Notes

Cultures of South Asia Review of the syllabus Indian subcontinent is comprised of India, Sri !an"a, #a"istan, $hutan, %aldives, $an&ladesh, and 'epal( #olitical South Asia encompasses $an&ladesh, Sri !an"a, 'epal, $hutan )only *in&dom, $uddhist+, %aldives, and India South Asia is home to one,fifth of the world-s population( India . $I!, #a"istan ./0 %I!, $an&ladesh .0. $I!, Sri !an"a1'epal .0 %I! Indus River is the boundary to the 2est of South Asia( 3he nei&hborin& people, lyin& to the east would refer to the people from the Indus River re&ion and beyond Indian )ori&in+ #opulation density )people per s4uare area+ in India 570, $an&ladesh 675 South Asia is separated from the rest of the 8urasian landmass by a series of mountain ran&es, includin& the 9imalayas 3he unity of the re&ion comes from a short history than from any cultural or political coherence( #eople are bound to&ether by the common e:perience of colonialism( 8nvironmental1;eo&raphy diverse landscape from tropical island to mountain rim( 3here are 0 sub,re&ions mountains in the north )more than 2500 feet tall+, Indus,;an&es,$rahmaputra lowlands core areas a&ricultural development and conse4uently of vast population density )productive alluvial plains+, #eninsular India<=deccan plateau and the southern islands Sri !an"a and %aldives( 8nvironmental problems natural ha>ards in $an&ladesh )cyclones, floodin&+ forest and deforestation 9imalayas Cuttin& down trees causes floodin&, whereas, in the past the timber was used for local needs #roblems related to forest and deforestation include the followin& September 5, 2007

2ater cannot be properly absorbed, wood is cut for "indlin&, hydrolo&ical cycle is interrupted, soil fertility can suffer as a result, and water balance1a4uifer cannot be maintained+( Cultures of South Asia 2ildlife e:tinction %onsoon climates Southern %onsoon )southeasterly winds, in the summer+ 'ortheastern %onsoon )northeasterly winds, in the winter+ Sept .2, 2007

?emo&raphic Indicators Country #opulation #opulation Rate of 3@R #ercent

Notes
%illion A00 $an&ladesh .0.(5 $hutan .(0 India .07/(/ %aldives 0(5 'epal 20(7 #a"istan .56(2 C2ill put table .2(. on blac"board labor( ?ensity 2502 55 75/ 2575 055 5.7 'atural Inc 2(. 2(5 .(7 .(0 2(5 2(0 @ertility 5(5 0(7 5(. 5(7 0(. 0(7 B.5b 57 02 5/ 56 56 02

If there is a lac" of mechani>ation, the a&ricultural societies still rely on children as a source of #opulation pressure <= commercial D &lobal needs cause pressure on natural resources( 3his is due to the fact that forests, soil, minerals and water are made into commodification( 3hese resources are worth Esomethin&F now, as opposed to servin& the local community and local commercial needs( 2hat causes risin& birth ratesG mortalityG rate of natural increaseG the percenta&e of people that live before or beyond a certain a&eG 3here are many ramifications of demo&raphics tied to social issues, cultural factors( 3here are patterns and conse4uences that can be deduced from the Enumbers(F @ew people live in urban areas #ush1#ull factors ?esperation, escape oppressive conditions, can-t ma"e ends meet on the farm1relative freedom, industriali>ation, better Hob opportunities, mi&ratin& in search of better opportunities, not necessarily due to starvation in countryside( i(e(I !and holdin&s are very small, and the land &ets fra&mented, dividin& from one &eneration to the ne:t and thusly, there is not enou&h to sustain them all( #eople traffic"in& in South Asia !and reform too" away some of the power of landlords In India, there are still issues related to landholdin& and landlords in #a"istan( #ower of feudal landlords in #a"istan is still powerful and they influence politics and social policies, presently( 3here is a parallel with South American and Caribbean landowners( Infant mortality rates, initially, in the 70-s, were e:tremely hi&h in the rural areas( In the cities, at the same time, there was half the death rate, but the trend does seem to show a stron& decrease in I%( 3he disparities in health care and the access to clean water resources from the rural and urban environment are due to various factors income, technolo&y, healthcare, education, resources( India contributes, annually, the population of Australia to the world population( 9owever, one must consider the consumption and lifestyles of each country, because India is a relatively low ener&y consumer )waste, conservation, utili>ation of resources+ Cultures of South Asia

