BIOTECHNOLOGY : PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES Q. What is biotechno o!"# Ans.

The term biotechnology deals with the techniques of using live organisms or enzymes from organisms to produce products and processes useful to humans. MICR !" M"#ICAT"# $R C"%%"% such as curd& bread or wine ma'ing I()* in (itro )ertilization+ leading to test tube baby &synthesizing a gene and using it developing a vaccine or correcting a defective gene are all part of biotechnology. De$inition !i%en b" E&'o(ean )e*e'ation o$ Biotechno o!" +E)B, isThe integration of natural science and organisms& cells& part thereof and molecular analogues for products and services is !iotechnology. Q. What a'e the ('inci( es o$ Biotechno o!"# Ans !iotechnology is based mainly on two core technology

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Genetic En!inee'in!-Techniques to alter the chemistry of genetic maternal ,#-A and R-A. to introduce these into host organisms and thus& change the phenotype of host organism. .Bioche.ica En!inee'in!/$rocesses require the growth of only desired microbes0eu'aryotic cells. Therefore Maintenance of sterile conditions in chemical engineering processes to enable growth of only the desired microbe0eu'aryotic cell in large quantities for the manufacture of biotechnology products li'e antibiotic& vaccines& enzymes etc.

Q. What is the i.itation o$ ase/&a 'e('o*&ction o%e' se/&a 'e('o*&ction# Ans1 %e2ual reproduction produces opportunities for variations and formulations of unique combinations of genetic setup whereas ase2ual reproduction preserves the genetic information. Q. Ho0 !enetic en!inee'in! techni1&es ha%e he (e* in c'oss b'ee*in! ('ocesses in ( ants an* ani.a s# Ans. Traditional hybridization procedures used in plants and animal breeding very often lead to inclusion and multiplication of undesirable genes along with the desirable genes along with the desirable genes and this leads to producing of beneficial as well as harmful organisms. The techniques of genetic engineering which include creations and recombinant #-A & use of gene cloning and gene transfer& overcome this limitation and allow us to isolate and introduce only one or a set of desirable genes without introducing undesirable genes into the target organisms. Q. Wh" a (iece o$ DNA not ab e to .& ti( " itse $ in the ('o!en" ce con*ition the" ha%e to $& $i $o' .& ti( ication# o$ o'!anis.# What

Ans. The piece of #-A most li'ely would not be able to multiply itself in a different cell because it will act as an alien or foreign #-A or body.

!ut& when this alien get integrated into the genome of the recipient it may multiply and be inherited along with the host #-A because now the alien piece of #-A has become a part of chromosome which has the ability to replicate. In a chromosome there is a specific #-A sequence called the origin of replication which is responsible for initiating replication. Therefore for the gene multiplication of any alien piece of #-A in organism it needs to be a part of chromosome which has origin of replication .%o& when alien #-A gets lin'ed with origin of replication can replicate and multiply itself in the host organism. Q. What is 'eco.binant DNA techno o!"# Ans. Recombinant #-A technology is popularly 'nown as genetic engineering. It is a stream of biotechnology which deals with manipulation of genetic material by man in vitro.It includes various methodologies in which the desired genes or #-A sequence of an organism are cut into fragments and then introduced into the host cell with or without the help of carriers or vectors to alter its phenotype to suit human needs. There are 3 basic steps required in geneticically modifying an organism/ A. Identification of #-A with desirable genes. !. Introduction of #-A into the host C. Maintenance of introduced #-A in the host and transfer of the #-A to the progeny. Q. Th'o0 i!ht on the $i'st instance o$ the o$ an a'ti$icia 'eco.binant DNA .o ec& e Ans. 4. %tanley Cohen and 5erbert !oyer in 4678 isolated antibiotic resistant gene from a plasmid with the help of certain restriction enzymes,molecular scissors.. 8. The cut piece of #-A was then lin'ed with the plasmid of salmonella typhimurium with enzyme #-A ligase. P as.i*-autonomously replicating circular e2tra chromosomal #-A. 3. These plasmid #-A act as vectors to transfer the piece of #-A attached to it into the host organism. 9. #-A ligase acts on cut #-A molecule and :oin their ends with plasmid vector. ne ma'es a new combination of circular autonomously replicating #-A created in vitro and is 'nown as recombinant #-A. ;.<hen this #-A is transferred into ".coli bacterium closely related to salmonella& it could replicate using the new host=s #-A polymerase enzyme and ma'e multiple copies. >. The ability to multiply copies of antibiotic resistance gene in ".Coli was called cloning of antibiotic resistance gene in ".coli *Clones of engineered bacteria+. Q. Ho0 0as the 'est'iction en*on&c ease *isco%e'e*#

