To Bill and Barbara Tremper Published by The Mountaineers Books 1001 SW Klickitat Way, Suite 201 Seattle, WA !

1"# $ 2001 by Bruce Tremper All ri%hts reser&ed 'irst edition, 2001 (o part o) this book may be reproduced in any )orm, or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, *ithout permission in *ritin% )rom the publisher+ Published simultaneously in ,reat Britain by -ordee, "a .eMont)ort Street, /eicester, 0n%land, /01 211. Manu)actured in the 3nited States o) America Pro4ect 0ditor5 -hristine 3mmel 6osier 0ditor5 Paula Thurman 1llustrations5 ,ray Mouse ,raphics -o&er, book desi%n, and layout5 Mayumi Thompson -o&er photo%raph5 .ry sno* slab a&alanche tri%%ered by skier on Tete de la Payanee, 7alals, S*it8erland+ 9uer% Sch*ei8er+ /ibrary o) -on%ress -atalo%in%:in:Publication .ata Tremper, Bruce, 1 ;": Stayin% ali&e in a&alanche terrain < by Bruce Tremper+= 1st ed+ p+ cm+ 1ncludes biblio%raphical re)erences+ 1SB( 0:! !!>:!"#:" ?pbk+@ 200100#002 Printed on recycled paper

A Note About Safety Sa)ety is an important concern in all outdoor acti&ities+ (o book can alert you to e&ery ha8ard or anticipate the limitations o) e&ery reader+ The descriptions o) techniAues and procedures in this book are intended to pro&ide %eneral in)ormation+ This is not a complete teBt on a&alanche sa)ety+ (othin% substitutes )or )ormal instruction, routine practice, and plenty o) eBperience+ When you )ollo* any o) the procedures described here, you assume responsibility )or your o*n sa)ety+ 3se Stayin% Ali&e in A&alanche Terrain as a %eneral %uide to )urther in)ormation+ 3nder normal conditions, eBcursions into the backcountry reAuire attention to tra))ic, road and trail conditions, *eather, terrain, the capabilities o) your party, and other )actors+ Keepin% in)ormed on current conditions and eBercisin% common sense are the keys to a sa)e, en4oyable outin%+

CONTENT
Ackno*led%ments 1ntroduction 1 Avalanche Basics 2 How Avalanches Work Terrain ! Weather " Snow#ack $ Stability % Ha&ar' Evaluation ( )outefin'in* an' Safe Travel )ituals + )escue 1, The Hu-an .actor AppendiB5 3nited States A&alanche /an*er /escri#tors ,lossary Biblio%raphy 1ndeB AC0NOW1E/23ENTS 1) you like this book, please donCt thank me, 1Cm 4ust the messen%er+ Most o) the ideas in this book came )rom the pioneers o) a&alanche research and education, *hich started in the 3nited States *ith 0d /a-hapelle, Monty At*ater, and Don Perla, *ho ran the Alta Study -enter )rom 4ust a)ter World War 11 to about 1 22+ To%ether, they came up *ith the bulk o) *hat *e no* teach in modern a&alanche schools, as *ell as most o) the techniAues *e no* use in a&alanche )orecastin%, control, and rescue+ As you *ill notice, the names o) my mentors, .ou% 'esler and 9ill 'redston, come up repeatedly in this book, and )or %ood reason+ .ou% 'esler has li&ed amon% the bi% Alaska a&alanches )or o&er "0 years+ 6e started the Alaska A&alanche School in the early 1 20sE he *as 4oined by 9ill 'redston, no* his *i)e, in the early 1 !0sE and to%ether they no* run the Alaska Mountain Sa)ety -enter+ As near as 1 can tell, they kno* more about a&alanches and more about teachin% a&alanches than anyone else in the *orld+ Most o) the or%ani8ation and presentation o) a&alanche concepts in this book *ere pioneered and re)ined by .ou% and 9ill throu%h hundreds o) multiday a&alanche courses+ Special thanks )or the hard *ork o) the manuscript re&ie* committee5 .ale Atkins -olorado A&alanche 1n)ormation -enter Do%er Atkins -anadian Mountain 6olidays helicopter ski %uide Karl Birkeland 'orest Ser&ice (ational A&alanche -enter .ou% -oombs pioneer o) the 7alde8, Alaska, eBtreme skiin% phenomenon .ou% 'esler Alaska Mountain Sa)ety -enter /iam 'it8%erald 3tah .epartment o) Transportaion a&alanche )orecaster Bruce 9amieson a&alanche )orecaster, 3ni&ersity o) -al%ary, -anada Don 9ohnson ,allatin A&alanche -enter Tom Kimbrou%h 3tah A&alanche -enter 0d /a-hapelle AmericaCs most &enerable a&alanche eBpert 0&elyn /ees 3tah A&alanche -enter Mark Moore (orth*est Weather and A&alanche -enter Mark (e*comb helicopter ski %uide and *orld:class mountaineer Peter Schaerer -anadaCs most &enerable a&alanche eBpert 9uer% Sch*ei8er S*iss 'ederal 1nstitute o) Sno* and A&alanche Desearch KnoB Williams -olorado A&alanche 1n)ormation -enter Thanks also %o out to the many people *ho ha&e made si%ni)icant contributions to this book but, )or &arious reasons, *ere not able to re&ie* the manuscript+ Those include ?in alphabetical order@5

