Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Principles

Presented By : Mark Crook

Air Conditioning principles and practice Introduction Air conditioning in this country is normally associated with providing a cool situation during any hot spells. In its true sense, as the name implies, air conditioning deals with total air quality and not just cooling. A complete system will therefore consist of: Heating elements In far too many cases, instead of having integrated system, 'central heating' are installed separately for use during cold conditions. Fresh air supply This means relatively odour and dust free air containing replacement oxygen for that use by normal respiration. A poorly designed system relies on opening door and windows, whereas there should be a ducted supply which can have a continuous and controlled expulsion and intake provision.

Humidity Control This important aspect will be discussed at length later.

It is virtually impossible to meet exactly the individual and personal requirements of everyone working in and/or visiting a particular area. Although very important, far too much emphasis is placed on simply maintaining an acceptable temperature.

Basic Science
Nature of matter One definition of an atom that is sufficient for the needs of understanding refrigeration is:-

"The smallest particle of a substance that has all of the characteristics and properties of that substance. "
Thus one atom of hydrogen has the distinctive and unique properties of that gas and it is different from say an atom of oxygen.

All matter consists of an arrangement of atoms. Some arrangements (called molecules) are combinations of different atoms and this can create a whole range of substances that have properties that are totally different from those of the individual atoms that form the arrangement. For example two atoms of the gas hydrogen when combined with form a stable molecule of a liquid-WATER.

One very important range of chemicals is based -upon combinations of carbon, hydrogen, fluoride and chlorine that form the structure of many different types of refrigerants. They are often referred to as HALOCARBONS - because of the ring like structure (halo) of various atoms of the chemicals mentioned above, that can be grouped around a carbon atom. Nowadays they tend to be classified as CFC's which stands for Carbon Fluoride Chlorine, which is rather more descriptive.

Changes of state
Reactions that cause a re-organisation, or changes in composition, of molecular structure are known as chemical changes. These are usually irreversible unless what can be a lengthy and expensive process is carried out. For example some chemical substances that are naturally occurring may have many of the properties required to make them suitable for use as refrigerants. These substances are usually relatively stable whilst in use as a refrigerant but they could break down into an undesirable form under other conditions, such as the exposure of atmospheric oxygen at high temperatures. For example methane and propane.

Corrosion is another example of a chemical change. Under certain (but very common) conditions the iron content of ferrous metals is caused to unite with oxygen and form the more stable ferrous oxides, that is rust. The whole of the smelting process is needed to drive out the oxygen from such oxides and allow the production of a relatively pure iron. Chemical changes are generally quite complex, but it is essential that some reactions are understood as the chemical composition of all refrigerants can drastically affect their properties - and hence the resultant behaviour, both desirable and undesirable.

Water can be varied from its normal liquid state into a solid or a vapour. The vapour will then behave in a similar fashion to a gas - but it will have a very different behaviour pattern from the two gases that have combined to form the water vapour. These variations can be brought about by changing the pressure and/or the temperatures of the ice/water/steam. By lowering the temperature it is possible to obtain the solid form of ice and conversely the gaseous form, known as steam, is produced by raising the temperature. These changes are easily reversible and are known as physical changes.

Temperature
Temperature has an important effect on determining the particular properties of a substance, so it is necessary to understand more about its nature. For all practical purpose the particles that form substances are never stationary.
Even if a solid object is stationary the particles that form the material are constantly in motion. WITHIN THE CONFINES OF THE SHAPE OF THE OBJECT, or in the case of fluids (liquids and gases) WITHIN THE CONFINES OF THEIR CONTAINING VESSEL.

It is magnitude of the velocity of the particles that gives to the Phenomenon that we call temperature. The faster the velocity the higher the 'temperature'. As it is impractical to measure the actual velocity of these particles then any observable phenomena, which are related to specific and consistent conditions, are used as points of reference for a temperature scale. For example on the Celsius scale: The freezing point of pure water at a standard barometric pressure gives the Zero or 'Lower Fixed Point'. The point at which pure water changes to steam determines the 'Upper Fixed Point', i.e. 100 oC. The distance between these points is divided into 100 equal divisions of 1oC. These divisions are also used to indicate temperatures above and below these fixed points.

Fahrenheit Scale
Although the Fahrenheit system is used less frequently in modern technology, it is based upon the same idea of using points to set up a temperature scale. Interestingly the scientists of the day appreciated that there were temperature below the freezing point of water and so the lowest temperature though to be Be possible was set at OoF and the 'fixed' freezing point set 32'F above this. This was imaginative but rather a long way out. Later research showed that the real 'bottom of the scale' is actually minus 456'F. It was also decided subdivide the range between boiling and freezing into 180 divisions because there are more numbers which divide exactly into 180 than there are into 100. This gives more scope for marking out temperature scales and greater 'whole number' accuracy of specification. Thus the boiling point for water is 212oF.

