1.

INTRODUCTION
The objective of Aircraft Design Project II is to enhance the knowledge in
continuation of the Aircraft Design Project I.
It is more likely to perform an initial structural analysis as a part of the conceptual
design process. Before the actual structural members can be sied and analyed! the
loads they will sustain must be determined. Aircraft loads estimation! a separate
discipline of aerospace engineering! combines aerodynamics! structures and weights.
The design process of the "Amphibious fighter# continues in the following stages.
$%n diagram for the design study
&ust and maneuverability envelopes
'ritical loading performance and final $%n graph calculation
(tructural design study ) Theory approach
*oad estimation of wings
*oad estimation of fuselage
Balancing and maneuvering loads on tail plane! aileron and rudder
loads
Detailed structural layouts
Design of some components of wings! fuselage
Preparation of a detailed design report with drawings
1.1 DATA FROM ADP I
1.1.1 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
Aircraft type + Amphibious fighter
'rew + ,
*ength + -../0 m
(pan + ,/.12 m
3eight + /.22 m
4mpty weight + ,5260 kg
Total takeoff weight + 6,.60 kg
7uel weight + 8200 kg
4ngine model + (aturn9*yulka A*%6, 7:! Turbofan
;o. of engines + -

1.1.2 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
:a<imum speed + :ach -
'ruise speed + :ach 0./5
=ange + -/00 km
>ing loading + -18.50 kg9m
-
Thrust9>eight + 0.851
7uel capacity + ,6..8m
6
'ruise Altitude + ,0100 m
,
1.1.3 CREW AND PAYLOAD REQUIREMENTS
;o. of crew members ? ,
>eight of crew member ? ,00 kg @appro<.A
>eight of payload ? 5800 kg
1.1.4 AIRFOIL SPECIFICATIONS
Airfoil type + ;A(A (' @-A ) 0.,-
Thickness + ,-.0B
'amber + ,.6B
Trailing edge angle + 6.1C
*ower flatness + .B
*eading edge radius + -.6B
:a<imum '
*
+ ,.,22
:a<imum '
* angle
+ ,5.0
:a<imum *9D + -6..8-
:a<imum *9D angle + 5.0
:a<imum *9D '
*
+ 0.80-
(tall angle + 5.0
Dero%lift angle + %-.5
NASA SC(2)-0412
(S!"#$#%&%$'( '"#)*)%()
-
F%+. 1.1 L%*& *)# NASA SC(2)-0412
6
F%+. 1.2 D#'+ P)('# *)# NASA SC(2)-0412
1.1., CONCEPTUAL DESIGN
.
2. --. DIAGRAM FOR THE DESIGN STUDY
The largest load the aircraft is actually e<pected to encounter is called the limit! or
applied load. To provide a margin of safety! the aircraft structure is always designed
to withstand a higher load than the limit load. The highest load the structure is
designed to withstand without braking is the "design# or "ultimate# load. The factor
of safety is the multiplier used on limit load to determine the design load.
:any of the load reEuirements on aircraft are defined in terms of the load factor! n.
The load factor is defined as the component of aerodynamic force perpendicular to the
longitudinal a<is divided by the aircraft weight. Assuming the angle of attack is not
large! n ? *9>. This is the effective perpendicular acceleration of the airplane in units
of g! the acceleration due to gravity.
2.1 SIGNIFICANCE OF --. DIAGRAM
There are structural limitations on the ma<imum load factor allowed for a given
airplane. There are two categories of structural limitations in airplane design+
*imit *oad 7actor+ This is the boundary associated with permanent structural
deformation of one or more parts of the airplane. If n is less than the limit load
factor! the structure may deflect during maneuver! but it will return to its original state
when n ? ,. If n is greater than the limit load factor! then the airplane structure will
e<perience a permanent deformation! i.e.! it will incur structural damage.
Fltimate *oad 7actor+ This is the boundary associated with outright structural failure.
If n is greater than the ultimate load factor! parts of the airplane will break.
Both the aerodynamic and structural limitations for an airplane are given by the $%n
diagram! a plot of load factor versus flight velocity. A $%n diagram is a type of "flight
envelope# for a given airplane. It establishes the maneuver boundaries.
7or airplane design! the limit load factor depends on the type of aircraft. (ome typical
values of limit load factor are as follows.
AIRCRAFT TYPE .
!)/%&%0"
.
."+'&%0"
;ormal general aviation -.5 to 6./ %,.5 to %,
Aerobatic aviation 1 %6
'ivil transport 6 to . %- to %,
7ighter 1.5 to 8 %1 to %6

*et
n
lim
@positiveA ? 8
n
lim
@negativeA ? %6
2.2 CALCULATION OF POSITI-E CUR-E OF --. DIAGRAM
5
$
A %
Design maneuvering speed
$
' %
Design cruise speed
$
D %
Design diving speed
$
( %
(talling speed
$
(
? 50 m9s
$
'
? -8,.55 m9s
$
A
? $
(
n
lim
? 50 <
8
? ,50 m9s
$
D
? $
'
G -1./- ? -8,.55 G -1./- ? 6,/.62 m9s
n ? *9>
* ?
-
,
H $
-

( '
*
3ere
H ? ,.-6 kg9m
6
( ? 88.,6 m
-
'
*
? ,.,22
> ? 6,.60 kg
2.2.1 TA1EOFF2 CRUISE AND LANDING
>hen $? -5 m9s
* ?
-
,
< ,.-6 < -5I

< 88.,6 < ,.,22 ? ../.2.6.
n ?
6,.60
6. . ../.2
? ,..6
>hen $? 60 m9s
* ?
-
,
< ,.-6 < 60I

< 88.,6 < ,.,22 ? 1.5/0.,2
n ?
6,.60
,2 . 1.5/0
? -.05
>hen $? .0 m9s
* ?
-
,
< ,.-6 < .0I

< 88.,6 < ,.,22 ? ,,./08.,8
n ?
6,.60
,8 . ,,./08
? 6.15
$ m9s n
-5 ,..6
60 -.05
.0 6.15
1
2.3 CALCULATION OF NEGATI-E CUR-E OF --. DIAGRAM
$
(
? 50 m9s
$
'
? -8,.55 m9s
$
A
? $
(
n
lim
? 50 <
6
? /1.1 m9s
$
D
? $
'
G -1./- ? -8,.55 G -1./- ? 6,/.62 m9s
n ? *9>
* ?
-
,
H

$
-

( '
*
3ere
H ? ,.-6 kg9m
6
( ? 88.,6 m
-
'
*
? 0.6
> ? 6,.60 kg
2.3.1 TA1EOFF2 CRUISE AND LANDING
>hen $? -5 m9s
* ?
-
,
< ,.-6 < -5I

< 88.,6 < 0.6 ? ,,.60.86
n ?
6,.60
86 . ,,.60
? 0.61
>hen $? 60 m9s
* ?
-
,
< ,.-6 < 60I

