Oscillations and Waves

oscillations and waves

4. 1

4.2
Kinematics of Simple Harmonic Motion (2H)

Energy changes during Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) 4

CORE
4.3 Forced Oscillations and Resonance

4.4 Wave Characteristics

4.5 Wave Properties

Introduction
W hat we learn in this chapter about oscillations
in mechanical systems and of the waves that
oscillating systems may set up, forms the basis for gaining
an understanding of many other areas of physics.
A study of oscillations is important for many reasons, not
least safety in design. For example oscillations may be set
up in a bridge as traffic passes over it and these oscillations
can lead to structural damage in the bridge. Many types
of machines (lathes, car engines etc) are also subject to
oscillations and again, these oscillations can produce
damage.
On a fundamental level, all atoms and molecules are
in effect oscillating systems. An understanding of
these oscillations is crucial to understanding both the
microscopic and macroscopic properties of a substance.
For example, the dependence of specific heat capacity on
temperature, (a topic well beyond the scope of an IB Physics
Course) arises from studying atomic oscillations. Also, by
analysing the oscillations of atoms and molecules, we gain
an understanding of the interaction between matter and
radiation. For example, we shall see in Chapter 8, that the
Greenhouse Effect is essentially due to the interaction of
infrared radiation with gases such as carbon dioxide.

Of course oscillating systems may also be very useful. It must also be mentioned that the oscillations of electrically
The oscillations of a simple pendulum may be used as charged particles give rise to electromagnetic waves (light,
an accurate timing device and the oscillations set up in radio waves X-rays etc). This is examined in more detail
a quartz crystal may be used as an even more accurate in the Option on Electromagnetic waves (Option G).
timing device. However, the concept of electromagnetic waves occurs in
several other places in both the Core and AHL material.
If an oscillating body causes other particles with which it
is in contact to oscillate, then the energy of the oscillating We look first at the oscillations in mechanical systems.
body may be propagated as a wave. An oscillating tuning
fork, vibrating string and vibrating reed cause the air
molecules with which they are in contact to oscillate
thereby giving rise to a sound wave that we may hear as
a musical note. As we shall see, oscillating systems and
waves are intimately connected.

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 Chapter 4
4. 1 Kinematics of Simple Harmonic
Motion
4.1.1 Describe examples of oscillations.
CORE
4.1.2 Define the terms displacement, amplitude,
frequency, period, phase difference.
4.1.3 Define simple harmonic motion (SHM) and
state the defining equation as a = - ω2x.
4.1.4 Solve problems using the defining
equation for simple harmonic motion.
4.1.5 Apply the equations v = -v0sin ωt, v = v0
cosω t, v = ±ω√(x0 2 - x2), x = x0 cosω t,
x = x0 sinωt, as solutions to the defining
equation for simple harmonic motion.
4.1.6 Solve problems, both graphically and by
calculation, for acceleration, velocity and
displacement during simple harmonic
motion
© IBO 2007
4.1.1 Examples of oscillating
systems
In the introduction, we mentioned several oscillating
systems. Here are a few more:
• a boat at anchor at sea
• the human vocal chords
• an oscillating cantilever
• the Earth’s atmosphere after a large explosion.
4.1.2 Definitions of terms
associated with oscillating
systems
In order to understand the terms associated with oscillating
systems, let us look at the oscillation of a so-called simple
pendulum. A simple pendulum consists of a weight (called
the bob) that is suspended vertically by a light string or
thread as shown in Figure 401. The bob X is suspended by
the thread from the point P.
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070813 Physics Ch 4 final.indd 100
P
θ0
C B
E D
X
Figure 401  A simple oscillating system
To set the pendulum oscillating, the bob is pulled up to
a position such as B where the angle XPB is θ0. It is then
released. The bob will now oscillate between the positions
B and C.
Displacement (x, θ)
This refers to the distance that an oscillating system is from
its equilibrium position at any particular instant during
the oscillation. In the case of the simple pendulum the
displacement is best measured as an angular displacement.
For example, in Figure 401 when the bob is at the position
D, the displacement is the angle XPD = θ and when at E,
is the angle XPE = - θ. The displacement when the bob is
at X is θ = 0.
Amplitude (x0, θ0)
This is the maximum displacement of an oscillating system
from its equilibrium position. For the simple pendulum in
Figure 401 this is clearly θ0.
Period (T)
This is the time it takes an oscillating system to make
one complete oscillation. For the simple pendulum in
Figure 401, this is the time it takes to go from X to B, B to
C and then back to X.
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 Oscillations and Waves

Frequency (f)
A
This is the number of complete oscillations made by the l
system in one second.
r

θ B
Relation between frequency and

CORE
period
The time for one complete oscillation is the period T.
Therefore the number of oscillations made in one second
1
f is
= --- . The number of oscillations made in one second is
T
also defined as the frequency f, hence: l Figure 402  The radian
θ (rad) =
1 r
f = --- If θ = 180° then l is equal to half the circumference of the
T Equation 4.1 circle i.e. l = πr. Hence from equation 4.2, we have that

Phase difference ʌr
θ (1800 ) = = ʌ (rad)
Suppose we have for instance, two identical pendulums r
oscillating next to each other. If the displacements of the Hence 1 radian (rad) is equal to 57.3°.
pendulums are the same at all instances of time, then we
say that they are oscillating in phase. If on the other hand
the maximum displacement of one of them is θ0 when the ω = 2πf4.1.3 D efinition of simple
maximum displacement of the other is -θ0, then we say
that they are oscillating in anti-phase or that the phase harmonic motion (SHM)
difference between is 180°. The reason for the specification
2ʌ
in terms of angle will become clear in section 4.1.5. ω=
In general, the phase difference between two identical T Description of SHM
systems oscillating with the same frequency can have any
value between 0 and 360° (or 0 to 2π radians- see Figure Suppose we were to attach a fine marking pen to the
402). We shall see that the concept of phase difference is bottom of the bob of a simple pendulum and arrange for
very important when discussing certain aspects of wave 2ʌ this pen to2ʌbe in contact with a long sheet of white paper
T= or ω =
motion. ω as shown in T Figure 403.

Radian measure
When dealing with angular displacements, it is often
useful to measure the displacement in radians rather than
in degrees. In Figure 402, the angle θ measured in radians Motion of pendulum
is defined as the arc length AB (l) divided by the radius r
of the circle i.e

l
θ (rad) = Equation 4.2 Paper
r

Direction of paper
ʌr
θ (180 ) = = ʌ (rad)
0

r Figure 403  Arrangement for demonstrating SHM

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ω = 2πf

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 l
θ (rad) =
Chapter 4 lr
θ (rad) =
r

As the pendulum oscillates, the paper is pulled at a constant Angular frequency (ω)
speed in the direction shown. ʌr
θl (180 0
) ʌ=r
= ʌ (rad)
θA(rad) )= 0
=r associated
θ (180 quantity
very =useful ʌ (rad) with oscillatory motion
Figure 404 shows a particular example of what is traced on is angularr frequency,
r ω. This is defined in terms of the
the paper by the marker pen. linear frequency as

0.4 ω ==2πf
ω 2πf 0 ʌr Equation 4.3
θ (180 ) = = ʌ (rad)
r
CORE

0.3
0.2 Using equation 4.1 we also have that
displacement/cm

0.1 2ʌ2ʌ
0 ωω
ω===2πfT Equation 4.4
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 T
-0.1 time/s There is a connection between angular frequency and the
-0.2 angular speed of a particle moving in a circle with constant
2ʌ
speed.
-0.3
ω = 2ʌThe angular 2ʌ speed of the particle is defined as the
T = T2ʌor
number ωradians
= 2ʌ
-0.4
ω or ω =T through which the particle moves in
T =second.
of
one ω If the time
T for one complete revolution of the
Figure 404  A sample trace circle is T , then from equation 4.2 we have that
2ʌ 2ʌ
T= or ω =
The displacement is measured directly from the trace and ω T
the time is calculated from the speed with which the paper
is pulled. There is actually a physical connection between angular
speed and SHM in the respect that it can be shown that the
There are several things to notice about the trace. projection of the particle onto any diameter moves with
SHM. See Figure 405.
1. One complete oscillation is similar to a sine or
cosine graph.