Absolute Zero
The absolute zero of the Celsius scale is defined as being 273oC and at this point the motion of the particles is actually stopped - and peculiar things can happen to material properties, for example electrical current will flow with virtually no resistance - the phenomena of superconductors. At temperature above absolute zero but still very low e.g. below about -70'C (often referred to as the CRYOGENIC RANGE), some metals can below dangerously brittle, oils will not flow etc. For many scientific applications and calculations then absolute zero must be taken as the base - it is known as ZERO KELVIN (O.K)). Note that it is never oK. The boiling point of water is therefore 373 K, and so on, just add 273 to the Celsius temperature.

Evaporation and boiling of liquids

The 'energy' of a body or substance, that is its ability to do work, can be in many forms. Except for chemical energy (which can be disregarded for a study of refrigeration) these forms are frequently interchangeable but the TOTAL energy of a body or substance will remain the same unless some is added or removed by external effects.

The movement of particles within a liquid (i.e. the temperature) will contribute to the energy of the liquid, this is its HEAT energy. The TOTAL energy will be a sum of heat energy plus that due to pressure, position and the velocity of the liquid when it is flowing.

When a liquid is being heated the particles of the liquid in motion are restrained by:a. the side of the containing vessel b. the surface tension of the liquid (almost negligible) and, very important for refrigeration purposes, c. the pressure acting on the surface of the liquid. * NB If the pressure acting on the surface of a liquid at a temperature BELOW its 'normal' boiling point (that is the boiling point at atmospheric pressure) is reduced then this change of conditions could allow particles to escape. The liquid will start to boil. For example under normal atmospheric conditions water 'boils' at 100oC but under a partial vacuum the boiling phenomena could take place at much lower temperature.

Most refrigerants have BOILING points well below OoC. Thus at atmospheric pressure such liquids would rapidly evaporate. If the vessel in which they are stored is enclosed then the escaping vapour will slowly pressurise the space above the liquid. Eventually this pressure will build up to a point where further vapour release is stopped.

PRESSURE Measurement and Units Pressure is defined as being - Force applied divided by the AREA over which it acts. i.e. Pounds per square inch - kilograms per square centimetre etc. The S I unit of force is the Newton (N) (approximately equivalent to of a pound), and the basic unit of area is the SQUARE METRE. So the basic S I unit of pressure is given as N/M2. One N/M2 is also known as a PASCAL (Pa). The actual value of 1 Pa is very small:10 000 Pa (also called 1 bar) is approximately 1 atmosphere (about 14.7 psi) thus it is more practical gauges in kilopascals (kPa) i.e. units of 1000 Pa.

For pressure below atmospheric, i.e. those in the vacuum range, the units can be

Inches of mercury 0Hg Millimeters of Hg

("Hg) (also called Torrs)

30Hg

Microns (1 micron = 1000 th of a millimetre) (not very practical - rarely used)

Pressure of' gases and vapours As with liquids, gas molecules are always in motion and so they will regularly collide with the surfaces of the containing vessel. These collisions will therefore exert a force on the container walls. The size of the force will depend upon the number of molecules striking a surface and the speed of impact (i.e. the temperature). Gas pressure will therefore be related to the striking force and the area over which it acts. The gas molecules will fill the entire containing space in a uniform or evenly distributed fashion. Therefore it can be shown that gas pressure.

a. will be the same on all of the surface b. always acts at right angles to each surface

If mass of gas (i.e. a definite number of molecules) is held in a container that can have its volume varied. For example inside a cylinder with a moveable piston, then as the volume is decreased, the number of molecules striking the smaller wall area will increase the force, and therefore the gas pressure. This is expressed by Boyles Law - "At a constant temperature (Isothermal) the pressure exerted by a fixed mass of gas will be inversely proportional to the volume". In other words if the volume is halved the pressure will double.

Note:- the value of the constant will vary for different gases for the relationship to be true the temperature must not change

GAUGE MARKING In order to avoid the necessity of looking up the chart each time, many pressure gauges are already calibrated with a temperature scale to correspond with the refrigerant pressure. This is exactly the same information in the charts, it is simply presented in this way to make the readings more convenient. In this example the scale shows that at 38oF the pressure should read 35 p.s.i. for Refrigerant R12. Note that a separate scale is provided for Refrigerant R22. GAUGE PRESSURE AND ABSOLU'I'E PRESSURE When reading the charts, note that some information is in gauge pressure, and some is in absolute pressure. Always check which type of gauge you are using to make sure that you are reading the correct chart.