< 88.,6 < 0.6 ? ,1.10.5.
n ?
6,.60
5. . ,1.10
? 0.5-
>hen $? .0 m9s
* ?
-
,
< ,.-6 < .0I

< 88.,6 < 0.6 ? -8-16.,/
n ?
6,.60
,/ . -8-16
? 0.86
$ m9s nJ
-5 0.61
60 0.5-
.0 0.86
2
2.4 O3TAINED --. DIAGRAM
F%+. 2.3 O4&'%."5 --. 5%'+#'6 (T'7")**2 $#%/" '.5 ('.5%.+)
/
3. GUST AND MANEU-ERA3ILITY EN-ELOPE
The loads e<perienced when the aircraft encounters a strong gust can e<ceed the
maneuver loads in some cases. >hen an aircraft e<periences a gust! the effect is an
increase @or decreaseA in angle of attack. The change in angle of attack is
appro<imately upward gust velocity divided by aircraft velocity. The change in
aircraft lift is proportional to the gust velocity. The resulting change in load factor is
given by
Kn ?
(
>
-
u$'
*

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% 4En. 5.,

where
Kn ? 'hange in load factor

? Density at sea level

u ? &ust velocity
$ ? 7light velocity
4En. 5., assume that the aircraft instantly encounters the gust and that it instantly
affects the entire aircraft. These assumptions are unrealistic.
&usts tend to follow a cosine%like intensity increase as the aircraft flies through!
allowing it more time to react to the gust. This reduces the acceleration e<perienced
by the aircraft by as much as .0B. To account for this effect a statistical gust
alleviation factor @LA has been devised and applied to measured gust data @F
de
A
F ? L F
de
where
L ?
06 . ,
06 . ,
85 . 1

@ supersonicA

?
ma<
-
L
gcC
S
W

where

? 4Euivalent mass ratio

c ? Average chord from wing design
g ? Acceleration due to gravity
The mass ratio term accounts for the fact that a small! light plane encounters the gust
more rapidly than a larger plane.
8
At altitude less than 1,00 m!

7*I&3T 'M;DITIM; N L u @m9sA
3igh AMA 2.058 0.5,/ ,0..6
*evel flight 6.5,/ 0.6. 5.-5
Dive condition 6.6-1 0.66 -.5-2
3.1 POSITI-E LIMIT LOAD FACTOR
'onsidering positive limit load factor
7*I&3T 'M;DITIM; 7*I&3T $4*M'ITO @m9sA Kn n
peak
3igh AMA ,50 -.5/ 8.0/
*evel flight -8,.55 ..1/ ,,.,/
Dive condition 6,/.62 ,.-. 2.2.
3.2 NEGATI-E LIMIT LOAD FACTOR
'onsidering negative limit load factor
7*I&3T 'M;DITIM; 7*I&3T $4*M'ITO @m9sA Kn n
peak
3igh AMA /1.1 0.6/ 6.6/
*evel flight -8,.55 ,.,8 ..,8
Dive condition 6,/.62 0.6- 6.6-
3.3 --. DIAGRAM (GUST)
In eEuation 5., load factor due to gust increases if the aircraft is lighter. This is
counter to the natural assumption that an aircraft is more likely to have a structural
failure if it is heavily loaded.
In fact! the change in lift due to gust is unaffected by aircraft weight! so the change in
wing stress is the same in either case. 3owever! if the aircraft is lighter the same lift
increase will cause a greater vertical acceleration @load factorA so the rest of then
aircraft will e<perience more wing stress.
Aeroelastic effects can also influence the load factor due to gusts. An aft%swept wing
will bend up under load! which twists the wing and reduces the outboard angle of
attack. This reduces the total lift and also moves the spanwise lift distribution inboard!
reducing the wing bending stress. An aft%swept wing e<perience roughly ,5B lower
load factor due to a given gust than an unswept wing.
,0
$ @m9sA n nJ
0 , ,
/1.1 % 6.6/
,50 8.0/ %
-8,.55 ,,.,/ ..,8
6,/.62 2.2. 6.6-
6,/.62 0 0
The gust load factors as calculated can be plotted on a $%n diagram.
F%+. 3.1 --. D%'+#'6 (G/&)
In this diagram! it is assumed that the aircraft is in ,%g level flight when the gust is
e<perienced.
3.4 COM3INED --. DIAGRAM
,,
The $%n diagrams of 7igs. -.6 and 6., are combined to determine the most critical
limit load factor at each step. (ince the gust loads are greater than the assumed limit
load! it may be desirable to raise the assumed limit load at all velocities! as shown by
the dotted line.
F%+. 3.1 C)64%."5 --. D%'+#'6
,-
4. CRITICAL LOADING PERFORMANCE AND FINAL --.
GRAPH CALCULATION
The greatest air loads on an aircraft usually come from the generation of lift during
high%g maneuvers. 4ven the fuselage is almost always structurally sied by the lift of
the wing rather than by the air pressures produced directly on the fuselage. Aircraft
load factor @nA e<presses the maneuvering of an aircraft as a multiple of the standard
acceleration due to gravity. At lower speeds the highest load factor an aircraft may
e<perience is limited by the ma<imum lift available. At higher speeds ma<imum load
factor is limited to some arbitrary values based upon the e<pected use of the aircraft.
The load factor for minimum radius of turn is given by
min
R
n
?
-
0 !
A 9 @
. -
W T
KC
D

7rom ADP%I
K ? 0.05
0 ! D
C
? 0.0,5
W T ? 0.851
min
R
n
?
-
A 851 . 0 @
0,5 . 0 05 . 0 . -
? ,..8
The load factor for ma<imum radius of turn is given by
ma<
R
n
?
,
A 9 @
0 !

D
KC
W T
?
,
0,5 . 0 05 . 0
A 851 . 0 @

? -..8
4.1 MANEU-ERING LOAD FACTOR DIAGRAM
$
A %
Design maneuvering speed
$
' %
Design cruise speed
$
D %
Design diving speed
$
( %
(talling speed
&>
%
7light design gross weight
$
s
?
ma<
-
N
C
S
GW

,
_

?
,/, . , 61. . 0
,6 . 88
6,.60
-

,
_

? -6/..0 m9s
where
ma< N
C
? { } { }
-
ma<
-
ma< CL D L
C C

+
,6
?
{ } { }
- -
085 . 0 ,22 . , +
? ,.,/,
$
c
?
S
GW
K
c
?
,6 . 88
6,.60
61 ? 1.,.0- m9s
where L
c
? is a constant and it takes the value of 61 for fighter aircrafts
$
D
? ,.-5< $
c
?,.-5< 1.,.0- ? /0,.-/ m9s
$
A
? $
(
n
lim
? -6/..0
8
? 2,5.- m9s
F%+. 4.1 M'."0"#%.+ ()'5 *'$&)# 5%'+#'6
4.2 CONSTRAINTS ON LOAD FACTOR
The ma<imum possible load factor @at $? 50 m9sA is given by
ma<
n
?
( )
1
]
1

