LLC1UIL 7

A funoamonlal iooa inliooucoo in Malh 2288 is lhal lho solulion sol of a linoai oiloionlial oqualion is a
vocloi spaco. In facl, il is a vocloi suLspaco of a vocloi spaco of funclions. 1ho iooa lhal funclions can Lo
lhoughl of as voclois in a vocloi spaco is also ciucial in whal will lianspiio in lho iosl of lhis couil.
Howovoi, il is impoilanl lhal whon you lhink of funclions as olomonls of a vocloi spaco \ , you aio lhinking
piimaiily of an aLsliacl vocloi spaco - ialhoi lhan a goomoliic ionoilion in loims of oiiocloo lino sogmonls.
In lho foimoi, aLsliacl poinl of viow, you woik wilh voclois Ly lisl aoopling a Lasis v
l
, . . . , v
n
foi \
ano lhon oxpiossing lho olomonls of \ in loims of lhoii cooioinalos wilh iospocl lo lhal Lasis. Foi oxamplo,
you can lhink aLoul a polynomial
j = 1 2a 8a
2
4a
3
as a vocloi, Ly using lho monomials
_
1, a, a
2
, a
3
, . . .
_
as a Lasis ano lhon lhinking of lho aLovo oxpiossion
foi j as an oxpiossion of j" in loims of lho Lasis
_
1, a, a
2
, a
3
, . . .
_
. Lul you can oxpioss j in loims of ils
1ayloi soiios aLoul a = 1:
j = 2 8 (a 1) 21(a 1)
2
16 (a 1)
3
4 (a 1)
d
ano lhink of lho polynomials
_
1, a 1, (a 1)
2
, (a 1)
3
, . . .
_
as piovioing anolhoi Lasis foi lho vocloi
spaco of polynomials. Gianloo lho socono oxpiossion foi j is uglioi lhan lho lisl, aLsliaclly lho lwo
oxpiossions aio on an oqual fooling ano movoovoi, in somo silualions lho socono oxpiossion mighl Lo moio
usoful - foi oxamplo, in unooislanoing lho Lohavioi of j noai a = 1. Inoooo, lho wholo iooa of 1ayloi soiios
can Lo lhoughl of as lho moans Ly which ono oxpiossos a givon funclion in loims of a Lasis of lho foim
_
1, (a a
0
) , (a a
0
)
2
, . . .
_
.
Lul lhoio aio many olhoi inloiosling ano usoful Lasos foi spacos of funclions. 1ho ono wo shall oovolop
lisl is ono lhal usos coilain inlnilo familios of liigonomoliic funclions as a Lasis foi lho spaco of funclions.
A Lil moio oxplicilly, wo shall consiooi funclions of lho foim cos
_
nt
1
a
_
ano sin
_
nt
1
a
_
, whoio : as a
Lasis. As lho ulilily of any Lasis is ooiivoo piincipally fiom lho spocial piopoilios of ils momLois, lho lisl
lhing wo nooo oo is oiscuss lho spocial piopoiilios of lhoso liigonomoliic funclions.
1. IroertIes oI TrIgnonetrIc FunctIons
1.1. IerIodIcIty. Whonovoi a funclion ) oLoys a iulo liko
) (a T) = ) (a)
wo say lhal ) is :.J. wilh :.J T. 1ho koy oxamplos foi whal follows aio lho liigonomoliic funclions
cos (a) ano sin(a); foi which
cos (a 2) = cos ()
sin(a 2) = sin()
which aio poiiooic wilh poiioo 2. Moioovoi, foi any inlogoi : lho funclions cos (:a) ano sin(:a) aio also
poiiooic wilh poiioo 2. Foi oxamplo, if ) = cos (:a), : , lhon
) (a 2) = cos (:(a 2)) = cos (:a 2:) = cos (:a) = ) (a) .
l
l. IICIIITIIS CI TIIC`C`ITIIC II`CTIC`S 2
Consiooi now lho funclion ) (a) = cos
_
tn
1
a
_
, : = 0, 1, 2, . . . Wo lhon havo
) (a 21) = cos
_
:
1
(a 21)
_
= cos
_
:
1
a 2:
_
= cos
_
:
1
a
_
= ) (a)
Similaily, if p (a) = sin
_
tn
1
a
_
, : = 0, 1, 2, , . . . wo havo p (a 21) = p (a).
Moioovoi, if wo havo any linoai comLinalion of funclions of lho foim cos
_
tn
1
a
_
, sin
_
tn
1
a
_
, : = 0, 1, 2, . . .
) (a) =