Temperature and volume If the velocity of the particles striking the surface of the container is increased the force on the walls increases - and so therefore will be pressure, but particle velocities increase with temperature. If however the volume of the container can be increased so that the pressure does not vary the relationship is defined by Charles Law. "If the pressure of a given mass of gas is kept constant then the volume of the gas will proportional to the temperature of the gas" which is only a way of saying that to maintain a constant pressure of a gas trapped inside a container, whose volume can be changed, if the volume is increased then the temperature must also be increased. The relationship can be expressed mathematically as:

The temperature values used must be in absolute units (K) Both of these relationships can be combined together to form the general gas equation

Note that both P and T must be used in Absolute units These laws are useful in explaining situations where the total energy of a mass of gas is kept constant. If work is done on or by the gas then extra energy is added or taken away - and this changes the relationships. For example the action of moving the piston of a cycle pump accelerates the trapped air, and the corresponding increase in temperature is easily detected at the outlet point.

Relationship between pressure and temperature.

There is a constant relationship between the temperature of a particular refrigerant gas and the pressure that exists in different sections of a system. Notice that this relationship will vary for different refrigerants. Charts are available, as shown later, which give the relevant pressures and corresponding temperatures. These are needed in order to help with fault diagnosis tests e.g. estimating the quantity of refrigerant within a system .

Heat
We refer to something that is at a high temperature as being HOT, having a lost of HEAT etc. These generally used terms are not precise enough for scientific study and in fact can be quite misleading! At some time or other 1 am sure that many of you have had particles at a temperature of about 1300oC come into contact with your skin and you have not been at all bothered! What am referring to? - the simple spark from a grinding wheel or similar Why wasn't it damaging? - Although the temperature was very high the quantity of heat, which it what actually does the damage, was very small. Heat energy (to give it its full title) is a combination of temperature and MASS

In order to raise the temperature OR CHANGE THE STATE of a substance, heat energy must be available. Thus the heat energy from the gas flame is essential to 'boil' a pan of water on the stove. (Note that the particles that comprise the gas flame are moving at very high velocities. These will 'collide' with the metal of the pan and this starts the pan particles moving faster. They turn accelerates the water particles. This is an explanation of the CONDUCTION process).

But what about the case mentioned above when boiling was induced simply by dropping the pressure? Where does this heat energy come from?

The liquid will simply take in heat from the surroundings and this will reduce the temperature of the surrounding area.

Thus the principle under which a refrigeration process takes place is:-

? Have a liquid (refrigerant) at a high pressure and a temperature above its boiling point. ? Reduce the pressure, thus allowing the liquid to boil by taking in heat from the surrounds.
The basic components of a complete refrigeration system are designed not only to allow heat to be absorbed but, equally important, to recover the refrigerant vapour and convert it back into a high pressure liquid so that the cycle can be repeated.

Latent Heat
The word LATENT means 'hidden'. In other words the heat that is absorbed or given up with no effect on temperature. Thus the heat needed to change a liquid into a vapour is known as the latent heat of vaporisation, and the heat given out on when the vapour is reformed into the liquid state is the latent heat of condensation. Different substances have different latent heat values and the effectiveness of a refrigerant is largely based upon this property. Water has a very high value but its rise as a refrigerant is obviously very limited. (It can be used in come air conditioning units, where system temperatures need not be within the 'freezing' range).

Heat Transfer
This is of fundamental importance to the efficient operation of a refrigerating system. The overall purpose of refrigeration is to transfer heat from one area (the cold zone) and distribute it into another zone where it can be efficiently dispersed. There are three ways in which heat is transferred

Conduction - the transfer of molecular movement through a

material. A material that readily allows this to happen is therefore known as a good thermal conductor. Thermal insulators, which are also an essential materials used in refrigeration systems. limit this transfer of molecular movement. It is rather like comparing the effect of a snooker ball striking a cluster of static balls with an identical setup using sponge balls.

Convention - this effect is confined to fluids, either

liquids or gases. Variations in temperature of the substance can cause localised expansion (or contraction). If a section of fluid is heated it will expand, become less dense than the surrounding fluid and so it will rise - only to be replaced by cooler, denser fluid flowing into the space that has been evacuated. Air that is in contact with a warm surface will rise and be replaced by colder air that is drawn into the area at a low level. This 'air cooling' action (of the source of heat) is also critical to the efficient operation of many types of refrigeration unit. In order to improve this heat distribution process it is often necessary to assist in the removal of warm air by the use of fans.

Radiation
Both conduction and convection need to have an interaction between particles. Radiant heat is in the form of energy waves that can pass quite readily through some substances (or indeed through a vacuum) without significantly changing the temperature of the medium through which it passes. Most of the heat from a glowing electrical element is of a radiant form and when the 'waves' come into contact with a surface the particles of the surface will set into motion - the temperature rises. The most effective type on the surface for distributing and absorbing radiant heat will be matt black. Shiny and bright white surface will reflect some of the heat in a similar way to the reflection of light by a mirror. Note that so called domestic 'radiators' should therefore be black, or at least dark coloured, and in fact they should more appropriately be called 'convectionators'.

