1.Lexicology Lexicology is a branch of linguistics, the science of language.

The term Lexi c o l o g y is composed of two Greek morphemes: lexis meaning word, phrase and logos which denotes learning, a department of knowledge.The literal meaning of the term L e x i o l g is the science of the word. Phonetics, for instance, investigating the phonetic structure of language,its system of phonemes and intonation patterns, is concerned with the study of the outer sound form of the word. Grammar, is the study of the grammatical structure of language. It is concerned with the various means of expressing grammatical relations between words and with the patterns after which words are combined into word-groups and sentences. Lexicology is concerned with words, variable word-groups, phraseological units, and with morphemes which make up words. 2.Approches to the difinition of meaning Referential approach to meaning Word Meaning is the subject or referent we refer to in our speech.Word meaning is the concept we refer to.Word meaning is the relation between the subject and the concept and the sound form.Pragmatic approach to meaning-The process of communication proves that there is meaning in the mind of the speaker and in the mind of the listener as well as it belongs to the linguistic sign. Speakers meaning --- intention Listeners meaning ---expectation; Texts meaning Meaning of speech acts.Functional approch Word Meaning is its function in the sentence,for example,a glass of water N+prep+NWater the flowers! V+N meaning is different because distributional formulas are different Functional approach is linguistic , contextual and concrete.Referential approach is philosophical, logical, and abstract.Pragmatic approach is situation dependent, speaker and listener oriented. 3.Types of meaning Grammatical meaning is defined as the expression in Speech of relationships between words. The grammatical meaning is more abstract and more generalised than the lexical meaning. It is recurrent in identical sets of individual forms of different words as the meaning of plurality in the following words students, boob, windows, compositions. Lexical meaning is the realisation of concept or emotion by means of a definite language system. Denotation. The conceptual content of a word is expressed in its denotative meaning. To denote is to serve as a linguistic expression for a concept or as a name for an individual object. It is the denotational meaning that makes communication possible. Connotation is the pragmatic communicative value the word receives depending on where, when, how, by whom, for what purpose and in what contexts it may be used. There are four main types of connotations stylistic, emotional, evaluative and expressive or intensifying. 4.Word meaning and motivation. Phonetic Motivation- direct connection between the sounds of the word and its meaning.(a bird chirps) Morphological motivation- Close connection between the morphological structure and the meaning of the word ex-president, re-think, over-act, out-cry Semantic motivation Coexistence of direct and figurative meanings a mouse in a house and in a computer ,a window in a house and in a computer. Contextual motivation- Say when! God bless you! Take care! Cross-linguistic motivation- Comparison of words in different languages. To accept, to refuse, democracy, metaphor, music.

5.Causes,nature and result of semantic change. Word-meaning is liable to change in the course of historical development of the language.Semantic change we see to clarify the process of the change.Causes of semantic change: extra-ling.are:historical, social, psychological. The factors accounting for semantic changes may be subdivided into two groups:extra-linguistic ang linguistic causes.By extra linguistic causes we mean various changes in the life of the speech community,changes in economic and social structure ,changes in ideas,scientific concepts,way of life and other of human activities as reflected in word meanings.Some changes of meaning are due to what way be described as purely linguistic causes factors acting within the language system.The verb to starve in Old E. had the meaning to die .Another linguistic cause is discrimination of synonyms which can be illustrated by the semantic development of a number of words. Nature of semantic change. Generally speaking ,a necessary condition of any semantic change.There are two kind of association.Envolved as a rule in various semantic changes namely a) similarity of meanings and b)contiguity of meaning.Similarity of m.or metathor may be described as a semantic process of associating two referents,one of which in same way resembles the other.E.g. The words black and white,have metaphoric meanings in additional to the literal denotation of colours.Contiguity of meaning or metonymy may be described as the part of the other or is closely connected with it.This can be perhaps best illustrated by the use of the word tongue-the organ of speech in the meaning of language. Results of semantic change can be generaly observed in the changes of the denotational component. Change in the denotational meaning may be result in the restriction of the types or range of referents denoted by the word. Specialization of the meaming :For example we can observe restriction and specialization of meaning in the case of the verb to glide which had the meaning to move gently and smoothly and has now acquired a restricted and specialized meaning to fly with no engine Change in the denotational m.Extension of meaning and generalization of meaning.Ther are other cases,however, when the changes is the connotational meaning come to the fore. These changes as a rule accompanied by a change in the denotational component ,may be subdivided into two main groups: pejorative and ameliorative causes,nature and result of semantic changes should regarded three essentially different but closely connected aspects of the same linguistic phenomena.Causes: linguistics vs extra-lingustic phenomenon; nature:metaphor vs metonymy; results: widening vs narrowing/ amelioration-pejoration 6.Meaning and polysemy1.Polysemy is the ability of a word to possess several meanings or lexicosemantic variants (LSV), e.g. bright means shining and intelligent. Monosemantic word - a word having only one meaning;Polysemantic word - a word having several meanings . Prof. V.V. Vinogradov- Meanings are fixed and common to all people, who know the language system. The usage is only possible application of one of the meanings of a polysemantic word, sometimes very individual, more or less familiar. Meaning is not identical with usage. 2. DIACHRONIC APPROACH TO POLYSEMY: Polysemy in diachronic term implies that a word may retain its previous meaning or meanings and at the same time acquire one or several new ones. According to the approach there are two types of meaning can be singled out: the primary meaning; the secondary meaning (derived) SYNCHRONIC APPROACH TO POLYSEMY Synchronically polysemy is understood as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word at a certain historical period of the development of the English language. According to the approach there are two types of meaning can be singled out: the central (basic) meaning the most frequent; marginal (minor) meanings all other meanings. HISTORICAL CHANGEABILITY OF SEMANTIC STRUCTURE The semantic structure is never static, the relationship between the diachronic and synchronic evaluation of individual meanings may be different in different periods of the historical development of language. The primary meaning of the word may become synchronically one of its marginal meanings and diachronically a secondary meaning may become the central meaning of the word.