Notes
8conomic indicators ;'I, ;'#( !oo"in& at health care, life e:pectancy, literacy and other societal factors that may have positive or deleterious affects on the people 3able of 8conomic @actors 'otes on civili>ation how are civili>ations formedG -A civili>ation is a particular "ind of

cultural pattern )55+(F 3he type of &rowth necessary for a civili>ation is dependent on a series of factors effective utili>ation of natural resources, populations e:ceedin& .000-s to .0,000-s, a system of social stratification at the level of technolo&y and production( #rior to the Iron A&e area, these Jld 2orld civili>ations were becomin& more speciali>ed due to the manipulation of labor for the production of &oods, chiefly for the urban city center( 3he ma:imal development in the Jld 2orld was primarily contained within four small settlements 3he 'ile valley in 8&ypt, the 3i&ris 8uphrates valley in Ira4, the Indus valley in India, and the 9wan&o 9o valley in China( %iddle to late $ron>e a&e, 'eolithic a&ricultural methods( 3heir "nowled&e of metallur&y was fairly advanced and these areas were inhabited( Nucleation: $arley, peas, cotton, cotton te:tiles, Indus Kalley was the only ancient civili>ation that did not have a despotic or e:ploitative civili>ation( Indeed, the society was far more e&alitarian compared to societies livin& in parallel, due to trade and sustainable efforts put in place by society( Standardi>ation of wei&hts and measure, ration 0 2 . i(e( construction of bric"s Junce was basic unit, 27 &, and multiples of that unit )able to measure one hundredth of an ounce+( Smallest len&th is .(2 mm, which would mean that there were instruments to accurately measure for trade or architecture( 3rade ties that bound this area are lin"ed to %esopotamia due to seals that were found( 3hese seals were used to stamp the &oods and are still used today Clay tablets and seals are noteworthy because they carry about 000 different ima&es, which may be part of a lan&ua&e system( 3he civili>ation was in its mature phase from 2/00,.600( After this period ).600,./00+ there was a &radual depopulation and decline( 3here are two theories that have been advanced .+ the temperature1climate became cooler and drier ma"in& a&riculture less productive or 2+ at the same time period, Indo,8uropean people started arrivin& in the re&ion from the Caspian and $lac" Sea )mi&ration from 2est+( 3here was an eastward mi&ration that was comprised of these people and they subHu&ated1"illed Indus Kalley people( South Asia 'otes %ohenHo,daro,city of 00,000( Intricately built, with 5 Cm seals, >ebu headdress( %any merchants in the Indus, used seals with characters with 5 or / characters upwards of .7 on each small tablet(

Notes
;uHarat #rovince )Rann of *utch+ It is a paradise for flamin&os Island of *anHia $et )spellin& deplorable+ 50 "m to #a"istani border( 3his is ?holavira )first ruins of Indus Kalley civili>ation+( @lourished 0,500 years a&o( @ull scale e:cavation started to shed true li&ht on the Indus Kalley re&ion( 3he city had an advanced irri&ation system,there was a hu&e ditch, unli"e any other seen before, the bottom of the ditch is natural bedroc"( Such hu&e ditches are found in various parts of the site( 3he walls were meticulously

