Track Design Handbook for Light Rail Transit, Second Edition

traffic even if the track itself is capable of higher speeds. The civil design speed should also be coordinated with the operating speeds used in any train performance simulation program speeddistance profiles as well as with the train control system design. Where the LRT system includes at-grade segments where light rail vehicles will operate in surface streets in mixed traffic with rubber-tired vehicles, the applicable geometric design criteria for such streets will need to be met in the design of the track alignment. Where the LRT system includes areas where light rail vehicles will operate in joint usage with railroad freight traffic, the applicable minimum geometric design criteria for each type of rail system needs to be considered. The more restrictive criteria will then govern the design of the track alignment and clearances. In addition to the recommendations presented in the following articles, it should be noted that combinations of minimum horizontal radius, maximum grade, and maximum unbalanced superelevation are to be avoided in the geometric design. The geometric guidelines discussed in this chapter consider both the limitations of horizontal, vertical, and transitional track geometry for cost-effective designs and the ride comfort requirements for the LRT passenger. 3.1.3 Minimum and Maximum Criteria Limits In determining track alignment, several levels of criteria may be considered.[4] Note that an individual criteria limit could be either a minimum or a maximum. In the case of a curve radius, a minimum value would be the controlling limit. In the case of track gradient, there may both a maximum and a minimumthe maximum being controlled by the vehicles capabilities and the minimum defining the minimum slope necessary to achieve storm water drainage. However, three conditions should be considered: the desirable condition, the acceptable condition, and the absolute condition, each as defined below. Desired Minimum or MaximumThis criterion is based on an evaluation of maximum passenger comfort, initial construction cost, and maintenance considerations on ballasted, embedded, and direct fixation track. It is used where no physical restrictions or significant construction cost differences are encountered. An optional preferred limit may also be indicated to define the most conservative possible future case; i.e., maximum future operating speed for given conditions within the alignment corridor. Acceptable Minimum or MaximumThis threshold defines a level that, while less than ideal, is considered to be good enough to meet the operating objectives without either compromising ride quality or taxing the mechanical limits of the vehicle. The use of acceptable criteria limits typically does not require the designer to produce detailed explanations of why it wasnt possible to do better. Determination of the limits for acceptable criteria is usually project-specific and driven by an interest in maintaining a specific level of service to the maximum degree possible at reasonable cost. As such, the limits of acceptable criteria may be established by qualitative methods rather than a rigorous quantitative analysis.

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Absolute Minimum or MaximumWhere physical restrictions prevent the use of both the desired and acceptable criteria, an absolute criterion is often specified. This criterion is determined primarily by the vehicle design, with passenger comfort a secondary consideration. The use of an absolute minimum or maximum criterion should be a last resort. The need for doing so should be thoroughly documented in the projects basis-ofdesign report and accepted by the project owner.

In addition to the above, lower thresholds of criteria are often stipulated for conditions where ordinary operating speeds are much lower than the desired figures noted above and/or site constraints are extraordinary. These include Main Line Embedded TrackWhere the LRT is operated on embedded track in city streets, with or without shared automotive traffic, there generally are multiple physical site restrictions. Overcoming these requires a special set of geometric criteria that accommodates existing roadway profiles, street intersections, and narrow horizontal alignment corridors that are typical of urban construction and also recognizes the municipal or state design criteria for the roadway surface. Yard and Non-Revenue TrackThese criteria are generally less stringent than main line track, due to the low speeds and low traffic volumes of most non-revenue tracks. The minimum criteria are determined primarily by the vehicle design, with little or no consideration of passenger comfort.

Some yard and non-revenue track criteria may not be valid for frequently used tracks such as when the yards main entrance leads to and from the revenue service line. For all types of track, the criteria should consider that work train equipment will occasionally use the tracks. The use of absolute minimum and absolute maximum geometric criteria, particularly for horizontal alignment, has several potential impacts in terms of increased annual maintenance, noise, and vehicle wheel wear, and shorter track component life. The use of any absolute criterion should therefore be done only with extreme caution. One or two isolated locations of high track maintenance may be tolerated and included in a programmed maintenance schedule, but extensive use of absolute minimum design criteria can result in revenue service degradation and unacceptable maintenance costs, in both the near term and far term. Designers should therefore attempt to either meet or do better than the desired criteria limits whenever it is feasible to do so. 3.2 LRT TRACK HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT The horizontal alignment of track consists of a series of tangents joined to circular curves, preferably with spiral transition curves. Track superelevation in curves is used to maximize vehicle operating speeds wherever practicable. An LRT alignment is often constrained by both physical restrictions and minimum operating performance requirements. This generally results in the effects on the LRT horizontal alignment and track superelevation designs discussed below. All other things being equal, larger radii are always preferable to tighter turns. In addition to wear and noise, small radius curves limit choices on the vehicle fleet both now and in the future. The

