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W.K.

Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 1


Chapter 6
Nonequilibriumexcess carrier
in semiconductor
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 2
Ambipolar transport
Excess electrons and excess holes do not move independently of
each other. They diffuse, drift, and recombine with same effective
diffusion coefficient, drift mobility and lifetime. This phenomenon is
called ambipolar transport.
Two basic transport mechanisms
Drift: movement of charged due to electric fields
Diffusion: the flow of charges due to density gradient
We implicitly assume the thermal equilibrium during the carrier
transport is not substantially disturbed
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 3
Outline
Carrier generation and recombination
Characteristics of excess carrier
Ambipolar transport
Quasi-Fermi energy levels
Excess carrier lifetime
Surface effect
Summary
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 4
6.1 Carrier generation and recombination
Generation
Generation is the process whereby electrons and holes are
created
Recombination
Recombination is the process whereby electrons and holes are
annihilated
Any deviation from thermal equilibrium will tend to change the
electron and hole concentration in a semiconductor.
(thermal exitation, photon pumping, carrier injection)
When the external excitation is removed, the concentrations of
electron and hole in semiconductor will return eventually to their
thermal-equilibrium values
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 5
po no
G G =
po no
R R =
po no po no
R R G G = = =
6.1.1 The semiconductor in equilibrium
Thermal-equilibrium concentrations of electron and hole in
conduction and valence bands are independent of time.
Since the net carrier concentrations are independent of time,
the rate at which the electrons and holes are generated and the
rate at which they recombine must be equal.
For direction band-to-band transition
Direct bandgap semiconductor
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 6
6.1.2 Excess carrier generation and recombination
bandgap) (direct ' '
p n
g g =
p p p
n n n
o
o

+ =
+ =
Excess electrons and excess holes
When external excitation is applied, an electron-hole pair is generated.
The additional electrons and holes are called excess electrons and
excess holes.
Generation rate of excess carriers
For direct band-to-band generation, the excess electrons and holes
are created in pairs
2
i o o
n p n np =
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 7
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 8
Excess carriers recombination rate
In the direct band-to-band recombination, the excess electrons and holes
recombine in pairs, so the recombination rate must be equal
bandgap) (direct
' '
p n
R R =
Using the concept of collision model, we assume the rate of pair
recombination obeys
) ( '
carriers excess of rate ion Recombinat

m equilibriu at holes and electrons of rate ion Recombinat

rium nonequilib under holes and electrons of rate ion Recombinat
2
2
i r o
i r o o r o
r
n np R R R
n p n R
np R
= =
= =
=

W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 9


)] ( ) ( [
) (
2
t p t n n
dt
t dn
i r
=
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (

t p p t p t n n t n
o o
+ = + =
))] ( ) )[( (
))] ( ))( ( ( [
) (
2
t n p n t n
t p p t n n n
dt
t dn
o o r
o o i r


+ + =
+ + =
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 10
no o r
t t p
e n e n t n


/
) 0 ( ) 0 ( ) (

= =
o r
no
p

1
=
Low-level injection
Low-level injection
) ) ( ( )] ( ) ( [
) (

) ( material type - p assume
2
o i r
o o
p t n t p t n n
dt
t dn
n p
<< =
>>
Q
injection) level - (low ) (
) (
t n p
dt
t n d
o r

=
The solution to this equation is an exponential decay from initial excess
carrier concentration
Excess minority lifetime
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 11
The recombination rate of excess carriers
injection) level - (low
) (
) (
) (
'
no
o r
t n
t n p
dt
t n d
R

= + = =
no
p n
t n
R R R

) (
'
' '
= = =
po
p n
t p
R R R

) (
'
' '
= = =
( p-type, low level injection)
( p-type, low level injection)
n-type material, n
o
>>p
o
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 12
6.2.1 Continuity equation
dx
x
x F
x F dx x F
px
px px

+ = +
+
+ +
) (
) ( ) (
dxdydz
p
dxdydz g dydz dx x F x F dxdydz
t
p
pn
p px px

+ + =

+ +
)] ( ) ( [
The net increase in the number of holes in the differential volume per unit time
From the calculus, the Taylor expansion gives
g R
Hole flux generation recombination
Flux in Flux out
dxdydz
p
dxdydz g dxdydz
x
x F
dxdydz
t
p
pn
p
px

+
) (
dA
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 13
s) - (holes/cm
) (
2
pt
p
px
p
g
x
x F
t
p