Ans In 46>3& two enzymes responsible for restricting the growth of bacteriophage in ".coli were isolated. ne of these adds methyl groups to #-A& while other cut #-A. The later was called restriction endonuclease. Q Which is the $i'st 'est'iction en*on&c ease en2".e# Ans. The first restriction endonuclease is 5ind/II It always cut #-A molecule at a particular point by recognizing a specific sequence for 5ind/II. Q Ho0 .an" 'est'iction en2".es a'e 3no0n to*a"# Ans. Today& we 'now more than 6?? restriction enzymes& each of which recognizes different recognition sequences. Q Ho0 these 'est'iction en2".es a'e na.e*# Ans. The first letter of the name of these enzymes comes from the genes and the second two letter come from the species of the pro'aryotic cell from which they were isolated. )or e2. "co RI comes from "scherichia coli R@ 43. In "CoRI the letterARA is derived from the name of the strain. Roman number following the names indicates the order in which the enzymes were isolated from the strain of bacteria. Q Na.e the c ass o$ en2".es to 0hich 'est'iction en2".e be on!s. Ans Restriction enzyme belongs to a larger class of enzymes called nucleases. Q C assi$" n&c eases Ans -ucleases are of two 'inds/

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"2onuclease/ They remove or cleave nucleotides from the ends of #-A. "ndonucleases/ They are highly specific and cuts at specific positions within the #-A.

Q W'ite a note on $&nctionin! o$ 'est'iction en*on&c eases. Ans. "ach restriction endonucleases inspects the length of a #-A sequence. nce it finds it=s specific recognition sequence& it binds to the #-A and cut each of the two strands of the double heli2 at specific points in their sugar/phosphate bac'bones. "ach restriction endonuclease recognizes a specific $alindronic nucleotide sequences in the #-A. The $alindrome in #-A is a sequence of base pairs that reads same on the two strands when orientation of the reading is 'ept the same. )or e2. ne following sequences reads the same on the two strands in ;4/34 direction. ;4/BAATTC/34 34/CTTAAB/;4

Restriction enzymes cut the strand of #-A a little away from the centre of the palindrome site but between the same two bases on the opposite strands. As a result single stranded portion are left at the ends. %ingle stranded free ends can :oin similar complementary ends of #-A fragment from other source with the help of hydrogen bends and therefore are called stic'y ends. The stic'iness of these ends help #-A ligase enzyme in their action. Cses of restriction endonuclease/ Restriction endonucleases are used in genetic engineering to form recombinant #-A molecules. Q Dia!'a..atica " 'e('esents the $o'.ation o$ DNA b" action o$ 'est'iction en*on&c ease en2".e-ECORI. +)i!-44-4, (! 456 Q Gi%e a *ia!'a..atic 'e('esentation o$ 'eco.binant DNA techno o!". O' Ho0 DNA i!ases he ( in 7oinin! the stic3" en*s 0hen t0o DNA $'a!.ents a'e c&t b" sa.e 'est'iction en2".es. Ans. <hen cut by the same restriction enzymes the resultant #-A fragments have same 'ind of stic'y ends and these can be :oined together by #-A ligases.,fig 44.8. pg 467 Q Ho0 DNA $'a!.ents a'e se(a'ate* an* iso ate* $'o. the (a'enta DNA o' $'o. othe' $'a!.ents# Ans. 4. Restriction endonucleases results on fragmentation of #-A. 8. These fragments then can be separated by a technique 'nown as gel electrophoresis. 3. -egatively charged #-A molecules are forced to move towards the anode under the electric field through a medium0 mature of agarose& which is a natural polymer e2tracted from sea weeds 9. The #-A fragments separate according to their size through sieving effect provided by the agarose gel. 5ence& the smaller the fragment size the farther it moves. ;. The separated #-A fragments are then stained with a compound 'nown as ethidium bromide and are then e2posed to C( rays for visualization.. >. range coloured bands appear on agarose cells.

