STR654: INSPECTION, MAINTENANCE and REPAIR of STEEL STRUCTURES

Lecture 2b, October 1st, 2013

Sherif A. Mourad
Professor of Steel Structures and Bridges Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University

TOPICS
Basic Metallurgy. Welding Procedure.

SOURCE & MANUFACTURING

Metals come from natural deposits of ore. Ores are contaminated with impurities. Impurities are removed by mechanical or chemical processes.

SOURCE & MANUFACTURING

Primary (or virgin) metal is extracted from purified ore. Secondary metals are extracted from scrap. Mining for metals is either open pit or underground methods. Selective mining works on small veins or beds of high grade. Bulk mining works on large quantities of low grade ore to extract a high grade portion.

SOURCE & MANUFACTURING

There are two types of ores: Ferrous (iron) and nonferrous. There is approximately 20 times the tonnage of iron in the earths crust compared to all other non-ferrous products combined. Some of the chemical processes that occur during steel making are repeated during welding operations.

BLAST FURNACE IRON

Utilizes chemical reaction between a solid fuel charge and the resulting column of gas. Three different materials are used for the charge:
Ore (mainly iron oxide). Flux (limestone calcium oxide + carbon dioxide) Coke (primarily carbon).

BLAST FURNACE IRON

Coke reduces iron oxide to iron metal. Lime reacts with impurities and floats them to the surface (slag). Resulting iron (pig iron) is used as a starting point for further purification. Elements such as carbon, silicon, phosphorous, sulfur and nitrogen are removed or reduced using different types of furnaces (open hearth, electric, basic oxygen, ).

CAST IRON INGOT

After passing through the refining furnace, the metal is poured into cast iron ingot molds. The ingot is a rather large square column of steel. At this point, the metal is saturated with oxygen. A substantial amount of oxygen must be removed (deoxidation) using additives to tie up the oxygen into gases or in slag.

COMMON INGOTS
Rimmed Steel (least oxidation). Capped Steel (more uniform core). Killed Steel (complete removing of oxygen). Semi-killed Steel (small amount of deoxidization to kill any rimming action). Vacuum Deoxidized Steel (removal of oxygen without producing nonmetallic incursion)

CLASSIFICATION OF STEEL

Carbon Steel. Low Alloy Steel. High Alloy Steel.

CARBON STEEL
Basically an alloy of iron and carbon
Low Carbon (up to 0.15% carbon). Mild Carbon (0.15 to 0.29% carbon). Medium Carbon (0.3 to 0.59% carbon). High Carbon (0.6 to 1.7% carbon).

Most of the production is low and mild, because of their relative strength and ease of welding.

LOW ALLOY STEEL

Having 1.5% to 5% total alloy content. Alloys are added to improve strength and toughness, retard corrosion, and modify response to heat treatment. Alloy elements are manganese, silicon, chromium, nickel, molybdenum & vanadium. Low alloy steels have higher tensile strength and yield strength than carbon steel

HIGH ALLOY STEEL

Expensive and specialized steels with alloy levels that exceed 10%. Because of the high levels of alloying elements, special care and practices are required in welding.
Austenitic manganese steel (high carbon & manganese levels) has great toughness and hardens while undergoing cold work. Stainless steel (high chromium and Nickel) has high resistance to corrosion. Tool steel ( chromium, tungsten, molybdenum & vanadium) is used in making tools, dies, punches, extruding dies, forging.

STEEL SPECIFICATIONS
Egyptian Code 260/71. American sources: AISC, AISI, ASTM.
Most commonly used steel in structural works are A36-77 & A242-79. Prefix A is for ferrous metals. 36 & 242 are just index numbers. 77 & 79 are the years the standard was originally adopted.

CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE OF METALS

On cooling, atoms assemble into a regular crystal pattern (liquid solidifies or crystallizes). In a crystal, the atoms & molecules are fixed and not free to move (crystalline lattice). When temperature increases, thermal energy is absorbed by the atom and movement increases.

CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE OF METALS

As distance between atoms increase, the lattice breaks down and crystal melts. If the crystal contains one type of atom, it melts at a single temperature. If the crystal contains two or more types of atoms, it starts to melt at one temperature but not completely molten until a higher temperature.