+
s) - /cm (electrons
) (
2
nt
n
n
p
g
x
x F
t
n

+
Continuity equation for holes
Continuity equation for electrons
:
pt
p

The recombination rate holes including


thermal-equilibrium recombination and
excess recombination
:
pt

The recombination lifetime which


includs thermal-equilibrium carrier
lifetime and excess carrier lifetime
g R
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 14
6.2.2 Time-dependent diffusion equation
x
n
eD n e J
x
p
eD p e J
n n n p p p

+ =

= E , E
x
n
D n F
e
J
x
p
D p F
e
J
n n n
n
p p p
p

= =

= =
+
+
E
) (
, E
) (

pt
p
px
p
g
x
x F
t
p

+
) (
nt
n
n
p
g
x
x F
t
n

+
) (
dx
x
x F
x F dx x F
px
px px

+ = +
+
+ +
) (
) ( ) (
The current density in material is
By dividing current density the charge of each individual particle, we obtain
particle flux
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 15
nt
n n n
pt
p p p
n
g
x
n
D
x
n
t
n
p
g
x
p
D
x
p
t
p

+ =

2
2
2
2
E) (
E) (
Thus the continuity equations can be rewritten as
x
n
x
n
x
n
x
p
x
p
x
p

E
E
E) (
and
E
E
E) (
Q
t
n n
g
x
n
x
n
x
n
D
t
p p
g
x
p
x
p
x
p
D
nt
n n n
pt
p p p

= +

= +

E
E
E
E
2
2
2
2
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 16
t
n n
g
x
n
x
n
x
n
D
t
p p
g
x
p
x
p
x
p
D
nt
n n n
pt
p p p

= +

= +

) ( E ) (
E
) (
) ( E ) (
E
) (
2
2
2
2

The thermal equilibrium concentrations, n


o
and p
o
, are not function of time.
For homogeneous semiconductor, n
o
and p
o
are also independent of space
coordinates
) (
) (
t p p p
t n n n
o
o

+ =
+ =
Homogeneous
semiconductor
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 17
6.3 Ambipolar transport
app int
E E <<
Ambipolar transport
When excess carriers are generated, under external applied field the excess
holes and electrons will tend to drift in opposite directions
However, because the electrons and holes are charged particles, any separation
will induce an internal field between two sets of particles, creating a force
attracting the electrons and holes back toward each other
Only a relatively small internal electric field is sufficient to keep the excess
electrons and holes drifting and diffusing together
The excess electrons and holes do not move independently of each other, but
they diffuse and drift together, with the same effective diffusion coefficient and
with the same effective mobility. This phenomenon is called ambipolar transport.
app int app
E E E E =
0
E ) (
E
int
int

=
t
n p e
s


W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 18
t
n
R g
x
n
x
n
x
n
D
t
n
R g
x
p
x
n
x
n
D
n n
p p

= +

= +

) ( E ) (
E
) (
) ( E ) (
E
) (
2
2
2
2

=
= = = =
=
p n
R
p
R
n
R
g g g
pt
p
nt
n
p n


For ambipolar transport, the excess electrons and excess holes generate
and recombine together
pt nt

t
n n
g
x
n
x
n
x
n
D
t
p p
g
x
p
x
p
x
p
D
nt
n n n
pt
p p p

= +

= +

) ( E ) (
E
) (
) ( E ) (
E
) (
2
2
2
2

p p p
n n n
o
o

+ =
+ =
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 19
t
n
p n
R g p n
x
n
n p
x
n
pD nD
p n
p n n p n p p n

+ =
+ +

+
) (
) (
) )( (
) (
E ) )( (
) (
) (
2
2


t
n
R g
x
n
x
n
D

= +

) (
) (
) (
E '
) (
'
2
2

) (
'
p n
pD nD
D
p n
n p p n


+
+
=
) (
) )( (
'
p n
n p
p n
n p

+

=
= =
kT
e
D D
p
p
n
n

Q
p D n D
p n D D
D
p n
p n
+
+
=
) (
'
(ambipolar diffusion coefficient)
(ambipolar mobilty)
ambipolar transport
equation
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 20
t
n n
g
x
n
x
n
x
n
D
nt
n n n

= +

) ( E ) (
E
) (
2
2

t
n
R g
x
n
x
n
D

= +

) (
) (
) (
E '
) (
'
2
2

ambipolar transport
equation
continuity equation
for electrons
t
p p
g
x
p
x
p
x
p
D
pt
p p p