7. The separated bands of #-A are cut down from the agarose gel and e2tracted from it.This step is 'nown as elution. D. The #-A fragments purified in this way are used in constructing recombinant #-A by :oining them with cloning vectors. Q. De$ine-

PLAS8ID- These are small double stranded closed circular #-A molecule that occur naturally in bacteria& outside the bacterial chromosome. They are also 'nown as e2tra

chromosomal #-A. A bacterial cell may possess one or more copies of one or more plasmids. They are inherited from parent bacterial cell to daughter cells and have ability of self/ replication. This circular #-A can be bro'en to yield a linear molecule& which passes from one bacterial cell to another. $lasmid contains rigin of Replication * ri+ or a specific portion of their genome that serves as start signal for self replication. Cnder natural conditions each plasmid replicates to produce 8?/3? copies per cell. This number can be artificially increased. Benes for growth and metabolism ae present in the bacterial chromosome& but some important genes li'e antibiotic resistance genes& genes for production of to2ic substances& for human formation&-8 fi2ation are found on plasmid. $lasmid also contain specific restriction sites where the enzyme restriction endonuclease ma'es a cut so that a foreign #-A segment can be :oined to the plasmid. Through this property plasmids act as cloning vectors during gene transfer in genetic engineering.

BACTERIOPHAGES These are the viruses that infect bacteria by introducing their #-A into the bacterial cells. This in:ected #-A molecule of virus then integrates into the bacterial chromosome and multiply with it as propage. The propage may again dissociate from the bacterial chromosome and assemble a numer of phages which burst out of cell and influence the surrounding cell. Therefore both plasmid and bacteriophages have the ability to replicate within bacterial cells independent of the control of chromosomal #-A. If an alien piece of #-A is lin'ed with plasmid #-A or bacteriophage we can multiply its number equal to the copy number of the plasmid or bacteriophage.

Q. En ist the $eat&'es 0hich a'e 'e1&i'e* to $aci itate c onin! into a %ecto'. Ans. 4. O'i- This is a sequence from which replication starts and any piece of #-A when lin'ed to this sequence can be made to replicate within the host cells. This sequence also controls the copy number of the lin'ed #-A. 8. Se ectab e .a'3e'/ is required by a vector which helps in identifying and eliminating non/ transfermants and selectively permitting the growth of transfermants. -ormally genes encoding resistance to antibiotics such as ampicillin& chloramphenicol & tetracycline or 'anamycin etc are considered as useful selectable mar'er for ".Coli. The normal ".coli cells do not carry resistance against any of these antibiotics. TRA-%) RMATI -/ is a procedure through which a piece of #-A is introduced in a host bacterium. 3. C onin! Sites- In order to lin' the alien #-A the vector needs to have a very few preferably single recognition sites for the commonly use restriction enzymes. The union*ligation+ of alien #-A is carried out at a restriction site present in one of the two antibiotic resistance genes.

"2ample/ <e can ligate a foreign #-A at the !am 5I site of the tetracycline resistance gene in the vector p!R388 E)ig 44.9F As a result& the recombined plasmids will lose tetracycline resistance but can be selected out form the non/recombinant ones by plating the transformants on ampicillin containing medium. The transformants growing on ampicillin containing medium are then transferred on a medium containing tetracycline. The recombinants will grow in ampicillin containing medium but not in tetracycline containing medium. In this case one antibiotic resistance gene helps in selecting the transformants *ampicillin resistance gene+ whereas the other antibiotic resistance gene gets inactivated due to insertion of alien #-A and helps in selection of recombinant. Q. Wh" se ection o$ 'eco.binant is a c&.be'so.e ('ocess# OR Ho0 se ection o$ 'eco.binants is *one#

