C H A P T E R 5

Experimental Stress Analysis

5.1 Notation 235
5.2 Introduction 236
5.3 Electrical Resistance Strain Gage 237
5.4 Brittle Coating 244
5.5 Photoelasticity 245
References 245
Tables 247
Practical problems sometimes are so complicated that there is reluctance to use
simple formulas for the calculation of strains and stresses. Then experimental and
numerical techniques can be helpful, with experimental methods useful both for
treating complete engineering problems and for verifying the correctness of ana-
lytical or computational analyses. Since stress cannot usually be measured directly,
most experimental methods serve to measure strains, making the title of this chapter
somewhat of a misnomer. Introductory information on the use of strain gages, brittle
coatings, and some other means of experimental analysis is provided.
5.1 NOTATION
The units for most of the denitions are given in parentheses, using L for length, F
for force, V for voltage, for resistance, and T for time.
b Width of tensile specimen (L)
E Youngs modulus (F/L
2
)
E
l
Magnitude of electric eld vector (F/charge)
E
V
Output voltage (V)
f Frequency (cycles/T)
F Force (F)
I Current (amps)
P
g
Power dissipated by strain gage (FL/T)
R Resistance of uniform conductor of length L, cross-sectional area A, and
specic resistance , R = L/A ()
235
236
EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS
S
A
Sensitivity of material of gage wire
S
c
Circuit sensitivity (V)
S
g
Gage factor
u, v, w Displacement components (L)
V Applied voltage (V)
Shear strain
E Voltage uctuation (V)
Unit extension or strain (L/L)

t
Threshold strain of brittle coating (L/L)
Angle to principal direction
Poissons ratio
Specic resistance
Stress (F/L
2
)

1
,
2
Principal stresses (F/L
2
)

uc
Ultimate compressive strength (F/L
2
)

ut
Ultimate tensile strength (F/L
2
)
Resistance unit (volts/ampere or ohms)
5.2 INTRODUCTION
To improve on the simple use of a micrometer to nd the changes in length of a
specimen after it is loaded, methods such as the Moire technique, interferometric
strain gages, electric strain gages, brittle coatings, photoelasticity, x-ray diffraction,
holographs, and laser speckle interferometry are employed.
A Moire pattern is dened as a visual pattern produced by the superposition of
two regular motifs that geometrically interfere. These motifs are parallel lines, rect-
angular arrays of dots, concentric circles, or radial lines. Moire patterns are used to
measure displacements, rotations, curvature, and strain.
Interferometric gages measure the change in grating pitch deposited at a desired
area of specimen in terms of optical interference.
Holographics and laser speckle interferometry are relatively recent and important
developments in experimental mechanics. They permit the extension of interferom-
etry measurements of diffuse objects.
X-ray diffraction can be used to determine changes in interatomic distances. This
can be very useful in analyzing stress concentration and residual stress.
Analogies are important in experimental studies. For example, they use corre-
spondences between governing differential equations of torsion and membrane lm
or between differential equations of solid mechanics and electromagnetics.
The majority of current applications in experimental stress analysis utilize elec-
tric strain gages. Only a brief introduction of electric strain gage and brittle coating
methodologies is presented in this chapter. The bases of other methods are beyond
the scope of this book.
5.3 ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE STRAIN GAGE
237
Since the 1950s, experimental stress analysis technology has developed rapidly.
Developments continue in high-precision instrumentation and online computer pro-
cessing of experimental data in real time. Online computers can control hundreds of
strain gages and process all the data automatically. This can reduce both the time and
cost. Holography and laser speckle techniques are very effective experimental meth-
ods and often involve huge amounts of data processing, which can now be handled
by computers. Most experimental methods can be categorized as mechanical, elec-
trical, or optical methods. The introduction of the basic principles here of electric
strain gages will be helpful in understanding some of the new methods.
5.3 ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE STRAIN GAGE
The electrical resistance strain gage is the most frequently used device in experimen-
tal stress analysis. The gages are also used as sensors in transducers for measuring
load, torque, pressure, and acceleration. The electrical resistance strain gage operates
on the principle discovered by Lord Kelvin in 1856 that the electrical resistance of
metal wire varies with strain. The fractional change in resistance (R) per unit exten-
sion () is known as the sensitivity (S
A
) of the metal or alloy of which the wire is
made:
S
A
=
R/R