.ou% Abromeit, 0d Adams, Paul Bau%her, .uain Bo*les, Bob Bro*n, 6o*ard -on*ay, Dand .ecker, Kelly 0lder, 9ill 'redston, Andy ,leason, 6ans ,ubler, /arry 6ey*ood, -lair 1srealson, 9anet Kellam, (ick /o%an, .a&e Mc-lun%, Art Mears, 9ohn Monta%ne, 6alstead Morris, Don Perla, .ou% Dichmond, .on Shara)), and -hris Stethem+ 4NT)O/5CT4ON It's so wonderful finding out you were wrong, that you were ignorant, that you know nothing, not squat. You get to start over. =Dick Bass What 6appens When Fou ,et -au%ht in an A&alancheG 1t *as (o&ember 1 2!+ 1 *as a cocky, eB:national:circuit ski racer, 2# years old, )resh out o) colle%e, and because 1 needed the money 1 *as buildin% chairli)ts at Brid%er Bo*l Ski Area in Montana+ 1n the i%norance and &i%or o) youth, 1 naturally enou%h considered mysel) to be an a&alanche eBpert+ 1 had %ro*n up in the mountains o) *estern Montana, my )ather had tau%ht me about a&alanches *hen 1 *as 10 years old, and 1 had skied in the backcountry the past se&eral years and had so )ar a&oided any serious mishaps+ 1n other *ords, 1 *as a typical a&alanche &ictim+ 1 *as skiin% alone ?)irst mistake@ and not *earin% a beacon ?second mistake@+ A)ter all, 1 *asnCt Hskiin%,H 1 *as H*orkin%,H ti%htenin% the bolts at the base o) each chairli)t to*er *ith a torAue *rench+ 0&en in my unackno*led%ed i%norance, 1 could see that it *as clearly &ery dan%erous+ I&er a )oot o) li%ht sno* had )allen the ni%ht be)ore and the *ind *as blo*in% hard, loadin% up the steep slopes beneath the upper section o) the chairli)t *ith thick slabs o) *ind:dri)ted sno*+ P+001 Skiers tri%%erin% an a&alanche ?-olumbia Mountains, British -olumbia@ $ Brad White<Alpenstock Startin% )rom the top, 1 skied do*n, stoppin% at each to*er to torAue the bolts+ When 1 *as )inished *ith the to*er at the top o) the a&alanche paths, took o)) my skis and started *alkin% back up the slope so 1 could %ain the rid%e and circle around to the to*er beneath the a&alanche paths+ But 1 Auickly disco&ered my third mistake+ Since 1 didnCt brin% my backcountry skis or climbin% skins, the easy ski do*n *as no* an eBhaustin% pi% *allo* back up throu%h chest:deep sno*, and the nearby sno*:)ree cli))s *ere too scary to climb in my slippery plastic boots+ 1 couldnCt help but notice that only a 1;:)oot:*ide couloir at the base o) the cli))s separated me )rom the sa)e slopes on the other side+ (aturally enou%h, 1 thou%ht a %ood skier like mysel) should be able to %et up speed and 8ip across it be)ore anythin% too bad happened+ ?Ski cuttin% alone and *ithout a beacon=)ourth mistake+@ 1 did my ski cut accordin% to the book+ 1 built up speed and crossed the slope at about a #;: de%ree an%le so that, in theory, my momentum *ould carry me o)) the mo&in% slab, in case it did break on me+ Since 1 had ne&er been cau%ht in an a&alanche be)ore, 1 had no idea ho* Auickly the slab=a)ter it shatters like a pane o) %lass=can pick up speed+ 1 heard a deep, mu))led thunk as it )ractured+ Then it *as like someone pulled the ru% out )rom under me and 1 instantly )lopped do*n onto the sno*, losin% all the precious speed 1 had built up+ /ike a startled co*, 1 sat there on my butt and *atched so)t slab shatter into little blocks and the blanket o) sno* rocketed do*n the slope as i) sucked do*n*ard by eBtra:hea&y %ra&ity+ 1 4umped to my )eet and tried to build up my speed a%ain so 1 could 4et o)) to the side, but it *as )ar too late+ The blocks o) shattered slab *ere mo&in% all around me, like a herd o) tumblin% cardboard boBes blo*in% in the *ind+ (othin% seemed to *ork+ 0&en thou%h only 2 or " seconds had elapsed, the a&alanche, *ith me as its unintended passen%er, *as already mo&in% a %ood 20 miles per hour ?mph@+ /ookin% do*nhill, 1 sa* a line o) small trees comin% to*ard me at a )ri%htenin% speed+ They looked like periscopes slicin% throu%h the *ater in an old World War 11 mo&ie+ 1 tried to maneu&er to %rab one o) them+ But the a&alanche, as 1 disco&ered, pretty much has its *ay *ith you+ -hoice is an option you think you mi%ht ha&e be)ore youCre cau%ht in an a&alanche, but ne&er a)ter*ard+ /uckily it took me directly into the smallest tree and 1 slammed it hard and held on *ith all my stren%th+ The sno* pounded me like 1 *as standin% under a hu%e *ater)all, and it )elt like my neck *ould snap as each block o) *ind slab smashed into my head+ The tree snapped o)), and 1 rocketed do*n the slope a%ain+ Then the tumblin% started, o&er and o&er like bein% stuck in a %iant *ashin% machine )illed *ith sno*+ 6at and mittens, instantly %one+ Sno* *ent e&ery*here, do*n my neck, up my slee&es, do*n my under*ear, e&en under my eyelids, somethin% 1 *ould ha&e ne&er ima%ined+ With e&ery breath, 1 sucked in a miBture o) sno* and air that instantly )ormed a plu% in my mouth and do*n into my throat+ 1 cou%hed it out but the neBt breath rammed my throat )ull o) sno* a%ain+ 9ust *hen 1 needed to breathe the most, 1 couldnCt=1 *as dro*nin% to death hi%h in the mountains, in the middle o)