constructed, with not even the sli&htest space between these walls( )Reservoir+ #erhaps there were ./ such reservoirs( 3he reservoirs were full of water, with lush &reenery in the surroundin&,perhaps 20,000 people lived here( 39e city was divided into two sections,fortress was surrounded by 50 metre hi&h walls( 3here were four &ates, facin& in the cardinal directions, the main &ate was the north &ate, where ceremonies were held( 3he fortress was the center of political activity )lined with a4ueducts+ this re&ion has very little rainfall( 9ow did they secure water for reservoirs surroundin& cityG Jutside the city there are traces of a river, which flows with water only a few times a year when it rains( 3here is evidence that stones were piled up here and that the people had constructed a dam( 3he water was dammed up and channeled, fillin& the reservoirs( 8ven if the water flowed over the sides of the dam, the water would be diverted to the reservoirs( 3he city was built on a southwesterly slope, the reservoirs were constructed with the natural bedroc" so that there would be a &radual slope( 3he water would fill the hi&hest reservoir and &o down to the lower levels,this is how the people mana&ed to save water and cultivate to subsist( %any of the cities of the Indus civili>ation were built alon& the Indus, however, ?holavira was built far from the river Indus, and counts as one of many other sites that were built away from the river( 3here are lar&e rivers such as the ;an&es and Indus, but other is also one other body of river that was "nown as the ;a&&har 9a""ra, which no lon&er e:ists( 3here, the land is dry, but this river would only form durin& the rainy season( It is a chan&eable river that appears and disappears in the desert( *aliban&an ruins are dry, but the area surroundin& it, is covered in &reenery( An under&round water vein was discovered here,and now the area has been turned into an area of cultivation( 0,500 years, the area of ;a&&har 9a""ra,many ruins e:ist at its basin,?holavira was built at the mouth of the ;a&&har 9a""ra( *hadir $et 3oday, there is a precious well,a life line for the people of ?holavira,as it does not dry up even in times of drau&ht( 3hou&h there are many salt fields here, there is a &reat deal of water here, and there is a device in the fortress that collected rain water, which demonstrates their attention to the resource( 3he water that was collected was channeled into the a4ueduct and flowed into the reservoice, specially reserved for rainwater, outside of the city walls, rainwater fallin& here may have been a special event for the Indus people( In the fortress there were other special water facilities well and bath( 3he lar&est well was found in

Notes

?holavira and it is a spectacular well in desi&n and si>e( Ropes were used to draw up the water and the people used )sacred+ waterI water from the &round was most sacred of all( In Luly, durin& the monsoon season in #a"istan, the floods occur almost annually, and the land is enriched and the people enHoy a &ood harvest( As summer comes, the water level of the Indus rises, small wooden boats )as depicted on the seals from 0,000 years a&o+ are constructed that are flat on the bottom and used for transportin& &oods( %ore &oods can be transported faster on water and was used as a hi&hway system,there was active tradin& amon& the cities of the river Indus( 3hese seals were used durin& business transactions( 9arappa in #a"istan, another city alon& the Indus, is replete with earthenware and &ood made and introduced throu&h trade( Amon& the artifacts found nec"laces made of carnelian, and earthenware, that has no icono&raphy of rulers or si&ns of warfare( 3his is a mysterious civili>ation as there were no si&ns of absolute authority or a "in&, ma"in& for a civili>ation that was e&alitarian and peaceful( 9ow was it maintainedG In ?holavira, ne:t to the main &ate, Indus characters have been found, but not yet deciphered( It was the first time these findin&s were identified at such a location( 3he characters are lar&e )50 cm in hei&ht and width+ and the faint white lines are traces of wood,the characters were made of a type of 4uart>,they were ).0 characters+ affi:ed on a wooden board( 3he ten newly discovered characters have been studied for over 50 years,the script is picto&raphic,and the system could be said to represent the oldest type of monosyllabic writin&( 3he characters can relate to authority fi&ures in ?holavira( In the Indus Kalley civili>ation had a horned headdress,but what was the role of the leaders in ?holavira( It is li"ely that the fortress was run on a national level, and there are wor" tables that indicate the wor"in& of carnelian and other stones( 3hese were specialties of the re&ion,many of these artifacts are found far from the Indus( Around 2,500 Mmm Al 'ar culture flourished in Abu ?habi and many carnelian artifacts have been found1e:cavated in the tombs( 3he pots there bear an Indus >ebu desi&n and shows that there was trade with Mmm Al 'ar culture( In $ahrain )two seas,a sea alon& it and a sea of under&round water+, the water comes from the coastal waters of the Red Sea and eventually emer&es there,the island of $ahrain is "now for its many ancient tombs )lar&est cluster of tombs in /65 s4 "m+( Seals were found that are round, and do not resemble the s4uare tablets, but undoubtedly resemble the script of the Indus valley( Cylindrical %esopotamian seals were found in $ahrain and are decorated with cuneiform( 3he %esopotamian state, Mr, indicate that trade from the Indus had occurred,did the people of the Indus travel as far as %esopotamiaG 3he cylindrical seal found would indicate that two men were translators and were two men who possibly came from Indus( 3here is a possibility that the "ey to decipherin& the Indus characters may e:ist in $ahrain,because the two cultures conver&ed here and they may find documents written side,by,side( 3he Indus valley civili>ation has lon& been considered a mystery,it was able to flourish primarily due to trade and the city of ?holavira, situated at the