= 1 +2 +

(5.1)
where is the specic resistance.
The sensitivities of typical strain gage alloys are listed in Table 5-1. The advance
or constantan alloys are widely used because the sensitivity varies little over a wide
range of temperature and strains (even in the plastic region). The high sensitivity and
high fatigue strength of the isoelastic alloy give it advantages in dynamic applica-
tions. The sensitivity of isoelastic gages changes with both temperature and strain,
however.
The most common constructions of the modern strain gage are the bonded wire
and bonded foil types. The foil gage is produced by etching a metal foil into a grid
pattern. The metal foil strain gage is the most widely used gage for both general-
purpose stress analysis and transducer applications. To facilitate handling, the wire
or foil grid is mounted on or encapsulated in a paper or epoxy carrier or backing.
The manufacturers identifying code for a gage usually gives such information as
backing type, alloy, length, and resistances. Foil gage lengths typically vary from
0.008 in. (0.20 mm) to 4 in. (102 mm) and resistances are from 120 to 350 . Gages
with lengths greater than 0.060 in. (1.52 mm) are also available with a resistance of
1000 . The manufacturer species the gage factor (S
g
), which is dened as
S
g
= (R/R)
a
(5.2)
where
a
is the uniform normal strain along the axial direction of the gage. The re-
sistance change in the denition of S
g
includes effects due to transverse extensions
238
EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS
(shear strains are negligible in measuring S
g
). Manufacturers literature usually sup-
plies values for the transverse sensitivity of gages and formulas for deriving true axial
extension from the apparent extension indicated by the gage.
Backings are usually made of paper or glass-ber-reinforced epoxy. The latter is
applicable to moderate temperatures up to 750

F (400

C) or if special precautions
are taken, to even higher temperatures. Another type of gage is the weldable strain
gage, which is suitable for application within the range 320 to 1200

F (200 to
650

C) or for outdoor installation in inclement weather. See Ref. [5.1] for further
information.
Several popular gage congurations are shown in Fig. 5-1. A rosette is the combi-
nation of two or three gages in one assembly. If nothing is known beforehand about
the strain eld, a three-element rosette is required for nding the elements of the
small strain tensor. If the principal directions are known beforehand, a two-element
Figure 5-1: Examples of strain gage congurations: (a) uniaxial foil; (b) two-element 90

tee rosette; (c) 60

rosette; (d) three-element 45

stacked rosette; (e) 45

rosette; (f ) uniaxial
wire; (g) uniaxial wire, with ribbon leads. (Courtesy of the Micro-Measurements Division of
Measurement Group, Inc., Raleigh, NC.)
5.3 ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE STRAIN GAGE
239
90

