Control Strategy for Mobile Source in Thailand

By Mr. Panya Warapetcharayut Director of Automotive Air Pollution Section Air Quality and Noise Management Bureau Pollution Control Department Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment

panya.w@pcd.go.th

Outline

Number of Vehicles Sources of Air Pollution Control Strategy for Mobile Source Emission Standard for New Vehicles Emission Standard for In-Use Vehicles Fuel Reformulation Gasoline Vapor Recovery System Challenge Ahead

00000

00000

00000

00000

Economic Crisis

00000

00000

00000

Number of car product, sale and export

00000

00000

00000 0

19 96

19 98

19 99

20 00

20 03

19 97

20 01

20 02

20 04
2500000

Number of motorcycle product, sale and export

Sources: The office of Industrial Economics

2000000

product sale export

1500000

1000000

500000

25

Motorcycle Car
20

No. of Vehicle Registered in Thailand

T H A I L A N D

Truck&bus Other Taxi Tuk Tuk

Million Unit

Van&Pick Up

15

10

3.87% 0.37% 64.20% 18.03%

Other Truck&bus Van&Pick Up

13.53%

Car

Composition of vehicles in Thailand (Mar.2005)

Motorcycle

2005(Mar)

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

Motorcycle Car

No. of Vehicle Registered in BKK

4 Million Unit

B A N G K O K

Van&Pick Up Truck&bus Taxi Other Tuk Tuk

3.26%

0.26% 37.87%

Other
22.04%

Truck&bus Van&Pick Up Car/Taxi/Tuk Tuk

Composition of vehicles in BKK (Mar.2005)

36.56%

Motorcycle

2005(Mar)

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

25

Motorcycle Van&Pick Up
20 Million Unit

No. of Vehicle Registered in Regional

R E G I O N A L

Car Truck&bus Tuk Tuk Other Taxi

15

10

71.32%

0.70%

4.04%

Other

17.17%

Truck&bus
6.77% Van&Pick Up

Car

Composition of vehicles in Regional (Mar.2005)

Motorcycle

2005(Mar)

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0

19 94 19 95 19 96 19 97 19 98 19 99 20 00 20 01 20 02 20 03 20 20 04 ( 05 -M Ja n a r)
100 80

2 Stroke

4 Stroke

Total

MOTORCYCLES
2 Stroke 4 Stroke

Percentage

Motorcycles Sale in Thailand 1994-2005

60 40 20

100 80 60 40 20 0
1994 1995 1996

TIS. Level 4
2 Stroke 4 Stroke

0
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004

In-Use Motorcycles in Bangkok from 1998- 2004

1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 (JanMar)

SOURCE OF AIR POLLUTION BKK (1997)

Source Mobile Source Point Source Area Source
100%
23.2

Emission Load (Ton/Year) PM 20,602 3,735 13,855 CO 349,771 6,266 107,738

2.6 17.0

NOx 264,648 56,002 8,511

0.1

SO2 HC 9,973 232,97 229,859 2,005 184 33,904

12.6 0.8

80% 60% 40% 20% 0%

36.3

1.4

9.8 95.8 75.4 53.9 80.4 86.6

4.1

PM

CO Mobile

NOx SO2 Point

HC Area

1997 Emission Loads of Air Pollutants from Vehicles in Bangkok

15%
32% 38%
0.4% 13%

7%

CO
70%
20% 10%

HC

8%
62%

NOx

Gasoline
14% 3%

LDD

HDD
CO (tons) 134,311 (38.4%) 34,821 (10%) 68,331 (19.5%) 112,308 (32.1%) 349,771 (100%)

Motorcycles
HC (tons) 35,886 (15.4%) 15,749 (6.8%) 17,671 (7.6%) 163,677 (70.2%) 232,973 (100%) NOx (tons) 34,133 (12.9%) 65,836 (24.9%) 163,703 (61.8%) 976 (0.4%) 264,648 (100%) PM (tons) 701 (3.4%) 6,366 (30.9%) 10,663 (51.8%) 2,871 (13.9%) 20,602 (100%)

Vehicle Types Gasoline

31%

Light Duty Diesel

PM
52%

Heavy duty Diesel Motorcycles Total

Air Pollution from In-Use Vehicles (2005)