2. The period stays constant at about 0.8 s. P

As the particle P moves
(Oscillations in which the period is constant are round the circle, its
called isochronous.) projection N onto a
N diameter moves backwards
and forwards along the
3. The amplitude is decaying with time. This is diameter with SHM.
because the pendulum is losing energy to the
surroundings due to friction at the point of
suspension and to air resistance.
Figure 405  Circular and harmonic motion
Based on this sort of time trace, we can define a special
type of oscillatory motion. Oscillators that are perfectly
isochronous and whose amplitude does not change Definition of SHM
with time are called simple harmonic oscillators and
their motion is referred to as simple harmonic motion If it were possible to remove all frictional forces acting
(SHM). Clearly SHM does not exist in the real world as on an oscillating pendulum, then the displacement –time
the oscillations of any vibrating system will eventually graph for the motion would look like that in Figure 406.
die out. Interestingly enough, the simple pendulum does The amplitude does not decay with time. This therefore is
not perform SHM for yet another reason, namely that the a displacement-time graph for SHM
period is actually dependant on the amplitude. However,
this only becomes noticeable as θ0 exceeds about 40°.

Although SHM does not exist in the real world,

many oscillatory systems approximate to this motion.
Furthermore, as part of the scientific method, it makes
good sense to analyse a simple situation before moving
onto more complex situations.

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0.4
0.3
0.2
displacement/cm
0.1
0 written as −kx = m
-0.1
1 2 3 4
time/s
5 d2t
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
Figure 406  A displacement – time graph
It turns out that if the acceleration a of a system is directly
proportional to its displacement x from its equilibrium
position and is directed towards the equilibrium position,
then the system will execute SHM. This is the formal
definition of SHM.
We can express this definition mathematically as
a = -const x Equation 4.5
The negative sign indicates that the acceleration is directed
towards equilibrium. Mathematical analysis shows that
the constant is in fact equal to ω2 where ω is the angular
frequency (defined above) of the system. Hence equation
4.5 becomes
a = -ω2 x Equation 4.6
This equation is the mathematical definition of SHM.
If a system is performing SHM, then to produce the
acceleration, a force must be acting on the system in the
direction of the acceleration. From our definition of SHM,
the magnitude of the force F is given by
F = -kx Equation 4.7
where k is a constant and the negative sign indicates that
the force is directed towards the equilibrium position of
the system. (Do not confuse this constant k with the spring
constant. However, when dealing with the oscillations
of a mass on the end of a spring, k will be the spring
constant.)
A mathematical perspective of SHM
SHM is a very good example in which to apply the
Newtonian method discussed in Chapter 2 i.e. if the forces
that act on a system are known, then the future behaviour
of the system can be predicted. Here we have a situation in
which the force is given by –kx. From Newton’s second law
therefore –kx = ma, where m is the mass of the system and a
070813 Physics Ch 4 final.indd 103
Oscillations and Waves
is the acceleration of the system. However, the acceleration
is not constant. For those of you who have a mathematical
bent, the relation between the force and the acceleration is
d2 x
. This is what is called a “second
order differential equation”. The solution of the equation
CORE
gives x as a function of t. The actual solution is of the SHM
equation is
x = Pcosωt + Qsinωt where P and Q are constants and ω is
the angular frequency of the system and is equal to .
Whether a particular solution involves the sine function or
the cosine function, depends on the so-called ‘boundary
conditions’. If for example x = x0 (the amplitude) when
t = 0, then the solution is x = x0cosωt.
The beauty of this mathematical approach is that, once
the general equation has been solved, the solution for
all systems executing SHM is known. All that has to be
shown to know if a system will execute SHM, is that the
acceleration of the system is given by Equation 4.5 or the
force is given by equation 4.7. The physical quantities that
ω will depend on is determined by the particular system.
For example, for a weight of mass m oscillating at the end
of a vertically supported spring whose spring constant is k,
then ω = or , from equation 4.4. For
a simple pendulum, ω = where l is the length of
the pendulum and g is the acceleration of free fall such
that .
TOK A Mathematical Perspective
Galileo stated that ‘the book of nature is written in
mathematical terms’. In this respect, it is impossible
to explain to somebody why the period of oscillation
of a simple pendulum depends on the square root of
its length without recourse to solving a second order
differential equation.
4.1.4 Solving problems involving
a = -ω2x
To understand how the equation a = -ω2x is used in
particular situations involving SHM’ let us look at an
example.
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30/11/2007 10:15:57 AM
 Chapter 4

(c) Calculate the period T of oscillation of the

Example wood.
Answer

1. A cylindrical piece of wood floats upright in water ω2 = rad2

as shown in Figure 407.
ω = 4.8 rad
push
CORE

downwards = 1.3 s

(d) State and explain in terms of the period

T of oscillation of the wood, the first
two instances when the acceleration is a
l maximum.
water
Answer

wood The amplitude will be a maximum at T = 0 and again when

Figure 407  SHM of a floating piece of wood T=

The wood is pushed downwards and then released. The so acceleration is a maximum at T = 0 and T = 0.65 s
subsequent acceleration a of the wood is given by the
expression
4.1.5 Solutions of the SHM
equation

where ρ = density of water, σ = density of the wood,
l = length of wood, g = acceleration of free fall and
x = displacement of the wood from its equilibrium position.
(a) Explain why the wood executes SHM.
Answer
The equation shows that the acceleration of the wood is
proportional to its displacement from equilibrium and
directed towards the equilibrium position.
To understand the solutions of the SHM equation, let
us consider the oscillations of a mass suspended from a
vertically supported spring. We shall consider the mass of
the spring to be negligible and for the extension x to obey
the rule F = kx for all values of x. F is the force causing the
extension. Figure 408(a) shows the spring and a suspended
weight of mass m in equilibrium. In Figure 408(b), the
weight has been pulled down a further extension x0.

(b) The length of the wood is 52 cm and it is unstretched length

pushed downwards a distance of 24 cm.
spring
Calculate the maximum acceleration of the
e
wood. (ρ = 1.0 × 103 kg m-3, ke
equilibriumx = 0
x0

σ = 8.4 × 102 kg m-3, g = 9.8 m s-2). unbalanced

mg x
Answer weight of mass m
x0 P force F on
weight =-kx

Maximum acceleration is when x = A (the amplitude) a b

= 2.4 × 10-2 m Figure 408  SHM of a mass suspended by a spring

therefore maximum acceleration In Figure 408 (a), the equilibrium extension of the spring
1.0 ×10 × 9.8 × 24 ×10
3 −2 is e and the net force on the weight is mg - ke = 0.
= 8.4 ×102 × 52 ×10−2

= 5.4 m s-2

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 Oscillations and Waves

In Figure 408 (b), if the weight is held in position then
released, then when the weight is at position P say, distance
x from the equilibrium position x = 0, then the net force
on the weight is mg - ke – kx. Clearly, then the unbalanced
force on the weight is –kx. When the weight reaches
a point distance x above the equilibrium position, the
compression force in the spring provides the unbalanced
However, we have to bear in mind that ωt varies between
0 and 2π such that the cosωt is negative for ωt in the
and sinωt is negative for ωt in the range π to
2π. This effectively means when the displacement from
equilibrium is positive, the velocity is negative and so

CORE
force towards the equilibrium position of the weight. directed towards equilibrium. When the displacement
from equilibrium is negative, the velocity is positive and
The acceleration of the weight is given by Newton’s second so directed away from equilibrium
law;
The sketch graph in Figure 409 shows the variation with
F = -kx = ma time t of the displacement x and the corresponding
variation with time t of the velocity v. This clearly
i.e. Equation 4.8 demonstrates the relation between the sign of the velocity
and sign of the displacement.
This is of the form a = -ω2 x where ω = , that

displacement
is the weight will execute SHM with a frequency

.
0,0
The displacement of the weight x, the solution of the SHM T 2T
equation, is given by
velocity

