Torsion of Circular Cross-Section Shafts 9. 9.

1 TORSION OF CIRCULAR CROSS-SECTION SHAFTS Introduction

9.1.1 Torsion in Structures Engineering structures are frequently loaded by twisting couples (known as Torque). Typical structures that undergo such loading are power transmission shafts such as the prop-shaft of an automobile and twisting tools such as screwdrivers. In general, any rotating shaft must have a torque applied to create its rotation. Shafts may be solid (as in the case of the screwdriver) or hollow (as for the prop-shaft). In this course only shafts with circular cross-sections will be considered as they allow a number of simplifying assumptions to be made so that the stresses and deformations due to torsion can be evaluated. 9.1.2 Vector representation of torque As torque is equivalent to a couple (i.e. a moment) it is a vector quantity and has both a magnitude and a sense of direction. Torque is frequently represented by either a curved arrow around the axis of rotation or by a vector arrow along the axis of rotation (in these notes, when using the vector arrow notation, a double-headed arrow will represent torque to differentiate it from an axial load). The rotation of the torque may be determined from the arrow vector using the right hand screw rule or right hand thumb rule. When considering the equilibrium of a structure the torque contributes to the moments about the axis of rotation and the sum of the moments about this axis must equal zero. For a structure only loaded in torsion (like a prop-shaft) this means that in equilibrium the structure must have opposing torques of equal magnitude and opposite sense as shown in Figure 9.1

Torque applied at a point X = TX TB TA

TAB

TB TA Torque in a length XY = TXY

Figure 9.1

To help differentiate between torque applied at a point and torque in a length of shaft (not necessarily equal to each other) the following nomenclature will be used: TX = An applied torque at point X TXY = The net torque in length XY The net torque in a length of shaft is the torque that causes the shaft to twist (in the same way that the net axial force in a shaft is the force that causes the shaft to lengthen or shorten) and can only reliably be determined using a FBD of the shaft with the shaft cut at some point in the length XY.

47

Transformations of Stress and Strain

9.1.3 Example: Variation of torque along a shaft Calculate and graph the variation of torque along the stepped shaft as shown in Figure 9.2.

2kNm

12kNm 8kNm

16kNm

3m

2m

2m

1m

A
30kNm

20kNm

10kNm

Figure 9.2

Step 1: FBD of entire shaft to determine resisting torque applied at support A Step 2: Separate shaft into two FBDs with a cut in length AB to determine TAB Step 3: Repeat step 2 for lengths BC, CD, and DE Remember that either left or right hand side FBDs can be used to determine the torque in the length under investigation 9.1.4 Units As Torque is a moment it has the units of Force (MLT-2) Length (L), i.e generalised units of ML2 T-2. In the SI system this is commonly Newton metres (Nm).

48

Transformations of Stress and Strain 9.2

9.2.1

Stress due to Torsion

Static equilibrium considerations

TAB dA r

dV

A B
Figure 9.3

Consider a length AB of solid shaft as shown in Figure 9.3 with a torque TAB along its length. For equilibrium the sum of the Forces and Moments must equal zero. The only forces capable of resisting the applied Torque are shear forces on the cross-sectional faces. For an elementary (very small) area dA, denote the shear force occurring on that area as dV. The moment that this shear force creates is equal to dV multiplied by its distance from the rotational axis of the shaft (r). The sum of all these elementary shear moments must then equal TAB for equilibrium. This sum is represented as the integral over an area and is denoted by A (an Area Integral) in the equation below.

shaft axis

= TAB r .dV = 0
A

TAB = r .dV
A

As = V/A, dV = .dA this may be written as:

TAB = r dA
A

(9.1)

As r is not constant over the area of integration it must remain within the integral. Recall that for the case of axial loading the distribution of normal stress across a cross-section was assumed to be constant. This however, is NOT a valid assumption for shear stress due to torsion and will vary across the cross-section and must also remain within the Area integral. This means that equation (9.1) is insufficient to solve for . As consideration of the sum of the forces applied to the structure does not provide any extra information from which to solve for (as all the elementary forces dV are matched by equal and opposite forces on the opposite side of the shaft axis) this problem is statically indeterminate and the deformation of the structure must be considered (i.e. geometric compatibility). 9.2.2 Axial shear stress Previously it has been shown that shear stresses cannot exist in a single plane. Consider a small element of the shaft as shown in Figure 9.3 with a shear stress acting on the cross sectional face. For equilibrium there must be complementary shear stresses acting on the axial faces of the same magnitude.