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Track Design Handbook for Light Rail Transit, Second Edition

minimum main line horizontal curve radius on most new LRT systems is usually 82 feet [25 meters], a value that is negotiable by virtually every available vehicle. Some modern LRVs and streetcars can negotiate curves as tight as 59 feet [18 meters], and a few can negotiate much smaller radii. Vintage streetcars, including both heritage equipment and modern replicas, can usually negotiate curves as tight as 35 feet [10.7 meters]. Superelevation unbalance (also variously known as underbalance, cant deficiency, or simply unbalance) can range from 3 to 9 inches [75 to 225 mm] depending on vehicle design and passenger comfort tolerance.[3] Vehicle designs that can handle higher superelevation unbalance can operate at higher speeds through a given curve radius and actual superelevation combination. LRT design criteria for maximum superelevation unbalance vary appreciably from as low as 3 inches [75 mm] on some projects to as high as 4 inches [115 mm] on others. The latter value is consistent with a lateral acceleration of 0.1 g, a common, albeit conservative, metric also cited in most design criteria manuals. See Article 3.2.4 for additional discussion on this topic. LRT spiral transition lengths and superelevation runoff rates are generally shorter than corresponding freight/commuter railway criteria. The recommended horizontal alignment criteria herein are based on the LRT vehicle design and performance characteristics described in Chapter 2. The limiting factors associated with alignment design can be classified as shown in Table 3.2.1. 3.2.1 Minimum Tangent Length between Curves The discussion of minimum tangent track length is related to circular curves (see Article 3.2.3). The complete criteria for minimum tangent length will be developed here and referenced from other applicable sections. The development of this criterion usually considers the requirements of the AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering, Chapter 5, which specifies that the minimum length of tangent between curves is equal to the longest car that will traverse the system.[5] This usually translates into a desired minimum criterion of 100 feet [30 meters]. However, that limitation generally addresses operation of freight equipment at low speeds, such as in a classification yard. For passenger operation, ride comfort criteria must be considered. Considering the ability of passengers to adjust for changes of direction, the minimum length of tangent between curves is usually given as LT = 3V where LT = minimum tangent length in feet [meters] V = operating speed in mph [km/h] This formula is based on vehicle travel of at least 2 seconds on tangent track between two curves. This same criterion also applies to the lengths of circular curves, as indicated below. This criterion has been used for various transit designs in the United States since BART in the [LT = 0.57V]

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Light Rail Transit Track Geometry early 1960s.[6] The desired minimum length between curves is thus usually expressed as an approximate car length or in accordance with the formula above, whichever is larger. Table 3.2.1 Alignment design limiting factors Alignment Component Minimum Length between Curves Major Limiting Factors Passenger comfort Vehicle truck/wheel forces Vehicle twist Trackwork maintenance Vehicle truck/wheel forces Noise and vibration issues Passenger comfort Vehicle frame forces Passenger comfort Vehicle twist limitations Track alignment maintenance Passenger comfort Vehicle stability Passenger comfort Passenger comfort Vehicle frame forces Passenger comfort Trackwork maintenance Noise and vibration issues Vehicle twist (especially at jump frogs) Vehicle clearances ADAAG platform gap requirements Trackwork maintenance Railroad alignment criteria Compatibility of LRT and freight vehicle truck/wheels Special trackwork components and geometry

Circular Curves (Minimum Radius)

Compound and Reverse Circular Curves Spiral Transition Curve Length

Superelevation Vertical Tangent between Vertical Curves Vertical Curve/Grade (Maximum Rate of Change) Special Trackwork

Station Platforms Joint LRT/Freight RR Usage

Main line absolute minimum tangent length depends on the vehicle and degree of passenger ride quality degradation that can be tolerated. One criterion is the maximum truck center distance plus axle spacing, i.e., the distance from the vehicles front axle to the rear axle of its second truck. In other criteria, the truck center distance alone is sometimes used. When spiral curves are used, the difference between these two criteria is not significant. An additional consideration for ballasted trackwork is the minimum tangent length for mechanized lining equipment, which is commonly based on multiples of 31-foot [10-meter] chords. Very short