ω Equation 4.9
0,0 t
This is the particular solution of the SHM equation for the
oscillation of a weight on the end of a spring. This system
is often referred to as a harmonic oscillator.
Figure 409  Displacement-time and velocity-time graphs
The velocity v of the weight at any instant can be found
by finding the gradient of the displacement-time graph. We can also see how the velocity v changes with
From equation 4.9, the displacement graph is a cosine displacement x.
function and the gradient of a cosine function is a negative
sine function. The gradient of From equation 4.10, we have that

x = x0cosωt is in fact ω ω so

ω ω ω Equation 4.10 However we can express sinωt in terms of cosωt using the
trigonometric relation
where v0 is the maximum and minimum velocity equal in
magnitude to ωx0. sin 2 θ + cos 2 θ = 1

Students familiar with calculus will recognise the velocity From which it can be seen that
v as
dx d
v= = (x0 cos ω t ) = −ω xo sinω t . Similarly,
dt dt Replacing θ with ωt we have
dv d
a= = (−ω x0 sin ω t ) = −ω 2 x0 cos ωt = − ω2 x
dt d t v = −ω x0 1 − cos 2 ω t
which of course is just the defining equation of SHM.
Remembering that and putting x0 inside the
square root gives

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 Chapter 4

x = ​x​0​cosωt x = ​x​0​sinωt
ν = − ​ν​0​sinωt ν = ​ν​0​cosωt

Bearing in mind that v can be positive or negative, we

ν = –​ωx​0​sinωt ν = ​– ωx​0​cosωt
_______ _______
must write ν=±ω√
​ (​x​0​– x​ ​ ​) ​  2
ν = ± ω​√(​x​0​– x​ 2​ ​) ​ 

Equation 4.11 Figure 411  Common equations

CORE

The velocity is zero when the displacement is a maximum
and is a maximum when the displacement is zero.
The graph in Figure 410 shows the variation with x of the
velocity v for a system oscillating with a period of 1 sec and
with an amplitude of 5 cm. The graph shows the variation
over a time of any one period of oscillation.
We should mention that since the general solution to
the SHM equation is there are
in fact three solutions to the equation. This demonstrates
a fundamental property of second order differential
equations; that one of the solutions to the equation is the
sum of all the other solutions. This is the mathematical
basis of the so-called principle of superposition.

7 4.1.6 Solving SHM Problems

6
5 In this section we look at an example of a typical SHM
v / cm s -1

4 problem and its solution.

3
2

1 Examples

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1
x / cm
-2 The graph in Figure 412 shows the variation with time t of
-3 the displacement x of a system executing SHM.
-4
10
-5
8
-6
6
-7
4
2
Figure 410  Velocity-displacement graph
x /cm

0
-2 0. 5 1 1. 5 2 2. 5 3 3. 5
t /s
-4
Boundary Conditions -6
-8
The two solutions to the general SHM equation are -10
and . Which solution applies to
a particular system depends, as mentioned above, on the Figure 412  Displacement – time graph for SHM
boundary conditions for that system. For systems such
as the harmonic oscillator and the simple pendulum, the Use the graph to determine the
boundary condition that gives the solution
is that the displacement x = x0 when t = 0. For some other (i) period of oscillation
systems it might turn out that x = 0 when t =0. This will (ii) amplitude of oscillation
lead to the solution . From a practical point of (iii) maximum speed
view, the two solutions are essentially the same; for example (iv) the speed at t = 1.3 s
when timing the oscillations of a simple pendulum, you (v) maximum acceleration
might decide to start the timing when the pendulum bob
passes through the equilibrium position. In effect, the two
solutions differ in phase by .

The table in Figure 411 summarises the solutions we have

for SHM.

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 Oscillations and Waves

Solutions 4.2 Energy

Changes
(a) (i) 2.0 s
(ii) 8.0 cm During simple
(iii) Using gives
harmonic

CORE
(remember that ) = 25 cm s-1
motion (SHM)
(iv) v = −v0sinωt = −25sin (1.3π). To find the
value of the sine function, we have to convert
the 1.3π into degrees (remember ω and hence 4.2.1 Describe the interchange between kinetic
ωt, is measured in radians) energy and potential energy during SHM

1 deg therefore 1.3π = 1.3 × 180 4.2.2 Apply the expression E = ½mω2(x02 – x2) for
K

= 2340 the kinetic energy of a particle undergoing

therefore v1 = −25sin (234) = +20 cm s-1. simple harmonic motion, ET = ½mω2x02 for the
total energy and E = ½mω2x2 for the potential
P

Or we can solve using energy.

from the graph at t = 1.3 s, x = -4.8 cm 4.2.3 Solve problems, both graphically and by
calculation, involving energy changes during
therefore v = π x = 20 cm s-1 simple harmonic motion.
© IBO 2007

(v) Using = π2 × 8.0 = 79 m s-2

4.2.1 Kinetic and potential
Exercise energy changes

We must now look at the energy changes involved in

Answer the same questions (a)(i) to (a)(iv) in the above SHM. To do so, we will again concentrate on the harmonic
example for the system oscillating with SHM as described oscillator. The mass is stationary at x = +x0 (maximum
by the graph in Figure 413. Also state two values of t at extension) and also at x = -x0 (maximum compression). At
which the magnitude of the velocity is a maximum and these two positions the energy of the system is all potential
two values of t at which the magnitude of the acceleration energy and is in fact the elastic potential energy stored in
is a maximum. the spring. This is the total energy of the system ET and
clearly
7
6 Equation 4.12
5
4
3
That is, that for any system performing SHM, the energy of
2 the system is proportional to the square of the amplitude.
1 This is an important result and one that we shall return to
x/ cm

0
0. 5 1 1. 5 2 2. 5 3 3. 5
when we discuss wave motion.
-1
t /s
-2
-3 At x = 0 the spring is at its equilibrium extension and
-4
the velocity v of the oscillating mass is a maximum v0.
-5
-6
The energy is all kinetic and again is equal to ET. We can
-7 see that this is indeed the case as the expression for the
maximum kinetic energy Emax in terms of v0 is

Equation 4.13

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 Chapter 4

Clearly ET and Emax are equal such that

4.2.3 Solving SHM Energy
=
Problems
From which
Let us now look at solving a problem involving energy in SHM.
CORE

Therefore Example

The amplitude of oscillation of a mass suspended by a

which ties in with the velocity being equal to the gradient
of the displacement –time graph. (See 4.1.5) As the system
oscillates there is a continual interchange between kinetic
energy and potential energy such that the loss in kinetic
energy equals the gain in potential energy and ET = EK + EP.
4.2.2 The SHM energy equations
vertical spring is 8.0 cm. The spring constant of the spring
is 74 N m-1. Determine
(a) total energy of the oscillator
(b) the potential and the kinetic energy of the
oscillator at a displacement of 4.8 cm from
equilibrium.

Remembering that , we have that

Solution
Equation 4.14

Clearly, the potential energy EP at any displacement x is (a) Spring constant k = 74 N m-1 and
given by
x0 = 8.0 × 10-2 m
Equation 4.15
ET = ½ kx02
At any displacement x, the kinetic energy EK is
Hence remembering that = ½ × 74 × 64 × 10-4 = 0.24 J

, we have (b) at x = 4.8 cm

Equation 4.16 therefore EP = ½ × 74 × (4.8 × 10-2)2

Although we have derived these equations for a harmonic = 0.085 × 10-4 J

oscillator, they are valid for any system oscillating with SHM.
The sketch graph in Figure 414 shows the variation with EK = ET − EP = 0.24 − 0.085 = 0.16 J
displacement x of EK and EP for one period.