49

Transformations of Stress and Strain

The existence of these axial shear stresses can be shown by considering the relative motion of two edges of a paper tube when subjected to a twisting motion. Whilst in the paper roll sliding occurs in an engineering structure the sliding is resisted by the continuity of material and a stress is generated. 9.2.3 Geometric Compatibility Now consider the deflection of the shaft of radius R, fixed to a rigid support at the end A with a Torque (TAB) acting along its length - as shown in Figure 9.4(a). Under the influence of the Torque the free end will rotate through an angle AB called the angle of twist. Consider also a surface element ABCD located within the shaft at a distance r from the axis of revolution. This element can be used to obtain the generalised relationship between the angle of twist and the shear stress generated in the shaft.

R r

B B C C

AB

O C B B C LAB

AB

TAB

A A (a) D (b)

Figure 9.4

At this point the importance of considering a circular cross-section is highlighted. Under torsion a circular cross-section remains plane and undistorted. This can be shown by considering the point B, located at radius r from the axis of revolution, moving around the shaft axis by an angle AB to a new point B. For a circular cross-section, both B and B (and C and C) are at the same distance from the shaft axis and are both in the same plane as the original un-deformed cross-section. This does not occur for instance in square cross-sections (see Figure 9.5(b)) where more complex analysis methods are required to assess the effect of torsion on stress distributions.

Figure 9.51

From: Beer, Johnston and Dewolf, Mechanics of Materials, 2002

50

Transformations of Stress and Strain

As with axial loading where the generalised (uniform) stress condition breaks down near the point of loading, the assumption of true planar rotation of the cross-sections also breaks down near the point of loading. Saint Venants principle however, allows the performance away from the point of loading to be modelled by assuming that the torque is applied to the shaft via rigid endplates. Using these assumptions and considering only small deflections in the elastic region of the material, the thin elementary surface ABCD is deformed under the action of the applied Torque to new shape ABCD as shown in Figure 9.4(b). The angle of twist and the shear strains generated in surface element ABCD can be related as follows:

tan AB AB =

BB' LAB

{as

is small}

AB =

r AB LAB

{as BB' r}

This equation shows that the shear strain on an elementary surface of a circular cross-sectional shaft varies with the distance from the axis of revolution. This means that the maximum shear strain is found on the outer surface of the shaft (when r = R). In the elastic region = G therefore the equation above may be re-written in terms of the shear stress (ignoring subscripts) to give:

Gr L

(9.2)

As G, and L are constants for a given cross-section shear stress is seen to vary linearly across the cross section with a minimum of zero at the centre (provided the shaft is solid) and a maximum when r = R. 9.2.4 Angle of Twist Equations (9.1) and (9.2) may now be combined to relate the torque and the angle of twist in a length (AB) of shaft.

TAB = r dA
A

= r
A

GAB r AB dA LAB

= =

G AB AB 2 r dA LAB A G AB AB J AB LAB 2 where J AB = r dA A

J is defined as the Polar Second Moment of Area of the cross-sectional Area. Methods to determine J will be discussed in later lectures. Rearranging the equation above gives the general form of the torsion equation for a length of shaft (ignoring subscripts):

TL GJ

(9.3)

The product GJ is referred to as the Torsional Rigidity of a shaft and is an assessment of how resistant a shaft is to twisting.

51

Transformations of Stress and Strain

9.2.5 Example: Twist in a oil well drill shaft When an oil well is being drilled at a depth of 1800m, the typical torque required to commence drilling is approximately 60kNm. Determine the number of rotations of the top of the drill shaft (shown as drill string in Figure 9.6) at the point when drilling commences. Consider the shaft to be made from hollow steel (G = 79GPa) tubes with a polar second moment of area of J=1.07410-4m4.

Figure 9.6

The angle of twist is calculated using equation (9.3):

=
=

TL GJ TL G 1.074 10 4

= = =

radians revolutions

9.2.6 Shear Stress Equations (9.2) and (9.3) may also be used to determine the variation of shear stress through a shaft:

Gr L Gr TL = . L GJ Tr J
(9.4)

52

Transformations of Stress and Strain

The distribution of shear stress on a cross-section may now be shown graphically in Figure 9.7 as varying linearly with distance from the axis of rotation of the shaft with the maximum stress occurring when r = Ro .

max =

TRo/J
min =

max =

TRo/J

TRi/J

r
Ro Ri Ro

(a)
Figure 9.7

(b)

9.2.7 Example: Maximum shear stress in a solid shaft For the 50mm diameter solid shaft in Figure 9.12 calculate the maximum shear stress. Use J = 6.13510-7 m4.
50mm 2.5kNm 2.5kNm

