Adsorption is a process that occurs when a gas or liquid solute accumulates on the surface of a solid or, more rarely,

a liquid (adsorbent), forming a molecular or atomic film (the adsorbate). It is different from absorption, in which a substance diffuses into a liquid or solid to form a solution. The term sorption encompasses both processes, while desorption is the reverse process. Adsorption is operative in most natural physical, biological, and chemical systems, and is widely used in industrial applications such as activated charcoal, synthetic resins and water purification. Adsorption, ion exchange and chromatography are sorption processes in which certain adsorptives are selectively transferred from the fluid phase to the surface of insoluble, rigid particles suspended in a vessel or packed in a column. Similar to surface tension, adsorption is a consequence of surface energy. In a bulk material, all the bonding requirements (be they ionic, covalent or metallic) of the constituent atoms of the material are filled. But atoms on the (clean) surface experience a bond deficiency, because they are not wholly surrounded by other atoms. Thus it is energetically favourable for them to bond with whatever happens to be available. The exact nature of the bonding depends on the details of the species involved, but the adsorbed material is generally classified as exhibiting physisorption or chemisorption. Adsorption is usually described through isotherms, that is, functions which connect the amount of adsorbate on the adsorbent, with its pressure (if gas) or concentration (if liquid). The first isotherm is due to Freundlich and Kster (1894) and it is a purely empirical formula valid for gaseous adsorbates: , where x is the adsorbed quantity, m is the mass of adsorbent, P is the pressure of adsorbate and k and n are empirical constants for each adsorbent-adsorbate pair at each temperature. The function has an asymtotic maximum. As the temperature increases, the adsorbed quantity rises more slowly and more pressure is required to achieve the maximum.

Langmuir
In 1916, Irving Langmuir published a new isotherm for gases adsorbed on solids, which retained his name. It is an empirical isotherm derived from a proposed kinetic mechanism. It is based on four hypotheses: 1. 2. 3. 4. The surface of the adsorbent is uniform, that is, all the adsorption sites are equal. Adsorbed molecules do not interact. All adsorption occurs through the same mechanism. At the maximum adsorption, only a monolayer is formed: molecules of adsorbate do not deposit on other, already adsorbed, molecules of adsorbate, only on the free surface of the adsorbent.

These four points are seldom true: there are always imperfections on the surface, adsorbed molecules are not necessarily inert, the mechanism is clearly not the same for the very first molecules as for the last to adsorb. The fourth condition is the most troublesome, as often more molecules can adsorb on the monolayer, but this problem is solved by the BET isotherm.

Langmuir suggests that adsorption takes place through this mechanism: A(g) + S AS, where A is a gas molecule and S is an adsorption site. The direct and inverse rate constants are k and k-1. If we define surface coverage, , as the fraction of the adsorption sites occupied, in the equilibrium we have

or For very low pressures and for high pressures

is difficult to measure experimentally; usually, the adsorbate is a gas and the adsorbed quantity is given at standard temperature and pressure (STP) volume per gram of adsorbent. Therefore, if we call vmon the STP volume of adsorbate required to form a monolayer on the adsorbent (per gram of adsorbent too), line: and we obtain an expression for a straight

Through its slope and y-intercept we can obtain vmon and K, which are constants for each adsorbent/adsorbate pair at a given temperature. vmon is related to the number of adsorption sites through the ideal gas law. If we assume that the number of sites is just the whole area of the solid divided into the cross section of the adsorbate molecules, we can easily calculate the surface area of the adsorbent. Surface area of adsorbents depends on their structure, the more pores they have, the greater the area, which has a big influence on reactions on surfaces. If more than one gas adsorbs on the surface, we call E the fraction of empty sites and we have

and

where i is each one of the gases that adsorb.