Exercise

In a simple atomic model of a solid, the atoms vibrate with

energy

potential
kinetic
a frequency of 2.0 × 1011 Hz. The amplitude of vibration
of the atoms is 5.5 × 10-10 m and the mass of each atom is
4.8 × 10-26 kg. Calculate the total energy of the oscillations
of an atom.
displacement

Figure 414  Energy and displacement

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 Oscillations and Waves

4.3 Forced Oscillations and Resonance

4.3.1 State what is meant by damping. 4.3.2 Examples of damped
4.3.2 Describe examples of damped oscillations. oscillations

CORE
4.3.3 State what is meant by natural frequency of All oscillating systems are subject to damping as it is
vibration and forced oscillations. impossible to completely remove friction. Because of this,
oscillating systems are often classified by the degree of
4.3.4 Describe graphically the variation with damping. The oscillations shown in Figure 415 are said
forced frequency of the amplitude of to be lightly damped. The decay in amplitude is relatively
vibration of an object close to its natural slow and the pendulum will make quite a few oscillations
frequency of vibration. before finally coming to rest. Whereas the amplitude of
the oscillations shown in Fig 416 decay very rapidly and
4.3.5 State what is meant by resonance. the system quickly comes to rest. Such oscillations are said
to be heavily damped.
4.3.6 Describe examples of resonance where
the effect is useful and where it should be
avoided.
© IBO 2007
amplitude

4.3.1 Damping
In this section, we look at oscillations of real systems. time
In section 4.1.3, we described an arrangement by which
the oscillations of a pendulum could be transcribed onto
paper. Refer to Figure 415.
Figure 416  Heavily damped oscillations

Consider a harmonic oscillator in which the mass is pulled

down and when released, and the mass comes to rest at
its equilibrium position without oscillating. The friction
forces acting are such that they prevent oscillations.
displacement

However, suppose a very small reduction in the friction

time forces would result in heavily damped oscillation of
the oscillator, then the oscillator is said to be critically
damped.

The graph in Figure 417 shows this special case of damping

known as critical damping.

Figure 415  Damping

The amplitude of the oscillations gradually decreases with

time whereas for SHM, the amplitude stays at the same
value for ever and ever. Clearly, the pendulum is losing
energy as it oscillates. The reason for this is that dissipative
forces are acting that oppose the motion of the pendulum.
As mentioned earlier, these forces arise from air resistance
and though friction at the support. Oscillations, the
amplitude of which decrease with time, are called damped
oscillations.

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 Chapter 4
1.2
1
displacement / m
0.8
0.6
0.4
CORE
0.2
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
time / s
Figure 417  Critical damping
Although not in the IB syllabus, a useful way of classifying
oscillating systems, is by a quantity known as the quality
factor or Q-factor. The Q-factor does have a formal
definition but it is approximately equal in value to the
number of oscillations that occur before all the energy
of the oscillator is dissipated. For example, a simple
pendulum has a Q-factor of about 1000.
As mentioned in the introduction to this chapter, the
oscillations (vibrations) made by certain oscillatory
systems can produce undesirable and sometimes,
dangerous effects. Critical damping plays an important
role in these situations. For example, when a ball strikes
the strings of a tennis racquet, it sets the racquet vibrating
and these vibrations will cause the player to lose some
control over his or her shot. For this reason, some players
fix a “damper” to the springs. If placed on the strings
in the correct position, this has the effect of producing
critically damped oscillations and as a result the struck
tennis racquet moves smoothly back to equilibrium. The
same effect can be achieved by making sure that the ball
strikes the strings at a point known as the ‘sweet spot’ of
which there are two, one of which is know as the ‘centre of
percussion (COP)’. Cricket and baseball bats likewise have
two sweet spots.
Another example is one that involves vibrations that may
be set up in buildings when there is an earthquake. For this
reason, in regions prone to earthquakes, the foundations
of some buildings are fitted with damping mechanisms.
These mechanisms insure any oscillations set up in the
building are critically damped.
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070813 Physics Ch 4 final.indd 110
Exercise
Identify which of the following oscillatory systems are
likely to be lightly damped and which are likely to be
heavily damped.
1. Atoms in a solid.
2. Car suspension
3. Guitar string
4. Harmonic oscillator under water.
5. Quartz crystal.
6. A cantilever that is not firmly clamped.
7. Oil in a U-tube
8. Water in a U-tube
4.3.3 Natural frequency and
forced oscillations
Consider a small child sitting on a swing. If you give the
swing a single push, the swing will oscillate. With no
further pushes, that is energy input, the oscillations of
the swing will die out and the swing will eventually come
to rest. This is an example of damped harmonic motion.
The frequency of oscillation of the swing under these
conditions is called the natural frequency of oscillation
(vibration). So far in this topic, all the systems we have
looked at have been systems oscillating at their natural
frequency.
Suppose now when each time the swing returns to you,
you give it another push. See Figure 418
Figure 418  A forced oscillation
The amplitude of the swing will get larger and larger and if
you are not careful your little brother or sister, or who ever
the small child might be, will end up looping the loop.
The frequency with which you push the swing is exactly
equal to the natural frequency of oscillation of the swing
and importantly, is also in phase with the oscillations of the
spring. Since you are actually forcing the swing to oscillate,
30/11/2007 10:16:04 AM

the swing is said to be undergoing forced oscillations. In
this situation the frequency of the so-called driver (in this
case, you) is equal to the natural frequency of oscillation
of the system that is being driven (in this case, the swing).
If you just push the swing occasionally when it returns to
you, then the swing is being forced at a different frequency
to its natural frequency. In general, the variation of the
amplitude of the oscillations of a driven system with time
will depend on the
• frequency of the driving force
• frequency of natural oscillations
• amplitude of the driving force
• phase difference between driving force frequency
and natural frequency
• amount of damping on the system
(There are many very good computer simulations
available that enable you to explore the relation between
forced and natural oscillations in detail.)
The driving force and system are in phase if, when the
amplitude of system is a maximum, it receives maximum
energy input from the driver. Clearly this is when the
amplitude of the driver is a maximum.
What is of particular interest is when the forced frequency
is close to and when it equals the natural frequency. This
we look at in the next two sections.
4.3.4 Forced frequency and
amplitude
We now look to see how the amplitude of an oscillating
system varies with the frequency of the driving force.
The graph in Figure 419 shows the variation with frequency
f of the driving force of the amplitude A of three different
systems to which the force is applied.
10
heavy damping
A /cm 5 medium damping
light damping
0 f/ Hz
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Figure 419  Forced frequency
070813 Physics Ch 4 final.indd 111
Oscillations and Waves
Each system has the same frequency of natural oscillation,
f0 = 15 Hz. The thing that is different about the systems is
that they each have a different degree of damping: heavy
(low Q), medium (medium Q), light (large Q).
For the heavily damped system we see that the amplitude
stays very small but starts to increase as the frequency
CORE
approaches f0 and reaches a maximum at f = f0; it then
starts to fall away again with increasing frequency.
For the medium damped system, we see that as f approaches
f0, the amplitude again starts to increase but at a greater
rate than for the heavily damped system. The amplitude is
again a maximum at f = f0 and is greater than that of the
maximum of the heavily damped system.
For the lightly damped system, again the amplitude starts
to increase as f approaches f0, but at a very much greater
rate than for the other two systems; the maximum value is
also considerably larger and much more well-defined i.e.
it is much easier to see that the maximum value is in fact
at f = f0.
If there were such a thing as a system that performs SHM,
then if this system were driven at a frequency equal to
its natural frequency, its amplitude would be infinite.
Figure 420 shows how the amplitude A for a driven system
with very little damping and whose natural frequency of
oscillation f0 = 15 Hz , varies with the frequency f of the
driving force.
150
100
A /cm
50
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 f /Hz 30
Figure 420  Amplitude-frequency graph for a lightly
damped oscillator
We see that the maximum amplitude is now very large
and also very sharply defined. Also, either side of f0, the
amplitude drops off very rapidly.
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 Chapter 4
4.3.5 Resonance
(Note: As well as the availability of a large number of
computer simulations that demonstrate resonance, there
are also many laboratory demonstrations and experiments
that can be done to demonstrate it).
CORE
We have seen that when an oscillatory system is driven at
a frequency equal to its natural frequency, the amplitude
of oscillation is a maximum. This phenomenon is known
as resonance. The frequency at which resonance occurs is
often referred to as the resonant frequency.
4.3.6 Examples of resonance
In the introduction to this Topic, we referred to resonance
phenomena without actually mentioning the term
resonance. For example we can now understand why
oscillations in machinery can be destructive A piece of
machinery will have a natural frequency of oscillation.
If moving parts in the machine act as a driver of forced
oscillations and have a frequency of oscillation equal to
the natural frequency of oscillation of the machine, then
the amplitude of vibration set up in the machine could be
sufficient to cause damage.
Similarly, if a car is driven along a bumpy road, it is possible
that the frequency with which the bumps are crossed by
the car, will just equal the natural frequency of oscillation
of the chassis of the car, If this is the case then the result
can be very uncomfortable.
We now also see why it is important that systems such as
machines, car suspensions, suspension bridges and tall
buildings are critically or heavily damped.
Resonance can also be very useful. For example, the
current in a particular type of electrical circuit, oscillates.
However, the oscillating current quickly dies out because
of resistance in the circuit. Such circuits have a resonant
frequency and if driven by an alternating current supply,
the amplitude of the current may become very large,
particularly if the resistance of the circuit is small.
Circuits such as this are referred to as resonant circuits.
Television and radios have resonant circuits that can be
tuned to oscillate electrically at different frequencies. In
this way they can respond to the different frequencies of
electromagnetic waves that are sent by the transmitting
station as these waves now act as the driving frequency.
This is discussed in more detail in Topic F.1
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070813 Physics Ch 4 final.indd 112
In the introduction we mentioned the use of quartz
crystal as timing devices. If a crystal is set oscillating at
its natural frequency, electric charge constantly builds up
and dies away on it surface in time with the vibration
of the crystal (This is known as the piezoelectric effect.).
This makes it easy to maintain the oscillations using an
alternating voltage supply as the driving frequency. The
vibrations of the crystal are then used to maintain the
frequency of oscillation in a resonant circuit. It is the
oscillations in the resonant circuit that control the hands
of an analogue watch or the display of a digital watch.
(The concept of analogue and digital signals is discussed
in Topics 14.1 and C.1).
It is left as an exercise to you to think of other situations in
which resonance can be useful or can be harmful.
4.4 Wave
Characteristics
4.4. 1 Describe a wave pulse and a continuous
progressive (travelling) wave. (Students
should be able to distinguish between
oscillations and wave motion and
appreciate that in many examples, the
oscillations of the particles are simple
harmonic).
4.4.2 State that progressive (travelling) waves
transfer energy. (Students should
understand that there is no net motion
of the medium through which the wave
travels).
4.4.3 Describe and give examples of transverse
and of longitudinal waves.
4.4.1 Wave pulses and continuous travelling waves
© IBO 2007
Perhaps one of the most familiar types of wave motion is
a water wave. However, we can also set up waves in strings
very easily. A simple demonstration is to take a length of
rubber tubing. Hold one end of it and shake that end up
and down. A wave will travel down the tube. If we give the
end of the tube just one shake then we observe a pulse to
travel down the tube. By this we can see that we can have
either a continuous travelling wave or a travelling pulse.
This is illustrated in Figure 421 in which we have taken an
instantaneous snap shot of the tube.
30/11/2007 10:16:05 AM