n
a
n
cos
_
:
1
a
_

n
/
n
sin
_
:
1
a
_
wo will havo
) (a 21) = ) (a)
Ano so lho liigonomoliic funclions cos
_
tn
1
a
_
, sin
_
tn
1
a
_
, : = 0, 1, 2, . . . , piovioo a naluial Lasis foi con-
sliucling funclions lhal aio poiiooic wilh poiioo 21.
1.2. OrtLogonaIIty. Iocall lhal an innoi piooucl on a ioal vocloi spaco \ is paiiing i : \ \
: (n, ) i (n, ) such lhal
i (, n) = i (n, ) foi all n, \ ;
i (, ) _ 0 foi all n \ ; ano
i (, ) = 0 == = 0.
Of couiso lho piololypical innoi piooucl is lho familai dot roduct foi voclois in
n
. 1hoio is also a
naluial innoi piooucl foi lho vocloi spaco of conlinuous funclions wilh poiioo 21.
(), p) =
_
1
1
JiicRi: 7.1. 1 \ h h : n J n.n&& J&n.n n h .n:n| [1, 1[ . Jhn h
nn|.nj
), p ), p :=
_
1
1
) (a) p (a) da
:.J n ..-J]n. .nn: :J& n \ . `::, .J :, : n: nn-njn. .nj:
_
1
1
cos
_
:
1
a
_
cos
_
:
1
a
_
da =
_
1 .J : = :
0 .J : ,= :
_
1
1
sin
_
:
1
a
_
cos
_
:
1
a
_
da = 0 \ :, :
_
1
1
sin
_
:
1
a
_
sin
_
:
1
a
_
da =
_
1 .J : = :
0 .J : ,= :
Iioof: (pailial) Ly lho aooilion ano suLliaclion foimulas foi cosino funclions
cos ( 1) = cos () cos 1 sin() sin(1)
cos (1) = cos () cos (1) sin() sin(1)
wo havo
cos () cos 1 =
1
2
cos ( 1)
1
2
cos (1)
2. ICIIIII SIIIIS 3
1hus, if : ,= :, lhon
_
1
1
cos
_
:
1
a
_
cos
_
:
1
a
_
da =
1
2
_
1
1
cos
_

1
(: :) a
_
da
1
2
_
1
1
cos
_

1
(: :) a
_
da
=
1
2
_
1
(: :)
sin
_

1
(: :) a
_
_

1
1

1
2
_
1
(: :)
sin
_

1
(: :) a
_
_

1
1
=
1
2
_
1
(: :)
sin( (: :))
_

1
2
_
1
(: :)
sin( (: :))
_

1
2
_
1
(: :)
sin( (: :))
_

1
2
_
1
(: :)
sin( (: :))
_
= 0 0 0 0
ano if : = :
_
1
1
cos
_
:
1
a
_
cos
_
:
1
a
_
da =
1
2
_
1
1
cos
_

1
(: :) a
_
da
1
2
_
1
1
cos
_

1
(: :) a
_
da
=
1
2
_
1
1
cos
_
2:
1
a
_
da
1
2
_
1
1
cos (0) da
=
1
2
_
1
2:
_
sin
_
2:
1
a
_

1
1

1
2
a

1
1
= 0 0
1
2
1
_

1
2
1
_
= 1
2. FourIer SerIes
2.1. DehnItIon.
IiiiNi+icN 7.2. ;J:nn|) 1&:.: :. . nn r:.n J h J:n
) (a) =
a
0
2

n=l
a
n
cos
_
:
1
a
_

n=l
/
n
sin
_
:
1
a
_
(1)
&h: a
0
, a
l
, a
2
, . . . , nnJ /
l
, /
2
, /
3
, . . . n: j&n J :n| n&nh:.
So long as lho .n a
I
ano /
I
lono lo zoio sumcionlly fasl, such soiios will convoigo lo oolno a coilain
funclion of lho paiamoloi a. Howovoi, unliko powoi soiios, lhal is lo say soiios of lho foim
p (a) =

n=0
c
n
(a a
o
)
n
(2)
a Fouiioi soiios nooo nol convoigo lo a oiloionliaLlo funclion, in facl, a Fouiioi soiios nooo nol convoigo lo
a conlinuous funclion.Wo shall oxploio such phonomona a Lil laloi.
Yol whon a Fouiioi soiios ooos convoigo, il al loasl mainlains lho poiiooicily piopoily of ils compononl
liigonomoliic funclions; lhal is lo say, if ) (a) is a convoigonl Fouiioi soiios lhon
) (a 1) = ) (a) .
2. ICIIIII SIIIIS d
2.2. EuIer-FourIer FornuIa. If you know lhal a powoi soiios p (a) as in (2) convoigos lo a pailiculai
funclion, lhon il coincioos wilh lho 1ayloi oxpansion of p (a) aLoul a
o
, ano in facl lho 1ayloi foimula allows
ono lo compulo all of lho coomcionls c
n
in loims of ooiivalivos of p (a)
c
n
=
1
:!
d
n
p
da
n