Conduction of heat is probably the most relevant form of transfer within the basic refrigeration system, but when designing an air conditioning unit the other forms must be carefully considered. There are three factors that affect the transfer of heat of conduction

1.The nature of the material through which heat must pass 2.The surface area and thickness of the component or structure 3.The temperature difference between the two surfaces of the material.
The behaviour of different materials under different conditions is established by experiments, and tables of coefficients of thermal conductivity can be produced.

Humidity The human body has its own refrigeration system, which keeps it cool by using exactly the same evaporative principles as described above. The body exudes small and usually imperceptible qualities of fluid (perspiration) through the skin. This fluid needs heat to change it into a vapour - and it takes it from the body. This vapour needs to be absorbed by the surrounding air, which is why an air current helps to cool by replacing the moisture-laden air by a fresh, and drier supply. Humidity is a measure of the quantity of moisture, which is held in suspense by the atmosphere. If the humidity is high (i.e. high moisture content) then the ability of the air to absorb more moisture is restricted and we can feel uncomfortable. If the humidity is low then the body can often support quite high temperatures without being unduly distressed.

Thus humidity is an essential factor in determining the comfort of personnel. Humidity will depend upon both the pressure and temperature of the air. It is measured as a percentage of the maximum amount of moisture that can be held under the conditions that exist at any particular time. Hence its more accurate description is Relative Humidity. 100% is total saturation and extremely uncomfortable, tropical rain forest conditions. Totally dry air, 0%, would be equally unbearable as the drying process would be so rapid that the essential fluids in the eyes and nose would dry out faster than they could be replaced. A good air conditioning system therefore is one where the air temperature is maintained at a reasonably acceptable level and the humidity level somewhere between 40% and 60%.

It a volume of air has its temperature reduced (by passing it over cold coils) then the quality of moisture that can be held is also reduced, the excess water vapour will condense out of the air (e.g. the water on a window pane in cold weather).

If this is then passed into a habitable area it will be able to absorb moisture again as it warms up, that is its relative humidity will be lowered.

The basic Refrigeration Cycle ? (All descriptions will be related to the equipment and controls used with medium or large size refrigerating and air conditioning plant). 1 The 'high side' will contain high pressure liquid at a point 'list before the expansion valve. 2 The expansion valve controls the rate, at which refrigerant flows into the evaporator, which will be at low pressure (the start of the 'low side'). 3 Due to the drop in pressure the liquid refrigerant will start to vaporise and in so doing will absorb heat from the surrounds. When the expansion valve settings match the demand of the system, ALL of the liquid should vaporise. The vapour will usually leave the evaporator at a temperature slightly above the boiling point associated with the pressure in the evaporator. i.e. It will be slightly SUPERHEATED.

4 The low-pressure vapour will be drawn from the evaporator by the compressor through accumulator. The purpose of this is to trap any liquid, which may not have been vaporised.

5 The compressor (usually driven by an electric motor) will pump the gas to a high pressure. In doing so the temperature of the vapour will rise considerably.

6 The compressor outlet is the start of the 'high side'. It connects to the condenser where the latent heat of condensation is removed. The bulk of the refrigerant will leave the condenser as a high pressure liquid and it is then piped to the expansion valve - and the cycle recommences.

THE BASIC COMPONENTS OF A CIRCUIT Compressor Used to convert low pressure refrigerant in vapour form into a high pressure gas and to circulate the refrigerant Evaporator The coldest part of the system. Constructed from tubes or passages, which will be fitted inside a refrigerator of freezer to remove heat from the contents. In air conditioning units the air being cooled will pass over these tubes or coils. Condenser The tubes or matrix which are fitted outside of the cabinet of a fridge or freezer which release heat into the surrounding atmosphere. The condenser can dissipate the heat by simple convection or is fan assisted. Large -units may have water cooled condenser systems.

Capillary A very thin tubes which causes a restriction in the system between the high and low-pressure sides. Capillaries are only used on domestic or small, fixed capacity, units. Expansion Valve The valve that is used on larger industrial plant in place of the capillary. It serves the same purpose i.e. it controls the pressure in the evaporator. Unlike the fixed dimensions of the capillary, the degree of opening of the expansion valve can be adjusted either manually or automatically to meet varying demands on the system. Dryer A container full of a material which will absorb any moisture which may have got into the refrigerant. This is essential as the water would freeze and could cause a total blockage to the refrigerant flow. A separate dryer should be used in the charging line to treat 'new' refrigerant.