(a)
pulse
(b)
hand
movement
Figure 421  Simple waves
We can also set up another type of wave by using a slinky
spring. In this demonstration we lay the spring along the
floor. Hold one end of it and move our hand backwards
and forwards in the direction of the spring. In this way
we see a wave travelling down the spring as a series of
compressions and expansions of the spring as illustrated
in Figure 422.
We can also set up a pulse in the spring by moving our
hand backwards and forwards just once in the direction
of the spring.
Of course we can set up a wave in the spring that is similar
to the one we set up in the rubber tube. We shake the
spring in a direction that is at right angles to the spring as
shown in Figure 422.
2(a) 2(b)
compress
expansions
expand
compress expand compress
compressions
Figure 422  Slinky springs
A very important property associated with all waves is
their so-called periodicity. Waves in fact are periodic
both in time and space and this sometimes makes it
difficult to appreciate what actually is going on in wave
motion. For example, in our demonstration of a wave in
a rubber tube we actually drew a diagram that froze time-
an instantaneous snapshot of the whole string. Hence
Figure 421 shows the periodicity of the wave in space.
The diagram is repeated as a sketch graph in Figure 423.
The y-axis shows the displacement of the tube from its
equilibrium position. The graph is a displacement space
graph.
We now look at one particle of the tube labelled P and
“unfreeze” time. The diagram in Figure 424 shows how
the position of P varies with time. This illustrates the
070813 Physics Ch 4 final.indd 113
Oscillations and Waves
periodicity of the wave in time. We recognise that the
point P is actually oscillating with SHM.
displacement of tube
distance along tube
Equilibrium
P position
CORE
Figure 423  Displacement-space graph
The y-axis now shows the displacement of the point P from
equilibrium. The graph is a displacement-time graph.
The space diagram and the time diagram are both identical
in shape and if we mentally combine them we have the
whole wave moving both in space and time.
displacement of particle P
from equilibrium position
time
Figure 424  Displacement-Time graph
For the longitudinal wave in the slinky spring,
the displacement-space graph actually shows the
displacement of the individual turns of the spring from
their equilibrium position as a function of distance along
the spring. However, it could equally show how the density
of turns of the spring varies with length along the spring.
The displacement–time graph shows the displacement of
one turn of the spring from its equilibrium positions as
a function of time.
4.4.2 What is a wave?
We have shown that waves fall into two distinct classes
but as yet we haven’t actually said what a wave is. Quite
simply a wave is a means by which energy is transferred
between two points in a medium without any net
transfer of the medium itself. By a medium, we mean
the substance or object in which the wave is travelling.
The important thing is that when a wave travels in a
medium, parts of the medium do not end up at different
places. The energy of the source of the wave is carried
to different parts of the medium by the wave. When
for example you see a field of corn waving in the wind
you actually see a wave carry across the field but none
of the corn moves to another field. Similarly with the
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 Chapter 4
demonstrations above, the tube and the spring do not
end up in a different part of the laboratory. Water waves
however, can be a bit disconcerting. Waves at sea do not
transport water but the tides do. Similarly, a wave on a
lake does not transport water but water can actually be
blown along by the wind. However, if you set up a ripple
tank you will see that water is not transported by the
CORE
wave set up by the vibrating dipper.
4.4.3 Transverse and
longitudinal waves
Transverse waves
In these types of wave, the source that produces the wave
vibrates at right angles to the direction of travel of the
wave i.e. the direction in which the energy carried by the
wave is propagated. It also means that the particles of the
medium through which the wave travels vibrate at right
angle to the direction of travel of the wave (direction of
energy propagation).
Figure 421 illustrates an example of a transverse wave.
Light is another example of a transverse wave although
this a very special kind of wave. Light waves are discussed
in more detail in Topic G.1.
An important property of transverse waves is that they
cannot propagate through fluids (liquid or gases). This is
one reason why light wave are special; they are transverse
and yet can propagate through fluids and through a
vacuum.
Longitudinal waves
In these types of wave, the source that produces the wave
vibrates in the same direction as the direction of travel of
the wave i.e. the direction in which the energy carried by
the wave is propagated. It also means that the particles of
the medium through which the wave travels vibrate in the
same direction of travel of the wave (direction of energy
propagation). The wave in the slinky spring in Figure 422
is a longitudinal wave as is sound (see Section 4.4.5).
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070813 Physics Ch 4 final.indd 114
4.4.4 Describe waves in two dimensions,
including the concepts of wavefronts and
rays.
4.4.5 Describe the terms crest, trough,
compression and rarefaction.
4.4.6 Define the terms displacement, amplitude,
frequency, period, wavelength, wave speed
and intensity.
© IBO 2007
4.4.4 Wave fronts and rays
Place a piece of white card beneath a ripple tank and
shine a light on the ripples from above. The image that
you get on the card will look something like that shown
in Figure 425.
lamp
ripple tank
vibrating
dipper
white paper
Figure 425  A ripple tank
Again this is a snapshot. However, by using a stroboscope
as the source of illumination it is possible to “freeze” the
waves.
Each bright area of illumination represents a trough or
crest. (Light incident on the top or bottom of a crest will
be transmitted through the water and not reflected by the
surface).
Each bright line representing a crest can be thought of as a
“wavefront” and this is a very good way of representing a
travelling wave as shown in Figure 426.
30/11/2007 10:16:07 AM