rosette sufces to measure the principal strains. In some cases, such as uniaxial
extension, bending, or torsion of rods, only one gage is necessary to nd the strain.
The strain measurements are made by bonding the gage to the surface of the spec-
imen under test and by sensing voltage changes that occur when the resistance of
the strained gage changes. The application of the gage to the specimen surface is a
critical step in the measurement process, and gage manufacturers provide detailed
instructions for preparation of the specimen surface, bonding the gage to the surface,
and making electrical connections. Among the many adhesives used for applying the
gage to the surface, methyl-2-cyanoacrylate, epoxy, polyimide, and several ceram-
ics are very common. Upon completion of the installation, it is desirable to inspect
the adequacy of the bonds. To test the relative completeness of the bond cure, the
resistance between the gage grid and the specimen can be measured. This follows
because the resistance of the adhesive layer increases as the adhesive cures. The typ-
ical resistance across the adhesive layer for strain gage installation is on the order of
10,000 M [5.1].
Two basic circuits are used to measure the voltage changes across the resistance
gages: the Wheatstone bridge and the potentiometer. The Wheatstone bridge is ap-
plied in both static and dynamic experiments, but the potentiometer is suitable only
for dynamic signals.
The circuit of a basic Wheatstone bridge, where voltage uctuation E is to be
measured in order to determine the strain, is sketched schematically in Fig. 5-2. The
applied voltage V is constant. For circuit elements in parallel with the source voltage,
I
1
(R
1
+ R
2
) = V, I
2
(R
3
+ R
4
) = V (5.3)
The voltage difference across BD, E
V
(or V
BD
), is
E
V
= V
BD
= V
BC
V
DC
= I
1
R
2
I
2
R
3
(5.4)
where V
BC
and V
DC
are the voltage differences across BC and DC, respectively.
Using Eq. (5.3) in (5.4) gives
E
V
=
R
1
R
3
R
2
R
4
(R
1
+ R
2
)(R
3
+ R
4
)
V (5.5)
Figure 5-2: Basic Wheatstone bridge.
240
EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS
The bridge is balanced when E
V
= 0, or R
1
R
3
= R
2
R
4
. In the simplest cases,
one resistance, say R
1
, will be the strain gage. If R
1
changes by an amount R
1
due
to strain, the corresponding voltage uctuation E is calculated as
E =
(R
1
+R
1
)R
3
R
2
R
4
(R
1
+R
1
+ R
2
)(R
3
+ R
4
)
V +
R
1
R
3
R
2
R
4
(R
1
+ R
2
)(R
3
+ R
4
)
V
=
R
3
R
1
V
(R
1
+ R
2
)(R
3
+ R
4
)
(5.6)
where the products in the denominator of R
1
with R
3
and R
4
have been neglected
and the relation R
1
R
3
= R
2
R
4
has been used. (The neglected terms are small up to
a strain of about 0.05.) Substituting R
3
= R
2
R
4
/R
1
in Eq. (5.6) gives
E =
(R
2
R
4
/R
1
) R
1
V
(R
1
+ R
2
)(1 + R
2
/R
1
)R
4
=
(R
2
/R
1
)(R
1
/R
1
)
(R
2
/R
1
+1)
2
V
=
r
(1 +r)
2
R
1
R
1
V (5.7)
where r = R
2
/R
1
and r/(1+r)
2
is the circuit efciency. The sensitivity of the circuit
is the voltage change per unit extension:
S
c
=