= +

) ( E ) (
E
) (
2
2

continuity equation
for holes
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 21
6.3.2 Ambipolar transport under low injection
p
o n
o p n
o p o n
o o p n
D
n D
n D D
p p D n n D
p p n n D D
D =
+ + +
+ + +
=
) ( ) (
)] ( ) [(
'


injection) (low
type n For
o
o
n p n
p n
o
<< =
>>

t
p
R g
x
p
x
p
D

= +

) (
) (
) (
E '
) (
'
2
2

) (
) )( (
'
p n
n p
p n
n p

+

=
p D n D
p n D D
D
p n
p n
+
+
=
) (
'
p
n
n p
p n
n p
n
n
p n
n p

+

=
) (
) )( (
] [
) )[ (
'
Ambipolar transport
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 22
) ( ) (
' '
p po p po p p
R R g G R g R g + + = =
po po
R G = Q
p
p p p
p
g R g R g

= =
' ' '
excess hole
generation rate
Thermal-equilibrium
hole generation rate
Thermal-equilibrium hole
recombination rate
excess hole
recombination rate
For n-type,
Under low injection, the concentration of majority carriers electrons will be
essentially constant. Then the probability per unit time of a minority carrier
hole encountering a majority carrier electron will remain almost a constant
p pt
= Q
(minority carrier hole lifetime)
So the net generation rate,
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 23
t
p p
g
x
p
x
p
D
po
p p

= +

) (
'
) (
E
) (
2
2

n-type, homogeneous and low-


injection ambipolar transport
t
p
R g
x
p
x
p
D

= +

) (
) (
) (
E '
) (
'
2
2

p
D D = '
p
= '
p
p p p
p
g R g R g

= =
' ' '
For ambipolar transport , the transport and recombination parameters are
governed by minority carriers
The excess majority carriers diffuse and drift with the excess minority
carriers; thus the behavior of the excess majority carriers is determined by
the minority carrier parameters
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 24
injection) (low
type p For
o
o
p n p
n p
o
<< =
>>

For p-type semiconductor
t
n
R g
x
n
x
n
D

= +

) (
) (
) (
E '
) (
'
2
2

) (
) )( (
'
p n
n p
p n
n p

+

=
p D n D
p n D D
D
p n
p n
+
+
=
) (
'
p-type, homogeneous
ambipolar transport
n
o p
o p n
o p o n
o o p n
D
p D
p D D
p p D n n D
p p n n D D
D =
+ + +
+ + +
=
) ( ) (
)] ( ) [(
'


n
p
n p
p n
n p
p
p
p n
n p




=
+

=
) (
) )( (
] [
) )[ (
'
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 25
) ( ) (
' '
n no n no n n
R R g G R g R g + + = =
no no
R G = Q
n
n n n
n
g R g R g

= =
' ' '
excess electron
generation rate
Thermal-equilibrium
electron generation rate
Thermal-equilibrium hole
recombination rate
excess hole
recombination rate
For p-type,
Under low injection, the concentration of majority carriers holes will be
essentially constant. Then the probability per unit time of a minority carrier
electron encountering a majority carrier hole will remain almost a constant
n nt
= Q
(minority carrier electron lifetime)
So the net generation rate,
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 26
n
n
D D
=
=
'
'
t
n
R g
x
n
x
n
D

= +

) (
) (
) (
E '
) (
'
2
2

t
n n
g
x
n
x
n
D
no
n n

= +

) ( ) (
E
) (
'
2
2

p-type, homogeneous and low-


injection ambipolar transport
n
n n n
n
g R g R g

= =
' ' '
For ambipolar transport , the transport and recombination parameters are
governed by minority carriers
The excess majority carriers diffuse and drift with the excess minority
carriers; thus the behavior of the excess majority carriers is determined by
the minority carrier parameters
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 27
6.3.3 Applications of the ambipolar transport
equation
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 28
Example 6.1
time of function a as ion concentrat carrier excess the Calculate
0 for 0 g'
carriers excess of ion concentrat uniform 0, At
condition injection - low under
field electrical applied zero
tor semiconduc type - n Homogenous