Figure 9.8

Maximum shear stress in solid shaft is found using equation (9.4):

max =
= = =

TRo J TRo 6.135 10 7 6.135 10 7 MPa

53

Transformations of Stress and Strain

9.3 Multiple Length Torsion Members

9.3.1 Stress at a cross-section Equation (9.4) was derived for a simple shaft with torques applied to each end. However, it may also be used to determine the stress distribution on a cross-section for shafts of variable cross-section or where torques are applied at a location between the ends of the shaft. All that is required is knowledge of the torque applied at the cross-section of interest, which may be obtained from consideration of a Free Body Diagram with one end of the FBD being at the section of interest.
TA TB TA TB L AB B TC C D TD 0<L<L BC B L T BC

(a)

(b)

Figure 9.9

Consider the shaft ABCD shown in Figure 9.9 with torques TA, TB, TC and TD applied at points A, B, C and D respectively. To determine the cross-sectional stress distribution in the shaft in length BC divide the shaft into appropriate FBDs at the section of interest (in this case a distance of L from point B) and solve for the torque (TBC) in length BC.

shaft axis

= TA TB TBC = 0 TBC = TA TB

Knowing TBC, equation (9.4) may now be used to determine the stress distribution at any cross-section in length BC. 9.3.2 Twist in a multi-length shaft Equation (9.3) for the angle of twist in a length of shaft may only be used if the length of shaft considered is: of constant G (i.e. homogeneous), has a uniform cross-section (i.e. is of constant J) and has no internal point torsion loads (i.e. has constant torque along the length of shaft). If as in Figure 9.9 the shaft is subjected to torques at locations other than the ends or has changes in crosssection, then the shaft must be divided up into lengths (IJ) that meet the above criteria and the angle of twist for each length determined separately. The sum of the separate angles of twist will equal the total twist of the shaft such that the angle of twist of a multi-length shaft may be written as:

TIJ LIJ where n is the number of IJ lengths GIJ J IJ

(9.5)

In the example of Figure 9.9, the angle of twist at the cross-section of interest, relative to section A, is the sum of the twist in length LAB plus the twist in the length L (only two lengths are considered as the as the point of application of torque TB and the change in cross-section coincide). Thus the twist (relative to point A) at a distance L from B may be written as:

TAB L AB T L' + BC G AB J AB GBC J BC

54

Transformations of Stress and Strain

9.3.3 Example: Variation of twist in a stepped shaft The stepped steel shaft of Figure 9.10 is rigidly fixed at A and has torques applied at B and D. Calculate and graph the angle of twist along the shaft relative to section A.

J = 2m4

J = 1m4

2kNm

12kNm

8kNm

6kNm

3m

2m

2m

1m

Figure 9.10

55

Transformations of Stress and Strain

9.4 Polar Second Moment of Area

9.4.1 Simplified method for Circular Cross-Sections The Polar second moment of area of an Area is defined as:

J = r 2 dA
A

(9.6)

For a circular cross-section the simplest elemental area to consider is a very thin disk as shown in Figure 9.11.

dA=2 r.dr

Ro

dr

r
Ri

Figure 9.11

In Figure 9.11, dA = 2 r.dr, and the total area will be integrated across if r is considered to vary from the inner radius Ri to the outer radius Ro. Therefore J may be written as:

J = 2r 3 dr =
Ri

Ro

( Ro Ri )
4 4

for a thick tube

(9.7)

Ro 4
2

for a solid bar

9.4.2 Units Equation (9.6) shows that J will have general units of Length4 (L4 ). In the SI system this will commonly be m4 or mm4.

56

Transformations of Stress and Strain

9.4.3 Example: Maximum shear stress in a solid and hollow shaft Calculate the inner radius (Ri) for the 80mm diameter hollow shaft so that the maximum stress in the hollow shaft is identical to that in a solid shaft of outer diameter 50mm. Also plot the variation of shear stress ( ) with radial position (r) for both shafts.

2Ri 50mm 2.5kNm 2.5kNm 2.5kNm

80mm 2.5kNm

(a)

(b)

Figure 9.12

Maximum shear stress in solid shaft is found using equations (9.4) and (9.7):

max =
= =

TRo TRo = 4 J 2 Ro

Ro

The inner radius of the hollow shaft is found using the same equations (but different version of equation (9.7) to account for difference in J):

max =
= = = =

TRo J

min =
= = = =

TRi J

Ri Ro

57

Transformations of Stress and Strain

9.4.4 Example - Electric motor driving a gear shaft The electric motor of Figure 9.13 provides 2.4kNm of Torque to a gear shaft. The gears resist the applied torque as shown. With the dimensions of the solid shafts as shown, calculate the maximum shear stress in shaft lengths AB and BC.
2.4kNm 1.2kNm 0.8kNm 0.4kNm

54mm
B

44mm
C

44mm
D

36mm

Figure 9.13

FBD for length AB

54mm TAB 2.4kNm

axis

=0=

max =
=
FBD for length BC
1.2kNm 2.4kNm

TRo J

TBC

M
44mm

axis

=0= TRo J

max =
=

58

Transformations of Stress and Strain

9.4.5 Example - Twist in a stepped shaft The steel (G = 79GPa) circular cross-section stepped shaft in Figure 9.14 is fixed to a rigid support at A and has a Torque of 2kNm applied at D. The shaft is hollow between A and B and solid for the remainder. Calculate the angle of twist at D.