=
1

a
r
(1 +r)
2
R
1
R
1
V (5.8)
Substituting Eq. (5.2) in (5.8) gives
S
c
=
r
(1 +r)
2
V S
g
(5.9)
Equation (5.9) shows that the circuit sensitivity depends on the static voltage V,
the gage factor S
g
, and the ratio R
2
/R
1
. The circuit efciency is a maximum for
R
2
/R
1
= 1. Equation (5.9) is valid if the bridge voltage V is xed and independent
of the gage current. The power dissipated by the gage is
P
g
= I
2
g
R
g
(5.10)
Substituting Eq. (5.10) in (5.3) with I
1
= I
g
and R
1
= R
g
gives
V =
_
P
g
/R
g
(R
g
+ R
2
) =
_
P
g
/R
g
R
g
(1 +r) = (1 +r)
_
P
g
R
g
(5.11)
Using Eq. (5.11) in (5.9) to eliminate V yields
S
c
= r S
g
_
P
g
R
g
/(1 +r) (5.12)
5.3 ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE STRAIN GAGE
241
The term S
g
_
P
g
R
g
is xed by the gage selection. Maximum power dissipation is
part of the information supplied by gage manufacturers. The term r/(1 +r) is deter-
mined by the design of the bridge circuit.
Figure 5-2 shows the Wheatstone circuit in its basic conguration. The discussion
above is restricted to the simple case of one gage resistance in the bridge. The bridge
is balanced before strains are applied to the gage in the bridge. Therefore, the voltage
E is initially zero, and the strain-induced voltage E can be measured directly.
Since in many cases the strain gage installation is subjected to temperature change
during the testing period, the effects of temperature must be eliminated. Often, the
Wheatstone bridge can be designed to nullify the temperature effects. Table 5-2 lists
some common Wheatstone bridges in use today. The gage used to measure the strain
is the active strain gage, whereas the dummy gage is mounted on a small block
of material identical to that of the specimen and is exposed to the same thermal
environment as the active gage. It can be shown that all but circuit 1 in Table 5-2
are temperature compensated if all the active gages in the circuit are also subject
to the same thermal environment and mounted on the same material. Commercially
available strain indicators have a much more complicated circuitry than shown in
Table 5-2, and they give direct readout of strain.
Proper calibration of a strain gage measuring system is important. A strain-
measuring system usually consists of a strain gage, a Wheatstone (or potentiometer)
circuit, a power supply, circuit completion resistors, a signal amplier, and a record-
ing instrument. Each element contributes to overall system sensitivity. If circuit sen-
sitivity S
c
is known, the strain |
a
| can be calculated using [Eq. (5.8)] |
a
| = S
c
|E|.
A single calibration for the complete system can be achieved by shunting a xed
resistor R
c
across one arm (e.g., R
2
) of the Wheatstone bridge (shown in Fig. 5-3) so
that the readings from the recording instrument can be related directly to the strains
that induce them. If the bridge is initially balanced, it can be shown that

c
= R
2
/S
g
(R
2
+ R
c
) (5.13)
where
c
is the calibration strain that produces the same voltage output (E) from
the bridge as the calibration resistor R
c
as it is placed in parallel with R
2
. Thus, if
Figure 5-3: Typical strain-measuring system.
242
EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS
Figure 5-4: Potentiometer circuit.
the output of the recording instrument is h
c
while the switch s is closed with R
c
and
the strain-induced output is h while the switch s is open, the strain is associated with
output h can be calculated numerically as
= (h/h
c
)
c
(5.14)
This is the principle of shunt calibration. It provides an accurate and direct method
for calibrating the complete system without considering the number of components
in the system.
The potentiometer circuit sketched in Fig. 5-4 can be utilized to measure dynamic
strains. The gage is R
1
(R
1
= R
g
) in the gure. The circuit has the same sensitivity
as the Wheatstone bridge,
S
c
= r S
g
_
P
g
R
g
/(1 +r) (5.15)
and a linear range of strain of up to 0.020.1, depending on the value of r = R
2
/R
1
.
The circuit is useful for dynamic strain measurement only because the large static
voltage E must be ltered out.
In this section, only the rudiments of strain gage technology have been discussed.
In practice, other complications must be considered, such as humidity, transverse
sensitivity, gage heating due to electric power dissipation, stability for long-term
measurement, distortion of transient strain pulses, cyclic loading, and the effect of
recording instruments on the data. Many gages, which are selftemperature com-
pensated to some extent, may also nullify temperature effects. Discussion of these
renements to strain measurement is available in Ref. [5.1] and in the technical lit-
erature of manufacturers of strain gages.
Example 5.1 Delta Rosette The delta rosette utilizes three gages separated by
120

, as shown in Fig. 5-5. Gage 1 is parallel to the x direction, gage 2 is 120

coun-
terclockwise fromthe x direction, and gage 3 is 240

counterclockwise. If extensions
of
g1
= 25010
6
in./in.,
g2
= 15010
6
in./in., and
g3
= 40010
6
in./in.
are measured, compute the components of the strain tensor, the principal strains, and
the principal stresses. Neglect the transverse sensitivity of the gages and assume that
the strained specimen has E = 30 10
6
psi, = 0.3.
5.3 ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE STRAIN GAGE
243
Figure 5-5: Delta rosette.
Substitution of the appropriate extensions and angles into Eq. (3.38) results in
three equations for the unknowns
x
,
y
, and
xy
. Thus,
250 10
6
=
x
150 10
6
=
x
cos
2
(120

