d whereas the reactive current i1q inuences the system frequency. The graphs of Fig. 3 and 4 conrm these points. This section proposes a control scheme that employs i1d and i1q as control inputs to regulate the vBd and B respectively. Fig. 2 shows that the dynamics of the system voltage and frequency are coupled. Thus, the following systematic approach is used in developing the control scheme to ensure closed loop stability in the presence of both voltage and frequency control loop compensators: 1. Derive the transfer function that relates i1d to vBd as per Fig. 5. 2. Choose the parameters of a PI compensator for the voltage control loop. 3. Augment the system model of (23) with the compensator equation. 4. Use the augmented system model shown in Fig. 8 to derive the transfer function that relates i1q to B . 5. Choose the parameters of a second PI compensator for the frequency control loop, along with a virtual damping resistor, Rv . A. Voltage Control The linearized system model of Fig. 2 may be used as the starting point for the derivation of the plant transfer function relating i1d to vBd . Setting i1q = 0 and rearranging the blocks results in the plant model shown in Fig. 5, which may be simplied to derive the following transfer function: s2 /CB K1 K2 /CB vBd (s) = 3 2 i1d (s) s + s /RCB + (2/LCB K1 K2 )s K1 K2 /RCB (26)

where K1 K3 K5 = = = i1q0 2iLq0 iLq0 i1q0 K2 = CvBd0 CvBd0 iLq0 i1q0 iLq0 K4 = 2 CvBd0 CvBd 0 1 . CvBd0

Fig. 2 shows the linearized system in block diagram form. C. Model Validation The linearized system model of (23) is validated by comparing its step response to that of the power system of Fig. 1, which is simulated in PSCAD/EMTDC, a time domain circuit simulation tool for power systems. A fundamental frequency current source model is used to represent the converter in simulation. It consists of three controllable ideal current sources that generate the current i1abc . These currents are assigned as per the Appendix. The PWM pattern generator, converter switches and interface inductors are not included in the simulation. Table I lists the system parameters and the initial values of the system variables that dene the linearization point. The initial values of i1d and i1q are also given in the table. To obtain the step response of the circuit, it is rst operated at the linearization point given in Table I. A step change of 1 A is then applied to input i1d . The responses of vBd and B to the i1d step is plotted against time in Fig. 3. Also plotted on the same graph are the corresponding step responses of the linearized system. The close match between the two sets of plots indicates that the linearized system model is accurate, as are the underlying nonlinear equations in reference frame B.

4
Step Response of the System Bus Voltage 121 120

Magnitude Response of the Voltage Control Loop Plant 30 20

Bus Voltage (V)

119 118 117 116 115 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 Time (sec)

Circuit Simulation Linearized System Model

Magnitude (dB)

10 0 -10 -20 -30 Plant With Rv Plant Before Adding Rv

0.06

0.07

0.08

0.09

0.1

-40 1 10

10

10 Frequency (rad/s)

10

Step Response of the System Bus Frequency 62 61.5 Circuit Simulation Linearized System Model

Phase Response of the Voltage Control Loop Plant 100

Frequency (Hz)

61

Phase Angle (degree)

Plant With Rv 50 Plant Before Adding Rv

60.5 60 59.5 59 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 Time (sec) 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1

-50

Fig. 3. Response of bus voltage and frequency to a step change in i1d , demonstrating the dependence of voltage amplitude on i1d .
Step Response of the System Bus Voltage 118 Circuit Simulation Linearized System Model

-100 1 10

10

10 Frequency (rad/s)

10

Fig. 6. Open loop bode plot of the voltage control loop - plant model is before adding Rv and
vBd (s) uv (s)

vBd (s) i1d (s)

Bus Voltage (V)

117

after adding Rv .

116

seen by the compensator is:

115 114 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 Time (sec) 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1

Step Response of the System Bus Frequency 66 65 Circuit Simulation Linearized System Model

64 63 62 61 60 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 Time (sec) 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1

Fig. 4. Response of bus voltage and frequency to a Step change in i1q , demonstrating the dependence of frequency on i1q .

vBd (s) s2 /CB K1 K2 /CB = 3 uv (s) s + s2 /Re CB + (2/LCB K1 K2 )s K1 K2 /Re CB (27) where Re = (R Rv )/(R + Rv ). Since coefcients 1/Re CB and K1 K2 /Re CB in the transfer function of (27) are always greater than 1/Rv CB and K1 K2 /Rv CB , the system is well damped regardless of the load resistance. Having ensured that the plant is well damped, a PI compensator may be used to regulate the system voltage to track the . The control input is: voltage reference vBd Kiv (28) )(vBd (s) vBd (s)) s where Kpv and Kiv are proportional and integral gains respectively. The closed loop transfer function of the voltage control loop is: uv (s) = (Kpv + vBd (s) (Kpv s + Kiv )(s2 /CB K1 K2 /CB ) = vBd (s) D(s) where

Frequency (Hz)

Controller

Plant

* Bd

+-

PI

uv

+-

i1d i Ld

+-

R 1 + sRCB
2 s 2 + L + K 2 K1 s
1

v Bd

Rv

(29)

Fig. 5. Block diagrams to facilitate the derivation of i1d to vBd transfer function.