> =
=
t
t
Solution:
t
p p
x
p
D
po
p

) ( ) (
2
2


Uniform excess carriers
t
p p
g
x
p
x
p
D
po
p p

= +

) (
'
) (
E
) (
2
2

E=0 g=0
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 29
po
p
t
p

) (
po
t
e p t p


/
) 0 ( ) (

=
po
t
e n t n


/
) 0 ( ) (

=
From the charge neutrality condition, the excess majority electron
concentration is given by
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 30
Example 6.2
time of function a as ion concentrat carrier excess the Calculate
carriers excess of generation uniform 0, At
condition injection - low under
field electrical applied zero
tor semiconduc type - n Homogenous

> t
t
p p
g
x
p
x
p
D
po
p p

= +

) (
'
) (
E
) (
2
2

Solution:
0 '
) (

) (
' = +

= g
p
t
p
t
p p
g
po po

Uniform generation
) 1 ( ' ) (
/
po
t
po
e g t p



=
' ) ( , 0
) (
state, steady At
g t p
t
t p
po

= = =

W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 31


Example 6.3
of function a as ion concentrat carrier excess state steady the Calculate
directions and bith the in diffuse then
condition
injection - low under only, 0 at generated being are carriers excess the
field electrical applied zero
tor semiconduc type - p Homogenous
x
x x
x

+
=
Solution:
t
n n
g
x
n
x
n
D
no
n n

= +

) ( ) (
E
) (
'
2
2

E=0 Steady state


W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 32

=
=

+ =
+


0 ) 0 ( ) (
0 ) 0 ( ) (

) (
/
/
/ /
x e n x n
x e n x n
Be Ae x n
Ln x
Ln x
Ln x Ln x

0
) (
0 At
0
) (
0, At
2
2
'
2
2
=

= +

=
no
n
no
n
n
x
n
D x
n
g
x
n
D x




0
) (
2
2
=

no n
D
n
x
n


no n n
D L =
2
Minority carrier diffusion length
The general solution
p-type
log scale
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 33
Example 6.4
t x
t g'
x
t
x i
and of function a as ion concentrat carrier excess the Calculate
0 for 0
0 and
0 at ously instantane generated is pairs hole - electron of numbers finite
direction - n the E field electrical applied constant
tor semiconduc type - n Homogenous
o

> =
=
=
Solution:
t
p p
g
x
p
x
p
D
po
p p

= +

) (
'
) (
E
) (
2
2

W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 34


t
p p
x
p
x
p
D
po
p p

) ( ) (
E
) (
o
2
2

po
t
e t x p t x p

/
) , ( ' ) , (

=
t
t x p
x
t x p
x
t x p
D
p p

) , ( ' ) , ( '
E
) , ( '
o
2
2


=
t D
t x
t D
t x p
p
p
p
4
) E (
exp
4
1
) , ( '
2
o


= =

t D
t x
t D
e
e t x p t x p
p
p
p
t
t
po
po
4
) E (
exp
4
) , ( ' ) , (
2
o
/
/

W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 35


Zero applied field constant applied field
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 36
6.3.4 Dielectric relaxation time constant
How is the charge neutrality achieved and how fast ?
In previous analysis, we have assume a quasi-neutrality condition exists-that is,
the concentration of excess holes is balanced by an equal concentration of
excess electrons
Suppose that we have a situation in which a uniform concentration of p is
suddenly injected into a portion of the surface of a semiconductor. We will have
instantly have a concentration of excess holes and a net positive charge density
p that is not balance by a concentration of excess electrons. How is the charge
neutrality achieved and how fast ?
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 37

= E
t
J

=

E = J
Poissons equation
Continuity equation
(neglecting the effects of
generation and recombination)
t t
J

= =

E) (
0 = +


t
d
t
e t


/
) 0 ( ) (

=

=
d
Dielectric relaxation time constant
p e ) (+ =
( the time constant is related
to dielectric constant)
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 38
Example 6.5 Dielectric relaxation time constant
constant time relaxation dielectric the Calculate
cm 10
tor semiconduc type - n Homogenous
3 16

=

d
N
Solution:
ps 0.539
) 10 )( 1200 )( 10 6 . 1 (
) 10 85 . 8 )( 7 . 11 (
16 19
14
=


= = =

d n
o r
d
N e

In approximately four time constants (2 ps), the net charge density is


essentially zero
The relaxation process occur very quickly (
d
0.5 ps) compared to the
normal excess carrier lifetime ( =0.1 s).
That is the reason why the continuity equation in calculating relaxation time
does not contain any generation or recombination terms.
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 39
6.3.5 Haynes-Shockley experiment
Zero applied field
constant applied field