i
Foi Fouiioi soiios lhis is a somowhal analogous silualion.
JiicRi: 7.8. 5&
) (a) =
a
0
2

n=l
a
n
cos
_
:
1
a
_

n=l
/
n
sin
_
:
1
a
_
. n n:jn 1&:.: :.. Jhn
a
n
=
1
1
_
1
1
) (a) cos
_
:
1
a
_
da (8a)
/
n
=
1
1
_
1
1
) (a) sin
_
:
1
a
_
da (8L)
On lho olhoi hano, so long as ) (a) is an inlogiaLlo funclion on lho inloival [1, 1[, lhon lho foimula (8a)
ano (8L) can Lo usoo lo allach a pailiculai Fouiioi soiios lo 1 (a):
) (a)
_
a
n
=
l
1
_
1
1
) (a) cos
_
nt
1
a
_
da : = 0, 1, 2, . . .
/
n
=
l
1
_
1
1
) (a) sin
_
nt
1
a
_
da : = 1, 2, . . .
_
1 (a) :=
a
0
2

n=l
a
n
cos
_
:
1
a
_

n=l
/
n
sin
_
:
1
ano il luins oul lhal
JiicRi: 7.4. 5& ) nnJ
J}
Ji
n: .-&. n.n&& n h .n:n| [1, 1[. Jhn ) hn n 1&:.:
:. rnn.n
) (a) =
a
0
2

n=l
a
n
cos
_
:
1
a
_

n=l
/
n
sin
_
:
1
a
_
a
n
=
1
1
_
1
1
) (a) cos
_
:
1
a
_
da : = 0, 1, 2, . . .
/
n
=
1
1
_
1
1
) (a) sin
_
:
1
a
_
da : = 1, 2, . . .
hn n:j ) (a) n n|| .n a [1, 1[ &h: ) (a) . n.n&& nnJ
l
2
() (a

) ) (a

)) n n||
.n &h: ) (a) . J.n.n&&.
Wo call such a Fouiioi soiios, lho 1&:.: rnn.n of ) (a). (1ho cavoal almosl ovoiywhoio" can ovon Lo
iomovoo if 1 (a) is conlinuous).
x\:iii 7.. Consiooi lho following funclion on [1, 1[ wilh oisconlinuilios al a = 1, 0, 1:
) (a) :=
_

_
a a = 1
0 1 < a < 0
/ a = 0
1 0 < a < 1
c a = 1
2. ICIIIII SIIIIS 5
Wo havo
a
0
=
1
1
_
1
1
) (a) da =
1
1
_
1
0
1da = 1
a
n
=
1
1
_
1
1
) (a) cos
_
:
1
a
_
da =
_
1
0
cos
_
:
1
a
_
da =
1
:
sin
_
:a
1
_

1
0
= 0 , : = 1, 2, . . .
/
n
=
1
1
_
1
1
) (a) sin
_
:
1
a
_
da =
_
1
0
sin
_
:
1
a
_
da =
1
:
cos
_
:a
1
_

1
0
= 0 , : = 1, 2, . . .
ano foi : = 1, 2, 8, . . .
a
n
=
1
1
_
1
1
) (a) cos
_
:
1
a
_
da =
_
1
0
cos
_
:
1
a
_
da
=
1
:
sin
_
:a
1
_

1
0
= 0
/
n
=
1
1
_
1
1
) (a) sin
_
:
1
a
_
da =
_
1
0
sin
_
:
1
a
_
da
=
1
:
cos
_
:a
1
_

1
0
= 0
=
1
:
(1 cos (:))
=
_
0 if : is ovon
21
nt
if : is ooo
ano so
) (a) =
1
2

21

|=l
1
2/ 1
sin
_
(2/ 1)
1
a
_
Nolo lhal al a = 1, 0, 1, lho iighl hano sioo ovalualos lo
1
2
=
l
2
() (a