Langmuir equation

Langmuir isotherm. Value of constant increases from blue, red, green and brown The Langmuir equation or Langmuir isotherm or Langmuir adsorption equation relates the coverage or adsorption of molecules on a solid surface to gas pressure or concentration of a medium above the solid surface at a fixed temperature. The equation was developed by Irving Langmuir in 1916. The equation is stated as:

or theta is the percentage coverage of the surface, P is the gas pressure or concentration, alpha is a constant.

The constant is the Langmuir adsorption constant and increases with an increase in the strength of adsorption and with a decrease in temperature. The equation is derived starting from the equilibrium between empty surface sites, particles and filled particle sites

equilibrium between empty surface sites S* and particles P and filled surface sites S-P

Because the fraction of filled surface sites is equal to and the fraction of unfilled sites equal to 1- and because P is proportional to the gas pressure or concentration the equation can be rewritten to

Other equations relating to adsorption exist such as the Temkin equation or the Freundlich equation. The Langmuir equation (as a relationship between the concentration of a compound adsorbing to binding sites and the fractional occupancy of the binding sites) is equivalent to the Hill equation.

In chemistry, Henry's law is one of the gas laws, formulated by William Henry. It states that: At a constant temperature, the amount of a given gas dissolved in a given type and volume of liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure of that gas in equilibrium with that liquid.

A formula for Henry's Law is:

where: the partial pressure of the solute above the solution the concentration of the solute in the solution (in one of its many units) the Henry's Law constant, which has units such as Latm/mol, atm/(mol fraction) or Pam3/mol. Taking the natural logarithm of the formula, gives us the more commonly used formula:[1]

Some values for k include: oxygen (O2) : 769.2 Latm/mol carbon dioxide (CO2) : 29.4 Latm/mol hydrogen (H2) : 1282.1 Latm/mol when these gases are dissolved in water at 298 kelvin. Note that in the above, the unit of concentration was chosen to be molarity. Hence the dimensional units: L is liters of solution, atm is the partial pressure of the gaseous solute above the solution (in atmospheres of absolute pressure), and mol is the moles of the gaseous solute in the solution. Also note that the Henry's Law constant, k, varies with the solvent and the temperature. As discussed in the next section, there are other forms of Henry's Law each of which defines the constant k differently and requires different dimensional units. The form of the equation presented above is consistent with the given example numerical values for oxygen, carbon dioxide and hydrogen and with their corresponding dimensional units.

Other Forms
There is various other forms Henry's Law which are discussed in the technical literature.[2][3]

Table 1: Some forms of Henry's law and constants (gases in water at 298K), derived from [3]

equation:

dimension :

O2

769.23

1.3 E-3

4.259 E4

3.180 E-2

H2

1282.05

7.8 E-4

7.099 E4

1.907 E-2

CO2

29.41

3.4 E-2

0.163 E4

0.8317

N2

1639.34

6.1 E-4

9.077 E4

1.492 E-2

He

2702.7

3.7 E-4

14.97 E4

9.051 E-3

Ne

2222.22

4.5 E-4

12.30 E4

1.101 E-2

Ar

714.28

1.4 E-3

3.955 E4

3.425 E-2

CO where:

1052.63

9.5 E-4

5.828 E4

2.324 E-2

= moles of gas per liter of solution = liters of solution = partial pressure of gas above the solution, in atmospheres of absolute pressure = mole fraction of gas in solution = moles of gas per total moles moles of gas per mole of water = atmospheres of absolute pressure

As can be seen by comparing the equations in the above table, the Henry's Law constant kH,pc is simply the inverse of the constant kH,cp. Since all kH may be referred to as the Henry's Law constant, readers of the technical literature must be quite careful to note which version of the Henry's Law equation is being used. It should also be noted the Henry's Law is a limiting law that only applies for dilute enough solutions. The range of concentrations in which it applies becomes narrower the more the system diverges from non-ideal behavior. Roughly speaking, that is the more chemically different the solute is from the solvent. It also only applies for solutions where the solvent does not react chemically with the gas being dissolved. A common example of a gas that does react with the solvent is carbon dioxide, which rapidly forms hydrated carbon dioxide and then carbonic acid (H2CO3) with water.