Vehicle Type CO (%) HC Avg. Over Std. Avg. (ppm) Over Std.
(%)

Passenger Car - w/t Catalytic - w/o Catalytic

0.20 4.36 1.02 2.61

1.16 50.65 18.51 25.0

94 642 482 1025

15.69 45.45 66.29 57.61

Taxi - w/t Catalytic - w/o Catalytic

Air Pollution from In-Use Vehicles (Cont.) (2005)

Vehicle Type Motorcycle - 2 Stroke - 4 Stroke Vehicle Type Motorcycle - 2 stroke - 4 stroke CO Avg. (%) HC Over Std. (%) Average (ppm) Over Std. (%) 10944 685 62.59 -

3.29 19.42 1.38 3.86 White Smoke Avg. (%) Over Std. (%) 21.3 0 12.23 0

Air Pollution from In-Use Vehicles (Cont.) (2005)

Vehicle Type 1. Intercity Bus 2. Light Duty Diesel 3. Bangkok Private Bus 4. Minibus 5. Truck 6. Non-Routed Bus 7. BMTA Bus Black Smoke (%) Average Over std. 58.4 69.04 57.93 60.70 50 45.95 50.09 44.22 47 37.98 44.08 20.51 31.31 6.27

Elements of a Comprehensive Control Strategy for Mobile Source Better Air Quality

Clean Vehicle Technologies

Low Emissions

Clean Fuels

Transport & Land use Planning

Appropriate Maintenance

Clean Vehicle Technologies

Emission Standards for New Vehicles

Light and Heavy Duty Vehicles

Using European Standards as reference Using European and Taiwanese Standards as references Considering to implement EURO 3 standards in the near future

Motorcycles

Emission Standards for In-Use Vehicles

Automotive Emission Laboratory Pollution Control Department

Motorcycle Laboratory
Light Duty Gasoline Vehicle Laboratory Light Duty Diesel Vehicle Laboratory Heavy Duty Diesel Vehicle Laboratory Heavy Duty Diesel Engine Laboratory
29

Developing a Time-Frame:TISI Standard

T yp e
M o to rc yc le s

L e ve l
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4

R e fe re n c e S ta n d a rd
E C E R 4 0 -0 0 E C E R 4 0 -0 1 T a iw a n ,Ja p a n T a iw a n ,Ja p a n T a iw a n ,Ja p a n 9 7 /2 4 /E C (B ) E C E 1 5 -0 4 E C E 8 3 (B ) E C E 8 3 -0 1 (B ) 9 3 /5 9 /E C 9 4 /1 2 /E C 9 6 /6 9 /E C 1 9 9 9 /1 0 2 /E C (A ) 1 9 9 9 /1 0 2 /E C (B ) E C E R 8 3 (C ) E C E R 8 3 -0 1 (C ) 9 3 /5 9 /E C 9 4 /1 2 /E C 9 6 /6 9 /E C 1 9 9 9 /1 0 2 /E C (A ) 1 9 9 9 /1 0 2 /E C (B ) E C E R 4 9 -0 1 9 1 /5 42 (A )E E C 9 6 /1 /E C 1 9 9 9 /9 6 /E C

S ta n d a rd

Im p le m e n ta tio n
1993 1994 1995 1999 2004 2 0 0 8 (p ro po se ) 1995 1996 1997 1999 2001 2005 2 0 1 0 (p ro p ose ) 1995 1996 1997 1999 2001 2005 2 0 1 0 (p ro p ose ) 1998 2000 2007

EURO 3

L ig h t D u ty G a s o lin e V e h ic le

EURO EURO EURO EURO EURO EURO EURO EURO

1 2 3 4

L ig h t D u ty D ie s e l V e h ic le

1 2 3 4

H e a v yt D u ty D ie s e l V e h ic le

EURO 1 EURO 2 EURO 3

Emission Standards for New Motorcycles

Level Emission Limit
Test 1 : Driving Mode 2 Stroke CO < 16-40 g/km HC < 10-15 g/km 4 Stroke CO < 25-50 g/km HC < 7-10 g/km 2 Stroke CO < 12.8-32 g/km HC < 8-12 g/km 4 Stroke CO < 17.5-35 g/km HC < 4.2-6 g/km Test 2:Idle

Opacity

Evap.