Accumulator A large capacity section of tube, container or even a small tank. Its purpose is to collect any refrigerant liquid which did not completely evaporate in the evaporator. Any liquid entering the compressor could cause serious damage. A feed line from the compressor outlet is often used to warm the accumulator and so vaporise any liquid refrigerant. Suction Line The pipe from the evaporator to the compressor. Also called the 'low side' line. Discharge Line The line from the compressor to the condenser. Often called the 'high side' line.

All air conditioning systems must have four basic elements 1. COMPRESSOR

2. CONDENSOR

3. EXPANSION VALVE

4. EVAPORATOR From the compressor, high-pressure gas is sent to the condenser,where the heat is dissipated and condensed to a liquid. The high-pressure liquid flows on to the expansion valve, where it is metered and it's pressure is reduced. It then evaporates to gas. The cycle is then repeated, starting at the compressor.

COMPRESSOR The purpose of the compressor is to circulate the refrigerant in the system under pressure, thus concentrating the heat it contains. At the compressor the low-pressure gas is changed to high-pressure gas. This pressure build-up can only be accomplished by having a restriction in the high-pressure side of the system. This is a small valve located in the expansion valve. The metered orifice will serve the purpose for our basic system. The compressor has reed valves to control the entrance and exit of refrigerant gas during the pumping operation. These must seat firmly. For instance, an improperly seated intake reed valve can result in gas leaking back into the low side during the compression stroke, thus raising the low side pressure and impairing the cooling effect. Likewise, badly seated discharge reed valve can allow condensing or head pressure to drop as it leaks past the valve, lowering the efficiency of the compressor.

Some independent air conditioning manufacturers still use service valves having shut-off valve built in. However, many factory air conditioning systems now use only Shrader valves. The gauge hoses are still connected to the Shrader valve fitting, in which a valve is incorporated to hold in the refrigerant when a test hose is not connected to it.

Two service valves are located near the compressor as an aid in servicing the system. One services the high side, and one is used for the low side. A fitting is provided on each for attaching the test gauge hoses for testing the system. The smaller discharge hose routed to the condenser, while the low side comes from the evaporator, and is larger than the discharge hose quickly identifies the high side service valve.

'I'he service points on the typical compressor are as follows: Replaceable carbon-type seal on compressor shaft. Gasket at opposite, or oil pump, end of unit, Serviceable reed valves and head gasket. Any other internal failure usually requires the replacement of the compressor. However, some compressors are completely serviceable. The compressor is normally belt-driven from the engine crankshaft. Most manufacturers use a magnetic-type clutch which provides a means of stopping the pumping of the compressor when refrigeration is not desired.

COMPRESSOR RELIEF VALVE

Some compressors have a relief valve for regulating pressure. If the system discharge pressure exceeds rated pressure, the valve will open automatically and stay open until the pressure drops. The valve will then close automatically. If the relief valve opens, some oil may be ejected through the valve. Correct any condition that would cause this valve to open.

SUPERHEAT SHUTOFF SWITCH

A superheat shutoff switch stops the compressor when a combination of compressor suction pressure and the compressor temperature is too high. This prevents possible damage to the compressor from lack of refrigerant oil. The switch is mounted in the rear head of the compressor. It senses refrigerant pressure in the low side of the compressor. The superheat shutoff switch is a mechanical switch sensitive to both temperature and pressure. An electrical contact, welded to the diaphragm contacts the terminal whenever there is low refrigeration pressure or high temperature in the compressor inlet. This stops the compressor as explained next.

The purpose of the condenser is to receive the high-pressure gas from the compressor and convert this gas to a liquid. It does it by heat transfer, or the principle that heat will always move from a warmer to a cooler substance. Air passing over the condenser coils carries off the heat and the gas condenses. The condenser often looks like an engine radiator. As the compressor subjects the gas to increased Pressure, the heat intensity of the refrigerant is actually concentrated into a smaller area, thus raising the temperature of the refrigerant higher than the ambient temperature of the air passing over the condenser coils. Clogged condenser fins will result in poor condensing action and decrease efficiency. A factor often overlooked is flooding of the condenser coils with refrigerant oil Flooding results from adding too much oil to the system. 0il flooding is characterised by poor condensing action, resulting in increased head pressure, and a high pressure on the low side. This combination always results in poor cooling from the evaporator.

EVAPORATOR The evaporator works the opposite of the condenser, for here refrigerant liquid is converted to gas, absorbing heat from the air in the compartment. When the liquid refrigerant reaches the evaporator its pressure has been reduced, dissipating its heat content and making much cooler than the fan air and reach its low boiling point rapidly. The refrigerant then vaporises, absorbing the maximum amount of heat This heat is then carried by the refrigerant from the evaporator as a low side of the compressor, where the whole refrigeration cycle is repeated.