= =

t D
t x
t D
e
e t x p t x p
p
p
p
t
t
po
po
4
) E (
exp
4
) , ( ' ) , (
2
o
/
/

The Haynes-Shockley experiment was one of the first experiment to actually


measure excess-carrier behavior, which can determine
The minority carrier lifetime
The minority carrier diffusion coefficient
The minority carrier lifetime
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 40
Haynes-Shockley experiment
Excess-carrier pulse are
effectively injected at contact A
Contact B is rectifying contact
and is under reverse bias (do not
perturb the electric field)
A fraction of excess carriers will
be collected by contact B
The collect carriers will generate
an output voltage V
o
when flow
through output resistance R
2
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 41
The idealized excess minority
carrier (hole) pulse is injected at
contact A at time t=0
The excess carriers (holes) will
drift along the semiconductor
producing an output voltage as a
function of time
The peak of pulse will arrive at
contact B at time t
o
During the time period, the occurs
diffusion and recombination
0 0 = = t E x t x
o p p

o o
p
t
d
E
=
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 42
At t=t
o
, the peak of pulse reaches
contact B. where times t
1
andt
2
,
the magnitude of the excess
concentration is e
-1
If the time difference between t
1
andt
2
, is not too large, the
prefactor do not change
appreciably during this time


= =

t D
t x
t D
e
e t x p t x p
p
p
p
t
t
po
po
4
) E (
exp
4
) , ( ' ) , (
2
o
/
/

2 1
2
o
or , 4 ) E ( t t t t D t x
p p
= =
1 2
2 2
o
,
16
) ( ) E (
t t t
t
t
D
o
p
p
=

=

From the broadened pulse width, we can obtain diffusion coefficient
diffusion coefficient
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 43

=
po o p po
o p
po
o
d
K
d
K
t
K S

E
exp
) E /(
exp ) exp(


= =

t D
t x
t D
e
e t x p t x p
p
p
p
t
t
po
po
4
) E (
exp
4
) , ( ' ) , (
2
o
/
/

The area S undrer the curve is proportional to the number of excess holes
that have not recombined with majority carrier electrons
By varying the electric field, the area under the curve will change
A plot of ln(S) as a function of (d/
p
E
o
) will yield a straight line whose slope
is (1/
po
)
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 44


+ =
o p po
d
K S
E
1
) ln( ) ln(

) ln(S
o p
E
d
y =
po

1
We can determine the minority carrier lifetime
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 45
6.4 Quasi-Fermi energy levels
At thermal equilibrium,
the electron and hole concentrations are functions of the Fermi-level.
The Fermi level remains constant throughout the entire material
The carrier concentrations is exponentially determined by the Fermi-level
2
exp exp
i o o
f f
i o
fi f
i o
n p n
kT
E E
n p
kT
E E
n n
i
=


=
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 46
At non-thermal equilibrium
If excess carriers are created, thermal equilibrium no longer exists and Fermi
energy is strictly no longer defined
We may define quasi-Fermi levels for electrons and holes to relate the
concentrations for non-equilibrium semiconductor in the same form of equation
as that in thermal equilibrium
In such a way, the quasi-Fermi levels for electrons and holes specified for non-
thermal equilibrium conditions do not hold constants over the entire material
2
exp
exp
i
fp f
i o o
fi fn
i o
n np
kT
E E
n p p p
kT
E E
n n n n
i


= + =


= + =

W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 47


Example 6.6 Quasi-Fermi level
energy Fermi - quasi the Calculate
cm 10 p n rium, nonequilib In
cm 10 and cm 10 , cm 10
K 300 T at tor semiconduc type - n Homogenous
3 13
3 5 3 10 3 15

= =
= = =
=



o i o
p n n
Solution:
eV 2982 . 0 ) ln( exp = =


=
i
o
fi f
fi f
i o
n
n
kT E E
kT
E E
n n
eV 179 . 0 ) ln( exp
eV 2984 . 0 ) ln( exp
=
+
=


= + =
=
+
=


= + =
i
o
fp fi
fp f
i o o
i
o
fi fn
fi fn
i o
n
p p
kT E E
kT
E E
n p p p
n
n n
kT E E
kT
E E
n n n n
i

W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 48


At non-thermal equilibrium
Since the majority carrier electron concentration does not change significantly for
low-injection condition, the quasi-Fermi level for electrons here is not much
different from the thermal-equilibrium Fermi level.
The quasi-Fermi level for minority carrier holes is significantly the Fermi level
and illustrate the fact that we have deviate from the thermal equilibrium
significantly
3 13 3 5
3 15 3 15
cm 10 cm 10
cm 10 01 . 1 cm 10 0 . 1 :