) +
y
sin
2
(120

) +
xy
sin(120

) cos(120

) (1)
400 10
6
=
x
cos
2
(240

) +
y
sin
2
(240

) +
xy
sin(240

) cos(240

)
or
8.75 10
5
= 0.75
y
0.433
xy
3.375 10
4
= 0.75
y
+0.433
xy
(2)
The solutions to these equations are

xy
= 2.8868 10
4
,
y
= 2.8333 10
4
,
x
= 2.50 10
4
(3)
The principal strains follow from formulas for strains similar to the principal-stress
formulas of Eq. (3.13),

2
_
=
1
2
(
x
+
y
)
1
2
_
(
x

y
)
2
+
2
xy
=
1
2
(2.50 10
4
+2.8333 10
4
)

1
2
_
(2.50 10
4
2.8333 10
4
)
2
+(2.8868 10
4
)
2
_
1/2
We nd

1
= 4.1196 10
4
,
2
= 1.2137 10
4
From Hookes law (Chapter 3), the principal stresses are

1
=
E
1
2
(
1
+
2
),
2
=
E
1
2
(
2
+
1
)
244
EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS
Thus,

1
=
30 10
6
1 0.3
2
[4.1196 10
4
+(0.3)(1.2137 10
4
)] = 14,781.5 psi

2
=
30 10
6
1 0.3
2
[1.2137 10
4
+(0.3)(4.1196 10
4
)] = 8076 psi
Asummary of the equations used to determine principal strains, principal stresses,
and their directions for common types of rosettes is given in Table 5-3.
5.4 BRITTLE COATING
The brittle-coating technique provides a simple and direct approach for experimen-
tal stress analysis when high precision is not necessary. In the brittle-coating method
of stress analysis, a prototype of the part under study is coated with a thin layer of
material that exhibits brittle fracture. The specimen is then loaded, and when the
stresses in the coating reach a certain state, a pattern of cracks is formed in the coat-
ing.
After each application of the load, the coating is examined, and the crack patterns
associated with each load application are noted. The loading process is continued
until the crack pattern covers the region of interest or until the part is stressed to the
maximum permissible level. The brittle-coating test method is usually nondestruc-
tive, but the load must be kept below the level that would cause yield or fracture in
the prototype.
Before coating, the surface of the specimen is lightly sanded and a reective un-
dercoat is applied to facilitate crack observation. The coating is sprayed to as near a
uniform thickness as possible. The coating may exhibit both ammability and toxic-
ity, so suitable precautions against these dangers must be taken.
The surface coating is assumed to undergo the same strain as the specimen sur-
face. The cracks in the coating form and propagate perpendicular to the tensile prin-
cipal stresses. The cracks that form normal to principal stresses are called isostatics.
The line enclosing a cracked area that forms during a load application is called an
isoentatic. This line is a boundary between a cracked and an uncracked region and
hence is a line along which the principal stress is constant. One set of cracks will
form in a eld in which there is one tensile principal stress, and two will form if
there are two unequal tensile principal stresses. In a uniaxial or biaxial compressive
stress eld the coating will not crack, but it may ake and peel off. If two equal ten-
sile principal stresses act on the coating, the crack pattern will be random in nature.
The formation of a random pattern is called crazing. The isostatics and isoentatics
formed during two applications of a biaxial stress eld are shown in Fig. 5-6. Refer-
ence [5.2] describes brittle coating technology in more detail.
REFERENCES
245
Figure 5-6: Crack patterns in a brittle coating.
5.5 PHOTOELASTICITY
The velocity of light depends on the mediumin which the light is traveling. The index
of refraction of a material is the ratio of the velocity of light in a vacuum to that in the