The evaporator removes heat from the area that is to be cooled. The desired temperature of cooling of the area will determine if refrigeration or air conditioning is desired. For example, food preservation generally requires low refrigeration temperatures, ranging from 40oF (4oC) to below OoF (o18'C).

A higher temperature is required for human comfort. A larger area is cooled, which requires that large volumes of air be passed through the evaporator coil for heat exchange. A blower becomes a necessary part of the evaporator in the air conditioning system. The blower fans must not only draw heat-laden air into the evaporator, but must also force this air over the evaporator fins and coils - where it surrenders its heat to the refrigerant - and then forces the cooled air out of the evaporator into the space being cooled.

PROBLEMS OF FLOODED STARVED EVAPORATOR COILS.

Changing the state of the refrigerant in the evaporator coils is as important as the air flow over the coils. Liquid refrigerant supplied to the coils by the expansion valve expands to a vapour as it absorbs heat from the air. Some liquid refrigerant must be supplied throughout the total length of the evaporator coils for full capacity. A starved evaporator coil is a condition in which not enough refrigerant has been supplied through the total coil length. Therefore, expansion of the refrigerant has not occurred through the whole coil length, resulting in poor coil operation and too-low heat exchange.

A flooded evaporator is the opposite of the starved coil. Too much refrigerant is passed through the evaporator coils, resulting in unexpanded liquid passing into the suction line and into the compressor. Liquid refrigerant in the compressor can result in damage to the reed valves and pistons. A flooded evaporator will contain too many refrigerants for efficient heat absorption in the evaporator coil. The result is lack of evaporator cooling. Gauge pressure readings on the low side of the system readily indicate either condition. A starved coil is shown by too-low a reading on the compound gauge plus a too-quick frost formation on the fins. Also, too little air is emitted from the evaporator.

A flooded coil is indicated by too high a pressure on the compound gauge and excessive sweating of the evaporator coils and suction hose. This is accompanied by little cooling from the evaporator.

The basic system we have discussed will work okay under constant loads or until the unit ices up because of too much humidity. The cooling rate of the evaporator can be controlled to a great extent by varying the speed of the fan. However, adding other features will aid in operation of the system. Lets look at several of the extra controls, starting with the receiver-dryer (dehydrator).

USE OF SCREENS IN THE SYSTEM At any time a refrigeration system is opened for service, foreign matter can enter in the form of dirt and moisture. These are called noncondensibles and have a deteriorating effect on Refrigerant - 12 or any other refrigerant. Moisture mixed with refrigerant causes hydrolizing action, which results in interior corrosion of all metal parts. This corrosion will in time, sluff off into the system in small particles which can stop the flow of refrigerant through the small orifice in the expansion valve. Screens are installed throughout the system to filter and hold these foreign particles from circulating in the system. A filter screen is always located in the receiver-drier. Should any of these screens collect foreign particles until they can no longer pass refrigerant, refrigerant flow will stop at this point. REMEMBER: FROST WILL FORM AT THE POINT OF BLOCKAGE OF THE REFRIGERANT.

WHAT HAPPENS WHEN REFRIGERANT IS BLOCKED A restriction or stoppage of refrigerant flow will cause the following: 1. Normal or low head pressure with low suction pressure.

2. Excessive coolness or frosting of the dehydrator, expansion valve, and compressor service valve.

3. Little or no cooling from the evaporator.

THERMOSTAT CONTROL The opening and closing of electrical contacts in the thermostat are controlled by a movement of a temperature-sensitive diaphragm or bellows. The bellows has a capillary tube connected to it which has been filled with refrigerant. The capillary tube is positioned so that it may have either the cold air from the evaporator pass over it or may be connected to the tail pipe of the evaporator. In either position, evaporator temperature will affect the temperature-sensitive compound in the capillary tube by causing it to contract, as the evaporator becomes colder. The contraction of the gas will cause the bellows to contract. This separates the electrical points and breaks the electrical circuit to the compressor clutch, which stops compressor operation.

OPERATION When the system is operating properly, the lines should be at the following general temperatures to the touch: Suction Line Cool

Discharge Line

Hot

Liquid Line

Warm

Hot Gas Bypass Line refrigerant)

Warm to hot (when bypassing

DIAGNOSIS Restrictions or kinks in the refrigerant lines may be indicated as follows:

Suction line - low suction pressure at the compressor,

low discharge pressure. Little or no cooling.

Discharge line - compressor relief valve opens. Liquid line - low discharge pressure, low suction
pressure, no cooling.

Hot gas bypass - low suction pressure, possible

evaporator icing.