Ans. %election of recombinants due to inactivation of antibiotic genes or antibiotics is a cumbersome procedure because it requires alternative selectable mar'ers on two different plates having different antibiotics which differentiate recombinants from non/recombinants. #ifferentiation is done on the basis of their ability to produce colour in the presence of chromogenic substrate. <hen a recombinants #-A is inserted within the coding sequence which is 'nown as insertional inactivation. The presence of chronogenic substrate gives blue coloured colonies if the plasmid in the bacteria does not have an insert. $resence of insert results into insertional inactivation of the galactosidase and the colonies do not produce any colour these are idenified as recombinant colonies. Q Wh" %ecto's ('e$e' to ha%e %e'" $e0 'eco!nition sites# Ans As presence of more than one recognition sites within the vector will generate several fragments which will complicate the gene cloning. Therefore vectors prefer to have very few recognition sites. (ectors for cloning genes in plant in plant and animals Cseful vectors are selected for transferring genes of interest into the human eu'aryotic cells. )or e2. 4. Agro bacterium tumefactions is a pathogen of several dicot plants and it deliver a piece of #-A 'nown as T/#-A to transform normal plant cells into a tumor cells to produce the chemicals required by pathogenic bacteria. The tumor inducing plasmids,Ti. plasmids of agro bacterium tumefactions has now been modified into a cloning vector which is no more pathogenic to the plants but is able to deliver genes of our interest into a variety of plants. 8. Retrovirus in animals have the ability to transform normal cells into cancerous cells. Reterovirus have also been modified and are now used to deliver desirable genes into animal cells. Therefore a gene or #-A fragment can be ligated into a suitable vector and can be transferred into

a bacterial plant or animal host where it multiplies. Q. Ho0 can a ce be .a*e to co.(etent to to ta3e &( 'eco.binant DNA# Ans. #-A is a hydrophilic molecule.It cannot pass through the cell membrane & therefore& the recipient cells for e2/ a bacterial cell is first made competent to ta'e up #-A.This is done by following methods/

!ACT"RIAG C"GG *cell wall+ is treated with specific concentration of a divalent cation such as CaH8 which increases their efficiency to ta'e #-A through pores in the cell wall. Recombinant #-A can then be forced into such cells by incubating the cells which recombinant #-A in ice followed by placing them briefly at 98C*heat shoc'+ and then again putting them bac' on ice.This enable the bacteria to ta'e up the recombinant #-A. MICR /I-I"CTI - M"T5 # /Recombinant #-A is directly in:ected into the nucleus of an animal cell . In plants cell are bombarded with high velocity micro particles of gol or tungsten coated with #-A. This is !I GI%TIC% R B"-" BC- M"T5 #. #I%ARM"# $AT5 B"- ("CT R% are used for the entering of recombinant #-A and ma'ing the vector competent. #isarmed pathogen vector are then allowed to infect the cell& recombinant #-A is also transferred into the host.

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Q. What a'e *i$$e'ent too s o$ 'eco.binant DNA techno o!"# Ans. Restriction enzymes& cloning vectors& and competent hosts are different tools of recombinant #-A technology. Q. En ist the ('ocesses o$ 'eco.binant DNA techno o!". Ans It involves several steps/

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Isolation of #-A )ragmentation of #-A by restriction endonucleases Isolation of a desired #-A fragment Gigation of a #-A fragment into a vector Transferring the recombinant #-A into the host Culturing the host cells in a medium at large scale "2traction of the desired product.

Q Ho0 DNA is iso ate* $'o. a ce # Ans. #-A remains enclosed within the membranes along with the other macromolecules such as R-A & protein& lipids&and polysac=s. In order to cut the #-A with restriction enzymes& it needs tobe in

pure form free from other macro molecules. 4.#-A is made free by treating the bacterial cell wid lysozome enzyme& plant cell with enzyme cellulose and tissues with enzyme chitinase. 8.R-A can be removed by treatment with ribonuclease enzyme and proteins interwind with #-A can be removed by protease. 3. ther molecules can be removed by appropriate treatments and purified #-A ultimately precipitates out after the addition of chilled ethanol. Q. Ho0 DNA is $'a!.ente* # Ans. #-A molecule is treated with restriction enzyme at optimal conditions for that specific enzyme and is digested at specific locations. Agarose gel electrophorases is employed to chec' the progression of a restriction enzyme digestion. #-A being a negatively charged molecule moves towards the positive electrode/ anode. The same process is repeated for vector #-A also. Q.Ho0 so&'ce DNA 9DNA 0ith !ene o$ inte'est: is 7oine* to %ecto' DNA# Ans. After cutting the source #-A as well as vector #-A with specific restriction enzyme the cut out gene of transfer from the source of #-A and the cut vector with space& are mi2ed and ligase is added. This results in preparation of recombinant #-A. TE;TBOO< Q=ESTIONS J. Gist 4? recombinant proteins which are used in medical purposeKK.. R"C M!I-A-T $R TI"T5"RA$"CTIC C%"