Temperature dependence
When the temperature of a system changes, the Henry constant will also change. This is why some people prefer to name it Henry coefficient. There are multiple equations assessing the effect of temperature on the constant. A simple example is [3], which is a form of the van't Hoff equation:

where k for a given temperature is the Henry's Law constant (as defined in the first section of this article), identical with kH,pc defined in Table 1, T is in kelvins, the index (Theta) refers to the standard temperature (298K). The above equation is an approximation only and should be used only when no better experimentally derived formula for a given gas exists. The following table lists some values for constant C (dimension of kelvins) in the equation above: Table 2: Values of C Gas O2 C H2 CO2 N2 He Ne Ar CO

1700 500 2400 1300 230 490 1300 1300

Because solubility of gases is decreasing with increasing temperature, the partial pressure a given gas concentration has in liquid must increase. While heating water (saturated with nitrogen) from 25C to 95C the solubility will decrease to about 43% of its initial value. This can be verified when heating water in a pot. Small bubbles evolve and rise, long before the water reaches boiling temperature. Similarly, carbon dioxide from a carbonated drink escapes much faster when the drink is not cooled because of the increased partial pressure of CO2 in higher temperatures. Partial pressure of CO2 in seawater doubles with every 16 K increase in temperature.[4]

The constant C may be regarded as:

where is the enthalpy of solution R is the gas constant.

Raoults Law
Raoult's law states that The vapor pressure of each chemical component in an ideal solution is dependent on the vapor pressure of the individual component and the mole fraction of the component present in the solution [1]. Once the components in the solution have reached chemical equilibrium, the total vapor pressure of the solution is:

and the individual vapor pressure for each component is

where is the vapor pressure of the pure component is the mole fraction of the component in solution Consequently, as the number of components in a solution increases, the individual vapor pressures decrease, since the mole fraction of each component decreases with each additional component. If a pure solute which has zero vapor pressure (it will not evaporate) is dissolved in a solvent, the vapor pressure of the final solution will be lower than that of the pure solvent. This law is strictly valid only under the assumption that the chemical interactions between the two liquids is equal to the bonding within the liquids: the conditions of an ideal solution. Therefore, comparing actual measured vapor pressures to predicted values from Raoult's law allows information about the relative strength of bonding between liquids to be obtained. If the measured value of vapor pressure is less than the predicted value, fewer molecules have left the solution than expected. This is put down to the strength of bonding between the liquids being greater than the bonding within the individual liquids, so fewer molecules have enough energy to leave the solution. Conversely, if the vapor pressure is greater than the predicted value more molecules have left the solution than expected, due to the bonding between the liquids being less strong than the bonding within each.

Deriving Raoult's Law (Raoult's Equation)

We define an ideal solution as a solution for which the chemical potential of component i is: , where the reference state is the pure substance. If the system is at equilibrium, then the chemical potential of the component i must be the same in the liquid solution and in the vapor above it. That is,

Assuming the liquid is an ideal solution, and using the formula for the chemical potential of a gas, gives:

(1) where is the fugacity of the vapor of i. If we study the component i in its pure state, we have:

where * indicates that we study a pure component.

But now,

= 1, so

Subtracting both equations gives us

which can be written as

or

This equation is valid for the ideal solution. Now, suppose the vapor of the solution behaves as an ideal gas. In this case, fugacity and pressure are identical, and we get

At equilibrium we have

= 0, and then

Finally,

This last equality is what is known as Raoults Law.