material. Some materials exhibit the property of double refraction, or birefringence.
In these materials the index of refraction depends on the orientation of the electric
vector with respect to the material specimen it is traversing. Some materials that
are not normally birefringent become so when they are stressed. The phenomenon,
which was discovered by Brewster in 1816, is the basis for the photoelastic measure-
ment of stress. Patterns observed when a polarized light passes through a transparent
material can be related to principal stresses. Hence transparent models are made to
study stress levels for a particular mechanical conguration under various applied
loads. An introduction to the mechanics and application of photoelasticity is pro-
vided in the rst edition of this book. Since the use of photoelasticity is declining,
the subject will not be treated further here.
REFERENCES
5.1. Dally, J. W., and Riley, W. F., Experimental Stress Analysis, 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill, New York,
1991.
5.2. Kobayashi, S. (Ed.), Handbook on Experimental Mechanics, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ,
1987.
5
Tables
5-1 Strain Sensitivity S
A
for Common Strain Gage Alloys 248
5-2 Characteristics of Selected Common Wheatstone Bridges 249
5-3 Principal Strains and Stresses for Various Types of Rosettes 252
247
TABLE 5-1 STRAIN SENSITIVITY S
A
FOR COMMON STRAIN GAGE
ALLOYS
Material Composition (%) S
A
Advance or constantan 45 Ni, 55 Cu 2.1
Nichrome V 80 Ni, 20 Cr 2.2
Isoelastic 36 Ni, 8 Cr, 0.5 Mo, 55.5 Fe 3.6
Karma 74 Ni, 20 Cr, 3 Al, 3 Fe 2.0
Armour D 70 Fe, 20 Cr, 10 Al 2.0
Platinum alloy 95 Pt, 5 Ir 5.1
Alloy 479 92 Pt, 8 W 4.1
248 TABLE 5-1 Strain Sensitivity S
A
for Common Strain Gage Alloys
TABLE 5-2 CHARACTERISTICS OF SELECTED COMMON WHEATSTONE BRIDGES
a
If R
1
= R
2
= R
3
= R
4
= R
g
Circuit
Output Voltage E
Due to Strain
Circuit Sensitivity,
S
c
E S
c
1.
Single active gage in arm R
1
r
(1 +r)
2
R
1
R
g
V S
c
=
r S
g
V
(1 +r)
2
S
c
=
r
1 +r
S
g
_
P
g
R
g
R
1
4R
g
V
S
c
=
1
4
S
g
V
S
c
=
1
2
S
g
_
P
g
R
g
2.
Active gage in arm R
1
,
dummy gage in R
2
R
1
4R
g
V
S
c
=
1
4
S
g
V
S
c
=
1
2
S
g
_
P
g
R
g
R
1
4R
g
V
S
c
=
1
4
S
g
V
S
c
=
1
2
S
g
_
P
g
R
g
T
A
B
L
E
5
-
2
C
h
a
r
a
c
t
e
r
i
s
t
i
c
s
o
f
W
h
e
a
t
s
t
o
n
e
B
r
i
d
g
e
s
2
4
9
TABLE 5-2 (continued) CHARACTERISTICS OF SELECTED COMMON WHEATSTONE BRIDGES
a
If R
1
= R
2
= R
3
= R
4
= R
g
Circuit
Output Voltage E
Due to Strain
Circuit Sensitivity
S
c
E S
c
3.
Active gage in arm R
1
,
dummy gage in R
4
r
(1 +r)
2
R
1
R
g
V S
c
=
r
(1 +r)
2
V S
g
S
c
=
r
1 +r
S
g
_
P
g
R
g
R
1
4R
g
V
S
c
=
1
4
S
g
V
S
c
=
1
2
S
g
_
P
g
R
g
2
5
0
T
A
B
L
E
5
-
2
C
h
a
r
a
c
t
e
r
i
s
t
i
c
s
o
f
W
h
e
a
t
s
t
o
n
e
B
r
i
d
g
e
s
4.
Four active gages
V
4R
g
(R
1
R
2
+R
3
R
4
)
S
c
= V S
g
S
c
= 2S
g
_
P
g
R
g
V
4R
g
(R
1
R
2
+R
3
R
4
)
when R
1
= R
3
= R
2
= R
4
E =
R
1
V
R
g
S
c
= V S
g
S
c
= 2S
g
_
P
g
R
g
5.
Active gages in arms
R
1
and R
4
r V(R
1
R
4
)
(1 +r)
2
R
g
S
c
=
2r
(1 +r)
2
V S
g
S
c
=
2r
1 +r
S
g
_
P
g
R
g
l
V
4R
g
(R
1
R
4
)
when R
1
= R
4
E =
R
1
V
2R
g
S
c
=
1
2
V S
g
S
c
= S
g
_
P
g
R
g
a
r = R
2
/R
1
. All the circuits except circuit 1 are temperature compensated.
T
A
B
L
E
5
-
2
C
h
a
r
a
c
t
e
r
i
s
t
i
c
s
o
f
W
h
e
a
t
s
t
o
n
e
B
r
i
d
g
e
s
2
5
1
TABLE 5-3 PRINCIPAL STRAINS AND STRESSES FOR VARIOUS TYPES OF ROSETTES
a
Principal Angle
Rosette Principal Strains (
1
,
2
) and Principal Stresses (
1
,
2
)
1.
Rectangular,
three-element