CO < 4.5%

CO < 4.5%

Emission Standards for New Motorcycles (Cont.)

Emission Limit
Test 1 : Driving Mode Test 2:Idle CO < 13 g/km HC < 5 g/km

Level 3 4

Opacity

Evap.

CO < 4.5% HC according to

MONRE annouce

CO < 4.5 g/km HC+NOx < 3 g/km Evap < 2 g/test CO < 3.5 g/km HC+NOx < 2 g/km Evap >2 and< 6 g/test CO < 3.5 g/km HC+NOx < 1.8 g/km

CO < 4.5% HC according to

MONRE annouce

15%

2 g/test

for 150 cc up

according to MONRE annoucement

15%

2 g/test

Emission Standards for New Motorcycles (Cont.)

Level Emission Limit
Test 1 : Driving Mode
Size < 150 cc Evap < 2 g/test CO < 2 g/km HC < 0.8 g/km NOx < 0.15 g/km Evap >2 and< 6 g/test CO < 2 g/km HC < 0.6 g/km NOx < 0.15 g/km Size > 150 cc Evap < 2 g/test CO < 2 g/km HC < 0.3 g/km NOx < 0.15 g/km Evap >2 and< 6 g/test CO < 2 g/km HC < 0.1 g/km NOx < 0.15 g/km

Test 2:Idle

Opacity

Evap.

CO < 2.5 or 3.0 % HC < 1000 ppm (under discussion)

15%
(2 Stroke only)

2 g/test

Emission Standards for New Light Duty Gasoline Vehicles

Level 1 Seat
PC < 9

RW(kg)
RW < 1020 1020< RW < 2150 RW > 2150 Engine Capacity (CC)

CO
58 67-101 110

HC+NOx
19 20.5-26.5 28

NOx
-

ECE 15-04

PC < 6
ECE R 83 (B)

< 1400 1400 - 2000 > 2000 RW < 1020

45 30 25 58 67-101 110

15 8 6.5 19 20.5-26.5 28

6 3.5

PC > 6

1020< RW < 2150 RW > 2150

Emission Standards for New Light Duty Gasoline Vehicles (Cont.)

Level Seat
PC < 6

RW(kg)
-

CO
2.72

HC+NOx
g/km 0.97 g/test

ECE R 83-01(B)

RW < 1020 PC >6 1020< RW < 2150 RW > 2150

58 67-101 110 g/km

19 20.5-26.5 28

93/59/EEC

PC < 6 PC >6

RW < 1250 1250< RW < 1700 RW > 1250

2.72 2.72 5.17 6.9

0.97 0.97 1.4 1.7

Emission Standards for New Light Duty Gasoline Vehicles (Cont.)

Level 5 Seat
PC < 6 (94/12/EC) PC >6

RW(Kg)
RW < 1250 1250< RW < 1700 RW > 1250

CO HC+NOx
2.2 2.72 5.17 6.9 2.2 2.2 4 5 0.5 0.97 1.4 1.7 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.7

EURO 1

PC < 6 (96/69/EC)

RW < 1250

EURO 2

PC >6

1250< RW < 1700 RW > 1250

Unit : g/km

Emission Standards for New Light Duty Gasoline Vehicles (Cont.)

Level 7 Seat
PC < 6

RW(kg)
RW < 1350

CO HC NOx
2.3 2.3 4.17 5.22 2.2 1 1.81 2.27 0.2 0.2 0.25 0.29 0.1 0.1 0.13 0.16 0.15 0.15 0.18 0.21 0.08 0.08 0.1 0.11

1999/102/ EC (A) PC >6 1350 < RW < 1760 EURO 3

RW > 1350

1999/102/ EC (B) PC >6 1350 < RW < 1760 EURO 4 (propose)

PC < 6

RW < 1350

RW > 1350

Unit : g/km

Three-Way Catalytic Converter

Unleaded Gasoline

Requirements for EURO 3 & EURO 4

On-board Diagnostic (OBD) VT-Shed Fuel Quality as Directive 98/70/EC Sulfur in gasoline

Maximum 150 ppm for EURO 3 Maximum 50 ppm for EURO 4 Maximum 350 ppm for EURO 3 Maximum 50 ppm for EURO 4