Notes
&ateway to the sea, was able to prosper( In .700 $C, the name Indus ceased to appear on %esopotamian tablets and over time the river dried up and the cities be&an to decline, eventually to be abandoned amon& the Indus valley civili>ation ).700 $C climate chan&e+ In the city AdalaH, there is a 9indu temple built in the ./ th century, at the bottom of the stairway there is a well( 3he people consider the well to be a source of life,it is sacred( 3he reverence the Indus people had for the water remains deeply in&rained in the culture of India and amon& its people( Cultures of South Asia #ost Indus Kalley Society 3he four Kedas are Ri& Keda, Athar Keda, Sam Keda, NaHur Keda Ri& Keda, the oldest, was composed before .000 $C Indo8uropeans were lar&ely situated in 3ur"ey, Af&hanistan, #a"istan( Some tribes mi&rated westward, toward 8n&land and other traveled further east to South 8ast Asia( Indo,Aryan and Indo,8uropean were used interchan&eably( Indo,8uropeans were a very diverse people 8uropeans, Central Asians, South Asians( A these settlers started to move toward South Asia, they be&an a pastoralist life,became sedentary, followed increasin&ly a&riculture and &ave up bein& nomadic pastoralists in favor of a more sedentary a&riculture( Still raisin& animals, but in a sedentary way, in specific settlements or villa&es( September 20, 2007

39e &reat epics, the Ramayana and %ahabharata refer to events between .000 $C and 700 $C( 3hese were documentin& events when Indo 8uropean people spread eastward( Jf course there was warfare between natural inhabitants and new inhabitants( ?ate bac" to third and fifth century A?( 3hese are not sin&ular1unitary te:t( 3he epics were modified over a lon& period of time and were not written by one or two peopleI were collective repositories( 3he political or&ani>ation of the Indo,Aryans had stron& democratic elements with emphasis on sabha and samiti( It was a republican system )fairly characteristic of nomadic pastoralists+ whereas a&ricultural societies tend to become more hierarchical( Indo,8uropean people were fairly e&alitarian( 3hey believed in &eneral assembly sabha and selective committee )which was composed of elderly males+ which was called samiti( ;radually people become settled down and they would move away from a tribal society into a caste society( 3here was a &radual replacement of the )8astern ;an&etic plain developed monarchy-s, the republican system was maintained on the periphery+ republican forms of &overnment with monarchy( Kedic society developed and elaborated the tripartite Indo,8uropean social structure consistin& of priests, warriors, and a third &roup of traders, a&riculturists, and artisans( 9ere, the roots of the caste systems be&in to develop and there are more specific cate&ories1#e"in& order be&in to &et elaborated(