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Track Design Handbook for Light Rail Transit, Second Edition

curve lengths have been noted to cause significant alignment throw errors by automatic track lining machines during surfacing operations. The 31-foot [10-meter] length can thus be considered an absolute floor on the minimum tangent distance for ballasted main line track in lieu of other criteria. The preceding discussion is based on reverse curves. For curves in the same direction, it is preferable to have a compound curve, with or without a spiral transition curve, than to have a short length of tangent between the curves. The latter condition, known as a broken back curve, does not affect safety or operating speeds, but it does create substandard ride quality. As a guideline, curves in the same direction should preferably have no tangent between curves or, if that is not possible, the same minimum tangent distance as is applicable to reverse curves. In embedded trackwork on city streets and in other congested areas, it may not be feasible to provide minimum tangent distances between reverse curves. Unless the maximum vehicle coupler angle is exceeded, one practical solution to this problem is to waive the tangent track requirements between curves if operating speeds are below about 20 mph [30 km/h] and no track superelevation is used on either curve.[4] However, the designer must carefully consider unavoidable cross slope that is placed in the street pavement to facilitate drainage and whether light rail vehicle twist limitations might be exceeded. Pavement cross slope can have a direct effect on actual superelevation (Ea) and unbalanced superelevation (Eu) and must be considered when computing minimum spiral lengths. See Article 3.2.9 for additional discussion on this topic. For yards and in special trackwork, it is very often not practicable to achieve the desired minimum tangent lengths. AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering, Chapter 5, provides a series of minimum tangent distances based on long freight car configurations and worst-case coupler angles. It is also noted in the AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering that turnouts to parallel sidings can also create unavoidable short tangents between reverse curves. The use of the AREMA table would be conservative for an LRT vehicle, which has much shorter truck centers and axle spacings than a typical freight railroad car. As speeds in yards are restricted by operating rules and superelevation is generally not used, very minimal tangent lengths can be employed between curves. However, because yards typically lack a train control system that would monitor and limit speed, train velocities appreciably higher than those authorized can occur. For this reason alone, compromising on criteria is discouraged. Existing LRT criteria do not normally address minimum tangent lengths at yard tracks, but leave this issue to the discretion of the trackwork designer and/or the individual transit agency. To permit the use of work trains and similar rail-mounted equipment that are designed around standards for railroad rolling stock, it is prudent to utilize the AREMA minimum tangent distances between reverse curves in yard tracks. Extremely small radius reverse curves, such as those common for streetcar operations, have an additional consideration. Whenever one light rail vehicle is pushing or towing another, such as commonly occurs around a yard and shop, the angle that the couplers assume to the long axis of both cars must not exceed the vehicles design limits. A maximum angle of 30 degrees is acceptable, but less would be desired. An angle of 45 degrees to the vehicle should be considered an absolute maximum since, beyond that threshold, the force component tending to push or pull the dead car along the track will be less than the force component that acts to push or pull the vehicle

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laterally and hence off the track. One project included an alignment where, during pre-revenue service testing, it was discovered that the tow bar between the streetcar being pushed and the streetcar doing the pushing was at an angle of nearly 90 degrees, at which point all forward motion obviously ceased. The alignment needed to be reconstructed to achieve a smaller angle. Curves with no intervening tangent are discouraged but can be employed under strict circumstances as described in Article 3.2.7 of this chapter. Considering the various criteria discussed above for tangents between reverse curves, the following is a summary guideline criteria for light rail transit. Main Line Desired Minimum The greater of either LT = 200 feet [60 meters] or LT = 3V [LT = 0.57V] where LT = minimum tangent length in feet [meters] V = maximum operating speed in mph [km/h] Main Line Acceptable Minimum The greater of either LT = length of LRT vehicle over couplers in feet [meters] or LT = 3V [LT = 0.57V] where LT = minimum tangent length in feet [meters] V = maximum operating speed in mph [km/h] Note: So as to not limit future vehicle purchases, the vehicle length is often rounded up for purposes of the equation above. If the actual vehicle is about 90 feet [27 meters] long, the value used in the equation might be 100 feet [30 meters].

Main Line Absolute Minimum The greater of either LT = 31 feet [9.5 meters] or LT = (Vehicle Truck Center Distance) + (Axle Spacing) where the maximum speed is restricted as follows: VMAX = LT / 3 or LT = zero [VMAX = LT / 0.57]

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