λ
λ λ λ
direction
of travel
wavefronts
Figure 426  A wavefront
If the wave is a light wave then the arrow that shows the
direction of travel of the wave is none other than what we
call a light ray.
4.4.5 Qualitative terms
associated with waves
Crest This is a term coined from water waves and is
used in connection with transverse waves. It refers to the
maximum height of the wave i.e. the point at which the
particles in the medium in which the waves travels have
maximum displacement.
Trough Again, a term coined from water waves and used
in connection with transverse waves. It refers to the lowest
point of the wave i.e. the point at which the particles in
the medium in which the waves travels have minimum
displacement (strictly speaking, maximum negative
displacement).
Compression This is a term used in connection with
longitudinal wave and refers to the region where the
particles of the medium are “bunched up”.
Rarefaction Again, a term used in connection with
longitudinal waves referring to the regions where the
particles are “stretched out”.
In a sound wave, the compression is the region in which
the molecules of the air are pushed together (region of
greatest pressure) and the rarefaction is the region where
the molecules are well separated ( region of least pressure).
In a physiological sense, sound is the ear’s response to the
changes in pressure in a longitudinal wave in air. If the
frequency (see below) of the wave is too low (≈10 Hz) then
the ear will not detect the pressure changes nor will it if
the frequency is too high (≈15 kHz).
A longitudinal wave in a slinky spring is analogous to a
sound wave in that each turn of the spring represents an
air molecule.
070813 Physics Ch 4 final.indd 115
Oscillations and Waves
4.4.6 Definitions associated with
waves
Amplitude (A, a)
CORE
This is the maximum displacement of a particle from its
equilibrium position. (It is also equal to the maximum
displacement of the source that produces the wave).
The energy that a wave transports per unit time across unit
area of the medium through which it is travelling is called
the intensity (I). From our knowledge of SHM we know
that the energy of the oscillating system is proportional to
the square of the amplitude (equation 4.12). Hence for a
wave of amplitude A, we have that
Period (T)
This is the time that it takes a particle to make one complete
oscillation. (It is also equal to the time for the source of the
wave to make one complete oscillation).
Frequency (f)
This is the number of oscillations made per second by
a particle. (It is also equal to the number of oscillations
made per second by the source of the wave). The SI unit of
frequency is the hertz-Hz. Clearly then,
Wavelength (λ)
This is the distance along the medium between two
successive particles that have the same displacement
Wave speed (v, c)
This is the speed with which energy is carried in the
medium by the wave. A very important fact is that wave
speed depends only on the nature and properties of the
medium.
You can demonstrate this by sending pulses along different
types of rubber tubes or by sending pulses along a slinky
in which you alter the distance between successive turns
by stretching it.
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30/11/2007 10:16:08 AM
 Chapter 4

(In some circumstances the wave speed is a function of

wavelength, a phenomenon known as dispersion) 4.4.7 Displacement-time and
Figure 427 shows how the different terms and definitions displacement-position graphs
associated with waves relate to both transverse and
longitudinal waves. From these diagrams, we also see that
the wavelength of a transverse wave is equal to the distance 4.4.8 The relationship between
CORE

between successive crests and also between successive

troughs. For a longitudinal wave the wavelength is equal wave speed, wavelength
to the distance between successive points of maximum
compression and also between successive points of and frequency
maximum rarefaction.
Figure 428 shows an instantaneous snapshot of a medium
tube from through which a wave is travelling. A particle of the
crest wavelength crest equilibrium position medium is labelled ‘P’.
equilibrium position

of tube
displacement of

amplitude, A
distance along tube
TRANSVERSE

displacement of medium
amplitude wavelength P At time t = 0

trough trough

distance along medium

displacement of particle

TRANSVERSE
AND period, T
LONGITUDINAL
time

period, T

compression wavelength
Figure 428  Instantaneous snapshot
LONGITUDINAL of displacement of medium
rarefaction
maximum
compression If we take another photograph half a period later then the
particle ‘P’ will be in the position shown in Figure 429.
Figure 427  How the definitions apply
T
At time t = ---
displacement of medium

4.4.7 Draw and explain displacement-time and

displacement-position graphs for transverse
and for longitudinal waves distance along medium

4.4.8 Derive and apply the relationship between P

wave speed, wavelength and frequency
Figure 429  Particle ‘P’ half a period later
4.4.9 State that all electromagnetic waves
travel with the same speed in free space In this time the wave will have moved forward a distance
and recall the orders of magnitude of the of half a wavelength λ --- .
wavelengths of the principal radiations in 2 λ
---
the electromagnetic spectrum. dis tance- = -- We have therefore
λ- , but, f = --1- that the speed v 2of the wave
---------------------
© IBO 2007 λ
---
time T tance
dis λT- , but, f = --1- , 2
- = --
= ---------------------
v = fλ time T T dis tance λ- , but, f = --1-
- = --
---------------------
Hence we have time T T
v = fλ
v = fλ

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 Oscillations and Waves

actually consist of an electric field and a magnetic field

Example oscillating at right angles to each other. There existence
was first predicted by Clerk Maxwell in 1864 and verified
some 20 years later by Heinrich Hertz (hence Hz for the
Water waves of wavelength 5.0 cm are travelling with a unit of frequency). This was one of the great unifications
-1
speed of 1.0 ms . in Physics.

CORE
Calculate the frequency of the source producing the Before Maxwell’s prediction there were the separate
waves? studies of Optics (light) and Electricity and Magnetism
and that after the verification of his prediction, there was
The waves travel into deeper water where their speed is just the study of Electromagnetism. Maxwell’s theory also
now 2.0 m s –1. Calculate the new wavelength λnew of the predicted that all em waves would have the same speed
waves. in free space (vacuum) of very nearly 3 × 108 m s-1. This
prediction had great implications for the development of
Physics as will be seen in Topics D.1 and H.1.
Solution
The source of all EM waves is essentially the accelerated
motion of electric charge. If the charge is oscillating then
Using v = fλ we have that 1.0 = f × .05 the frequency with which the charge oscillates determines
the frequency of the em wave. The so-called spectrum of
Such that f = 20 Hz. em waves is vast. Suppose in a thought experiment, we
were to have a charged metal sphere and were able to
In the deeper water using v = fλ we now have that 2.0 set it oscillating at different frequencies. When vibrating
with a frequency of 103 Hz, the oscillating charged
= 20 × λ sphere would be a source of long wave radio signals, at
new
109 Hz a source of television signals, at 1015 Hz a source
Such that λ = 10 cm. of visible light and at 1018 Hz, it would emit X-rays. Of
new
course this is just a thought experiment and we should
identify the actual sources of the different regions of the
4.4.9 Electromagnetic waves em spectrum. These are shown in Figure 430.

We mentioned above that light is a transverse wave but
in fact light is just one example of a most important class
of waves known as electromagnetic waves. There are
called electromagnetic waves (EM waves) because they
Our thought experiment might be somewhat absurd,
but it does emphasise the point that the origin of all em
waves is the accelerated motion of electric charge.
(very hot objects)
Visible

f / Hz 103 104 106 108 1010 1012 1014 1016 1018

Ultra-
violet
Radio waves Microwaves X-rays
Infra-red
γ-rays

Electrons
striking targets
Gas
Source Electrons moving in conductors Hot Objects
discharge
Radioactive
decay