7.Homonymy and polysemy The word Homonym has been derived from Greek term 'Homoios' which means identical and 'onoma' means name. So, Homonymy is a relation that holds between two lexemes that have the same form but unrelated meanings. Homonyms are the words that have same phonetic form (homophones) or orthographic form (homographs) but different unrelated meanings. For example the word bear, as a verb means to carry and as a noun it means large animal. Classification of homonyms : Perfect Homonyms are words identical in sound and spelling but different in meaning a bit of information a bit of luck . Homophones are words identical in sound form but different in spelling and meaning Sight n site n cite v. Homographs are words identical in written form but different in sound and meaning We sit in rows. nobody likes rows. types of homonyms Full homonyms are words which coincide in all their forms I have a ball. I have balls. partial homonyms are words which coincide only in some of their forms to lie - lay lain lying---a sta culca. Lexical homonyms are words that belong to the same part of speech I have a bank.The bank is superb. grammatical homonyms are homonymous word forms differing in grammatical meaning cats cats cats lexico - grammatical homonyms are words differing in their lexical and grammatical meanings bear n to bear v A polyseme the phenomenon of having or being open to several or many meanings.When a word has several very closely related senses or meanings.Polysemous word is a word having two or more meanings. For example, foot in : - He hurt his foot ; - She stood at the foot of the stairs. The use of the same word in two or more meanings the first 1000 of the most frequent words have 25 000 meanings,each word has 25 meanings .The English vocabulary is very polysemantic because of its monosyllabic character and predominance of root words. 8.Types of context Context is the minimum stretch of speech determining each individual meaning of the word. Context can be linguistic (verbal) or extra-linguistic (non-verbal). Linguistic context can be subdivided into lexical and grammatical. TYPES OF CONTEXT In the lexical context of primary importance are the groups of lexical items combined with the polysemantic word under consideration, e.g. heave table (of great weigh); heavy rain (abundant, falling with force);heavy industry (the larger kind of smth). In the grammatical context it is the grammatical (syntactic) structure of the context that serves to determine various individual meanings of a polysemantic word. The meaning of the verb to make to force, to induce is found only in the grammatical context possessing the syntactic structure to make+pronoun+verb (to make sb laugh, work, dance).

Another meaning of this verb to become is observed in the context of a different syntactic structure to make+adj+noun (to make a good wife, good teacher). Extra-linguistic context When the meaning of a word is ultimately determined by the actual speech situation in which the word is used, i.e. by the extra-linguistic context (or context of situation), e.g. John was looking for the glasses, -the meaning of word glasses has two readings spectacles or to drinking vessels .It is possible to state the meaning of the word glasses only through the extended context or situation.