GRAINS AND GRAIN BOUNDARIES

As the metal cools into freezing point, a small group of atoms begins to assemble into crystalline form. These crystals are scattered throughout the body with no specific orientation. As crystallization continues, crystals begin to touch one another, stopping their free growth. Grain boundary defines the edge of crystals.

GRAINS AND GRAIN BOUNDARIES

Initial grain size is influenced by the rate of cooling and temperature. In a fillet weld, the initial crystal formation takes place at the point where the molten metal meets the solid base metal. As the metal continues to solidify, grains in the center are smaller and finer.

GRAINS AND GRAIN BOUNDARIES

As weld metal cools, heat from the center of the weld deposit dissipates into the base metal through the outer grains. Consequently, grains that solidify first remain at high temperature for a longer time while in the solid state. This condition encourages grain growth.

GRAINS AND GRAIN BOUNDARIES

Grain size has an effect on the soundness of the weld. Smaller grains are stronger and more ductile than larger grains. If cracks occur, the tendency is for it to start in the area where the grains are largest.

HEAT TREATMENT
The temperature that the metal is heated, length of time it is held at that temperature, and the rate that it is cooled have an effect on the metals crystalline structure (microstructure). This microstructure determines the properties of the metal. This microstructure can be manipulated by heat treatment.

PREHEAT
Heat from welding disperses through the metal and radiates to the atmosphere causing relatively rapid cooling. Preheating the weldament may slow the rate of cooling of the metal. o Preheat temp. is commonly 330 to 400 F Thick weld metal will require preheat, as the heat is conducted away from the weld zone rapidly as the mass increases.

STRESS RELIEVING
The metal closest to the weld is subject to the highest temperature, which decreases as the distance from the weld zone increases. This nonuniform heat causes nonuniform expansion and contraction. These stresses may be relieved by uniformly heating the structure after it has been welded. Metal is heated to a temperature just below the point where microstructure changes.

HARDENING
Hardness of steel may increase by heating it up to 50oF to 100oF above the temperature that a microstructure change occurs, then placing the metal in a liquid solution that rapidly cools. This rapid cooling (quenching) locks in place microstructures that contribute to hardness. According to the speed they cool the metal, oil is fast, water is faster and salt brine is fastest.

TEMPERING
Tempering takes place usually after quenching. Metal is reheated and held for a length of time to about 1335oF, then cooled at room temperature. Tempering reduces brittleness and produces a balance between high strength and toughness.

ANNEALING
A metal is heated up to 50oF to 100oF above the temperature that a microstructure change occurs, then cooled at a very slow rate (usually in a furnace). The main aim of annealing is to soften steel and create a uniform fine grain structure. Welded parts are seldom annealed as high temperatures may cause distortion.

NORMALIZING
Normalizing is similar to annealing but with a different method of cooling. Normalized steel is cooled in still air, rather than in a furnace.

HEAT TREATMENT SUMMARY

Various ways of controlling the heating and cooling of metals can improve certain properties, but often at the expense of other properties. Increasing strength or hardness may at the same time reduce ductility and make the metal more brittle.

EFFECT OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS

Carbon: up to 1.7% - steel, above 1.7% cast iron. High carbon steel and cast iron require special care for welding. Sulfur: normally undesirable as it causes brittleness and can create welding difficulties. It may improve machinability of steel as it causes machine chips to break rather than curl and clog the machine.

EFFECT OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS

Manganese: up to 1% is usually present. Deoxidizer and desulphurizer. It also increases the tensile strength and hardenability. Chromium: is a hardening alloying element, also increases corrosion resistance and strength at high temperatures. Nickel: Improves ductility and toughness. Added with chrome to form austenitic stainless steel.

EFFECT OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS

Molybdenum increases the depth of hardening characteristics of steel. Silicon usually contained in steel as a deoxideizer. It increases strength and reduce ductility. Phosphorous greatly reduces ductility and toughness. Aluminum is mainly used as a deoxideizer. Copper improves corrosion resistance. High levels can cause welding difficulties.

EFFECT OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS

Columbium used in austenitic steel as a stabilizer, reacting with carbon and leaving chromium. Tungsten provides strength at high temperatures. Vanadium keeps steel in fine-grain condition. Nitrogen is sometimes used to reduce the amount of nickel in austenitic stainless steel. Alloying elements may affect the allotropic characteristics or affect crystalline changes at high temperature.

ELECTRICITY FOR WELDING

Electric source. Power required (watts). A/C to D/C.