Notes

3he first reference to the caste system is found in Ri& Keda 3he four varnas )color+ $rahmans, *shatriyas, Kaishyas, Shudras $rahmans #riests, *shatriyas 2arriors, Kaishyas 3raders1@armers Shudras Artisans1#roviders of %enial !abor( Karnas formed from the various body parts of the Purusha,the cosmic man )primordial man+( 3he caste system corresponds to the body parts of the man $rahmans were the head, the *shatriyas were the torso, Kaishyas were the thi&hs)G+, and Shudras were feet )polluted, distinctly unsacred+( A class is a distinction based on economic factors, caste is a social distinction based on where your parents were born and to whom( Lati occupational &roups )what caste means today in South Asia+ which was a way to define even further the cate&ories within the varnas 8ach of the varnas consisted of various jatis Jatis are endo&amous 3he caste system was subse4uently Hustified usin& the dicture of "arma 3his concern played a bi& role in social relations and there were many events that were made )feasts for $rahmas+( Social practices revolved around this processI contradictin& attitudes towards the role of women )female &ods vs( mortal woman is confined1e:cluded from public participation( 3he Kedic reli&ion was simultaneously a form of sophisticated animism )e&, A&ni the &od of fire and Indra, the "in& &ods+ and philosophical mysticismabstracthi&h reli&ion %ore popular reli&ion comprised natural elements Kedic te:ts, especially Mpanishads describe the notion of the supreme bein& $rahma )9indu 'otion + 3he Mpanishadic theory of salvation )Moksha+ e:pounds the mer&er of the individual sould )Atman+ with the oversoul, )Brahma+( 3his also si&nifies freedom from the cycle of re,births( Cultures of South Asia 3he %aurya 8mpire )c 500,200 $C+ city of #atna Ale:ander the ;reat visited and con4uered parts of 'orth Asia and the first state ori&inated after his departure( 9e may have disturbed established hierarchy and political systems( #olitically loosely or&ani>ed, prosperous, and culturally vibrant 3he %aurya empire reached its pea" under emperor Asho"a )2/7,25. $C+( Converted from 9induism to $uddhismI Asho"a responded to the teachin&s of non violence, himsa, and wanted to &o away from the strictures and rituals of 9induism( $uddha lived around 000,500 $C( $annin& of animal sacrifice ?isinte&ration between 200 $C and 500 A? September 2/, 2007 City,states were be&innin& to form followin& the collapse of the Indus civili>ation(

Notes
3hrivin& trade and cultural diffusion( 3he ;upta 8mpire )c 500 A?,500 A?+ e:tended further to the west in #a"istan 3he ;olden A&e in history,revival of $rahmanism, Kedic rituals, and animal sacrifice( 3olerance of reli&ious diversity )$uddhism was an attempt to reform 9induism+( $uddha became an incarnation of Kishnu Coe:istence of $rahmanical )Shiva, Kishnu1*rishna and the %other ;oddesss+ and Shramani" traditions )fol" traditions+