9.Synonyms,Antonyms and hyponyms. Synonyms-Words close in meaning , but different in denotational , connotational , pragmatic meaning. For ex: the verb to look-see,watch,observe.Synonyms are the words of the same part of speech different in their sound-form but similar in their meaning and interchangeable at least in one context. For ex: the same woman can be referred to as my mother by her son and my wife for her husband 1.Ideographic synonyms convince -persuade ;2.Stylistic synonyms Father-Dad, Child-kid 3.Ideographic stylistic ask-inquire Patterns of Synonymic: The English word-stock is extremely rich in synonyms which can be largely accounted for by abundant borrowing. For ex: french-pardon, english-forgive, latin-excuse; frenchfinish, english-end, latin-conclude. Antonymy (semantic opposition). Antonyms are words which express opposite or contrasting meanings. Antonyms are subdivided into:1. Gradable represent the extremes of the quality. There are often adjectives that can be placed on the scale between them (hot-cold). 2. Contradictory-complimentary cannot exist without each other (dead-alive; leave-stay) 3. Conversive describe opposite attributes of the same situation (to buy-to sell when one buys another sells). Hyponomy is the semantic relationship of inclusion existing between elements of various levels. Thus, e.g. vehicle includes car, bus, taxi; oak implies tree, horse implies animal; table implies furniture. The hyponymic relationship is the relationship between the meaning of the general and the individual terms. 10.Structure and meaning of word groups. 1) The structure is shown be a syntactic formula.It shows the structure of word-groups by the order of the arrangement of their components indicating them as parts of speech (V+N = te release a prisoner, to run a factory). 2)By using syntactic patterns.They describe the word groups in relation to the head word(to release, to run). The word-groups have lexical and structural meaning. Lexical meaning is defined as the combined lexical meaning of the component words. Idiomatic meaning the total change of the initial combined meaning (to catch smb red-handed) Structural meaning is conveyed by the pattern of arrangement of its constituents (school grammar grammar school). Classification. Structural classification: - Predicative have syntactic structure similar to that of a sentence (the horse has run away) - Non-predicative: subordinate and coordinate. Subordinate word-groups consist of a head-word and words subordinate to it (to release a prisoner). In coordinate word-groups all elements are equal (brother and sister). If the word-group is used in the same function as one of its members endocentric. Exocentric are those that are used differently from either of its members. Semantic classification: - Lexically motivated the meaning of a word-group is equal to the combined meaning of its components. - Lexically non-motivated the word-groups whose meaning is different from the combined meaning of its components (Hobson's choice ; the horse has run away motivated, the horse has bolted non-motivated).

11.Phraseological Units. Phraseological unit is a non-motivated word-group that cannot be freely made up in speech but is reproduced as a ready made unit. Reproducibility is regular use of phraseological units in speech as single unchangeable collocations. Idiomaticity is the quality of phraseological unit, when the meaning of the whole is not deducible from the sum of the meanings of the parts. Stability of a phraseological unit implies that it exists as a ready- made linguistic unit which does not allow of any variability of its lexical components of grammatical structure. The Phraseological Collocations (Combinations), are partially motivated, they contain one component used in its direct meaning while the other is used figuratively: meet the demand, meet the necessity, meet the requirements. Phraseological unities are much more numerous. They are clearly motivated. The emotional quality is based upon the image created by the whole as in to stick (to stand) to one's guns, i.e. refuse to change one's statements or opinions in the face of opposition', implying courage and integrity. The example reveals another characteristic of the type, the possibility of synonymic substitution, which can be only very limited, e. g. to know the way the wind is blowing. Phraseological fusions, completely non-motivated word-groups, (e.g. tit for tat), represent as their name suggests the highest stage of blending together. The meaning of components is completely absorbed by the meaning of the whole, by its expressiveness and emotional properties. Phraseological fusions are specific for every language and do not lend themselves to literal translation into other languages. 12.Word structure. The word is not the smallest unit of the language. It consists of morphemes. The morpheme may be defined as the smallest meaningful unit which has a sound form and meaning and which occurs in speech only as a part of a word. Morphemes are subdivided into root - morphemes and affixational morphemes. The root morpheme is the lexical center of the word. It is the semantic nucleus of a word with which no grammatical properties of the word are connected. Affixational morphemes include inflections and derivational affixes. Inflection is an affixal morpheme which carries only grammatical meaning thus relevant only for the formation of word-forms (books, opened, strong-er). Derivational morpheme is an affixal morpheme which modifies the lexical meaning of the root and forms a new word. In many cases it adds the part-of-speech meaning to the root (manage-ment, en-courage, fruit-ful) .Morphemes which may occur in isolation and function as independent words are called free morphemes (pay, sum, form). Morphemes which are not found in isolation are called bound morphemes (-er, un-, -less). There are 2 levels of approach to the study of word-structure: the level of morphemic analysis the level of derivational or word-formation analysis The basic unit of morphemic level is the morpheme defined as the smallest indivisible two-facet language unit.Three types of morphemic segmentability of words are distinguished:complete conditional defective Words of conditional and defective segmentability are made up of full morphemes and pseudo (quasi) morphemes. The latter do not rise to the status of full morphemes either for semantic reasons or because of their unique distribution. Semantically morphemes fall into: 1. root-morphemes2. affixational morphemes Structurally morphemes fall into: 1. free2. bound3. semi-free (semi-bound)