Sulfur in diesel

Emission Standards for New Light Duty Diesel Vehicles

CO
Engine Capacity (CC) PC < 6 < 1400 > 1400 RW (Kg) PC >6 RW < 1020 1020< RW < 2150 RW > 2150 PC < 6 RW (Kg) RW < 1020 1020< RW < 2150 58 67-101 58 67-101 110 2.72 45 30

Level Seat

HC+NOx
g/test 15 8 g/test 19 20.5-26.5 28 g/km 0.97 g/test 19 20.5-26.5

NOx

PM

6 -

ECE R 83(C)

ECE R 83-01 (C) PC > 6

0.14

Emission Standards for New Light Duty Diesel Vehicles (Cont.)

Level 3 Seat
PC < 6 93/59/EEC

RW(Kg)
RW < 1250

CO
2.72 2.72 5.17 6.9 1 2.72 5.17 6.9 1 1 1.25 1.5

HC+NOx
0.97 0.97 1.4 1.7 0.7 0.97 1.4 1.7 0.7 0.7 1.0 1.2

PM

0.14

0.14

PC >6 1250< RW < 1700 RW > 1700 PC < 6 RW < 1250 PC >6 1250< RW < 1700 RW > 1250 PC < 6 RW < 1250 PC >6 1250< RW < 1700 RW > 1250

0.19

0.25

0.08

94/12/EC EURO 1

0.14

0.19

0.25

0.08

(96/69/EC) EURO 2

0.08

0.12

0.17

Emission Standards for New Light Duty Diesel Vehicles (Cont.)

Level 6 Seat
PC < 6

RW(Kg)
RW < 1350

CO NOx
0.64 0.64 0.8 0.95 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.65 0.78 0.25 0.25 0.33 0.39

HC +NOx

PM
0.05 0.05 0.07 0.1

0.56 0.56 0.72 0.86 0.3 0.30 0.39 0.46

1999/102/ EC (A) PC >6 1350 < RW < 1760 EURO 3

RW > 1350

1999/102/ EC (B) PC >6 1350 < RW < 1760 0.63 EURO 4 (propose)

PC < 6

RW < 1350

0.025

0.025 0.04 0.06

RW > 1350

0.74

New Light Duty Vehicle Emissions Standards in Asia

Emission Standards for New Heavy Duty Vehicles

Level 1 2 3 4 EURO 3 EURO3 2 EEV only 2.1 1.5 0.66 0.25 EURO PRE-EURO EURO 1 EURO 2 ECE R 49 (g/kWh) CO 11.2 4.5 4.0 HC 2.4 1.1 1.1 NOx 14.4 8.0 7.0 5.0 2.0 ETC EURO 3 EURO 3 2 EEV only Note : 1 NGV 5.45 3.0 3

Smoke
1

PM 0.36 0.15 0.1 0.02

NMHC CH4 -

(m-1) -

ESC (g/kWh)

ELR Test
0.1 0.15

(g/kWh) 0.16 0.02 0.78 0.40 1.6 0.65

5.0 2.0

2 Enhanced Environmentally Friendly Vehicles

Vehicle Technology Trend

Source : The Thai Automotive Industry Association (TAIA)

Noise Noise Level Level Standard Standard for for New New vehicle vehicle
Accelerated Running Noise Level Standard
Category
not more than 80 CC Motorcycle 80 < CC < 175 > 175 CC Passenger Car All Sizes M < 2 tons Passenger Car more than 9 seats 2 tons < M < 3.5 tons M > 3.5 tons
Max Engine Power not more than 150 KW Sound Level Limit (dBA)

Reference

75 77 80 74 76 77 78 80 ECE R51-02 ECE 41-03

Max Engine Power > 150 KW

CC = engine cylinder capacity

Noise Noise Level Level Standard Standard for for New New vehicle vehicle
Accelerated Running Noise Level Standard
Category M < 2 tons 2 tons < M < 3.5 tons P < 75 kw Diesel Vehicles M > 3.5 tons 75 kw <P < 150 kw P > 150 kw
Sound Level Limit (dBA)