Insulin #iabetes mellitus #nase I Treatment of cystic fibrosis Tissue plasminogen activator *t/$A+ Acute myocardial infection Antithrombin III $revention of blood clot formation in heart patients LT/3 Reversal of acute 'idney transplantation re:ection Interferon alpha *I-) alpha+ Csed for hepatitis C as vaccine Interferon beta *I-) beta+ Multiple sclerosis Interferon gamma *I-) gamma+ Chronic granulomatons disease )actor (III Treatment of haemophilia A )actor IM Treatment of haemophilia ! Q. Te 0hethe' the en2".e a'e bi!!e' o' DNA is bi!!e' in .o ec& a' si2e.Ho0 *i* "o& 3no0# Ans.#-A molecules are bigger in size as compared to molecular size of enzymes. The enzymes are proteins. $rotein synthesis is regulated by small portions of #-A called genes. Q.Do e&3a'"otic ce ha%e 'est'iction en*on&c ease# Wh"# Ans -o. eu'aryotic cells do not have restriction endonuclease . Their #-A molecules are highly

methylated. Q. Ho0 !enes a'e a.( i$ie* &sin! PCR# OR Ho0 A.( i$ication o$ !ene inte'est ta3es ( ace &sin! PCR# Ans. $CR stands for $olymerase Chain Reaction. In this reaction multiple copies of gene or #-A of interest is synthesized in vitro. $CR can ma'e billions of copies of a #-A segment in few hours when the source of #-A is scanty or impure& it can be amplified by $CR technique. Amplification can ma'e the identification of #-A easier.

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Two sets of primers and the enzyme #-A polymerase is used for $CR. $rimers used are chemically synthesized aligonucleotides that are complimentary to the regions of #-A. #enaturations The #-A molecule with desired genes are denaturated and both strands are separated from each other. Annealing The primers attach themselves at the protein of desired gene in #-A at origin of replication position. "2tension The enzyme #-A polymerase e2tends the primer using the nucleotide provided in the reaction and the genomic #-A as template. -ew strands of #-A*new desired genes+ are formed on both the templates in ;=/3= direction. If the process of replication of #-A is repeated many times he segment of #-A can be amplified to appro2. billion times i.e. 4 billion copies are made. The amplified fragment if desired can be used to ligate with a vector for further cloning.

Q. Which t"(e o$ DNA (o ".e'ase sho& * be &se* *&'in! a.( i$ication ('ocess# Ans Repeated amplification requires the use of thermo stable #-A polymerase *isolated from bacterium& Thermus aquaticus + which remain active during the high temp induced denaturation of double stranded #-A. Q. Ho0 a.(ici in act as a se ectab e .a'3e'# Ans. )irst the recipient cell is made competent to receive #-A present in its surroundings. <hen a recombinant #-A bearing gene for resistance to an antibiotic eg/ ampicilllin is transferred into ".Coli cells& the host cells become transformed into ampicillin resistant cells. <hen the transformed cells are spread on agar plates containing ampicillin& only transformants will grow. Cntransformed recipient cells will die. The ampicillin resistance genes in this case is called selectable mar'ers because due to

ampicillin reistance genes one is able to select a transformed cell in the presence of ampicillin. Q. Ho0 the ('o*&cts ('oteins a'e obtaine* $'o. 'eco.binant DNA>s# Ans.<hen a recombinant #-A is inserted into a bacterial plant or animal cell the alien #-A gets multiplied and e2press itself to produce desirable proteins.The foreign gene gets e2pressed under appropriate conditions.The cells with cloned gene of interest may be grown on a small scale in the laboratory The cultures then may be used for e2tracting the desired protein and then purifying it by using different separation techniques. The cells can also be multiplied in a continous culture system wherein the used medium is drained out from one side while fresh medium is added from the other to maintain the cells in their physiologically most active log= e2ponential phase.This type of culturing method produces a larger biomass leading to higher yields of desired protein. Q What is 'eco.binant ('otein# Ans. If any protein gene is e2pressed in a heterologous host it is called a recombinant protein. Q What is a bio'eacto'# Ans. !ioreactors are vessels which are used to produce an dprocess cultures in large quantities. In bioreactors raw materials are biologically converted into specific products individual enzymes etc. using microbial plant animal or human cell. A bioreactor provides the optimal conditions for achieving the desired product by providing optimum growth conditions li'e opt temp.& p5& substrate& salts& vitamins and o2ygen.The bioreactor has an agitator system& an 8 delivery system& p5 control system and sampling ports. Q W'ite a note on sti''in! tan3 bio'eacto' o' sti''in! t"(e bio'eacto'. Ans. A stirred tan' reactor is usually cylindrical or with a cured base to facilitate the mi2ing of the reactor contents. The stirrer facilitates mi2ing and o2ygen availability throughout the bioreactor but alternatively air can be bubbled through the reactor. The stirring tan' bioreactor has an agitator system & a foam control system& a temp control system p5 control system and sampling parts so that small volumes of the culture can be withdrawn periodically. Q. What is *o0nst'ea. ('ocessin! o$ the ('o*&ct o$ 'eco.binant DNA# OR