,
_

S W
C
V
W
T
S W K
V
D 0 ! -
ma<
-
-
,
-
,

,.
?
( )
1
]
1

05 . 6,2
0,5 . 0
50 -6 . ,
-
,
851 . 0
05 . 6,2 05 . 0
50 -6 . ,
-
,
-
-
? 8.-5
ma<
n
? 8.-5
4.3 LE-EL TURN
Turn radius = ?
,
-
-

n g
V
Turn rate

V
n g ,
-
At $? 50 m9s
Turn radius = ?
, -5 . 8 /, . 8
50
-
-

? -2.2, m
Turn rate

?
50
, -5 . 8 /, . 8
-

? ,./0 rad9s
By calculation
-"()$%&8 69/ T#. #'5%/ 6 T#. #'&" (#'59/)
50 -2.2, ,./0
,00 ,,0./5 0.80
,50 -.8..- 0.10
-00 ..6..0 0..5
-50 18-./6 0.61
600 882.12 0.60
650 ,652.8. 0.-1
.00 ,226.16 0.--
.50 --...21 0.-0
500 -22,.6, 0.,/
4.4 PULL UP MANEU-ER
Turn radius = ?
( ) ,
-

n g
V
Turn rate

?
( )

V
n g ,
At $? 50 m9s
,5
Turn radius = ?
( ) , -5 . 8 /, . 8
50
-

? 60./8 m
Turn rate

?
( )
50
, -5 . 8 /, . 8
? ,.1- rad9s
By calculation
-"()$%&8 69/ T#. #'5%/ 6 T#. #'&" (#'59/)
50 60./8 ,.1-
,00 ,-6.51 0./,
,50 -2/.00 0.5.
-00 .8..-. 0..0
-50 22-.-5 0.6-
600 ,,,-.0. 0.-1
650 ,5,6.10 0.-6
.00 ,821.81 0.-0
.50 -50-.0/ 0.,/
500 60//.88 0.,1
4., PULL DOWN MANEU-ER
Turn radius = ?
( ) ,
-
+

n g
V
Turn rate

?
( )

+
V
n g ,
At $? 50 m9s
Turn radius = ?
( ) , -5 . 8 /, . 8
50
-
+
? -../1 m
Turn rate

?
( )
50
, -5 . 8 /, . 8 +
? -.0, rad9s
By calculation
-"()$%&8 69/ T#. #'5%/ 6 T#. #'&" (#'59/)
50 -../1 -.0,
,00 88..5 ,.00
,50 --6.21 0.12
-00 682./0 0.50
-50 1-,.51 0..0
600 /85.05 0.6.
650 ,-,/.-2 0.-8
.00 ,58,.-0 0.-5
.50 -0,6./2 0.--
500 -./1.-1 0.-0
,1
,. STRUCTURAL DESIGN STUDY THEORY APPROACH
(tructural design is of critical importance to aircraft safety! but also plays a key role in
aircraft cost and performance. In addition to its direct impact on aircraft cost! the
aircraft structural weight affects performance.
Before the structure can be designed! we need to determine the loads that will be
imposed on the aircraft. 4ach part of the aircraft is subject to many different loads. In
the final design of an aircraft structure! one might e<amine tens of thousands of
loading conditions of which several hundred may be critical for some part of the
airplane.
In addition to the obvious loads such as wing bending moments due to aerodynamic
lift! many other loads must be considered. These include items such as inertia relief!
the weight and inertial forces that tend to reduce wing bending moments! landing
loads and ta<i%bump loads! pressuriation cycles on the fuselage! etc.
The aircraft @fighterA is designed such that it has amphibious characteristics
and possess
=APT system
(upercruise
Thrust vector and reverser
Delta wing
(tealth technology
,.1 AMPHI3IAN REQUIREMENTS
Buoyant
(tatically stable when sitting in water
Dynamically stable when moving in water
:inimie water spray impingement
,.2 DELTA WING
The delta wing is a wing plan form in the form of a triangle. The primary advantage
of the delta wing is that with a large enough angle of rearward sweep the wingJs
leading edge will not contact the shock wave boundary formed at the nose of the
fuselage as the speed of the aircraft approaches and e<ceeds transonic to supersonic
velocity. The rearward sweep angle vastly lowers the airspeed normal to the leading
edge of the wing! thereby allowing the aircraft to fly at high subsonic! transonic! or
supersonic speed! while the over wing speed of the lifting air is kept to less than the
speed of sound.
,2
The delta plan form gives the largest total wing area @generating useful liftA for the
wing shape! with very low wing per%unit loading! permitting high maneuverability in
the airframe. As the deltaPs platform carries across the entire aircraft! it can be built
much more strongly than a swept wing! where the spar meets the fuselage far in front
of the center of gravity. &enerally a delta will be stronger than a similar swept wing!
as well as having much more internal volume for fuel and other storage.
Another advantage is that as the angle of attack increases the leading edge of the wing
generates a vorte< which energies the flow! giving the delta a very high stall angle. A
normal wing built for high speed use is typically dangerous at low speeds! but in this
regime the delta changes over to a mode of lift based on the vorte< it generates.
Additional advantages of the delta wing are simplicity of manufacture! strength! and
substantial interior volume for fuel or other eEuipment. Because the delta wing is
simple! it can be made very robust @even if it is Euite thinA! and it is easy and relatively
ine<pensive to build.
The delta wing variant used here is a near%cropped delta@tailedA. 'ropped delta has its
tip cut off. This helps to avoid tip drag at high angles of attack.
,.3 STRUCTURAL DESIGN CRITERIA
@aA (trength reEuirements are specified in terms of limit loads @the ma<imum
loads to be e<pected in serviceA and ultimate loads @limit loads multiplied by
prescribed factors of safetyA. Fnless otherwise provided! prescribed loads are limit
loads.
@bA The specified air! ground! and water loads must be placed in eEuilibrium
with inertia forces! considering each item of mass in the airplane. These loads must be
distributed to conservatively appro<imate or closely represent actual conditions.
:ethods used to determine load intensities and distribution must be validated by
flight load measurement unless the methods used for determining those loading
conditions are shown to be reliable.
@cAIf deflections under load would significantly change the distribution
of e<ternal or internal loads! this redistribution must be taken into account.