*alidasa, the &reat Sans"rit playwri&ht and poet, wrote Sha"untala )celebrates ascetic life+ and %e&haduta )3he Cloud %essen&er+ Aryabhatta accurately calculated the value of pi )5(.0.+ and the len&th of the solar year( $uddhist cave paintin&s in AHanta )2estern India+ Characteristics of India society from the ancient times until the twelfth century .( #hases of imperial consolidation followed by decentrali>ation 2( Continuous infusion of arrivals such as Aryans, ;ree"s, Scythians, 9uns 5( 3he subcontinent was part of a vast economic system stretchin& from Rome in the west to Indonesia in the 8ast 0( A plurality of reli&ions and cultures coe:isted in South Asia )%osaic+ Cultures of South Asia 'otes 9indu synthesis is used to describe the ;upta 8mpire1?ynasty A number of city,states came into e:istence, life for ordinary people did not chan&e, and the terms decline really comes into 4uestion as there can be alternate histories which can be competin& viewpoints( )3ry to ta"e a more in inclusive history+ Islamic Contact (Wahabism/Sala ism: much more marshall! /.0 A? )Islam revealed to %ohammed+ the reli&ion of Islam was founded in Saudi Arabia( #eople started e:pandin& from this re&ion, con4uerin& other parts of the world, demonstratin& a rapid e:pansion( Repeated infusion of new ideas and peoplesI 8mer&ence of a cultural palimpsest )metaphor for a substance or materialI historical term+ #olitical oscillation between centrali>ation and fra&mentation Islamic contact started in A? 7.2 with the capture of Sind Arab traders also settled on the western coast of India ?ifferent strands of Islam alon& the coast and the hinterlands Jctober ., 2007

Mntil about .000 A?, Af&hanistan was $uddhist and then under Islamic political con4uest Af&hanistan converted( %ahmud of ;ha>ni )667 A?+ and the lootin& of 9indu temples( Some historians believe that economic &reed brou&ht %ahmud to Af&hanistan, however, the reason

Notes
for these e:cursions is still a matter of debate )with reference to reli&ion and other social factors+( 3emple destruction reli&iously driven or economically motivatedG In .20/, the ?elhi Sultanate was established, comprisin& of the rulers of #erso,Af&han, 3ur"ish descent( )nobility, peasantry, artisans+ 3he nobility was comprised of forei&n people and the peasantry was the bul" of society( 3he artisans, who were at the bottom of the barrel wanted to elevate their social status )why would they covert to IslamG A multi,tiered system for revenue collection was created Mansab"arsI responsible for contributin& cavalry to the imperial army Sube"arsI #rovincial &overnors, also responsible for collectin& revenue In"o#Islamic Accomo"ations Imposition of Ji$i%a, a reli&ious ta: on non,%uslims Jver time, a &radual process of cultural and lin&uistic synthesis )#ersian and 9indi synthesis Mrdu, which was a camp lan&ua&e that is considered a patois+ 8mer&ence of Mrdu as an amal&am of 9indavi and #ersian1Arabic Sufism )worship saints+ &ains popularity and stren&thened the Bhakti movement

Sufism is the popular face of Islam, ma"in& the reli&ion more democratic, and was considered an empowerin& reli&ion as it emphasi>ed personal devotion( Sufism is a more tolerant face of Islam, and is as much 9indu as it is Islamic( Resisted $rahmanical tradition, as $uddhism did for 9induism In .52/I $abur established the %u&hal ?ynasty

3he %u&hal 8mpire reached its >enith under A"bar Ethe ;reatF ).55/,./05+ Inititiated marria&e alliances with 9indu RaHputs Indo,Islamic fusion in the arts and architecture 3he construction of the Red @ort, the 3aH %ahal and several other monuments A"bar founded a new reli&ion )considered philosopher "in&+ &een#e#illahi (s'(!, a blend of Islam and 9induism )cler&y considered him an apostate for the liberalistic viewpoint+ Replacement of the %uslim calendar with the solar calendar ?evelopment of Indian classical music %u&hal miniature art and calli&raphy Reversal of A"bar-s enli&htened policies by Auran&>eb )./57,.707+ Reimposition of Li>iya Cultures of South Asia 'otes 3he debate on EJriental ?espotismF Jctober 5, 2007

Notes

10

3his was an ima&e painted by the west to create a picture of this re&ion as hell on earth( 3he idea was that they would be viewed as sava&e,the shift was to enli&htenment ideas,whereas the westerners would be seen as promoters of scientific reasonin&( 3he 8uropeans would see themselves as the purveyors of Jriental ?espotism Kery hi&h rates of ta:ation Complete subordination of society by the autocratic rule