2kNm 0.025m 0.035m 0.025m

0.05m

0.03m

0.04m

C
Figure 9.14

The twist in a stepped shaft is calculated from equation (9.5) considering lengths of constant G, constant cross-section and constant torque. As G is constant throughout and there are no torques applied between A and D only have to break the shaft down into lengths of constant cross-section. Therefore from equation (9.5):

=
=

TIJ LIJ GIJ J IJ

T AB L AB TBC LBC TCD LCD T L AB LBC LCD + + + + = {as T and G constant} G AB J AB GBC J BC GCD J CD G J AB J BC J CD L L 2T L 2 2000 0.05 0.03 0.04 4 AB 4 = + 4BC + 4CD = + + 9 4 4 4 G Ro Ri AB Ro BC Ro CD 79 10 0.0175 0.0125 0.0175 0.0125 4 = 0.0432rads = 2.47

( )

( )

59

Transformations of Stress and Strain

9.5 Design of Power Transmission Shafts

9.5.1 Relationship between Power and Torque A power transmission shaft is normally specified by the amount of power it needs to transfer and the rotational speed at which that power is to be transferred. Power is related to torque by the angular velocity of the shaft ( ) by the equation.

P = T = T .( 2f )

(9.8)

Which also relates power to the rotational frequency of the shaft (rotations per second). Therefore, if the power and speed requirements of a shaft are known, the diameter of the shaft and wall thickness may be determined by combining Equations (9.3), (9.4) and (9.8). 9.5.2 Example - Design of Formula 1 car power transmission shaft Design the lightest power transmission shaft for driving a Formula 1 car wheel. Consider the full engine power capability as being transferred to the wheels, i.e. 350hp per wheel. The shaft must be capable of 1700rpm. The chassis designer advises you that the largest diameter the shaft may be is 35mm. A titanium shaft may be used with an allowable shear stress of 500MPa. Convert to SI units: 1hp = 0.7457kW 700hp = 522kW 1rpm = 2 /60 rad/sec 1700rpm = 178.0 rad/sec Calculate Torque to be transmitted:

T=

522000 = 2.932kNm 178

Calculate outer radius for a solid shaft:

max =

TRo TRo = 4 J 2 Ro 2T

Ro = 3

max

=3

2 2932 = 15.5mm 500 10 6

Therefore cross-sectional area of solid tube is .(15.5)2 = 756.0 mm2 Calculate the inner radius for a hollow shaft with an outer diameter of 35mm:

max =

TRo = J

TRo Ro4 Ri4

(R

4 o

Ri4 =

max

2TRo

4 Ri = 4 Ro

max

2TRo

= 4 0.01754

2 2932 0.0175 = 13.0 mm 500 10 6

Therefore cross-sectional area of hollow tube is .(17.52 13.02) = 431.2 mm2. As mass = density volume = density length area, the lightest shaft will be the shaft with the smallest cross-sectional area which is the hollow shaft with external diameter of 35 mm and internal diameter of 26mm.

9.6

Torsional statically indeterminate problems

9.6.1 Introduction As with the normal and shear stress statically indeterminate problems discussed earlier static indeterminacy can also be encountered in torsional problems. In such cases the distribution of torque through a combination of shafts cannot be determined by simply using a FBD alone (statics). In general the method of solution is to look for geometric compatibility in the various shafts under consideration

60

Transformations of Stress and Strain

(i.e. identify how the twist in the various shafts are related). This will allow a series of simultaneous equations to be generated which will then allow solution of the problem. 9.6.2 Example: Torsional Static Indeterminacy A steel shaft (G = 77GPa) and an aluminium tube (G = 27GPa) are connected to a fixed support at A and to a rigid end plate at B as shown in Figure 9.15. If the initial stresses in both the tube and the shaft are zero and the maximum allowable shear stresses are 120MPa for steel and 70MPa for aluminium, determine the maximum torque that can be applied at B.