F'$&)# )* /'*"&8:
A factor of safety of ,.5 must be applied to the prescribed limit loads which are
considered e<ternal loads on the structure. >hen a loading condition is prescribed in
terms of ultimate loads! a factor of safety need not be applied.
S&#".+&; '.5 5"*)#6'&%).:
@aA The structure must be able to support limit loads without detrimental
permanent deformation. At any load up to limit loads! the deformation may not
interfere with safe operation.
@bA The structure must be able to support ultimate loads without failure for at
least 6 seconds. (tatic tests conducted to ultimate load must include the ultimate
deflections and ultimate deformation induced by the loading. >hen analytical
methods are used to show compliance with the ultimate load strength reEuirements! it
must be shown that
,/
@,A The effects of deformation are not significantQ
@-A The deformations involved are fully accounted for in the analysisQ or
@6A The methods and assumptions used are sufficient to cover the effects of these
deformations.
@cA >here structural fle<ibility is such that any rate of load application likely to
occur in the operating conditions might produce transient stresses appreciably higher
than those corresponding to static loads! the effects of this rate of application must be
considered. Fnless shown to be e<tremely improbable! the airplane must be designed
to withstand any forced structural vibration resulting from any failure! malfunction or
adverse condition in the flight control system.
,.4 CONTINUOUS GUST DESIGN CRITERIA
The continuous gust design criteria must be used in establishing the dynamic response
of the airplane to vertical and lateral continuous turbulence. The following gust load
reEuirements apply to mission analysis and design envelope analysis+
@aA The limit gust loads must be determined utiliing the continuous turbulence
concept.
@bA In design envelope analysis all critical altitudes! weights! and weight
distributions! and all critical speeds must be considered.
,., AIRCRAFT STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Although the major focus of structural design in the early development of aircraft was
on strength! now structural designers also deal with fail%safety! fatigue! corrosion!
maintenance and inspectability! and produceability.
S&#$&#'( C).$"!&/:
:odern aircraft structures are designed using a semi%monocoEue concept% a basic
load%carrying shell reinforced by frames and longerons in the bodies! and a skin%
stringer construction supported by spars and ribs in the surfaces.
Proper stress levels! a very comple< problem in highly redundant structures! are
calculated using versatile computer matri< methods to solve for detailed internal
loads. :odern finite element models of aircraft components include tens%of%thousands
of degrees%of%freedom and are used to determine the reEuired skin thicknesses to
avoid e<cessive stress levels! deflections! strains! or buckling.
The goals of detailed design are to reduce or eliminate stress concentrations! residual
stresses! fretting corrosion! hidden undetectable cracks! or single failure causing
component failure.
Mpen sections! such as D or R sections! are used to permit inspection of stringers and
avoid moisture accumulation. 7ail%safe design is achieved through material selection!
proper stress levels! and multiple load path structural arrangements which maintain
high strength in the presence of a crack or damage.
,8
4<amples of the latter are+
aA Fse of tear%stoppers
bA (panwise wing and stabilier skin splices
,.< DESIGN LIFE CRITERIA
7atigue failure life of a structural member is usually defined as the time to initiate a
crack which would tend to reduce the ultimate strength of the member.
7atigue design life implies the average life to be e<pected under average aircraft
utiliation and loads environment. To this design life! application of a fatigue life
scatter factor accounts for the typical variations from the average utiliation! loading
environments! and basic fatigue strength allowables. This leads to a safe%life period
during which the probability of a structural crack occurring is very low. >ith fail%
safe! inspectable design! the actual structural life is much greater. The overall fatigue
life of the aircraft is the time at which the repair of the structure is no longer
economically feasible.
,.= MATERIALS
'hoice of materials emphasies not only strength9weight ratio but also+
7racture toughness
'rack propagation rate
;otch sensitivity
(tress corrosion resistance
4<foliation corrosion resistance
Acoustic fatigue testing is important in affected portions of structure. Doublers are
used to reduce stress concentrations around splices! cut%outs! doors! windows! access
panels! etc.! and to serve as tear%stoppers at frames and longerons.
&enerally D'%,0 uses -0-.%T6 aluminum for tension structure such as lower wing
skins! pressure critical fuselage skins and minimum gage applications. This material
has e<cellent fatigue strength! fracture toughness and notch sensitivity. 2025%T1
aluminum has the highest strength with acceptable toughness. It is used for strength
critical structures such as fuselage floor beams! stabiliers and spar caps in control
surfaces. It is also used for upper wing skins.
7or those parts in which residual stresses could possibly be present! 2025%T26
material is used. 2025%T26 material has superior stress corrosion resistance and
e<foliation corrosion resistance! and good fracture toughness. Typical applications are
fittings that can have detrimental preloads induced during assembly or that are
subjected to sustained operational loads. Thick%section forgings are 2025%T26! due to
the possible residual stresses induced during heat treatment. The integral ends of
-0
2025%T1 stringers and spar caps are over aged to T26 locally. This uniEue use of the
T26 temper virtually eliminates possibility of stress corrosion cracking in critical joint
areas.
C)6!)/%&"/:
'omposites are the most important materials to be adapted for aviation. 'omposites
are materials that are combinations of two or more organic or inorganic components.
Mne material serves as a Smatri<!S which is the material that holds everything
together! while the other material serves as reinforcement! in the form of fibers
embedded in the matri<. Fntil recently! the most common matri< materials were
SthermosettingS materials such as epo<y! bismaleimide! or polyimide. The reinforcing
materials can be glass fiber! boron fiber! etc.
7iberglass is the most common composite material! and consists of glass fibers
embedded in a resin matri<. 7iberglass was first used widely for boats and
automobiles! and today most cars have fiberglass bumpers covering a steel frame.
7iberglass was first used in the Boeing 202 passenger jet! where it comprised about
two percent of the structure. *ater! other composite materials became available! in
particular boron fiber and graphite! embedded in epo<y resins.
:aking composite structures is more comple< than manufacturing most metal
structures. To make a composite structure! the composite material! in tape or fabric
form! is laid out and put in a mould under heat and pressure. The resin matri< material