13-17Word formation is the creation of new words from elements already existing in the language. Every language has its own structural patterns of word formation.As a subject of study english wordformatin is that branch of english lexicology which studies the derivative structure of words and the Derivaticion and patterns on which the english language builds new words.There are two types of word-formation compounding 1.Derivation is a kind of word-formation when a new word is formed by adding a derivational morpheme (usually suffix or prefix) to the root. Suffixation is a kind of word-formation when a new word is formed by adding a suffix to the root. Nouns assistance, explanation, refugee, miner, Adjectives fearless, teachable, Turkish, cloudy Verbs Glimmer, terrify, establish, organise Adverbs Coldly, upward, likewise Prefixation is a kind of word-formation when a new word is formed by adding a prefix to the root. Verbs 42% enrich, coexist, disagree, undergo Adj. 33% antiwar, biannual, uneasy, superhuman Nouns 22%ex-champion, co-author, disharmony . 2.Conversion Functional change in a part speech meaning according to productive semantic patterns of the English Language. noun---verb crowd - -- to crowd Verb--- noun to take --- a take adj--verb major --- to major Adj---noun Intellectual --- an intellectual Prep---noun the ups and downs of life 3. Back-formation is a process by means of which a word is formed out of another by reduction, that is by removing or changing the beginning or end of a word that already exists. cheeseburger from hamburger; to baby-sit from baby-sitter; to televise from television;to type-write form type-writer 4. Shortening or clipping is a process by means of which a word is shortened by omitting one part of it. Sometimes even the middle part of a word may be omitted. Depending on which part of a word is omitted, clipping may be:- fore-clipping---van from caraval- back-clipping---bike from bicycle - clipping in the middle---flu from influenza 5. Blending is in fact the fusion of two words by means of which a new word is formed. These words are also called hybrid words which are actually compound words formed in an unusual way. Only parts of words are taken and put together. smog - smoke + fog ; brunch - breakfast + lunch 6.Borrowing-words are taken from other languages and incorporated into the mother tongue. Many words in English are of Fench, Latin or Greek origin. Ex: kebab, spaghetti, pasta, tortilla 7. Acronymy is a process by means of which a new word is formed out of the initial letters of the words which the acronym consists of. There are two types of acronyms: - alphabetisms (NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization),UNESCO - wordlike(sonar (sound navigation and ranging) 8. Voicing is a process by means of which verbs are transformed into nouns whereby certain phonemes change. Voiced consonants change into their unvoiced pairs. breathe breath ;believe belief. Word-composition is another type of word-building which is highly productive. That is when new words are produced by combining two or more stems. Compound words proper are formed by joining together stems of words already available in the language. Compound proper is a word, the two Immediate Constituents of which are stems of notional words e.g ice-cold(n+a) ill-luck(a+n). Derivational compound is formed by composing a new stem that does not exist outside this pattern and to which suffix is added e.g , e.g. blue - eyed - (A+N) + ed. In coordinative compounds , e.g. breath-taking, self-discipline, word-formation.