1,2
=
1
2
(
A
+
C
)
1
2
_
(
A

C
)
2
+(2
B

A

C
)
2

1,2
=
E
2
_

A
+
C
1

1
1 +
_
(
A

C
)
2
+(2
B

A

C
)
2
_
tan 2
1
=
2
B

A

B
>
1
2
(
A
+
C
)
for 0 <
1
< 90

2.
Delta

1,2
=

A
+
B
+
C
3

2
3
_
(
A

B
)
2
+(
B

C
)
2
+(
C

A
)
2

1,2
=
E
3
_

A
+
B
+
C
1

2
1 +
_
(
A

B
)
2
+(
B

C
)
2
+(
C

A
)
2
_
tan 2
1
=

3(
C

B
)
2
A
(
B
+
C
)

C
<
B
for 0 <
1
< 90

2
5
2
T
A
B
L
E
5
-
3
P
r
i
n
c
i
p
a
l
S
t
r
a
i
n
s
a
n
d
S
t
r
e
s
s
e
s
f
o
r
R
o
s
e
t
t
e
s
3.
Rectangular,
four-element

1,2
=
1
4
(
A
+
B
+
C
+
D
)
1
2
_
(
A

C
)
2
+(
B

D
)
2

1,2
=
E
2
_

A
+
B
+
C
+
D
2(1 )

1
1 +
_
(
A

C
)
2
+(
B

D
)
2
_
tan 2
1
=

B

D

B
>
D
for 0 <
1
< 90

4.
Tdelta

1,2
=
1
2
(
A
+
D
)
1
2
_
(
A

D
)
2
+
4
3
(
C

B
)
2

1,2
=
E
2
_
(
A
+
D
1

1
1 +
_
(
A

D
)
2
+
4
3
(
C

B
)
2
_
tan 2
1
=
2(
C

B
)

3(
A

D
)

C
>
B
for 0 <
1
< 90

a
See Chapter 3 for a discussion of principal stresses.
A
,
B
,
C
, and
D
are the principal strains in directions A, B, C, and D.
T
A
B
L
E
5
-
3
P
r
i
n
c
i
p
a
l
S
t
r
a
i
n
s
a
n
d
S
t
r
e
s
s
e
s
f
o
r
R
o
s
e
t
t
e
s
2
5
3