8ach of these concepts was problematic( Society was offered a lar&e de&ree of freedom, and ta:es never e:ceeded 50O of their income, as was posited by the 8uropean colonialists( 3he $ritish Colonialism Jri&ins and Impacts 3he ;reat %u&hal empire ended in .707 8mer&ence of several successor states 8uropean presence in South Asia since the early .500-s In .067 Kasco ?e ;ama landed in Calicut on India-s southwestern coast 3he $ritish 8ast India Company Increasin& 8uropean political influence In .757, the $ritish established political domination over $en&al 3he ne:t two decades were out of control plunder and lootin& )Robert Clive personally appropriated a &reat deal of money and was essentially a soldier of fortune+ as part of the Ecivili>in& mission(F In .770, a famine in $en&al results in the deaths of one,third of its population 3he Company RaH A synonym for corruption and e:ploitation Chan&es in the economy and society 8uropean understandin&s of Indian history and society )he *omanticists 2illiam Lones established the Royal Asiatic Society )he +tilitarians the emphasis on use of science and reason #romotion of western education Replacement of #ersian with 8n&lish as the official lan&ua&e in .755 3homas %acaulay declared E2e must at present do our best to form a class who may bePIndia in blood and color, but 8n&lish in taste, in opinions, in morals and in intellect( 3o that class, we may leave it to refine the vernacular dialects of the countryPF @orced sendentri>ation of people surveys and census of people, casta, reli&ions #romotion of private property Qamindars &iven title to land in their revenue estates 3he #ermanent Settlement

10

Notes
!ar&e,scale e:ploitation of natural resources 8stablshment of the Indian Civil Service Introduction of railroads and tele&raph )steel came from 8n&land+

11

Interpretation and Codification of laws )laws were ri&idI caste system was created by $ritish+ Cultures o South Asia Notes $ritish adherence to the EtimelessF scriptures Social and cultural orthodo:y increased Impact of 8van&elicalism )$ritish banned missionary activity until .750-s+I sponsored by the 8ast India Company( Alienated the $ritish from the native peoples that they &overned Impact of the Industrial Revolution of South Asian economy )$ritish e:celled due to South Asia, but India became de,industriali>ed as $ritain became industriali>ed In"ia2s 3conom% +n"er the British $etween .757 and .607m there was no increase in India-s per,capita income 'early a 50O decline in per,capita incomes durin& the .750,.600 8ven more destructive was the decline in household food security $etween .772,.62., life e:pectancy fell by 20O Contrast 4ith the Pre#British Perio" %u&hal India was &enerally free of famines until the .770-s In the middle of the ei&hteenth century, the avera&e standard of livin& in 8urope was lower than the rest of the world %ost manufacturin& in the world too" place outside 8urope In the ei&hteenth century, even the untouchable laborers earned more than the 8n&lish farm laborers In .750, India and China contributed /5O of the world-s ;'# ?ifferences in ideolo&y of the %u&hal and $ritish rulers 3he %u&hals considered the protection of peasants their essential obli&ation 3a: brea"s, anti,speculative measures were used 3a: rates were tied to actual harvests )permanent settlement brou&ht in by $ritish+ 3he $ritish utilitarians, on the other hand championed mar"ets !aws of !eather vs( !aws of Iron 3here were thirty,one serious famines durin& the $ritish rule, compared to only seventeen durin& the previous two millennia( @actors affectin& 9ousehold Kulnerability )$ritish were more interested in capital+ ,Substitution of food crops by cash crops ,Incorporation in the world mar"ets ,$ritish support to money lenders, traders ,ctober -. /001

11

Notes
,8nclosures of pastures and common lands ,Mnfavorable tariffs and creation of dependency ,Railroad construction contributed to the increased vulnerability to famine CJ%%J?I@ICA3IJ' South Asia 'otes Responses to $ritish Colonialism in South Asia 3he Rebellion of .757 ?ifferin& interpretations of the rebellion by 8uropean and South Asian historians Inchoate )nascent+ sense of patriotism )&oal to restore %u&hal monarch+ Idiom of revolt was e:pressed in very traditional ways because they merely wanted to restore a lost order )"in&s+ 8conomic, social, and reli&ious causes Jctober .0, 2007