=

o
p
n
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 49
6.5 Excess-carrier lifetime
In a perfect semiconductor
The electronic energy states do not exist within the forbidden bandgap
In a real semiconductor
Defects (traps) occur within the crystal, creating discrete electronic energy states
or impurity energy bands within the forbidden-energy band
These defect energy states may be the dominant effect in determining the mean
carrier lifetime in the real semiconductor
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 50
6.5.1 Shockley-Read-Hall theory of recombination
Recombination center
A trap within the forbidden bandgap may act as a recombination center,
capturing both electrons and holes with almost equal probability.
Shockley-Read-Hall theory
Assume a single recombination center exists at an energyE
t
within the
bandgap.
If the trap is an acceptor-like trap; that is , it is negatively charged when it
contains an electron and is neutral when it does not contain an electron.
negatively charged
electron
Neutral empty state
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 51
Shockley-Read-Hall theory
There are four basic processes in SRH theory
Process 1: The capture of an electron from the CB by a neutral empty trap
Process 2 The emission of an electron back into the CB
Process 3 The capture of a hole from the VB by a trap containing an electron
Process 4 The emission of a hole from a neutral trap into the VB
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 52
Process 1: electron capture
n E f N C R
t F t n cn
= ))] ( 1 ( [ Electron capture rate


+
=
kT
E E
E f
f t
t F
exp 1
1
) (
Process 2: electron emission
)] ( [
t F t n en
E f N E R =
(at thermal equilibrium)
en cn
R R =
)] ( [ ))] ( 1 ( [
t Fo t n t Fo t n
E f N E n E f N C =
Is there relationship between capture constant and emission constant?
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 53
n
t c
c n
n
fo c
c
fo t
n
n
t Fo
n n
t Fo
t Fo
n
C
kT
E E
N E
E
kT
E E
N
kT
E E
C
E n
E f
C E
E f
n E f
C


=
=


+
= =

exp
exp ) 1 exp 1 (
) 1
) (
1
(
) (
)) ( 1 (
n n
C n E ' =


=
kT
E E
n
kT
E E
N n
i t
i
t c
c
exp exp '
The relation between emission constant and capture constant is valid at all
conditions including when Fermi level is right located at trap energy, in
which the trap is the dominant process to provide the free electrons in the
conduction band
The electron emission rate is increased exponentially as the trap energy
level closes to the conduction band
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 54
p E f N C R
t F t p cp
= )) ( (


+
=
kT
E E
E f
f t
t F
exp 1
1
) (
))] ( 1 ( [
t F t p ep
E f N E R =
Process 3: hole capture rate
Process 4: hole emission rate
ep cp
R R =


+ =

=
=
kT
E E
N C E
kT
E E
E
kT
E E
E
kT
E E
N C
E f
E p C
E f N E p E f N C
t
p p
f t
p
f t
p
f
p
t F
p p
t F t p t F t p

exp
exp ) 1 exp 1 ( exp
) 1
) (
1
(
))] ( 1 ( [ )) ( (
(at thermal equilibrium)
' p C E
p p
=


=
kT
E E
n
kT
E E
N p
t i
i
t
exp exp '

W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 55


Capture constants
The electron capture constant comes from a electron with velocity
th
must come
within a cross-sectional area
cn
of a trap to be captured and thus sweep out an
effective trap volume per second. The same is for hole capture constant.
The capture constants for electrons and holes proportion to respective cross-
sectional area
Emission constants
The electron emission rate from a trap is the product of electron capture rate and
free carrier concentration when E
f
=E
t
.
The electron emission rate is increased exponentially as the trap energy level
closes to the conduction band
The hole emission rate is increased exponentially as the trap energy level closes
to the valence band
' p C E
p p
=
n n
C n E ' =
cn th n
C =
cp th p
C =


=
kT
E E
N n
t c
c
exp '