SERVICE
Hoses which leak or are damaged (and plugged screens) should be replaced. Hoses and lines should always be protected from rubbing against sharp metal surfaces, moving parts, or hot engine parts. The proper oiling and tightening of connections, to the torque recommended in the technical manual. Circulating the refrigerant in the system periodically throughout the year will help to lubricate seals and gaskets to insure a sealed system. In winter, do this by turning over the compressor pulley by hand a few times.

The Refrigerants most commonly used in domestic, commercial and industrial systems are the following:
R11 Employed with centrifugal compressors for air conditioning systems, as a secondary Refrigerant and also as a solvent. R12 Until recently the most widely used for high, medium and low temperature Applications. R13 Used for ultra-low temperature applications

R22 Used in commercial and industrial low temperature systems and in some domestic Appliances. R113 Used mainly in comfort air conditioning systems with centrifugal compressors R500 Azeotropic mixture of R12 (73.8%) and R152 (26.2%) - substitution for RI 2 Can increase compressor capacity R502 Azeotropic mixture of R22 (48.8%) and RI 15 (51.2%) - developed for low Temperature applications to replace R22. R717 Ammonia has higher refrigerating effect per unit capacity than any other refrigerant - Used in large industrial systems

The installation or service engineer should be able to identify refrigerants by the cylinder base colour and associated label colour, or by the cylinder base colour and the colours of the bands located around the top of the cylinder. The cylinder colour codes for the refrigerants listed above are given in table below..

HANDLING REFRIGERANTS
Refrigerants must be handled with care to avoid danger. Do not discharge refrigerant into the atmosphere. Suitable recovery and recycling equipment must be used. Liquid refrigerant, if allowed to strike the eye, can cause blindness. If allowed to strike the body can cause frostbite. If a refrigerant container is heated, or contacts a heating element, the pressure inside can build up and explode the container.

If refrigerant is allowed to contact an open flame or heated metal, a poisonous gas will be created. Inhaling this gas can cause you to become violently ill. Remember - refrigerant can he dangerous. It should only be handled by a trained service technician.

COMPOUND GAUGE (LOW SIDE)

The compound gauge derives its name from its function. It will register both pressure or vacuum. All air conditioning systems can, under certain conditions, drop from a pressure into a vacuum on the low side. It is necessary that a gauge be used that will show either pressure (psi and kPa) or inches of mercury vacuum (Hg.). The vacuum side of the gauge must be calibrated to show 0 to 30 inches (0 to 762mm) Hg. The pressure side of the gauge must be calibrated to register accurately firom 0 pressure to a minimum of 60 psi (414 kPa). The maximum reading of the pressure should not exceed 160 psi (1 103 kPa). Practically all readings of the low side of the system will be less than 60 psi (414 kPa) with the system in operation. The scale reading preferred by the individual serviceman is left to his own choice. To accurately convert pressures to temperatures in the system, the gauge should be calibrated to a low enough scale that it will not be difficult to obtain an accurate reading. The higher the pressure scale, the more difficult it becomes to get an accurate pressure temperature conversion.

HIGH PRESSURE GAUGE (HIGH SIDE) The high pressure gauge is used to determine pressures in the high side of the system. The gauge is calibrated to register accurately from zero pressure to a minimum of 300 psi (207OkPA0). A few systems operate under high head pressure during normal operation conditions. This is why the high pressure gauge should have a reading of at least 600 psi (4140 kPa). GAUGE MANIFOLD The gauge manifold mounts the high and low side gauges and connects the gauges into the high and low sides of the system by means of test hoses. The gauges connect to the upper part of the manifold through holes drilled and tapped into a 1/8 - inch pipe thread. Test hose connectors below the gauges on the lower side of the manifold direct from the refrigerant through the manifold to the gauges to obtain pressure readings.

By opening and closing the hand valves on the manifold, the following jobs can be done: 1) Recovering excess refrigeration from the system 2) Bleeding air from the hoses 3) Recovering refrigerant before service work 4) Removing air and moisture during pump-down 5) Filling system with refrigerant

IMPORTANT: Do not release refrigerants to the atmosphere. Use a suitable recovery system.

The hand shut off type of valve has three positions: A - Shut off refrigerant flow, Gauge port out of the system

B - Normal refrigerant operation. Gauge port out of the system

C - Normal refrigerant operation. Gauge port in the system. We will discuss each position and determine at what points refrigerant will be allowed to flow.

LEAK DETECTORS Several types of leak detectors are available to the serviceman: 1. 2. 3. 4. Coloured Dye Additive Liquid Detergent - Type Detector Electronic Leak Detector Propane Torch Detector

A COLOURED DYE ADDITIVE is available which is added to the refrigerant. Operation of the system will show colouration at the point of leakage. A very slight leak requiring several weeks or even months to bleed off enough refrigerant to effect the system cooling can often be located using this additive when other methods of leak detection fail.