Henry vs Raoult
Both Henry's law and Raoult's law relate the vapor pressure of a component to its concentration. It is possible (and sometimes more convenient) for either law to write the concentration in terms of mole fractions x. Note however that the numerical value of k as well as its dimensions change when mole fractions are used rather than molarity (as seen in the Table 1). Henry's law: Raoult's law: The difference is that p* is the equilibrium vapor pressure of the pure component whereas the Henry constant kH is a value that differs from p*. It must be determined experimentally from the mixtures, not the pure compound. If the solution is ideal (which it seldom is), both components follow Raoult's law over the entire composition range. In most systems, the laws can only be applied in a very limited concentration range at extreme ends of the range. In that case, the minority component (the solute) follows Henry's law, but the solvent still follows Raoult's law. The Gibbs-Duhem equation can be used to prove that this is so.

Ideal/Non-Ideal Mixing Ideal

An ideal solution can be said to follow Raoult's Law but it must be kept in mind that in the strict sense ideal solutions do not exist. The fact that the vapor is taken to be ideal is the least of our worries. Interactions between gas molecules are typically quite small especially if the vapor pressures are low. The interactions in a liquid however are very strong. For a solution to be ideal we must assume that it does not matter whether a molecule A has another A as neighbor or a B molecule. This is only approximately true if the two species are almost identical chemically. We can see that from considering the Gibbs free energy change of mixing:

This is always negative, so mixing is spontaneous. However the expression is -apart from a factor -T- equal to the entropy of mixing. This leaves no room at all for an enthalpy effect and implies that Hmix must be equal to zero and this can only be if the interactions U between the molecules are indifferent. It can be shown using the Gibbs-Duhem equation that if Raoult's law holds over the entire concentration range x=0 to 1 in a binary solution that for the second component the same must hold. If the deviations from ideality are not too strong, Raoult's law will still be valid in a narrow concentration range when approaching x=1 for the majority phase (the solvent). The solute will also show a linear limiting law but with a different coefficient. This law is known as Henry's law. The presence of these limited linear regimes has been experimentally verified in a great number of cases.

Non-Ideal
Raoult's Law may be adapted to non-ideal solutions by incorporating two factors that will account for the interactions between molecules of different substances. The first factor is a correction for gas non-ideality, or deviations from the ideal-gas law. It is called the fugacity coefficient (). The second, the activity coefficient (), is a correction for interactions in the liquid phase between the different molecules. This modified or extended Raoult's law is then written:

Adsorbents
The adsorbents are used usually in the form of spherical pellets, rods, moldings or monoliths with hydrodynamic diameter between 0.5 and 10 mm. They must have high abrasion resistance, high thermal stability and small micropore diameter, which results in higher

exposed surface area and hence high capacity of adsorption. The adsorbents must also have a distinct macropore structure which enables fast transport of the gaseous vapours. Different types of industrial adsorbents generally fall into three classes:

Oxygen-containing compounds Are hydrophilic and polar, including materials such as silica gel and zeolites. Carbon-based compounds Are hydrophobic and non-polar, including materials such as activated carbon. Polymer-based compounds - Are polar or non-polar functional groups in a porous polymer matrix.

Silica gel
Silica gel is a chemically inert, nontoxic, polar and dimensionally stable (< 400 C) amorphous form of SiO2. It is prepared by the reaction between sodium silicate and sulphuric acid, which is followed by a series of after-treatment processes such as aging, pickling, etc. These after treatment methods results in various pore size distributions on its surface. Silica is also used for drying of process air (e.g. oxygen, natural gas etc) and adsorption of higher (polar) hydrocarbons from natural gas.

Zeolites
Zeolites are natural or synthetic aluminum silicates which form a regular crystal lattice and release water at high temperature. Zeolites are polar in nature. They are manufactured by hydrothermal synthesis of sodium aluminosilicate in an autoclave followed by ion exchange with certain cations (Na+, Li+, Ca++, K+). The channel diameter of zeolite cages usually ranges from 2 to 9 (200 to 900 pm). This process is followed by drying of microcrystals, which are palletized with a binder, to form macropores and thermally activated at a temperature of 6500 C. Zeolites are applied in drying of process air (only traces), CO2 removal from natural gas, CO removal from reforming gas and air separation. Non-polar zeolites are synthesized by dealumination of polar zeolites. This is done by treating the zeolite with steam at elevated temperatures, greater than 500 C (1000 F). This high temperature heat treatment breaks the aluminum-oxygen bonds and the aluminum atom is expelled from the zeolite framework. Non-polar zeolites are mostly used in non-polar organics removal.