=
kT
E E
N p
t

exp '
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 56
n E f N C R
t F t n cn
= ))] ( 1 ( [
)] ( [
t F t n en
E f N E R =
p E f N C R
t F t p cp
= )) ( (
))] ( 1 ( [
t F t p ep
E f N E R =
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 57
Under non-equilibrium condition
)] ( ' )) ( 1 ( [
)] ( [ ))] ( 1 ( [
t F t F t n n
t F t n t F t n n
en cn n
E f n E f n N C R
E f N E n E f N C R
R R R
=
=
=
Net electron capture rate at acceptor trap
)] ( ' )) ( 1 ( [
t F t F t n n
E f n E f n N C R =
))] ( 1 ( ' )) ( [
t F t F t p p
E f p E pf N C R =


=
kT
E E
N n
t c
c
exp '


=
kT
E E
N p
t

exp '
) ' ( ) ' (
'
) (
p p C n n C
p C n C
E f
p n
p n
t F
+ + +
+
=
Net hole capture rate at acceptor trap (Process 3 & 4)
At steady state,
p n
R R =
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 58
We may note that


=
kT
E E
N N
kT
E E
N
kT
E E
N p n
c
c
t t c
c

exp exp exp ' '


2
' '
i
n p n =
R
p p C n n C
n np N C C
R R
p n
i t p n
p n

+ + +

= =
) ' ( ) ' (
) (
2
For SRH-dominated recombination process, the recombination rate of
excess carriers is
) ' ( ) ' (
) (
2
p p C n n C
n np N C C
n
R
p n
i t p n
+ + +

= =

n
R
p
R
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 59
SRH under low injection
trap) (deep ' , '
injection) (low
type) - (n
p n n n
p n
p n
o o
o
o o
>> >>
>>
>>

Case 1: n-type semiconductor with deep trap energy at low injection


p N C
n C
p n N C C
p p C n n C
n np N C C
n
R
t p
n
t p n
p n
i t p n

=
+ + +

= =
) ' ( ) ' (
) (
2
p N C
n
R
t p

= =
For n-type semiconductor with deep trap energy at low injection, the net
recombination rate is limited by the hole capture process during SRH
recombination
) 3 ( kT E E
t f
>
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 60
For n-type semiconductor with deep trap energy at low injection, the net
recombination rate is limited by the hole capture process during SRH
recombination
The recombination is related to the mean minority carrier lifetime
n
R
p
R
f
E
t
E
po
t p
p
p N C
n
R

= = =
t p
po
N C
1
=
If the trap concentration increases, the probability of excess carrier
recombination increases; thus the excess minority carrier lifetime decreases
n-type
low injection
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 61
Case 2: p-type semiconductor with deep trap energy at low injection
trap) (deep ' , '
injection) (low
type) - (p
n p p p
n p
n p
o o
o
o o
>> >>
>>
>>

t n
no
N C
1
=
n
R
p
R
f
E
t
E
+
no
t n
n
n N C
p
R

= = =
p-type
low injection
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 62
) ' ( ) ' (
) (
2
p p C n n C
n np N C C
n
R
p n
i t p n
+ + +

= =

) ' ( ) ' (
) (
2
p p n n
n np n
R
no po
i
+ + +

= =

SRH recombination process


Case 3: n/p-type semiconductor with deep trap energy
General SRH
recombination rate
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 63
Example 6.7 Intrinsic semiconductor
Solution:
) ' ( ) ' (
) (
2
p p n n
n np n
R
no po
i
+ + +

= =

) )( 2 (
) ( 2
) ( ) (
) ) ( ) (
2 2
no po i
i
i i no i i po
i i i
n n
n n n
n n n n n n
n n n n n
R




+ +
+
=
+ + + + +
+ +
=
injection low under
' '
level energy intrinsic to equal energy a at located is trap deep Assume
, ,
i
o o i o o
n p n
p p p n n n n p n
= =
+ = + = = =


n n
R
no po
=
+
=
) (
Under low injection
i
n n <<
The excess-carrier lifetime increases as we change from an extrinsic to an
intrinsic semiconductor
no po
+ =
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 64
6.6 Surface effects
Surface states
At the surface, the semiconductor is abruptly terminated. This disruption of
periodic potential function results in allowed electronic energy states within the
energy bandgap, which is called surface states
Since the density of traps at the surface is larger than the bulk, the excess
minority carrier lifetime at the surface will be smaller than the corresponding
lifetime in the bulk material
For n-type material
bulk) (in the
po
B
po
B
p p
R

= =
surface) (at the
pos
s
s
p
R

=
po pos
<<
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 65
Assume excess carriers are uniformly generated throughout the entire
semiconductor material
At steady state, the generation rate is equal to recombination rate at a
given position either in the bulk or at the surface
surface) (at the
bulk) (in the
pos
s
s
po
B
B
p
R G
p
R G