0.05m

0.076m

0.06m

TB

0.5m
Figure 9.15

Step 1: Draw FBD of the end plate at B to get an expression relating the torque in the aluminium tube (TAB-Al ), the torque in the steel shaft (TABSt) and the applied torque TB Step 2: Relate the deflections of the tube and the shaft to gain a second expression relating TAB-Al and TAB
St

Step 3: Calculate the maximum allowable TAB-Al and TABSt Step 4: Solve for TB

61

Transformations of Stress and Strain

10. 10.1 TRANSFORMATIONS OF STRESS AND STRAIN Equivalent Shear state for Torsion

10.1.1 Pure shear = bi-axial tension/compression Previous sections have shown that a state of pure shear stress (which is the state of stress due to torsion) is equivalent to two equal and opposite direct stresses at right angles on planes at 450 to the shear stresses. Hence in torsion, the pure state of shear stress shown in element a of Figure 10.1, may also be considered as shown in element b (with = ).

=-

45

=-

Figure 10.1

The tensile stress at 45 to the axis explains why brittle materials in torsion fracture on a 45 helix (this occurs when (= ) > uts). Figure 10.2(a) shows a ductile failure dominated by shear and Figure 10.2(b) a brittle failure dominated by tension.

(a)

(b)

Figure 10.2

62

Transformations of Stress and Strain

10.1.2 Example: Tensile stress in a helically wound pipe A pipe of 200mm outside diameter is made by wrapping a 10mm thick steel sheet at 45 around a central mandrel and then welding the sheet along its edges (as shown in Figure 10.3). Knowing that the maximum allowable tensile stress in a weld is 85MPa, calculate the maximum torque that may be applied to the pipe.

45

Figure 10.3

As torsion is a state of pure shear, the maximum tensile stress on the weld will be equal in magnitude to the maximum shear stress in the pipe as shown in Figure 10.1 (note the different orientation of the Torques reverses the directions of the shears and hence the tensile stresses). Therefore:

max = max =
Tmax

Tmax Ro J 4 R Ri4 = max o 2 Ro

85 10 6 (0.14 0.09 4 )
2 0.1

= 45.9kNm

10.2

General Stress Systems in 2-Dimensions

xy

C y

xy

Figure 10.4

The stresses on an element in a component subjected to combined 2D loading (assuming no through thickness stresses, i.e. plane stress) are schematically shown in Figure 10.4. The element ABCD shown is taken of unit thickness and stresses are not to vary in the thickness direction. The reference system of coordinate axes are as shown. The normal stresses acting on the x and y faces are respectively x and y. The

63

Transformations of Stress and Strain

shear stresses are denoted by xy. Observe that the sign convention uses a shear stress on a positive face to be positive in the direction of the co-ordinate system. For such a stress element there are two points of importance: i. What are the maximum stresses and on what plane (in what orientation) do they act? ii. What is the stress state on a chosen plane of interest?

10.3

Stresses on a general oblique plane

Consider rotating the element ABCD by an angle to the x-axis so that it now has axes of x and y orientated at angle to the x and y axes. To determine the new stresses x, y and xy on the element in terms of the original stresses consider the free body diagram of a prismatic element ADE and the stresses acting on it are as shown in Figure 10.5. The normal stress x and shear stress xy act on the plane AE and maintain the equilibrium of the prismatic element.
y'

xy

x'
x

y' A

x'

xy

B A C

Area = Acos x D D

Area = A

xy

xy

Area = Asin
y

Figure 10.5

The stresses x and xy are obtained by resolution of forces in the respective directions.

F F

x' y'

= x ' . A x . A cos . cos xy . A cos . sin y . A sin . sin xy . A sin . cos = 0 = x ' y ' A + x .A cos . sin xy . A cos . cos y . A sin . cos + xy . A sin . sin = 0

These expressions reduce to:

x ' y ' = ( x y )sin cos + xy (cos 2 sin 2 )

These equation simplifies, after the use of some trigonometric identities to:

x ' = x cos2 + y sin 2 + xy sin 2

x' =

x + y
2 2

x y
2

cos 2 + xy sin 2

(10.1)

x' y ' =

x y

sin 2 + xy cos 2

(10.2)

The stress in the y direction may be determined by replacing with ( + /2) to give:

y' =

x + y
2

x y
2

cos 2 xy sin 2

(10.3)

64

Transformations of Stress and Strain

10.4 Principal stresses and principal planes
x y x y 2 = 2 cos 2 + xy sin 2 = 2 cos 2 + ( x y )cos 2 . xy sin 2 + ( xy sin 2 )
2 2 2 2 2

Equations 10.4 and 10.5 may be rearranged to give:

x + y x' 2 x'y'
2

x y x y 2 = = sin 2 + xy cos 2 sin 2 ( x y )cos 2 . xy sin 2 + ( xy cos 2 ) 2 2

2

x + y x y 2 x' + x'y ' = 2 2 Define two new variables ave and R:

2 + xy

ave

+ 2
x

R=

+
2 x'y '

(10.4)

2 xy

The equations above may be simplified to:

x'

ave

)2 +

= R2

(10.5)
x

Which is the equation for a circle of radius R centred at

ave

and

xy

= 0 as shown in Figure 10.6

x'y

x'

min

ave

max

Figure 10.6

min

= ave R =

+ 2

2 xy

max

= ave + R =

+ 2

2 xy

max and min are called Principal stresses and planes on which these stresses act are called Principal
planes. To find out what angle p the element ABCD has to be rotated to develop these principal stresses on its edges observe that at the point when the principal stresses are developed the shear stress is equal to zero. Therefore using equation 10.6 and setting xy = 0 gives:

65

Transformations of Stress and Strain

tan 2 p =

2 xy

x y

(10.6)

The maximum shear stress that can be developed on the element is equal to the magnitude of the radius of the circle:

x ' y ' max

= R=

2 xy

(10.7)
ave

when this maximum shear stress is achieved the axial stresses on the element are equal to 10.4 or 10.6 may be used to determine the rotation of the element to create this stress state:

so equations

tan 2 s =

x y 2 xy

(10.8)

These equations may then be used to determine the stress on an element as it is rotated through a stress field. Importantly it allows the maximum (principal stresses to be determined and the orientation at which they occur. This helps an engineer to determine along which plane a structure is likely to fail.

10.5

Graphical representation of stresses in 2-D. Given the stresses x, y and xy acting on the x and y planes at a point (either on the surface or inside) on a
structure, equations 10.4 and 10.5 can be used to calculate the normal and shear stresses on any other plane at that point. The planes on which maximum normal and shear stresses act and the magnitudes of these stresses can also be found. A simple graphical procedure (developed by German engineer Otto Mohr) can be followed to obtain the same results whilst avoiding lengthy and repetitive calculations. Mohrs procedure is based upon the observation that for any plane at that position (i.e. for any value of ), if the stresses are plotted on a graph of versus all of the points obtained will lie on a circle. Knowing the normal and shear stresses on planes normal to x and y (arbitrary) axes at any point in a structure the following elemental diagrams and Mohrs circle may be drawn.

Pt B (

y,

xy)

xy

xy

xy

x y

Pt A (

x , xy)

ave

2
1

Figure 10.7

66

Transformations of Stress and Strain

10.5.1 Method of Construction i. Determine stresses on an element with local axes x and y ( x,

&

xy)

ii.

iii. iv. v. vi.

Chose an appropriate origin for the and co-ordinate axes. Select a suitable scale, common for both the and axes. Use of graph paper is advantageous. The positive axis is considered to be a shear stress that wants to rotate the element clockwise. Remember the jingle As in the kitchen the clock is above the counter. Locate points A ( x, xy) and B ( y, xy) to represent the elemental stresses on the x and y planes. Note x or y could be positive, zero or negative but Mohrs method still works. Join AB. The intersection of line AB with the axis is the centre for the Mohrs circle with a coordinate of ( ave, 0). Construct the Mohrs circle with AB as diameter. The intercepts of the circle with axis (at 1 and 2) having stresses 1 and 2 are the principal stresses (maximum and minimum stresses).

Recognise that from equation 10.11, the angle (2 p) is the angle between the x and 1 axes. So to orientate the element with the maximum principal stress (1) occuring on the x face the element must be rotated p in the same sense as point A must be rotated to move point A to the point of maximum stress. vii. When rotating point A by p, point B moves to a position of minimum stress so the element is under pure bi-axial stress with the principal stresses applied (i.e. there are no shear stresses on the element in this orientation). To orientated the element so that the maximum stress occurs on the y face the element must be rotated 90 + p. viii. To find the stresses on an element at any particular angle to the x axis simply rotate the line AB an angle corresponding to twice the element rotation (in the same sense) and calculate new values for the axial and shear stresses (see Figure 10.8).

Pt B (

y,

xy)

Pt B (

y ,

xy)

xy

xy

2
y

y x

Pt A (
xy

x ,

xy)

Pt A (

x,

xy)

Figure 10.8

67

Transformations of Stress and Strain

10.6

Example

An element of an engineering structure experiences a state of plane stress with x = 50MPa, y = -10MPa and xy = 40MPa. (a) Determine the principal planes and principal stresses, (b) determine the plane and stress components exerted on the element when it is subject to maximum shear stress and (c) if the material from which the element is made has maximum allowable tensile, compressive and shear stresses of 100MPa, -110MPa and 50MPa respectively predict whether the structure is likely to fail in this stress state.