Activated carbon
They are highly porous, amorphous solids consisting of microcrystallites with a graphite lattice. They are non-polar and cheap. One of their main drawbacks is that they are combustible. Activated carbon can be manufactured from carbonaceous material, including coal (bituminous, subbituminous, and lignite), peat, wood, or nutshells (i.e., coconut). The

manufacturing process consists of two phases, carbonization and activation. The carbonization process includes drying and then heating to separate by-products, including tars and other hydrocarbons, from the raw material, as well as to drive off any gases generated. The carbonization process is completed by heating the material at 400600 C in an oxygendeficient atmosphere that cannot support combustion. The carbonized particles are activated by exposing them to an activating agent, such as steam at high temperature. The steam burns off the decomposition products from the carbonization phase to develop a porous, three-dimensional graphite lattice structure. The size of the pores developed during activation is a function of the time that they are exposed to the steam. Longer exposure times result in larger pore sizes. The most popular aqueous phase carbons are bituminous based because of their hardness, abrasion resistance, pore size distribution, and low cost, but their effectiveness needs to be tested in each application to determine the optimal product. Activated carbon is used for adsorption of organic substances and non-polar adsorptives and it is also usually used for waste gas (and waste water) treatment. It is the most widely used adsorbent. Its usefulness derives mainly from its large micropore and mesopore volumes and

Test questions
1.) Draw the typical diagrams to determine the coefficients of the Langmuir-, Freundlich- and Dubinin-Isotherm by linear regression (linear form)! Ln Vabs V0

LnV = lnV0 (1/E) x Coefficients: V0 x E Original Dubinin

slope

Ln Vabs V0

LnV = lnV0 (1/E) x Coefficients: V0 x E Freundlich isotherm

slope

Q Qmax

-1/KL

Q/[ ]
Coeff: KL x Qmax from

Q = Qmax 1/KL x Q/[]

2.) Draw the concentration profiles of SO2 in a drop of water falling through the flue gas of a pit coal power unit in case of a very good external mass transfer coefficient! Explain the Enhancement-factor in case of an aqueous solution of calcium hydroxide instead of pure water!

[A]g

[A]geq [B]L

[A]L eq

[A]L

Where

A = SO2

B = water

3.) Design a typical stripping column for regeneration of washing agents! Draw an X/Ydiagram with the equilibrium line and the operation line for stripping! 4.) Draw the concentration profiles in a spherical pellet of activated carbon for different times in a non-steady state adsorption process! Explain the jump-function on the surface of the pellet! 8.) Draw the concentration profiles in a spherical pellet of activated carbon for different internal diffusion coefficients and a very good external mass transfer coefficient in a nonsteady state adsorption process! Explain the jump-function on the surface of the pellet! 16.) Draw the concentration profiles of water in a spherical pellet of silica gel for different pore size distributions (different internal diffusion coefficients) in case of a very good external mass transfer coefficient in a non-steady state adsorption process! Explain the jumpfunction on the surface of the pellet! 5.) How can you get information about the capacity of an adsorbent from a break through curve? Which information could we take from the curve at a concentration ratio of 0,5?

6.) What are the differences between an absorption cooling process with water and lithiumbromide and a process with water and ammonia? How to separate water/lithiumbromide and water/ammonia?

Water-cooled absorption systems use water as the refrigerant and a lithium bromide solution as the absorbent material. Air-cooled systems use ammonia as the refrigerant and water as the absorbent.