D(s) =

It can be shown using Routh-Hurwitz criterion that the open loop transfer function would be unstable if the coefcient K1 K2 were positive. While K1 K2 may be proven to be negative regardless of the values of i1q and ilq , the damping of the open loop system depends upon the load. As the load decreases, coefcients 1/RCB and K1 K2 /RCB approach zero, moving the system poles towards the imaginary axis. To keep the open loop system sufciently damped regardless of the load resistance, a virtual resistance Rv is added in parallel with CB . This is realized by making i1d a function of vBd as well as the compensator output uv as shown in Fig. 5. The modied transfer function as

Kpv 3 2 Kiv 2 1 + )s + ( K1 K2 + )s Re CB CB LCB CB K1 K2 K1 K2 Kpv K1 K2 Kiv ( + )s Re CB CB CB s4 + (

As an example, a voltage control loop is designed for the power system in Fig.1. The plant parameters and the linearization point are listed in Table I. Rv is 7.94(3pu). The bode vBd (s) Bd (s) plots of v i1d (s) and uv (s) , which are shown in Fig. 6, may be used for designing the PI compensator. The proportional and integral gains of the compensator are chosen as 0.068 and 85 respectively and the step response of the voltage control loop for three load congurations as generated by PSCAD/EMTDC is shown in Fig. 7. It can be seen that:

5
Unit Step Response of the System Bus Voltage 118 61.2 Unit Step Response of the System Bus Frequency

117.5

61

117

60.8 Frequency Reference Response with Nominal RL Load

System Bus Voltage (V)

Frequency (Hz)

116.5 Bus Voltage Reference Response with Nominal RL Load 116 Response with R Load Response with L Load 115.5

60.6

Response with R Load Response with L Load

60.4

60.2

115

60

114.5

0.01

0.02

0.03

0.04 Time (sec)

0.05

0.06

0.07

0.08

59.8

0.01

0.02

0.03

0.04

0.05 Time (sec)

0.06

0.07

0.08

0.09

0.1

Fig. 7. Unit step Response of the voltage control loop.

Fig. 9. Unit step response of the frequency control loop.

i1d

+ 1

K pvs + K iv s
Re 1 + sR eC B

v* Bd

them in (30) results in: B (s) K4 K3 s2 /CB = + i1q (s) D(s)

2 K3 D(s) K2 K3 s2 + ( K RCB +

v Bd

i Ld L v Bd

CB vBd0 D(s)

K2 K3 Kpv )s CB

K2 K3 Kiv /CB (31)

2 i 1q K3

+ 2 + +
i1q

1 s

i Ld v Bd K4

i Lq K 2 K1 s

K5

Fig. 8. Linearized system model with the voltage control loop added.

1. For the nominal R-L load, the step response has a rise time of 11 ms and is well damped with negligible overshoot and a settling time of 25 ms. 2. For a pure resistive load of 3.98 , the step response has a rise time of 25 ms and settles down immediately at that point. 3. For a pure inductive load of 17 mH, the step response has a rise time of 6.5 ms and a 35% overshoot, but it is well damped with a settling time of 50 ms. B. Frequency Control Scheme As both the voltage and frequency of the microgrid are regulated, the system model of Fig. 8, which includes the voltage B (s ) controller, is used for the derivation of i1q (s) . Fig. 8 shows that transfer function
B (s ) i1q (s)

The denominator of is identical to that of the closed loop transfer function of (29), which is stable and well damped. This implies that the frequency control loop has a stable plant and a PI compensator may be used to regulate the system fre . quency to track B As an example, a frequency control loop is designed for the power system in Fig.1. The plant parameters and the linearization point are listed in Table I. The proportional and integral gains of the compensator are chosen as 0.014 and 17 respectively and the step responses of the frequency control loop for three load congurations, as generated by PSCAD/EMTDC, are shown in Fig. 9. It can be seen that: 1. For the nominal R-L load, which corresponds to the operating point for which the controllers were tuned, the step response has a rise time of 14 ms and is well damped with a 1% overshoot and a settling time of 28 ms. 2. For a pure resistive load of 3.98 , the step response has a rise time of 14 ms and settles down immediately at that point. 3. For a pure inductive load of 17 mH, the step response has a rise time of 15.5 ms and is well damped with a 3% overshoot and a settling time of 45 ms. The results demonstrate that a controller designed in the proposed manner will provide good performance regardless of the actual power factor of the load. V. CONCLUSION A dynamic model of an islanded microgrid is formulated in a reference frame that is instantaneously synchronized to the collector bus voltage. Consequently, the reference frame frequency is dened as the derivative of the instantaneous collector bus voltage vector angle. The developed model shows that the real power balance between the converter and the load determines the microgrid voltage while the frequency depends on the reactive power balance. This is in stark contrast to a conventional

B (s) i1q (s)

is given by:

B (s) vBd (s) iLq (s) 1 (1 = K 4 + ) i1q (s) i1q (s) CB vBd0 i1q (s) Deriving transfer functions
iLq (s) i1q (s)

(30)

and

vBd (s) i1q (s)

and substituting

power system where the mechanical dynamics of the generator imposes a relation between power and frequency. Due to the absence of rotational inertia in the microgrids power source, such a power-frequency relation does not exists; instead, the PCC capacitor dynamics impose a relation between reactive power and frequency. Based on the developed model, a supervisory control scheme is synthesized for a converter with conventional dq-frame current control. A PI regulator sets the d-axis current reference to regulate the bus voltage magnitude, while a second PI regulator sets the q-axis current reference to regulate the bus frequency. Frequency of the PCC voltage is therefore a regulated output of the system, unlike in UPS applications where an oscillator merely sets the converter frequency and the frequency of the PCC voltage is assumed to converge to that of the converter in steady state. Simulation results demonstrate validity of the model and robustness of the proposed control scheme to changes in system loading and power factor. References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] J. Holtz, W. Lotzkat, and K. Werner, A high-power multitransistorinverter uninterruptable power supply system, IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 278285, July 1988. C. M. Liaw, L. C. Jan, W. C. Wu, and S. J. Chiang, Operation control of parallel three-phase battery energy storage system, IEE ProceedingsElectric Power Applications, vol. 143, no. 4, pp. 317322, July 1996. T. Kawabata, N. Sashida, Y. Yamamoto, K. Ogasawara, and Y. Yamasaki, Parallel processing inverter system, IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 442450, July 1991. J. Chen and C. Chu, Combination voltage-controlled and currentcontrolled pwm inverters for ups parallel operation, IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, vol. 10, no. 5, pp. 547558, September 1995. A. P. Martins, A. S. Carvalho, and A. S. Araujo, Design and implementation of a current controller for the parallel operation of standard upss, Proceedings of IEEE IECON, vol. 1, pp. 584589, 6-10 November 1995. H. Oshima, Y. Miyazawa, and A. Hirata, Parallel redundant ups with instantaneous pwm control, 13th International Telecommunications Energy Conference, vol. 1, pp. 436442, 5-8 November 1991. T. Kawabata and S. Higashino, Parallel operation of voltage source inverters, IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, vol. 24, no. 2, pp. 281287, March/April 1988. S. Barsali, M. Ceraolo, P. Pelacchi, and D. Poli, Control techniques of dispersed generators to improve the continuity of electricity supply, Proceedings of IEEE PES Winter Meetting, vol. 2, pp. 789793, 27-31 January 2002. H. Zeineldin, E. El-Saadany, and M. Salama, Intentional islanding of distributed generation, Proceedings of IEEE PES General Meetting, pp. 653659, 12-16 June 2005. R. Lasseter and P. Paigi, Microgrid: A conceptual solution, Proceedings IEEE PESC, vol. 6, pp. 42854290, 20-25 June 2004. M. C. Chandorkar, D. Divan, and R. Adapa, Control of parallel connected inverters in standalone ac supply systems, IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, vol. 29, no. 1, pp. 136143, January 1993. A. Woyte, R. Belmans, and J. Nijs, Testing the islanding protection function of photovoltaic inverters, IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 157162, March 2003. S. Wall, Performance of inverter interfaced distributed generation, Proceedings of IEEE PES Transmission and Distribution Exposition, vol. 2, pp. 945 950, 28 Oct.-2 Nov. 2001. M. Ropp, M. Begovic, and A. Rohatgi, Analysis and performance assessment of the active frequency drift method of islanding prevention, IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 810816, September 1999. S. Jang and K. Kim, Development of a logical rule-based islanding detection method for distributed resources, Proceedings of IEEE PES Winter Meetting, vol. 2, pp. 800806, 27-31 January 2002. A. Kotsopoulos, J. Duarte, M. Hendrix, and P. Heskes, Islanding behavior of grid-connected pv inverters operating under different control schemes, Proceedings IEEE PESC, vol. 3, pp. 15061511, 23-27 June 2002.

v i1
Rotating

i1q
i1d B

v vB

Fig. 10. Computing the Rotating Current Vector. [17] G. Smith, P. Onions, and D. Ineld, Predicting islanding operation of grid connected pv inverters, IEE Proceedings-Electric Power Applications, vol. 147, no. 1, pp. 16, January 2000. [18] E. Clarke, Circuit Analysis of AC Power Systems. New York, NY: Wiley, 1950, vol. 1.

Appendix The capacitor voltage vector is dened as: vB = vB + jvB

(32)

where vB and vB are and axis components of the capacitor voltage vector. They may be computed by applying Clarke transformation to the phase voltages vBabc [18]. Phase current i1abc are computed by applying inverse Clarke transformation to i1 and i1 , which are real and imaginary components of the current vector i1 . Fig. 10 shows i1 , which may be generated using the following equation: vB (i1d + ji1q ) i1 = (33) | vB | As per Fig. 10, the d-axis orientation is dened by the instantaneous orientation of the bus voltage space vector vB .

[9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14]

[15] [16]