flows and when the heat is removed! it solidifies. It can be formed into various shapes.
In some cases! the fibers are wound tightly to increase strength.
Mne useful feature of composites is that they can be layered! with the fibers in each
layer running in a different direction. This allows materials engineers to design
structures that behave in certain ways. The greatest value of composite materials is
that they can be both lightweight and strong. The heavier an aircraft weighs! the more
fuel it burns! so reducing weight is important to aeronautical engineers.
Despite their strength and low weight! composites have not been a miracle solution
for aircraft structures. 'omposites are hard to inspect for flaws. (ome of them absorb
moisture. :ost importantly! they can be e<pensive! primarily because they are labour
intensive and often reEuire comple< and e<pensive fabrication machines.
:odern military aircraft! such as the 7%--! use composites for at least a third of their
structures! and some e<perts have predicted that future military aircraft will be more
than two%thirds composite materials
M'&"#%'( S"("$&%).:
The wing spars are composed of a high strength unidirectional graphite9epo<y
composite material chosen for its high strength and low weight. The fuselage
bulkheads are made of a high strength aluminium alloy. This arrangement was chosen
through a trade study to determine the optimum balance between overall structural
weight and cost. Because of its stealth and torsional strength characteristics! a high
modulus graphite9epo<y was also selected for the aircraft skin.
-,
A further use of advanced composites is the placement of ,9-%inch Levlar armour
around the engines. This was done to improve survivability since the aircraft spends
much of its time at low levels where critical systems must be protected from battle
damage. In the design of any part of the aircraft it is essential to know accurately the
properties of the material used.
OoungPs modulus+ It is the ratio of stress to strain and is constant for and
isotropic material in all directions.
PoissonPs ratio+ It is the ratio of transverse strain to longitudinal strain on
application of longitudinal stress.
Oield strength+ It is the ma<imum stress the material can take in the
elastic region of loading.
Fltimate stress+ It is defined as the ma<imum stress the material can
withstand beyond which it will completely fail.
(hear strength+ It is the ma<imum shear stress the material can withstand
beyond which it will completely fail.
1"8 P#)!"#&%"/:
Typical properties of aluminium alloy 101, include+
:edium to high strength
&ood toughness
&ood surface finish
4<cellent corrosion resistance to atmospheric conditions
&ood corrosion resistance to sea water
'an be anodied
&ood weldability and braability
&ood workability
>idely available
1"0('#:
Levlar is the registered trademark for a para%aramid synthetic fiber! related to other
aramids such as ;ome< and Technora. This high strength material was first
commercially used as a replacement for steel in racing tires. Typically it is spun into
ropes or fabric sheets that can be used as such or as an ingredient in composite
material components. 'urrently! Levlar has many applications! ranging from bicycle
tires and racing sails to body armor because of its high tensile strength%to%weight
ratio. >hen used as a woven material! it is suitable for mooring lines and other
underwater applications.
3)#). *%4"#:
(pecialty :aterialsJ boron fiber is particularly desirable for use in aerospace industry
applications where high compression loads are present. (ome e<amples of these
applications include the following aircraft+ 7%,5 7ighter! 7%,. 7ighter! B, Bomber!
Blackhawk 3elicopter! Predator B FA$! and the (pace (huttle.
--
R'5'#-'4/)#4".& 6'&"#%'(:
=adar%absorbent material! or =A:! is a class of materials used in stealth technology
to disguise a vehicle or structure from radar detection. A materialPs absorbency at a
given freEuency of radar wave depends upon its composition. =A: cannot perfectly
absorb radar at any freEuency! but any given composition does have greater
absorbency at some freEuencies than othersQ there is no one =A: that is suited to
absorption of all radar freEuencies
A common misunderstanding is that =A: makes an object invisible to radar. A radar
absorbent material can significantly reduce an objectPs radar cross%section in specific
radar freEuencies! but it does not result in SinvisibilityS on any freEuency. Bad
weather may contribute to deficiencies in stealth capability. =A: is only a part of
achieving stealth.
,.> STRUCTURAL OPTIMI?ATION AND DESIGN
(tructures are often analyed using comple< finite element analysis methods. These
tools have evolved over the past decades to be the basis of most structural design
tasks. A candidate structure is analyed subject to the predicted loads and the finite
element program predicts deflections! stresses! strains! and even buckling of the many
elements. The designed can then resie components to reduce weight or prevent
failure. In recent years! structural optimiation has been combined with finite element
analysis to determine component gauges that may minimie weight subject to a
number of constraints. (uch tools are becoming very useful and there are many
e<amples of substantial weight reduction using these methods.
-6
<. LOAD ESTIMATION OF WINGS
<.1 AIRLOADS ON LIFTING SURFACES
The actual loads and load distributions on the lifting surfaces can be determined. The
first step involves the stability%and%control calculation to determine the reEuired lift
on the horiontal tail to balance the wing pitching moment at the critical conditions.
The reEuired tail lift will increase or decrease the reEuired wing lift to attain the same
load factor.
'omplicated methods for estimating the lift on the trimmed tail and wing for a given
load factor can be initially appro<imated by a simple summation of wing and tail
moments about the aircraft center of gravity! ignoring the effects of downwash! thrust
a<is! etc.
Mnce the total lift in the wing and tail are known! the spanwise and chordwise load
distributions can be determined. 7or initial design! classical appro<imation methods
give reasonably good results.
F%+. <.1 W%.+ (%*& 5%/&#%4&%).
According to classical wing theory! the spanwise lift @or loadA distribution is
proportional to the circulation at each span station. A vorte< lifting%line
calculation will yield the spanwise lift distribution. 7or an elliptical planform
wing! the lift and load distribution is of elliptical shape.
-.
7or a non%elliptical wing! a good semi%empirical method for spanwise load
estimation is known as (chrenkJs appro<imation. This method assumes that the
load distribution on an untwisted wing or tail has a shape that is the average of the
actual planform shape and an elliptic shape of the same span and area.
F%+. <.2 S$;#".7@/ '!!#)A%6'&%).
In the above figure load is assumed to continue to the centerline of the aircraft.
The total area under the lift load curve must sum to the reEuired total lift. The
following eEuation describes the chord distribution of an elliptical wing.
A @ y C
?
-
-
,
.