) ) (a

)). Lolow is a plol of lho

sum of lho lisl 20 loims of lho Fouiioi oxpansion of ) (a).
3. ICIIIII SI`I ^`I CCSI`I SIIIIS 6
3. FourIer SIne and CosIne SerIes
1ho way wo sol lhings up lho Fouiioi oxpansion of a funclion ) (a) lhal is conlinuous on an inloival [1, 1[
is
) (a) =
a
0
2

n=l
a
n
cos
_
:
1
a
_

n=l
/
n
sin
_
:
1
a
_
whoio
a
n
:=
1
1
_
1
1
) (a) cos
_
:
1
a
_
da
/
n
:=
1
1
_
1
1
) (a) sin
_
:
1
a
_
da
Supposo now lhal ) (a) is a funclion oolnoo on lho inloival [0, 1[. 1hon lhoio aio lwo simplo ways of
oxlonoing ) lo a funclion 1 on [1, 1[ ano compuling ils Fouiioi oxpansion.
Lxlono ) lo an n funclion 1
tutn
on [1, 1[ Ly solling
1
tutn
(a) =
_
) (a) 0 _ a _ 1
) (a) 1 _ a < 0
Lxlono ) lo an ooo funclion 1
oJJ
on [1, 1[ Ly solling
1
oJJ
(a) =
_
) (a) 0 _ a _ 1
) (a) 1 _ a _ 0
3. ICIIIII SI`I ^`I CCSI`I SIIIIS 7
1ho Fouiioi coomcionls of 1
tutn
will Lo
a
n
=
_
1
1
1
tutn
(a) cos
_
:
1
a
_
da
=
1
1
_
0
1
1
tutn
(a) cos
_
:
1
a
_
da
1
1
_
1
0
1
tutn
(a) cos
_
:
1
a
_
da
=
1
1
_
0
1
1
tutn
(a

) cos
_

:
1
a

_
da

1
1
_
1
0
1
tutn
(a) cos
_
:
1
a
_
da
=
1
1
_
1
0
) (a

) cos
_
:
1
a

_
da

1
1
_
1
0
) (a) cos
_
:
1
a
_
da
=
2
1
_
1
0
) (a) cos
_
:
1
a
_
da
/
n
=
_
1
1
1
tutn
(a) sin
_
:
1
a
_
da
=
1
1
_
0
1
1
tutn
(a) sin
_
:
1
a
_
da
1
1
_
1
0
1
tutn
(a) sin
_
:
1
a
_
da
=
1
1
_
0
1
1
tutn
(a

) sin
_

:
1
a

_
da

1
1
_
1
0
1
tutn
(a) sin
_
:
1
a
_
da
=
1
1
_
1
0
) (a

) sin
_
:
1
a

_
da

1
1
_
1
0
) (a) cos
_
:
1
a
_
da
= 0
ano so
1
tutn
(a) =
a
0
2

n=0
a
n
cos
_
:
1
a
_
; a
n
=
2
1
_
1
0
) (a) cos
_
:
1
a
_
da
On lho olhoi hano, on lho inloival [0, 1[, 1
tutn
(a) musl agioo wilh lho oiiginal funclion ) (a). 1hus,
) (a) =
a
0
2

n=0
a
n
cos
_
:
1
a
_
; a
n
=
2
1
_
1
0
) (a) cos
_
:
1
a
_
da ; \ a [0, 1[
1his oxpansion of ) (a), valio on an inloival [0, 1[ is calloo lho Fouiioi-cosino oxpansion of ) (a).
Similaily, wo can compulo lho Fouiioi oxpansion of 1
oJJ
(a), ano il luins oul ils Fouiioi coomcionls aio
givon Ly.
a
n
= 0 , : = 0, 1, 2, 8, . . .
/
n
=
_
1
0
) (a) sin
_
:
1
a
_
da
Sinco 1
oJJ
(a) musl agioo wilh ) (a) on [0, 1[ wo havo
) (a) =

n=0
/
n
sin
_
:
1
a
_
; /
n
=
2
1
_
1
0
) (a) sin
_
:
1
a
_
da ; \ a [0, 1[
1ho iighl hano sioo is calloo lho Fouiioi-sino oxpansion of ) (a).
In summaiy, a givon funclion can Lo oxpanooo in loims of liignomoliic funclions sovoial oiloionl ways:
3. ICIIIII SI`I ^`I CCSI`I SIIIIS S
) (a) =
a
0
2

n=l
a
n
cos
_
:
1
a
_

n=l
/
n
sin
_
:
1
a
_
, \ a [1, 1[ (Gonoial Fouiioi soiios)
a
n
:=
1
1
_
1
1
) (a) cos
_
:
1
a
_
da (7.1)
/
n
:=
1
1
_
1
1
) (a) sin
_
:
1
a
_
da (7.2)
) (a) =
a
0
2

n=0
a
n
cos
_
:
1
a
_
; \ a [0, 1[ (Fouiioi-cosino soiios)
a
n
=
2
1
_
1
0
) (a) cos
_
:
1
a
_
da (7.8)
) (a) =

n=0
/
n
sin
_
:
1
a
_
; \ a [0, 1[ (Fouiioi-sino soiios)
/
n
=
2
1
_
1
0
) (a) sin
_
:
1
a
_
da (7.4)