12

8conomic Causes Impoverishment of the aristocracy and others ) 5amin"ars, landlords, whose responsibility it was to collect ta:es, e:perience foreclosures, could not pay $ritons+ Reli&ious Causes 2estern influence was perceived as a threat to native reli&ions, Reli&ious %illenarianism )this was a muslim reli&ious sentiment, so people were willin& to fi&ht due to these ideas because they thou&ht it was the Eend of timesF Social 8rosion Social hierarchies were in flu:, and when social hierarchies chan&e to 4uic"ly, people be&in to &et an:ious over their place or status in society( 8mer&ence of %odern 'ationalism Colonial policies played an important role in shapin& nationalism 8mer&ence of an Indian %iddle Class R 2estern educated and influenced R Role of the middle class culture #rint media and the public sphere 3wo broad responses to colonialism and its impacts 3he traditional reaction or revivalism 8mphasi>ed tradition as the primary source of "nowled&e and wisdom Attempts to recover EuncontaminatedF tradition Caste,based association formed to lobby for economic interests 2( 3he modernist reaction or Reformism 8mphasis on nationality Rationality considered a 2estern value 2holesale reHection of EtraditionF and EcultureF 3he most innovative thin"ers tried to combine the traditionalists and the modernist views ;hose, a philosopher,nationalist declared E2e are to have what the 2est can &ive usPbut we are not to ta"e it hapha>ard and in a lump, rather we shall find it e:pedient to select the very best that is thou&ht and "nown in 8urope,

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and to even import that with the chan&es and reservations which our diverse conditions may be found to dictate( Jtherwise, we shall have chaos anne:ed to chaos, the vices and the calamites of the 8astF Cultures of South Asia 'otes Reviewin& some ideas as they refer to e:am %iddle class was a beneficiary and a&ent of chan&e )educated on nationalism and li"e,ideas+ Criti4ue on plunder of economy )what colonialism has brou&ht1ta"en from India+ 8conomics became a &reat part of nationalistic sentiment 'ationalism did not Hust involve affinity to area and land Ewhat do you when you &et freedomF Ewhy have freedomF Ewhat models would we use to &overn ourselvesF ;handi and Indian 'ationalism Reli&ion, #olitics, and Ideolo&y .( ;andhi and %odernity )middle class, western education, lawyer in !ondon, Sth( Africa+ Jn the issue of economics, a distinctly anti,modern attitude )prolific writers+ believed industries should be small scale and that industry had resulted in a &reat deal of dama&e to the cotton industry )Hob loss+( ;andhi wrote Ewhen I read %r( ?utt-s economic history of India, I weptI and as I thin" of it a&ain my heart sic"ens( It is machinery that has impoverished India( ReHection of Etechnolo&yF emphasis on Charkha )the spinnin& wheel+ and 6ha"i )homespun cloth+ 3he economy was about re,centerin& it on the villa&es and ma"in& a local economy &row( EIndia-s salvation consists in unlearnin& what she has learnt durin& past fifty years or so( 3he railways, tele&raphs, hospitals, lawyers, doctors and such li"e have all to &o, and the so,called upper class have to learn to live consciously and reli&iously and deliberately the simple life of a peasant(F );andhi criti4ued materialism( ;andhi-s views on modernity close to anti,urban 1industrial romanticism+ 2( ;andhi and democracy ?eep distrust of democratic institutions, ;andhi described parliament as a Esterile woman, a prostituteF ?irect democracy based on self,transformation 2as ;andhi an anarchistG 'oP $i& &overnment is not re4uired is what ;andhi was essentially sayin& Jctober .5, 2007

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