λ/m 106 104 102 100 10–2 10–4 10–6 10–8 10–10

Figure 430  Regions of the electromagnetic spectrum

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 Chapter 4
4.5 Wave Properties
4.5.1 Describe the reflection and transmission of
waves at a boundary between two media.
CORE
4.5.2 State and apply Snell’s law.
© IBO 2007
4.5.1 Reflection and refraction
Reflection of a single pulse
We now look to see what happens to a wave when it is
incident on the boundary between two media. First of all, we
shall look at a single pulse travelling along a string.
Figure 431 shows a pulse travelling in a string that is fixed
to a rigid support, it is essentially the positive part of a
sine curve.
Figure 431  The incident pulse
When the pulse reaches the end of the string it is reflected
Figure 432 shows the reflected pulse, this pulse is the
negative part of a sine curve. Some of the energy of the
pulse will actually be absorbed at the support and as such,
the amplitude of the reflected pulse will be less than that
of the incident pulse.
Figure 432  The reflected pulse
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070813 Physics Ch 4 final.indd 118
The main thing to note is that the pulse keeps its shape
except that now it is inverted i.e. the pulse has undergone
a 180° (π) phase change.
The reason for this is a little tricky to understand but it is
essentially because the end of string that is fixed cannot
move. As any part of the forward pulse reaches the fixed
end the associated point on the string is moving upward
and so if the fixed point is not to move, the point on the
string that is moving upward must be cancelled out by
a point moving downwards. This is an example of the
so-called principle of superposition that we look at in
Section 4.4.5
If the string is not attached to a support then a pulse is still
reflected from the end of the string but this time there is no
phase change and so the reflected pulse is not inverted.
Reflection of wavefronts
Reflection
We can use the idea of wavefronts to see what happens
when a wave strikes a barrier. This is demonstrated with
a ripple tank.
Figure 433 shows the incident wavefronts and the reflected
wavefronts.
incident waves re ected waves
i r
i.e.
i r
Figure 433  Incident and reflected wavefronts
By constructing the associated rays (see Figure 433), we
see that the
����������������������������������������������������
angle at which the waves are reflected from the
barrier is equal to the angle at which they are incident on
the barrier (the angles are measured to the normal to the
barrier). That is ∠i = ∠r . All waves, including light, sound,
water obey this rule, the so-called law of reflection.
We can use the idea of reflection to make a very simple
measurement of the speed of sound. If you stand about
100 m away from a tall wall and clap your hands once,
a short time later you will hear an echo of the clap. The
sound pulse produced by your hand clap travels to the
30/11/2007 10:16:10 AM
 Oscillations and Waves

wall and is reflected back. The trick now is to clap your

L I G HT S O U R C E
hands continuously until each clap is synchronous with
the echo. You should then get a friend to time the number λd λs
of claps that you make in say 30 seconds. Let us suppose
that this is 50. The number of claps per second is therefore
0.6. This means that it takes the sound 0.6 seconds to perspex sheet
travel to the wall and back. The speed of sound can then deep water shallow water deep water

CORE
be approximated as 330 m s–1. If you should get this result
then you have done very well indeed since this is very
nearly the value of the speed of sound in air at standard
temperature and pressure. However, in the true spirit of
experimental physics, you should repeat the experiment
several times and at different distances and you should
also assess the quantitative error in your result. NB: λ d > λ s

Figure 435  Wavefronts in water of different depth

Refraction
In this diagram the wave fronts are parallel to the boundary
We now look to see what happens to a wave when it is between the two regions. The frequency of the waves does
incident on the boundary between two media and passes not alter so, as we have mentioned before, the wavelength
from one medium to the other (transmission). As for in the shallow water will be smaller. If the speed of the
the single pulse, some energy will be absorbed at the waves in the deep water is vd and the speed in the shallow
boundary. Also, as well as energy being transmitted by the water is vs,
wave, some energy will be reflected at the boundary. Here
we will concentrate on the transmitted energy. then, such that
λ λ
We have discussed previously the idea that the speed
of a wave depends only on the nature and properties of λ
the medium through which the wave travels. This gives λ
rise to the phenomenon of refraction. That is the change
in direction of travel of a wave resulting from a change In Figure 436 the wavefronts are now incident at an angle
in speed of the wave. This is easily demonstrated with a to the boundary between the deep and shallow water.
ripple tank by arranging two regions of different depth.
To achieve this a piece of flat perspex or glass is placed a
short distance from the source of the waves as shown in
shallow deep
Figure 434. C B

source of plane waves A

ripple tank

perspex sheet water

barrier

Figure 436  Waves incident at an angle

Figure 434  Ripple tank setup to demonstrate refraction
Figure 435, shows the result of a continuous plane wave
going from deep to shallow water.
As well as the wavelength being smaller in the shallow
water the direction of travel of the wavefronts also alters.
We can understand this by looking at the wavefront drawn
in bold. By the time that part A of this wavefront reaches
the barrier at B the refracted wave originated from the
barrier will have only reached C since it is travelling more
slowly.

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 Chapter 4

4.5.2 Snell’s law A

θ1 medium 1
In 1621 the Dutch physicist Willebrord Snell discovered θ1
Y boundary
and published a very important rule in connection with X
the refraction of light. B medium 2
θ2 θ2
CORE

Figure 437 shows a light ray travelling from one medium

to another. The line AB is a line constructed such that it
is at right angles to the surface between the two media
(called the normal). It is used as a reference to measure Figure 438  Snell’s law
the angle (the angle of incidence) and the angle (the angle
of refraction). Snell discovered that for any two media In the time that it takes point A on the wavefront XA to
reach Y, point X will have travelled to point B. If we let this
time be ∆t then we have
θ
θ AY = v1∆t and XB = v2∆t

However from the geometry of the situation we have that

A normal AY = XYsinθ1 and XB = XYsinθ2

medium 1
θ1 From which

θ Δt
θ2 medium 2
θ Δt

B
that is

Figure 437  Refraction of light rays θ

This is known as Snell’s law. In fact it enables us to define
a property of a given optical medium by measuring
the angles when medium 1 is a vacuum. (In the school
laboratory air will suffice.). The constant is then a property
of medium 2 alone called its refractive index n.
We usually write
θ
That is, the constant in Snell’s law is the ratio of the speed
of light in medium 1 to that in medium 2. The result will
of course be valid for all types of waves.
For light we have that the refractive index of a material
is the ratio of the speed of light in vacuo (c) to that in the
material (v). We can write this as

When Snell published his law it was essentially an

empirical law and the argument as to the nature of light As mentioned above this result has been confirmed for
was still debatable. light by a direct measurement of the speed of light in water
and subsequently in other materials.
Although we have described Snell’s law for light rays, we
must remember that a ray is a line that is perpendicular to
the wavefronts of a wave. In this respect Snell’s law is true Example
for all waves. Example

In Figure 438 the wavefronts in medium 1 travel with The refractive index of a certain type of glass is 1.5. The
speed v1 and in medium 2 with speed v2 . speed of light in free space is 3.0 × 108 m s-1.

Calculate the speed of light in glass.