A LIQUID DETERGENT -TYPE DETECTOR may be used around connections and any external point that might be the source of leak for the Refrigerant- 12. Escaping refrigerant will cause the liquid to bubble, indicating a leak. Any parts that are not accessible, such as coils in the condenser and the evaporator, cannot readily be coated with this liquid to check for leaks.

The ELECTRONIC LEAK DETECTOR is a sensitive leak detector. Most electronic detectors can detect an equivalent of 1/2oz. per year. However, the initial cost of this type of detector has been a deterrent to individuals and small shops doing a minimum of air conditioning service. This instrument is electronic and must be handled with care to give accurate results. When cared for properly, the electronic detector will locate leaks quickly and accurately that are almost impossible to locate with other types of detectors.

The PROPANE TORCH LEAK DETECTOR is the most familiar and has received the most widespread use because of its case of handling, availability of propane in disposable tanks, and low initial cost. In operation, the blue flame changes colour to yellow or vivid purplish blue when Refrigerant- 12 is picked up by the sniffer tube outside the system.
! CAUTION: The propane torch leak detector must only be used in well ventilated areas. When Refrigerant 12 passes over an open flame, it gives off phosgene gas, which is very toxic. Do not breathe fumes given off by the detector.

VISUAL INSPECTION OF SYSTEM Visually inspect the following: 1. COMPRESSOR DRIVE BELTS TIGHT; NOT WORN OR FRAYED; AND ALIGNED WITH PULLEYS. The compressor belt is subjected to a heavy load during operation. This is especially true when the head pressures build up in excess of 200 psi (138OkPa) in hot weather operation. The belt must be in excellent condition to withstand the strain of heavy loads. If the pulleys are not properly aligned, extreme wear to the belt and pulleys will result. Too tight a belt tension will result in strain to the bearings of units operated by the compressor belt. Too loose a belt tension will result in belt slippage and poor performance. A belt tension gauge eliminates guess work in tightening the compressor belt. If a belt tension gauge is not available, tighten until there is 318 to 1/2 inch (10-13mm) deflection between any two pulleys that are farthest apart.

2. COMPRESSOR BRACKETS AND BRACES TIGHT AND NOT CRACKED OR BROKEN. Mounting bolts work loose, and brackets often break under the vibrations and strain of operation. Failure to inspect and repair any damage at these points can result in early system failure. 3. HOSES OR COPPER LINES NOT CHAFING OR LEAKING. Grommets and rubber pads that were originally installed to protect the hoses from contact with metal parts may deteriorate or loosen. Exposing the hose or line to constant rubbing and chafing can cause deterioration and allow the refrigerant to escape. To prevent damage, install some type of protective material. 4. CONDENSER CLEAN AND PROPERLY MOUNTED. Insects and dirt clog the condenser and radiator and stop air movement. Any blocking of full air flow over the condenser and radiator coils must be corrected to allow proper condensing action of the system.

5. EVAPORATOR CLEAN. The evaporator condenses moisture which in turn traps dust and lint on the side where the air enters. The blower or fan can be effective only when the evaporator passages are clear. Dust and lint should be removed. 6. COMPRESSOR OIL LEVEL CORRECT. Most compressors do not have a provision to check the oil level without disconnecting the compressor from the system. Make an oil check only with the system discharged. Do not overfill the system with oil as flooding of the condenser and evaporator will result. 7. AIR DUCTS AND LOUVRES OPERATING SMOOTHLY. Operate all mechanisms to check for free operation without binding and sticking. 8. BLOWER MOTOR OPERATING SATISFACTORILY. Operate blower motor at all speeds. If motor is noisy or fails at some speeds, repair it.

9. AIR FILTERS CLEAN. Many systems use a fresh air and recirculating filter to clean the air before it goes into the evaporator coil. The filters must be removed and cleaned,- as a clogged filter will seriously affect evaporator air flow. 10. VISABLE LEAKS. A small oily spot usually indicates a refrigerant leak, as oil is carried out with the escaping refrigerant. 11. LEAK TEST THE SYSTEM. A leak test will tell whether an oily spot indicates a leak. This test can only be performed on systems that are operative. A unit that has lost its refrigerant must be partially charged before this test can be performed.

MOISTURE IN SYSTEM Any air conditioning system should be dry as it is possible to maintain it. The refrigerant has had virtually all the moisture removed from it during manufacture. Any moisture introduced into the system must come from outside sources such as a break in a line or from improper sealing of connections when a unit is removed for service.

Refrigerator- 12 will absorb moisture readily when exposed to it.. To keep the system as moisture-free as possible, all systems use a dehydrator containing a desiccant which can absorb great quantities of moisture. However, each can only absorb a predetermined amount, and when the saturation point has been reached, the effectiveness is lost.