,
_

b
y
b
S

7rom ADP%I
( ? 88.,6 m
-
b ? ,/.12 m
The chord distribution is as follows.
8 C(8)
,./2 1.1-
6.26 1.-0
5.10 5..,
2..2 ..05
8.66 0
<.2 ELLIPTICALLLY LOADED WING
It turns out that an elliptically loaded wing has the lowest possible induced drag for a
given wing aspect ratio! and lift coefficient. Aerodynamic designers strive to achieve
-5
an elliptic lift distribution to achieve this desired effect. They can do this by adjusting
the chord distribution! the twist distribution! and9or the angle of ero lift distribution.
F%+. <.3 C)./&#$&%). )* "((%!&%$'( (%*& 5%/&#%4&%).
<.3 SHEAR FORCE CALCULATION
(hear force distribution along the span!
(.7
<
? (.7
lift
G(.7
weight
G(.7
fuel
G(.7
engine
G(.7
armaments
? .,65< % ,-5/..< @for 0T<T5.0A
? 5.-,< % ,-5/..< % ./50 @for 5T<T/.0A
? 5.-,< % ,-5/..< % ./50 % ,1-6 % 6000 @for /T<T8.6A
SPANWISE
LOCATION FROM
TIP (6)
S.F
A
(N)
0 0
0.5 ,.6/.6
,.0 -/21.1
,.5 .6,..8
-.0 5256.-
-.5 2,8,.5
6.0 /1-8./
6.5 ,001/.,
..0 ,,501..
..5 ,-8...2
5.0 ,.6/6.0
5.5 ,082,.6
1.0 ,-.08.1
1.5 ,6/.2.8
2.0 ,5-/1.-
2.5 ,12-..5
/.0 ,/,1-./
-1
/.5 ,.82/.,
8.0 ,1.,1..
8.6 ,2-28..
<.4 SHEAR FORCE DIAGRAM
F%+. <.4 S;"'# F)#$" D%'+#'6
<., 3ENDING MOMENT CALCULATION
Bending moment distribution along the span!
B.:
<
? B.:
lift
GB.:
weight
GB.:
fuel
GB.:
engine
GB.:
armaments
? ,066./ <
-
% 1-8.-<
-
@for 0T<T5.0A
? ,066./ <
-
% 1-8.-<
-
% ./50@<)5A @for 5T<T/.0A
? ,066./ <
-
% 1-8.-<
-
% ./50@<)5A ) ,1-6 ) 6000 @for /T<T8.6A
SPANWISE
LOCATION FROM
TIP (6)
3.M
A
(N6)
0 0
0.5 ,0,.-
,.0 .0..1
,.5 8,0..
-.0 ,1,/..
-.5 -5-/./
6.0 61.,..
6.5 .851..
..0 1.26.1
..5 /,86.-
-2
5.0 ,0,,5.0
5.5 8/,..,
1.0 82,5.1
1.5 8/,8..
2.0 ,0,-5..
2.5 ,0166./
/.0 ,,6....
/.5 216...
8.0 /2.8.1
8.6 85,5./
<.< 3ENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM
F%+. <., 3".5%.+ M)6".& D%'+#'6
SPAR DEFINITION
>e design three spars with front spar located at ,5B of chord! middle spar located at
.5B of chord and rear spar at 20B of chord.
=oot chord ? /.,8 m
Therefore! position of the three spars from leading edge of root chord is calculated as+
7ront spar ? 0.,5 < /.,8 ? ,.-6 m
:iddle spar ? 0..5 < /.,8 ? 6.18 m
=ear spar ? 0.20 < /.,8 ? 5.26 m
As per calculation!
:a<imum bending moment ? ,,6.... ;m
Bending moment ? :a<imum B: < 7actor of safety < n
-/
? ,,6.... < ,.5 < 8
? ,56,.8.. ;m
Average height of spar ? 65 cm
Average breadth of spar ? ,5 cm
Average thickness of spar ? 6.5 cm
4lement Area
cm
-
<
cm
y
cm
A<
cm
-
Ay
cm
-
A<
-
cm
6
Ay
-
cm
6
I
c<
cm
.
I
cy
cm
.
, 5-.5 2.5 ,.25 686.2
5
8,./2 -856.,- ,10.2/ ,10.2
/
-856
- 8/ 2.5 8.-5 265 801.5 55,-.5 /6/5.,
-
-1012 .02.6
6 5-.5 2.5 ,, 686.2
5
522.5 -856.,- 165-.5 ,10.2
/
-856
Total -06 ,5--.
5
,525./
2
,,.,/.2
.
,./8/.
.
-16// 1-22
A
Ax
x

? 2.5 cm
A
Ay
y

? 2.21 cm
A y Ay I I
cx xx
+ +
-
-
? 565,0.52 cm
.
A x Ax I I
cy yy
+ +
-
-
? -8,,...8 cm
.
7ront spar carries 65B of total bending moment carried by spar.
B:
front spar
? 0.65<,56,.8.. ? 5610-.-8 ;m
-8
:iddle spar carries .0B of total bending moment carried by spar.
B:
middle spar
? 0..0<,56,.8.. ? 1,-58.21 ;m
=ear spar carries -5B of total bending moment carried by spar.
B:
rear spar
? 0.-5<,56,.8.. ? 6/-/2.65 ;m
=. LOAD ESTIMATON OF FUSELAGE
The design of the fuselage is based on payload reEuirements! aerodynamics! and
structures. The overall dimensions of the fuselage affect the drag through several
factors. 7uselages with smaller fineness ratios have less wetted area to enclose a given
volume! but more wetted area when the diameter and length of the cabin are fi<ed.
The higher =eynolds number and increased tail length generally lead to improved
aerodynamics for long! thin fuselages! at the e<pense of structural weight. (election of
the best layout reEuires a detailed study of these trade%offs! but to start the design
process! something must be chosen. This is generally done by selecting a value not
too different from e<isting aircraft with similar reEuirements! for which such a
detailed study has presumably been done. In the absence of such guidance! one selects
an initial layout that satisfies the payload reEuirements.
At supersonic speeds the shape and dimensions of the fuselage have a strong effect on
the aircraft drag. (upersonic wave drag increases Euickly as the fuselage volume
increases and the fineness ratio is reduced. 7or this reason! the cabin diameter is kept
as small as possible and the cabin length increased.
*ongerons are used for the construction of fuselage. 3ence we need to calculate the
number of longerons used and the spacing between two longerons.
LONGERONS:
*ongerons are used for the construction of fuselage. 3ence we need to calculate the
number of longerons used and the spacing between two longerons.
'alculation is as follows+
*et us assume!
the spacing between the longerons ? 0.25m
@as per standardsA
=adius of the fuselage as calculated ? -.25m
'ircumference of the fuselage ? ,2.-/ m
60
;o. of longerons ?
Spacing
nce Circumfere
?
25 . 0
-/ . ,2
? -6
;ow we decide to remove the two longerons placed at 0 U ,/0 degrees as! they do
not have any a<ial stress. >e get total of -, longerons.
3OOM:
>hile analying the fuselage structure the section must be idealied. Idealiation
involves conversion of a stringer and its accompanying skin thickness into a
concentrated mass known as boom. The stringer used is of D type.
Average
boom is
given by

,
_

+ +

,
_

+
-
6
,
-
-
1
-
1

b t b t
B
D D
where t
D
b ? 'ross sectional area of stringer ? 25 mm
-

,
_

+ +

,
_

+
,,2
68
-
1
25000
68
,,2
-
1
25000
B
? 8,110.11 mm
-
xx
I
? By
2
? 8,110.11 < ,./2
-
? 6-05-/.,1 ;9 m
-
Bending moment taken by spars ? 0.60 < Total B: ? .58.../- ;m
y
I
M
xx
x

6,
y

;9 m
-
-.. -0//.5
../ ,0...6
2.- 181.,
8.1 5--.,
,- .,2.2
>. 3ALANCING AND MANEU-ERING LOADS
Balance! the proper placement of the center of gravity @c.g.A with respect to the
aerodynamic center of the wing! is a vital element of a proper! and safe! flying
airplane. In order to attain proper stability the c.g. must never!under any condition of
fuel loading! passenger loading! cargo loading or landing gear retraction or e<tension!
be aft of the aft stability limit. 7or proper control! usually trim in the landing approach
configuration or nose wheel lift off! the c.g. must never be forward of the most
forward aerodynamic limit.
F%+. >.1 3'('.$" 5%'+#'6
After completing the first weight estimate of a configuration! the center of gravity
of the airplane should be estimated. A moment schedule should be constructed
listing each element of the airplane! its weight and the location of its center of
gravity. The c.g.Ps are located by their distances from two mutually perpendicular
a<es. These a<es may be arbitrarily chosen but the horiontal a<is is usually taken
parallel to the fuselage floor and the vertical a<is is best selected near the
estimated airplane c.g. The moments of each element about the origin are then
determined and the total used to establish the empty airplane c.g. If the wing is not
6-
suitably located! it must be shifted forward or aft and the moment calculation
readjusted. ;ote that relocating the wing also may move engines and landing gear
as well as reEuiring tail sie changes because the tail length @moment armA is
altered.
B. DETAILED STRUCTURAL LAYOUTS
A @ y C
?
-
-
,
.