ave

+ 2
x

=
y

50 10 = 20MPa 2
2

R=

2 xy

50 + 10 2 = +40 = 50MPa 2

Mohrs circle for this stress state is shown in Figure 10.9. From this diagram it is obvious that:

max = ave + R = 20 + 50 = 70 MPa min = ave R = 20 50 = 30MPa max = R = 50 MPa

Also

xy 40 = p = 26.6 x ave 50 20 ave 50 20 tan(2 s ) = x = s = 18.4 40 xy

tan (2 p ) =
So the principal stresses are 70MPa and 30 MPa and are located on faces of an element rotated 26.6 from the x axis. The maximum shear stress of 50MPa occurs on an element rotated 18.4 from the x axis with axial stresses of 20MPa occurring simultaneously. As the maximum allowable tensile and compressive stresses are greater than the principal stresses the structure will not fail in compression or tension. But as the maximum allowable shear stress is 50MPa any slight increase in the radius of the Mohrs circle (by increasing any of the loading stresses) would cause the structure fail in shear along planes orientated at (approximately) 18.4 to the x-y axes.

min

max

max

-10

40

min p

Pt B (-10, 40)

50

x
s

ave

min

2 2
s

max

ave

max

max

Pt A (50, 40)
ave

= 20

ave

ave

Figure 10.9

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Tutorial 2: Torsion and Transformation of Stress & Strain

TUTORIAL 2: TORSION AND TRANSFORMATIONS OF STRESS & STRAIN
2.1 Determine the torque in each section of the stepped shaft shown:

6kNm

20kNm

8kNm

2kNm

16kNm

10kNm

1.2m

1.4m

0.6m

1.0m

1.4m

1.8m

1.6m

Answers (26kNm, 20kNm, 0kNm, 8kNm, 6kNm, -10kNm) 2.2 Determine the torque required to cause an angle of twist of 5 in an aluminium tube of length 4ft with a polar second moment of area of 0.4in4 (Use G = 3.9106psi). How much longer would the tube have to be to see an end-to-end twist of 7.5? If the outer diameter of the tube is 0.75in and the inner diameter 0.5in, what are the mean and minimum shear stresses in the tube? Answers (2.84kip.in, 2ft, 4431psi, 3545psi) 2.3 A 6ft long aluminium rod (G = 3.9106psi) is bonded to a 4ft long brass rod (G = 5.6106psi). Both rods are 0.5in in diameter and the free end of the brass rod is fixed to a rigid support. A 300lb.in torque is applied to the free end of the aluminium rod so that the maximum stress in the brass/aluminium composite rod is 12.225ksi. Determine the angle of twist at (a) the aluminium/brass joint and (b) the free end of the aluminium rod. Answers (24, 75.7) 2.4 A pulley shaft has three pulleys loaded as shown. The length of shaft between end A and pulley B is 0.6m, 0.8m between pulleys B and C, 1.0m between pulleys C and D and 0.5m between pulley D and end E. The shaft is made of steel (G = 27GPa). Determine (a) the angle of twist between C and B and (b) D and B.
400N m 900Nm 500N m

30mm
A B C D E

30mm 36mm 36m m

Answers (8.54, 2.11) 2.5 A composite torsion bar is made from a 0.5m length of solid circular cross-section aluminium bonded endto-end with a 0.25m length of solid circular cross-section brass. If a torque of 1250Nm is applied determine the required diameters of the two sections of the torsion bar. The maximum allowable stress in the brass rod is 50MPa and 25MPa in the aluminium. Answers (Al 63.4mm, B 50.3mm)

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Tutorial 2: Torsion and Transformation of Stress & Strain

2.6 A torque T is applied to a solid tapered shaft AB that is fixed at end B. Show by integration that the angle of twist at A is = 7TL/(12 Gr4).

T A r L 2r B

2.7 A thin tube of outer diameter 60 mm is required to carry a torque of 150,000 Nmm. The shear stress must not exceed 27 N/mm2. a. What is the required wall thickness of the tube? Answer (1.03mm) 2.8 A hollow shaft is 50mm outside diameter and 30mm internal diameter. An applied torque of 1.6kNm is found to produce an angular twist of 0.4, measured on a length of 0.2m of the shaft. Calculate: a. The modulus of rigidity of the shaft material, and b. the maximum power which could be transmitted by the shaft at 2000 rpm if the maximum allowable shearing stress is 65 MN/m2. Answers (86 GN/m2, 2897 kW) 2.9 A hollow cylindrical steel (Modulus of Rigidity = 12106 lbf/in2) shaft, 5 in. outside diameter and 3 in. inside diameter, has a maximum shear stress of 8000 lbf/in2 : a. What power can be delivered at 200 rpm? b. What is the maximum angle of twist in a 50 ft. length of the shaft? c. What percentage stronger would the shaft be if it were solid having the same outside diameter? Answers (404.9kW, 9.17, 14.90%) 2.10 A solid circular shaft of diameter D has to transit power P at a given speed of m rpm. A hollow tubular shaft, with an inside diameter equal to 2/3 of its outside diameter, transmits the same power at the same speed and the maximum permissible shear stress is the same for each shaft. Find the ratio of the weights of the two shafts. Answer (Solid/Hollow = 1.55)