18.Word of native origin. Word of native origin consist for the most part of very ancient elements-Indo-European,Germanic and West-Germanic cognates.When speaking about the role of the native element in the English language linguists usually confine themselves to the small Anglo-Saxon stock pf wprds,which is estimated to make 25-30% of the English vocabulary.Almost all words of Anglo-Saxon origin belong to very important semantic groups.They include most the auxiliary verbs(shall,will,can,must)pronouns(I,we,my,his) preposition(in,under,on); numerals(one,two) and conjuction(but,and,till).National words of Anglo-Saxon origin include such groups as words denoting parts of the body(head,hand) members of the family and closest relatives(mother,sister), natural(snow,rain)animals(sheep,horse)common actions(do make,go). Most native words possess a wide range of lexical and grammatical valency.Many of them enter a number of phraseological units.The semantic characteristies,stability and wide collocability of native words account for their frequency in speech.The native element comprises not only the ancient Anglo-Saxon care but also words which appeared later as a result of word-formation, split of polysemy and other process operative in English.Words of Anglo-Saxon origin must be considered very important due to their marked stability specific semantic,characteristics,wide collocability, great derivational and high frequency value. 19.Borrowed words (or loan words or borrowings) are words taken over from another language and modified according to the patterns of the receiving language. In many cases a borrowed word especially one borrowed long ago is practically indistinguishable from a native word without a thorough etymological analysis (street, school, face). The number of borrowings in the vocabulary of a language and the role played by them is determined by the historical development of the nation speaking the language. The most effective way of borrowing is direct borrowing from another language as the result of contacts with the people of another country or with their literature. But a word may also be borrowed indirectly not from the source language but through another language. Classification of borrowings according to the aspect which is borrowed:Translation borrowings (translation loans) are words and expressions formed from the material already existing in the English language but according to patterns taken from another language, by way of literal morpheme-for-morpheme translation. Classification of borrowings according to the aspect which is borrowed: Semantic borrowing is understood as the development in an English word of a new meaning under the influence of a related word in another language. 21.Ways of Enriching the Enghlish Vocabulary.

Inner sources of the English language:Word-formation - word derivation- word composition - minor non-pattern types (clipping, abbreviation, substantivation, blending, backformation) Semantic nomination (web); Coining new words (hobbit). Other languages:Borrowings- loan words proper (sputnik)- translation loans (Super-man)- semantic borrowing (reaction first had only a chemical meaning)-building new words from latin or greek roots
22.Number of words in English It's impossible to count the number of words in a language, because it's so hard to decide what actually counts as a word. The English language possesses a rich vocabulary while in everyday speech people use a rather a limited number of words.There is no dictionary that covers all the words that people use in different situations. There are general and specialized dictionaries.The mind is a wonderful computer that stores words and produces the word when the need arises and forgets it when it is out of use.We should work much to enrich our vocabulary!

23.Variants of the English Language British people and American people can always understand each other but there are a few notable differences between British English and American English Grammar: Am use the present perfect tense less than speakers of Brit English and a British teacher might mark wrong some things that an American teacher would say are correct.US Did you do your homework yet?Brit. Have you done your homework yet? In British English, have got is often used for the possessive sense of have and have got to is informally used for have to. This is much less common in American English. Brit. Ive got two sisters.US I have two sisters.Vocabulary- there are a lot of examples of different words being used in British and American English. angry (Brit.) = mad (US);autumn = fall;cupboard = closet; flat = apartment .There are British words which many Americans will not understand and vice versa. There are also words which exist in both British and American English but have very different meanings.Spelling There are also a number of different spelling rules between British English and American English.1 Some words that end in -tre in British English end in -ter in American English. US theater, center Brit. theatre, centre 2. Some words that end in -our in British English end in -or in American English.US color, labor Brit. colour, labour 3. Some words are shorter in American English than in British English.US catalog, program Brit. catalogue, programme. 24.Main types of the english dictionaries.Lexicography that is the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries,is an important branch of applied linguistics.The word dictionary comes from Latin dictio the art of speaking and dictionaries a collection of words.A dictionary is a collection of words in one or more specific languages, often listed alphabetically with usage information, definitions, etymologies, phonetics, pronunciations, and other information or a book of words in one language with their equivalents in another, also known as a lexicon.There are many different types of English dictionaries.First of all they may all be roughly diveded into two groups- encyclopedic and linguistic.The enciclopedic dictionaries are thing-books,that give information about the extra-linguistic word,they deal with concepts,their relation to other objects and phenomena.Liunguistic dictionaries may be divided into different categories by different criteria.Accoding to the nature of their word-list we may speak about general dictionaries on the other hand,and resticted,an other.
Types of Dictionaries Monolingual Explanatory dictionaries irrespective of their bulk Etymological, frequency, phonetical, rhyming and thesaurus type dictionaries Concentrated on one of the distinctive features of the word Bilingual or multilingual English-Russian, Russian-English, etc., and multilingual dictionaries

General

Glossaries of scientific and other special terms; concordances

Dictionaries of scientific and other special terms

Special

Dictionaries of abbreviations, antonyms, borrowings, new words, proverbs, synonums, surnames, toponyms, etc. Dictionaries of American English, dialect and slang dictionaries.

Dictionaries of abbreviations, phraseology, proverbs, synonyms, etc.

Dictionaries of Old English and Middle English with explanation in Modern English.