,
_

b
y
b
S

7rom ADP%I
( ? 88.,6 m
-
b ? ,/.12 m
The chord distribution is as follows.
y m '@yA
,./2 1.1-
6.26 1.-0
5.10 5..,
2..2 ..05
8.66 0
INLET GEOMETRY
Turbofan engines are incapable of efficient operations unless the air entering them is
slowed to a speed of about :ach 0..%0.5. This is to keep the tip speed of the
compressor below sonic speed relative to the incoming air. (lowing down the
incoming air is the primary purpose of an inlet system. Among many types of inlets!
the -D ramp inlet is chosen. The ramp inlet tends to be used more for speed upto
:ach -.
INLET LOCATION
As a rule of thumb! all inlet should be located a height above the runway eEual to at
least /0B of the inletJs height if using a low by%pass ratio engine. This reEuirement
increases the landing gear height.
(ide%mounted inlets are virtually standard for aircraft with twin engines in the
fuselage. (ide inlets provide short ducts and relatively clean air. (ide%mounted inlets
66
can have problems at high angles of attack due to the vorte< shed off the lower corner
of the forebody.
CAPTURE-AREA CALCULATION
7or :ach -! 'apture%area9mass flow ? 0.0055 m
-
9kg%s
:ass flow ? ,-2 V engine front face diameter
-
4ngine front face diameter ? /0B of ma<imum diameter ? /0B of ,.-5 ? ,
:ass flow ? ,-2 kg9s
'apture%area ? 0.18/5 m
-
NO??LE
The fundamental problem in jet engine nole design is the mismatch in desired e<it
areas at different speeds! altitudes and thrust settings. 7or initial design layout!
reasonable appro<imation can be made based upon the estimated capture area. 7or
ma<imum supersonic afterburning operations! the reEuired e<it area is about ,.- to ,.1
times the capture area.
=eEuired e<it area ? ,.0. m
-
FUEL SYSTEM
An aircraft fuel system includes the fuel tanks! fuel lines! fuel pumps! vents
and fuel management controls. Fsually the tanks themselves are the only components
that affect the overall aircraft layout.
7rom initial siing!
>
f
? 8200 kg
Density of fuel ? 2,8 kg9m
6
$olume of fuel ? mass9density ? ,6..8m
6
7uel compartments $olume! m
6
>eight! kg
>ing 1 .6,.
7uselage 2 5066
6.
Tail 0..8 656
Total ,6..8 8200
LANDING GEAR
>eight acting on individual main gear
>
w
? 0.8 V >
0
9-
? ,.,.6.5 kg
>heel diameter and width ? A>
w
B
M'%. C;""(
d
m
? 5., V ,.,.6.5
0.60-
? 8,..- cm
? 0.8, m.
>
m
? 0.61 V ,.,.6.5
0..12
?

6,.-6 cm
? 0.6, m.
N)/" C;""(
d
n
? d
m
V 0./
? 0.26 m
w
n
? >
m
V 0./
? 0.-5 m
65
10. DESIGN OF SOME COMPONENTS OF WINGS AND
FUSELAGE
10.1 PONTOON
The amphibious fighter is has pontoon with $%shaped bottom to reduce the water
impact loads. The height of the $ is called the deadrise! and the angle is the deadrise
angle. Deadrise angle must be increased for higher landing speeds and it is increased
toward the nose to about 60%.0 deg to better cut through waves.
!ea!ri"e

? ,0
-

V
!deg
where $ ? stall speed in miles per hour
!ea!ri"e

? ,0
-
/5 . ,,,

? .5.8- deg
To reduce water spray! spray strips can be attached to the edges of the bottom. These
are angled about 60 deg below the horion.
10.2 TAIL
$ertical tail area is given by
VT
S
?
VT
# # VT
L
S b c
3oriontal tail area is given by
61
$T
S ?
$T
# # $T
L
S C c
where
VT
c
? $ertical tail volume coefficient ? 0.02 @typical for fighterA
$T
c ? 3oriontal tail volume coefficient ? 0..0 @typical for fighterA
#
b
? >ing span
# C
? >ing mean chord ? 5.6- m
* ? :oment arm@Distance from tail Euarter%chord to wing Euarter%chordA
VT
S
?
66 . ,
,6 . 88 66 . 8 02 . 0
? ./.12 m
-
$T
S ?
,/2 . 0
,6 . 88 6- . 5 .0 . 0
? 68..2 m
-
The aircraft uses a $%tail and the tail dihedral angle is set to the arctangent of the
sEuare root of the ratio between the horiontal and vertical tail areas.
Tail dihedral angle ?

,
_

$T
VT
S
S
,
tan
?