An ammonia water absorption system works like any absorption chiller except that ammonia is the refrigerant and water is the absorbent. Ammonia is boiled out of water by heat from a gas-fired burner and condensed in an outdoor air coil. The liquid ammonia is then evaporated at low pressure, producing cooling, and reabsorbed into the water. Ammonia makes a great refrigerant. With 2.5 times the heat of vaporization of fluorocarbons, ammonia is highly effective, has no ozone depletion potential, and no significant global warming potential. Advantages of ammonia-water Ammonia/water has advantages over the more common lithium bromide/water absorbers. Ammonia is a high-pressure refrigerant, meaning that it can be directly air cooled in a compact coil. No cooling tower is required. There is no salt to crystallize in an ammonia water system. The system is under positive pressure, making components more compact and eliminating the need for air purge systems. Ammonia/water has a quirk that doesnt exist in lithium bromide absorption systems. When the water reabsorbs the ammonia, it releases heat. But unlike bromide systems, this heat is partly released at a high temperature. This high temperature heat can actually be recycled to replace some of the gas firing and reduce fuel input.

How Absorption Cooling Works

Like the compressor in an electric vapour compression cycle, the absorption system uses its "thermal" compressor (consisting of the generator, absorber, pump and heat exchanger) to boil water vapour (refrigerant) out of a lithium bromide/water solution and compress the refrigerant vapour to a higher pressure. Increasing the refrigerant pressure also increases its condensing temperature. The refrigerant vapor condenses to a liquid at this higher pressure and temperature. Because this condensing temperature is hotter than the ambient temperature, heat moves from the condenser to the ambient air and is rejected. The high-pressure liquid then passes through a throttling valve that reduces its pressure. Reducing its pressure also reduces its boiling point temperature. The lowpressure liquid then passes into the evaporator and is boiled at this lower temperature and pressure. Because the boiling temperature is now lower than the temperature of the conditioned air, heat moves from the conditioned air stream into the evaporator and causes this liquid to boil. Removing heat from the air in this manner causes the air to be cooled. The refrigerant vapour then passes into the absorber where it returns to a liquid state as it is pulled into the lithium bromide solution (the absorption process). The diluted lithium bromide solution is pumped back to the generator. Because lithium bromide (the absorbent) does not boil, water (the refrigerant) is easily separated by adding heat. The resultant water vapor passes into the condenser, the absorbent solution returns to the absorber, and the process repeats.

Simplified diagram of a single-effect absorption cycle

Although the process is similar to conventional electric vapor compression systems, absorption cooling substitutes a generator and absorber, called a thermal compressor, for an electric compressor. Efficiency and lower operating costs are achieved through the use of a pump rather than a compressor and a heat exchanger to recover and supply heat to the generator. Double-effect absorption cooling adds a second generator and condenser to increase the refrigerant flow, and therefore the cooling effect, for a fraction of the heat input of a single-effect system.

Absorption Cooling Technology

Absorption cooling operates similarly to conventional electric vapor compression chillers with some very important differences. The major differences are seen in the components of the system and the refrigerant used in the cycle. Absorption systems use what is called a thermal compressor in place of the conventional systems compressor. Additionally, absorption systems use distilled water and either nontoxic lithium bromide or ammonia, thereby eliminating harmful chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) common to mechanical systems. Other significant differences include the use of heat, rather than a compressor, as the driving force, and lower pressure/vacuum conditions. Heat for the absorption process can be supplied directly by a gas burner or indirectly from the recovered waste heat of a cogeneration system, hot water or steam. The number of heat exchangers distinguishes the system as either single-effect or double-effect and serves to improve efficiency and lower operating costs. Indirect-fired single-effect absorption systems attain coefficients of performance (COP) of 0.60 to 0.70 while comparable double-effect systems can achieve a COP of 1.20. Three types of double-effect absorption chillers are commercially available and all offer comparable performance. The three types, series-flow cycle, parallel-flow cycle and reverse-flow cycle, are differentiated by the path that the absorbent/refrigerant solution flows to the primary and secondary generators.