70

Tutorial 2: Torsion and Transformation of Stress & Strain

2.11 A circular shaft (shown below) is fixed to rigid supports at both ends (A and C). The shaft is solid from A to B and hollow from B to C and a 100Nm torque is applied at the mid-section (B). Determine: a. The torque exerted on the ends of the shaft by the supports b. The angle of twist at point B if the material used has a modulus of rigidity of 4GPa.
150mm

40mm

100Nm

20mm

B
300mm

Answers (51.61Nm, 48.39Nm, 0.441) 2.12 A composite shaft with a steel core and an aluminium outer (cross-section shown below) is 100mm long and is rigidly clamped at both ends. A torque of 122.5 Nm is applied 40mm from one end. Find a. the torque transmitted to each end, b. the rotation of the plane of application of the torque and c. the maximum shear stress in the bar.

rs = 1cm ra = 2cm ra rs Es = 196 GPa Ea = 73.5 GPa

= 0.30 = 0.25

Answers (73.5 Nm and 49 Nm, 3.6210-4 rads, 6.762 MPa) 2.13 A horizontal shaft, securely fixed at each end has a free length of 10m. Viewed from one of the shaft ends, axial couples of 30kNm clockwise and 40kNm counter-clockwise act on the shaft at distances of 4m and 7m respectively from the viewed end. Determine: a. the end fixing couples in magnitude and direction and b. the diameter of the solid shaft for a maximum shearing stress of 60 MN/m. c. Draw a diagram to show how a line, originally parallel to the axis on the outer surface of the shaft will appear after the application of the couples and find the position along the (in metres) where the shaft suffers no angular twist. Answers (6 kNm and 16 kNm, d = 0.127m, x = 5m)

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Tutorial 2: Torsion and Transformation of Stress & Strain

2.14 A composite shaft of circular cross-section is 19.5in. long is rigidly fixed at each end. A 12in. length of the shaft is 2in. diameter and is made of bronze (Modulus of Rigidity = 6106 lbf/in2) to which is joined a 7.5in. long, 1in. diameter shaft of steel (Modulus of Rigidity = 12106 lbf/in2). If the shear stress in the steel is limited to 8000 lbf/in2, find: a. the maximum torque that can be applied at the joint, and b. the maximum shear stress in the bronze? Answers (9426 lbf.in, 5000 lbf/in2) 2.15 A cylindrical pressure vessel with an internal diameter of 300mm and wall thickness of 10 mm has a gauge pressure of 400kPa. Calculate the axial and hoop stresses in the pressure vessel. Answers: (6MPa, 3MPa) 2.16 Calculate the wall stresses in a spherical pressure vessel of 250mm internal diameter, with wall thickness of 6mm pressurised to pressure of 6atm. Answer: (5.277MPa) 2.17 A flat bar is subjected to a longitudinal stress of 110MPa. Determine the maximum shear stress in the bar and the plane on which it occurs. Answers: (55MPa, 45) 2.18 A cylindrical pressure vessel subjected to internal pressure has an axial stress of 40MPa. Calculate the maximum shear stresses (in the plane of the material) and the inclination to the axis of the planes on which they occur dont forget the hoop stresses. If the vessel is made using a helically wound cylinder with the helix making an angle of 30 to the longitudinal axis, determine the stresses along the seam. Answers: (20MPa, 45, 70MPa, 17.3MPa) 2.19 In a structural member the stresses are found to be x,= 20MPa, y = -35MPa and xy = -28MPa. Determine (a) the shear and normal stresses on a plane making an angle 60 with the x axis (b) the principal stresses and show the planes on which each is acting and (c) the maximum shear stresses and the planes on which these act. Answers: ((a) -9.8MPa, -45.5MPa (b) 31.7MPa @ 22.75 CW, -46.7MPa @ 67.5 CCW (c) -39.24MPa @ 22.25CCW and 112.25CCW) 2.20 A shaft 1.25 inches in diameter transmits 100hp at 1800rpm. Determine the maximum tensile, compressive and shear stresses developed in the shaft (away from end regions). Indicate on a sketch the planes on which each acts. Answers: (9125psi, 9125psi, 9125psi)

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