What *i$$e'ent ('ocesses a'e in%o %e* in .a3in! a ('o*&ct 'ea*" $o' .a'3etin!# Ans. After completion of biosynthetic stage & the product has to be sub:ected through a series of processes& before it is ready for mar'eting as a finished product. #own streaming processes involve separation and purification. The product is then formulated with suitable preservatives. In case of drugs. %uch formulation has to undergo through clinical trials. %trict quality control testing for each product is also required. The downstream

processing and quality control testing vary from product to product. Q. Besi*es bette' ae'ation an* .i/in! ('o(e'ties 0hat othe' a*%anta!es *o sti''e* tan3 bio'eacto's ha%e o%e' sha3e $ as3s# Ans. %ha'e flas's are used for growing and mi2ing the desired material on a small scale in the laboratory. A large scale production of desired biotechnological product is done by using bioreactors. !esides better aeration and mi2ing properties they have following advantages/

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%mall volumes of culture are periodically withdrawn rom the reactor by sampling. It has a foam control system. It has temp and p5 control system.

Q Co ect ? e/a.( es o$ (a in*'onic DNA se1&ence. Ans. $alindronic nucleotide sequences in the #-A molecule are groups of bases that form the same sequence when read forward and bac'ward. )ive e2 are/ ;=/ BBATCC/3= 3= 3=/CCTABB/;= TCCBBA/;= ;=/AABCTT/3= 3=/TTCBAA/;= ;=/ACBCBT/3= 3=/TBCBCA/;= ;=/ABBCCT/ 3=/

Q. Can "o& 'eca .eiosis an* in*icate at 0hat sta!e a 'eco.binant DNA is .a*e# Ans A recombinant #-A is made in I/meiotic prophase by the process of crossing over. Q. Di$$e'entiate bet0een-

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DNA It is mainly confined to nucleus. A small quantity occurs in mitochondria and chloroplasts. Its quantity is constant in each cell. In contains deo2yribose sugar. Its pyrimidines are adenine and thymine. The amount of adenine is equal to the amount of thymine and the amount of cytosine is equal to the amt of guanine. It consist of 8 polynucleotide chains held together by hydrogen bonds and coiled into a double heli2. %ome viruses have single stranded #-A. Its molecular weight vary from 8 to > millions. It is of two types linear intra/nuclear and circular e2tra/nuclear. It can replicate itself.

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RNA It mainly occurs in cytoplasm. A small quantity is found in nucleus also. Its quantity varies in different cell. It contains ribose sugar. Its pyrimidines are adenine and uracil. Adenine and uracil are not necessarily in equal amounts nor are cytosine and guanine necessarily in equal amounts. It consist of a single polynucleotide chain. It may fold itself and get hydrogen bonded and coiled into a pseudo/heli2.%ome viruses *rheovirus+ have double stranded R-A. Its molecular weight varies from 8;??? to 8 million. It is of 3 types/ mR-A& tR-A& rR-A. "ach type is further of many subtypes.

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It is a component of chromosome. It is a genetic material in all organisms. It does not contain unusual bases. It contains structure metabolism& heredity& differentiation and evolution. A primer is needed for replication. It transfers its info to mR-A *transcription+.

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It cannot replicate itself.It is formed by #-A. %ome R-A viruses *paramy2o virus+ can produce R-A from R-A template. It is a component of ribosomes. It is a genetic material in certain viruses It may contain ususual bases in addition to the normal ones. It brings about protein synthesis.It also starts replication.

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-o primer is needed for transcription. mR-A transfer its info. To polypeptide*translation+. Rna is hydrolysed by enzyme R-Aase.

#-A is hydrolysed by the enzyme #-Aase.