7.) Draw an X/Y-diagram with equilibrium line and explain the differences in calculation between gaseous phase resistance and liquid phase resistance! 9.) Explain the words volume-filling-theory and potential-theory! Can we use both theories simultaneously?

10.) What is the main difference between absorption of oxygen in water and absorption of ammonia in water? How do the equilibrium lines look like?

The polarity of NH3 molecules and their ability to form hydrogen bonds explains to some extent the high solubility of ammonia in water. However, a chemical reaction also occurs when ammonia dissolves in water. In aqueous solution, ammonia acts as a base, acquiring hydrogen ions from H2O to yield ammonium and hydroxide ions. NH3(aq) + H2O(l) NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)

The production of hydroxide ions when ammonia dissolves in water gives aqueous solutions of ammonia their characteristic alkaline (basic) properties. The double arrow in the equation indicates that an equilibrium is established between dissolved ammonia gas and ammonium ions. Not all of the dissolved ammonia reacts with water to form ammonium ions. A substantial fraction remains in the molecular form in solution. In other words, ammonia is a weak base. A quantitative indication of this strength is given by its base ionization constant:

11.) Draw the typical diagrams to determine the coefficients of the Dubinin-Isotherm by linear regression (linear form) Explain the meaning of the two coefficients 12.) Draw the concentration profiles in an absorption process with chemical reaction. In which cases is the Enhancement-factor required to describe the kinetic behavior correctly? 13.) Why is the tray efficiency always less than 100% Make proposals how to increase it! 14.) Sketch the flow-sheets of an adsorption cooling or an adsorption heat pumping process! What are the advantages of adsorption processes related to absorption processes? 15.) Design a typical adsorption column for the reduction of SO2 in flue gases with water. Explain the reason for taking solutions of calcium hydroxide in water instead of pure water. What are the disadvantages in both cases? 17.) Explain the words pressure swing adsorption and temperature swing adsorption! Draw the difference between constructions of the 2 adsorbers!

Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA) is a technology used to separate some gas species from a mixture of gases under pressure according to the species' molecular characteristics and affinity for an adsorbent material. It operates at near-ambient temperatures and so differs from cryogenic distillation techniques of gas separation. Special adsorptive materials (e.g., zeolites)

are used as a molecular sieve, preferentially adsorbing the target gas species at high pressure. The process then swings to low pressure to desorb the adsorbent material. Using two adsorbent vessels allows near-continuous production of the target gas. It also permits so-called pressure equalisation, where the gas leaving the vessel being depressured is used to partially pressurise the second vessel. This results in significant energy savings, and is common industrial practice.

Applications of the PSA technology

One of the primary applications of PSA is in the removal of carbon dioxide (CO2) as the final step in the large-scale commercial synthesis of hydrogen (H2) for use in oil refineries and in the production of ammonia (NH3). Another application of PSA is the separation of carbon dioxide from biogas to increase the methane (CH4) content. Through PSA the biogas can be upgraded to a quality similar to natural gas. Research is currently underway for PSA to capture CO2 in large quantities from coal-fired power plants prior to geosequestration, in order to reduce greenhouse gas production from these plants.[1] PSA is an economic choice for small-scale production of reasonable purity oxygen or nitrogen from air. PSA technology has a major use in the medical industry to produce oxygen, particularly in remote or inaccessible parts of the world where bulk cryogenic or compressed cylinder storage are not possible. PSA has also been discussed as a future alternative to the non-regenerable sorbent technology used in space suit Primary Life Support Systems, in order to save weight and extend the operating time of the suit.[1]

18.) What is the main difference between mixture behavior of water/lithiumbromide and water/sodium chloride regarding process cooling processes! Can we use water as a cooling agent in both cases for an absorption cooling process? 19.) Explain Henrys law and Raoults law! Draw the difference in a T = const.-diagram of a binary mixture.