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Solution
From Snell’s law above, the speed of light in glass can be
found using c = 3 × 108 m s-1.
So, with n = 1.5 and , we have that v = 2 .0 × 108 m s–1.
4.5.3 Explain and discuss qualitatively the
diffraction of waves at apertures and
obstacles.
4.5.4 Describe examples of diffraction. wavefront parallel to the first wavefront. In the case of the
© IBO 2007
4.5.3,4 Diffraction
When waves pass through a slit or any aperture, or pass
the edge of a barrier, they always spread out to some extent
into the region that is not directly in the path of the waves.
This phenomenon is called diffraction. This is clearly
demonstrated in a ripple tank.
Figure 439 (a) shows plane waves incident on a barrier in
which there is a narrow slit, the width of which is similar in
size to the wavelength of the incident waves. Figure 439 (b)
shows plane waves passing the edge of a barrier.
a b
Figure 439 of secondary sources at points on a wavefront close to the
(a) Diffraction at a slit (b) Diffraction at an edge
To understand this, we use an idea put forward by
Christiaan Huygens (1629-1695). Huygens suggested
that each point on any wavefront acts as a source of a
secondary wave that produce waves with a wavelength
equal to the wavelength associated with the wavefront. In
Figure 440 we can see how this works in the case of plane
wavefronts.
070813 Physics Ch 4 final.indd 121
Oscillations and Waves
new wavefront
secondary
wave
wavefront
CORE
Figure 440  Planar waves
Each point on the wavefront is the source of a secondary
wave and the new wavefront is found by linking together
the effect of all the secondary waves. Since there are, in
this case in infinite number of them, we end up with a
plane waves travelling through the slit in Figure 438 (b), it
is as if the slit becomes a secondary point source.
If we look at the effect of plane waves incident on a slit
whose width is much larger than the incident wavelength
as shown in Figure 441 then we see that diffraction effects
are minimal. We can understand this from the fact that
each point on the slit acts as a secondary source and we
now have a situation where the waves from the secondary
sources results in a wavefront that is nearly planar (see
Figure 440).
Figure 441  Diffraction at a large aperture
Diffraction effects at edges can also be understood on the
basis of Huygens’ suggestion. By sketching the wavefronts
edge, it easy to see that diffraction effects become more
pronounced as the wavelength of the incident wave is
increased.
4.5.4 Examples of diffraction
We have seen that the ripple tank can be used to
demonstrate the phenomenon of diffraction, i.e. the
spreading out of a wave has it goes through an aperture or
encounters an object.
Diffraction of sound waves can be demonstrated using the
set up shown Figure 442.
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30/11/2007 10:16:12 AM
 Chapter 4
The barrier would be expected to prevent the waves
reaching points such as X. However, because of diffraction
at the slit, the waves spread out in the region beyond the
slit and the microphone will detect sound at points such
as X.
microphone
X i) FM radio waves of frequency 96
CORE
speaker CRO
signal
generator
Figure 442  Diffraction of sound waves
You can also demonstrate the diffraction of light by shining
laser light through a single narrow slit such that after
passing through the slit, the light is incident on a screen.
The effect of diffraction at the slit produces a pattern on
the screen that consists of areas of illumination (bright
fringes) separated by dark areas (dark fringes). In this
situation, each point on the slit is acting as a secondary
source and the pattern of light and dark fringes is a result
of the interference (see next section) of the waves from
these sources. (The diffraction of light is considered in
more detail in Topic 11.3).
As mentioned above, diffraction effects at a slit really only
becomes noticeable when the slit width is comparable to
the wavelength. In this respect, if the laser is replaced by a
point source, then as the slit is made wider, the diffraction
pattern tends to disappear and the illumination on the
screen becomes more like what one would expect if light
consisted of rays rather than waves. Historically, the
diffraction of light was strong evidence for believing that
light did indeed consist of waves.
The diffraction of light can also be demonstrated by
looking directly at a point source through a narrow
slit. Unless the point source is monochromatic – a
monochromatic source is one that emits light of a single
colour (i.e. wavelength) and you will see a series of
different coloured fringes interspersed by dark fringes.
122
070813 Physics Ch 4 final.indd 122
Exercise
1. (a) Calculate the wavelengths of
MHz
ii) long wave radio waves of frequency
200 kHz.(Speed of light in free space
c = 3.0 × 108 m s-1)
(b) Use your answers to (i) and (ii) to explain
why if your car is tuned to FM, it cuts out
when you enter a tunnel but doesn’t if you
are tuned to long wave reception.
2. Suggest one reason why ships at sea use a very low
frequency sound for their foghorn.
4.5.5 State the principle of superposition and
explain what is meant by constructive
interference and by destructive interference.
4.5.6 State and apply the conditions for
constructive and for destructive
interference in terms of path difference and
phase difference.
4.5.7 Apply the principle of superposition to
determine the resultant of two waves
© IBO 2007
4.5.5 The principle of
superposition
We now look at what happens when two waves overlap.
For example in Figure 443 what will happen when the two
pulses on a string travelling in opposite directions cross
each other?
pulse 1 pulse 2
Figure 443  Two pulses approaching each other
There is a very important principle in physics that applies
not only to waves but to other situations as well. This is
the principle of superposition. What it effectively tells us
is that if you want to find out the effect of two separate
causes then you need to add the effects of each separate
30/11/2007 10:16:13 AM
 Oscillations and Waves

cause. In the example of the two pulses, to find the net

displacement at any point we add the displacement of
pulse 1 at that point to the displacement of pulse 2 at the
point. We show two examples of this in Figure 444 below
as the pulses move across each other.
4.5.6 Path difference and phase
difference
The schematic diagram in Figure 445 shows part of the
interference pattern that we get from two point sources,

CORE
S1 and S2. The left hand side is a reflection of the pattern
on the right hand side. The dashed line shows where the
crests from S1 meet the crests from S2, creating a double
pulse 1 pulse 2 crest, i.e., constructive interference.

2a The dashed line shows

where the crests from S1
a meet the crests from S2 ,
pulse 1
pulse 2 creating a double crest, i.e.,
constructive interference.

S1 S2
(antinodes)
Figure 444  (a) Constructive interference constructive interference
(crest meets crest)
(nodes)
destructive interference
(crest meets trough)

pulse 1 pulse 2
Figure 445  Two source interference

The sources are two dippers connected to a bar that is

pulse 2
vibrated by an electric motor. The dippers just touch the
pulse 1 surface of the water in a ripple tank. The sources therefore
have the same frequency. They also are in phase. By this
we mean that when a crest is created by one dipper a
crest is created by the other dipper. Sources that have the
pulse 1 same frequency and that are in phase are called coherent
sources.
pulse 2
The bold lines in the diagram show the places where
a trough of one wave meets the crest of the other wave
producing complete destructive interference. The water
Figure 444 (b)  Destructive interference at these points will not be displaced and such points
are called nodal points or nodes. Points of maximum
1. author
In the first diagram the pulses do not fully overlap constructive interference are called antinodes. The bold
dot the
and pulses in thediagram
in the second last diag
theypls
do. In the second lines are therefore called nodal lines.
diagram we have we what call full constructive
interference. The two pulses add to give a single The overall pattern produced by the interfering waves is
pulse of twice the amplitude of each separate called an interference pattern.
pulse.
To emphasise the idea of phase the diagrams in Figure 446
2. We now consider two pulses as shown in the show snapshots of two waves in phase and two waves that
diagram below. are π out of phase.

When these two pulses completely overlap the net

displacement of the string will be zero. We now have
what we call complete destructive interference.

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 Chapter 4

Two waves in phase

wave A
Two waves ¼ out of phase.

wave A
4.5.7 Applying the principle of
superposition

wave B
wave B It will help you understand the principle of superposition
to do the following exercise.
CORE

Diagram 1 Diagram 2
Exercise
Figure 446  Phase difference

The idea of π out of phase comes from the idea that if the Sophia sounds two tuning forks A and B together and
space displacement of wave A in diagram 2 is represented places them close to her ear.
by y = Asinθ , then the space displacement of wave B is
y = Asin (θ + π). At the instant shown the waves in diagram The graph in Figure 448 shows the variation with time t of
1 will reinforce and produce constructive interference the air pressure close to her ear over a short period of time.
whereas the waves in diagram 2 will produce destructive
1
interference.
0.8
0.6
Let us now look at the interference between wave sources pressure/arbitary units
0.4
from two points in a little more detail. 0.2
tuning fork A
0 t
In Figure 447 we want to know what will be the condition -0.2
tuning fork B

for there to be a point of maximum or minimum -0.4

interference at P. -0.6
P -0.8
-1
S1
Figure 448  Tuning fork graph
S2 X
On a separate piece of graph paper, use the principle of
Figure 447  Interference superposition to construct a graph that shows the variation
with time t of the resultant pressure close to Sophia’s ear.
S1 and S2 are two coherent point sources. For there to be
a maximum at P, a trough must meet a trough or a crest Use your graph to suggest the nature of the sound that
must meet a crest. The waves from the sources will have Sophia will hear up until the time that the vibrations of the
travelled a different distance to P and therefore will not be tuning forks die out.
necessarily in phase when they reach P. However, if a crest
meets a crest (or trough a trough) at P then they will be in
phase. They will be in phase only if the difference in the
distances travelled by the two waves is an integral number
of wavelengths.

This means that path difference

= S 2P S 1 P = S 2 X = nλ , n = 0, 1 , 2 , …

= S 2 PwillS be
The waves 1 P out
= Sof
2 Xphase , n
= nλif 0, 1 , 2 , … in the
the= difference
distance travelled, is an odd number of half-wavelengths.

So for a minimum we have path difference =

= S 2 P S 1 P = S 2 X = n + 1---1 λ , n = 0, 1 , 2, …
= S 2 P S 1 P = S 2 X = n +2--- λ , n = 0, 1 , 2, …
2

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