,
_

.2 . 68
12 . ./
tan
,
? .2.88 deg
10.3 CONTROL SURFACE
'ontrol surfaces are usually tapered in chord by the same ratio as the wing or tail
surface so that the control surface remains a constant percent chord. This allows the
spars to be straight%tapered rather than curved.
The ailerons typically e<tend from about 50B to about 80B of the span. Therefore! it
e<tends from ..12 m to /.68 m along the span. Ailerons and flaps are typically ,5%
-5B of wing chord along the span.
FUSELAGE
The fuselage includes the cabin and9or cockpit! which contains seats for the occupants
and the controls for the airplane. In addition! the fuselage may also provide room for
cargo and attachment points for the other major airplane components. (ome aircraft
62
utilie an open truss structure. The truss%type fuselage is constructed of steel or
aluminum tubing. (trength and rigidity is achieved by welding the tubing together
into a series of triangular shapes! called trusses.
'onstruction of the >arren truss features longerons! as well as diagonal and vertical
web members. To reduce weight! small airplanes generally utilie aluminum alloy
tubing! which may be riveted or bolted into one piece with cross%bracing members. As
technology progressed! aircraft designers began to enclose the truss members to
streamline the airplane and improve performance. This was originally accomplished
with cloth fabric! which eventually gave way to lightweight metals such as aluminum.
In some cases! the outside skin can support all or a major portion of the flight loads.
:ost modern aircraft use a form of this stressed skin structure known as monocoEue
or semimonocoEue construction.
F%+ B.1 T;" W'##". &#//
The monocoEue design uses stressed skin to support almost all imposed loads. This
structure can be very strong but cannot tolerate dents or deformation of the surface.
This characteristic is easily demonstrated by a thin aluminum beverage can. Oou can
e<ert considerable force to the ends of the can without causing any damage. 3owever!
if the side of the can is dented only slightly! the can will collapse easily. The true
monocoEue construction mainly consists of the skin! formers! and bulkheads. The
formers and bulkheads provide shape for the fuselage.
6/
F%+ B.2 M).)$)D" */"('+" 5"/%+..
(ince no bracing members are present! the skin must be strong enough to keep the
fuselage rigid. Thus! a significant problem involved in monocoEue construction is
maintaining enough strength while keeping the weight within allowable limits. Due to
the limitations of the monocoEue design! a semi%monocoEue structure is used on
many of todayWs aircraft.
F%+. B.3 S"6%-6).)$)D" C)./&#$&%).
The semi%monocoEue system uses a substructure to which the airplaneWs skin is
attached. The substructure! which consists of bulkheads and9or formers of various
sies and stringers! reinforces the stressed skin by taking some of the bending stress
from the fuselage.
WINGS
The principal structural parts of the wing are spars! ribs! and stringers.
68
F%+B.4 W%.+ $)6!).".&/
These are reinforced by trusses! I%beams! tubing! or other devices! including the skin.
The wing ribs determine the shape and thickness of the wing @airfoilA. In most modern
airplanes! the fuel tanks either are an integral part of the wingWs structure! or consist of
fle<ible containers mounted inside of the wing. Attached to the rear! or trailing! edges
of the wings are two types of control surfaces referred to as ailerons and flaps.
Ailerons e<tend from about the midpoint of each wing outward toward the tip and
move in opposite directions to create aerodynamic forces that cause the airplane to
roll. 7laps e<tend outward from the fuselage to near the midpoint of each wing. The
flaps are normally flush with the wingWs surface during cruising flight. >hen
e<tended! the flaps move simultaneously downward to increase the lifting force of the
wing for takeoffs and landings.
TAIL
Tail surfaces are used to both stabilie the aircraft and provide control moments
needed for maneuver and trim. Because these surfaces add wetted area and structural
weight they are often sied to be as small as possible.
A large variety of tail shapes have been employed on aircraft over the past century.
These include configurations often denoted by the letters whose shapes they resemble
in front view+ T! $! 3! O! inverted $. $%tails combine functions of horiontal and
vertical tails. They are sometimes chosen because of their increased ground clearance!
reduced number of surface intersections! or novel look! but reEuire mi<ing of rudder
and elevator controls and often e<hibit reduced control authority in combined yaw and
pitch maneuvers.
WING LOCATION ON THE FUSELAGE
The wing position on the fuselage is set by stability and control considerations and
reEuires a detailed weight breakdown and c.g. estimation. At the early stages of the
design process one may locate the aerodynamic of the wing at the center of constant
.0
section or! for aircraft with aft%fuselage%mounted engines! at 10B of constant section.
@As a first estimate! one may take the aerodynamic center to be at the Euarter chord of
the wing at the location for which the local chord is eEual to the mean aerodynamic
chord.A
The lateral position of the landing gear is determined based on roll%over reEuirements+
one must be able to withstand certain lateral accelerations without falling over. The
detailed computation reEuires knowledge of landing gear length! fuselage mass
distribution! and ground maneuver reEuirements. 7or our purposes! it is sufficient to
assume that the main gear wheel track is about ,.1 fuselage diameters. 7or general
aviation aircraft or commuters with gear attached to turbo%prop nacelles! the value is
usually much larger.
It is desirable to mount the main landing gear struts on the wing spar @usually an aft
sparA where the structure is substantial. 3owever! the gear must be mounted so that at
aft c.g. there is sufficient weight on the nose wheel for good steering. This generally
means gear near the 50B point of the :.A.'. 7or wings with high sweep! high aspect
ratio! or high taper ratio! the aft spar may occur forward of this point. In this case a
chord e<tension must be added. The drawing here shows the gear mounted on a
secondary spar attached to the rear spar and the addition of a chord e<tension to
accommodate it.
HIGH LIFT SYSTEMS
A wing designed for efficient high%speed flight is often Euite different from one
designed solely for take%off and landing. Take%off and landing distances are strongly
influenced by aircraft stalling speed! with lower stall speeds reEuiring lower
acceleration or deceleration and correspondingly shorter field lengths. It is always
possible to reduce stall speed by increasing wing area! but it is not desirable to cruise
with hundreds of sEuare feet of e<tra wing area @and the associated weight and dragA!
area that is only needed for a few minutes. (ince the stalling speed is related to wing
parameters by+
It is also possible to reduce stalling speed by reducing weight! increasing air density!
or increasing wing '
*ma<
. The latter parameter is the most interesting. Mne can design
a wing airfoil that compromises cruise efficiency to obtain a good '
*ma<
! but it is
usually more efficient to include movable leading and9or trailing edges so that one
may obtain good high speed performance while achieving a high '
*ma<
at take%off and
landing. The primary goal of a high lift system is a high '
*ma<
Q however! it may also
be desirable to maintain low drag at take%off! or high drag on approach. It is also
necessary to do this with a system that has low weight and high reliability.
FLAP GEOMETRY
.,
7ig ,0.,. 7lap (ystem &eometries
The figure below shows a double%slotted flap and slat system @a .%element airfoilA.
3ere! some of the increase in '
*ma<
is associated with an increase in chord length
@7owler motionA provided by motion along the flap track or by a rotation a<is that is
located below the wing.
F%+ 10.2 D)4("-S()&&"5 F('! '.5 S('& S8/&"6
.-
11. DETAILED DESIGN REPORT WITH DRAWINGS
11.1 SPECIFICATIONS
*ength ? -../0 m
(pan ? ,/.12 m
3eight ? /.22 m
=oot chord ? /.,8 m
Tip chord ? -..5 m
:ean chord ? 5.6- m
Planform area ? 88.,6 m
-
Aspect ratio ? 6.5-
Taper ratio ? 0.6
*eading edge sweep ? 55 @degA
4mpty weight ? ,5260 kg
Total takeoff weight ? 6,.60 kg
7uel weight ? 8200 kg
.6
t9c ? 0.0.
Tail dihedral angle ? .2.88 @degA

!ea!ri"e

? .5.8- @degA
;ole e<it area ? ,.0. m
-
4ngine model+ - V (aturn9*yulka A*%6, 7:! Turbofan
Airfoil + ;A(A (' @-A ) 0.,-
11.2 THREE -IEW DRAWING
..
11.3 THREE DIMENSIONAL DRAWING
.5
12. REFERENCES

,. =aymer! D.P.! "Aircraft Design+ A 'onceptual Approach! Third 4dition#!
AIAA! Inc.! =eston! $A! pp. --8%-20! 628%.0,! .01! .0/%.,-! .-1%..1! -001.
-. *loyd =. Renkinson and Rames 7. :archman III! "Aircraft Design Projects for
engineering students#! -006.
6. Anderson!R.D.!Rr.!# Aircraft Performance and Design#! :c&raw%3ill! ;ew
Oork!,888.
.. The "=etractable 7loats after =etractable &ears# located at
http+99www.seaplaneinternational.com9-0,090.9,.9retractable%floats%after%
retractable%gears9
5. The "Airfoil Investigation Database# located at
http+99www.worldofkrauss.com9foils9
1.Aircraft Design+ (ynthesis and Analysis at
http+99adg.stanford.edu9aa-.,9AircraftDesign.html
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