Reference

76 77 81 83 84 ECE R51-01 ECE R51-02

M = Max Mass, P = Max Engine Power

Emission Standard for In-Use Vehicle

Emission Standards for In-use Vehicles

Pollutants
Black Smoke

Type of Vehicles
Diesel vehicle

Standards
50% 45% 40% 35% 4.5%

Measuring Device
Filter Opacity Filter Opacity NDIR

Test Procedure

CO

HC

Gasoline vehicle registered before November 1, 1993 Gasoline vehicle registered from November 1, 1993 Gasoline vehicle registered before November 1, 1993 Gasoline vehicle registered from

Snap Acceleration on Tes Snap Acceleration on Tes Full Load Test Full Load Test Idle Test

1.5%

NDIR

Idle Test

600 ppm

NDIR

Idle Test

200 ppm

NDIR

Idle Test

Emission Standards for In-Use Motorcycles

Standard 30% 95 dB(A) 4.5% 10,000 ppm 3.5% 2000 ppm Instrument Opacity Sound Level Meter NDIR NDIR NDIR NDIR

Pollutants White Smoke Noise CO HC CO HC

Test Method of Max. HP RPM or of Max. HP RPM Idle Idle Idle Idle

Registered before 1 Jul 2006

Registered from 1 Jul 2006

Fuel Reformulation

Thailand fuel specifications 2005 and 2010 (Propose):

Gasoline 2005 2010 60 kPa Diesel CI and CN 2005 51 2010 50

RVP Summer 62 kPa

Benzene Aromatics

62 kPa Distillation 90C 357 357 for Gasohol Polyaromatics 11 %w 3.5 vol% 1 vol% Sulphur 350 ppm 50/10 ppm 42 vol% 35 vol% (35vol% for Gasohol FY 2006) 18 vol% 500 ppm 50/10 ppm

Olefins Sulphur

Sulfur is the next Lead !!!

Sulfur in Gasoline
Highly efficient catalysts are much
more sensitive to sulfur (if a catalyst is 99%
efficient, a 1% decrease in efficiency will double emission)

Advanced technologies such as lean

NOx traps and NOx reduction catalysts require < 5 ppm sulfur to operate

Basic Catalyst
CO2 (CO2+H2O) CO (HC)
O SO2

Sulfur Effects
SO3 H2SO4
Sulfate make

Hot Platinum surface (Precious

Metal)

O2
NOx

Sulfate Poisonin

Precious Metal

Sulfur inhibition

SO4
Transition Metal

N2

O2

Zeolite or refractory oxide support

NOx

Hot Rhodium surface

(Precious Metal)

Impact of Sulfur On Exhaust Emissions from Gasoline Vehicles

0.08 0.06 0.04 0.02 0
-5.9% -6.2% -10.8% -10.8% -22.1% -23.5%

EURO 2 Vehicles

CO/10

HC

NOx
-18% -34.9% -11.6% -17.7%

800 ppm

500 ppm

150 ppm 0.2

0.16

EURO 3 Vehicles

g/km

0.12 0.08 0.04 0

-16.1% -28%

Impact of Sulfur On Diesel Vehicles

0.08 0.07 0.06 0.05 g/km 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.01 0 CO/10 HC NOx PM
0.08 0.07 0.06

-1.8% -4.5% -22.7% -30.5% -51.9% -38.3%

-15.6% -27.9%

EURO 2 Vehicles

500 ppm

350 ppm

50 ppm

EURO 3 Vehicles

0.05

-29.1% -47.3% -25.3% -48.4% -4.2% -4.6%

-12.7%

g/km

-24.6 24.

0.04 0.03 0.02 0.01 0

Schematic of Diesel Particles and Vapor Phase Compounds

Solids (SOL) Vapor Phase Hydrocarbons Solid Carbon Spheres (0.01 0.08 mm diameter) combine to make Particle Agglomerates (0.05 - 1.0 mm diameter with Adsorbed Hydrocarbons Adsorbed Hydrocarbons Soluble Organic Fraction (SOF)/ Particle Phase Hydrocarbons

Liquid Condensed Hydrocarbon Particles

Sulfate with Hydration Adsorbed Hydrocarbons Sulfate (SO4)

Diesel Oxidation Catalyst needs low-sulfur diesel (350 ppm or less)