= =
= =

B s po pos
p p < <
pumping) (uniform
s B
R R G = =
For the case of uniform pumping
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 66
Example 6.8 Surface recombination
Solution:
on distributi ion concentrat carrier - excess state Steady
pumping uniform and 0 E Assume
/s cm 10 s 10 , s 10 , cm 10 tor semiconduc type - n
2 7
0
6 -3 14

=
= = = =

p s p po pB
D
1 - 13
6
7
14
cm 10
) 10 (
) 10 (
) 10 ( ) (
) 0 ( surface at ion concentrat carrier - Excess
= = = = =
=

po
pos
B s
pos
s
po
B
p p
p p
G
x

Q
pumping) (uniform 0 '
) (

0) E (at equation ansport Carrier tr
2
2
= +
=
po
p
p
g
dt
p d
D


1 - 3 - 20
6
14
s - cm 10
10
10
' where = = =

po
B
p
g

W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 67


p p
L x L x
po
Be Ae g x p
/ /
' ) (

+ + =
pumping) (uniform ' ) (
/
p
L x
po
Be g x p

+ =
13 3 14 3 14
3 14
10 9 cm 10 cm 10 ) 0 (
cm 10 ' ) (
: B.C.
= = + = =
= = = +

B B p p
g p p
s
po B


) 0.9 - (1 10 ) (
/
14 p
L x
s
e p x p

= =
m 31.6 cm 316 00 . 0 ) (10)(10 where
-6
= = = =
po p p
D L
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 68
6.6.2 Surface recombination velocity
A gradient in the excess-carrier concentration existing near the surface leads
to a diffusion of excess carriers from the bulk region toward the surface
where they recombine.
) ) 0 ( ( ) 0 (
) (
Flux
o
surface
p
p p s p s
dx
p d
D = =

Surface recombination rate


W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 69
For the case of uniform pumping
p
L x
po
Be g x p
/
' ) (

+ =
0 '
) (

0) E (at equation ansport Carrier tr
2
2
= +
=
po
p
p
g
dt
p d
D


)
'
1 ( ' ) (
/
p
L x
p p
po p
po
e
sL D
L sg
g x p

+
=


s L D
sg
B
L
B
dx
p d
dx
p d
B g p
p p
po
p x surface
po
+

=
= =
+ =
=
) / (
'
) ( ) (
' ) 0 (
0


Q
Uniform pumping
E=0
Steady state
Uniform pumping
E=0
Steady state
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 70
x
) (x p
0 = s
Surface recombination velocity is sensitive to the surface conditions
For sand-blasted surfaces, the typical values of s may be as high as 10
5
cm/s
For clean etched surfaces, this value may be as low as 10 to 100 cm/s states
pumping) (uniform cm/s 1
) 0 (
'

=
p
g
L
D
s
po
p
p


0 if ' ) ( = = s g x p
po

W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 71
Example 6.10 Surface recombination velocity
Solution:
ty ion veloci recombinat surface the Determine
m 10 (0) and m 6 . 1 3 /s, cm 10 , cm 10
s 10 , s 10 , cm 10 tor semiconduc type - n
oumping) (uniform 6.8 Example in case For the
3 - 13 2 3 14
7
0
6 3 - 14

= = = =
= = =


c p L D g'
p p po
s p po pB


cm/s 1
) 0 (
'

=
p
g
L
D
s
po
p
p


cm/s 10 85 . 2 1
10
10
10 6 . 31
10
4
13
14
4
=

=

s
pumping uniform
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 72
Short briefs for surface recombination
bulk) (in the
po
B
po
B
p p
R

= =
surface) (at the
pos
s
s
p
R

=
) ) 0 ( ( ) 0 (
) (
Flux
o
surface
p
p p s p s
dx
p d
D = =

W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 73


W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 74
Fi gur e 6.19 Fi gur e f or pr obl ems 6.18 and 6.20
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 75
Fi gur e 6.20 Fi gur e f or Pr obl em 6.25
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 76
Fi gur e 6.21 Fi gur e f or Pr obl em 6.38
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 77
Fi gur e 6.22 Fi gur e f or Pr obl em 6.39
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 78
Fi gur e 6.23 Fi gur e f or Pr obl em 6.40
W.K. Chen Electrophysics, NCTU 79
Fi gur e 6.24 Fi gur e f or Pr obl em 6.41

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