CO Aldehydes HC PAH SO2 NOx
C2H2n+2 PAH

CO2 H 2O SO2 /SO3 NOx

Flow through monolith with catalytic coating

CO2 CO2 + H2O CO2 + H2O CO2 + H2O

SO2+H2O

Soot Metals

CO + 1/2 O2 HC + O2 PAH + O2 Aldehydes + O2 SO2+H2O

Soot Metals

needs near-zero sulfur diesel (10 ppm or less)

Diesel Particulate Filter

Diesel Particulate Filters

Reductions:

Trapped PM

Cell Plugs

-80 to 95% PM -80%+ toxins

-80-100% HC, CO

Exhaust (CO2, H2O) Out Exhaust (PM, CO, HC) Enter Ceramic Honeycomb Wall

Issues to balance: sulfate formation regeneration and back pressure Fuel Economy

Fuels Reformulation: The Way Forward

Recognize the need for improvements in fuel quality Work together with the governmental and other organizations to achieve an optimum solution Fuel quality strategies need to be developed and enacted jointly with vehicle emissions standards Strategies need to be accompanied by sustainable incentive packages New vehicle standards would require clean fuels to reduce emission and high performance

Gasoline Vapor Recovery System

Stage I at Bulk Terminal,Tank Trucks, and Service Stations

Effective immediately for new facilities in Bangkok, Nonthaburi, Pratum Thani, and Samut Prakarn Used to be scheduled to be effective on January 1, 2000 for existing facilities located in Bangkok, Nonthaburi, Pratum Thani, and Samut Prakarn, however, due to economic crisis, it is postponed to January 2001

Volatile organic compound emissions of Stage I at bulk terminals must not be more than 17 mg/liter of vapor vented which is equivalent to 10 mg/liter of gasoline loaded

Implementation in other provinces will be considered in the future

Gasoline Vapor Recovery System

Stage II at Service Stations

Effective immediately for new and existing service stations located on the side of the streets having the width between 8 to 12 meters or located in the building in Bangkok, Nonthaburi, Pratum Thani, and Samut Prakan

Implementation in other service stations and in other provinces will be considered in the future

Stage II Vapor Recovery System at Service Station

Emission Standard for Gasoline Vapor Recover Unit (VRU)

Pollutants Emission Standard Value (1-hr average ) US.EPA Method 18 : Measurement of Gaseous Organic Compound Emission by Gas Chromatography Method

58 Millgram total VOCs/Liter in Emitted Vapor (1 July 2001) US.EPA Method 25A : Determination of Total Gaseous Organic Concentration Using a Flame Ionization Total VOCs Analyzer or US.EPA Method 25B : Determination of Total Gaseous 17 Millgram total VOCs/Liter Organic Concentration Using a Nondispersive Infrared in Emitted Vapor (1 July 2002) Analyzer

Remark: Reference condition is 25 C at 1 atm or 760 mmHg Excess Air of 50% or at

Oxygen of 7% and Dry Basis

Source : Notification of Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment published in the Royal Government Gazette, Vol.118 Special Part 58D, date June 20, B.E. 2544 (2001)

1) Targeting PM reductions in BKK

More effective I/M program Cleaner city buses Low S fuels and alternative fuels

Challenges Ahead

2) Improving air quality management

Improving of air emission and noise standards Strengthening enforcement Applying economic instruments Improving coverage and efficiency of MRT Improving city bus operation and reducing smoke belching buses Priority lanes and traffic management Improving traffic regulation enforcement Encouraging non-motorization transport

3) Improving public transport & transport management

4) Strengthening institutional effectiveness

Improving inter-agency coordination

Challenges Ahead

Building capacity of national, local, and people institutions

5) Broadening public participation

Increasing public participation, responsibility and willingness to contribute on an individual level to reduce pollution, not only awareness Improving the effectiveness of information dissemination to generate public and political support for actions Strengthening public disclosure programs to encourage better polluter behavior Implementing public outreach program

Challenges Ahead
6) Harnessing global opportunities for local air quality improvement

Actions taken to tackle global warming could also benefit local and national air quality Preparation for the implementation of the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)

CO2 reduction from energy and industrial sectors Bio-gas generation from waste to energy CO2 sequestration through reforestation and afforestation

Cleaner Vehicles & Cleaner Fuel....

....For The Better Air Quality

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