*inter and miles )rom the nearest *ater+ A)ter a lon% *hile, *hen 1 *as about to pass out )rom lack o) air, the a&alanche be%an to slo* do*n and the tumblin% )inally stopped+ 1 *as on the sur)ace and 1 could breathe a%ain+ But as 1 bobbed alon% on the so)t, mo&in% blanket o) sno*, *hich had slo*ed )rom about >0 mph to around #0 mph, 1 disco&ered that my body, bein% denser than a&alanche debris, tended to sink like a rock i) 1 didnCt s*im hard+ So 1 s*am+ But somethin% *as pullin% one o) my le%s do*n+ This *as in the days be)ore ski brakes and 1 had sa)ety straps attachin% my skis to my boots+ 1 could s*im but my skis couldnCt+ Ine sa)ety strap had torn )ree but the other one remained attached, and it )elt like a boat anchor tied to my le%+ The ski *as beneath me in the slo*er mo&in% debris and as the sur)ace debris mo&ed )aster, it tipped me )or*ard, sho&in% my )ace in the sno* a%ain and a%ain+ 1 stru%%led hard to pull that ski up throu%h the debris *ith my )urious s*immin%+ 0&entually, the s*immin% *orked, and *hen the a&alanche )inally came to a stop 1 )ound mysel) upri%ht and buried only chest deep, breathin% hard, &ery *et and &ery cold+ 1 remembered )rom the a&alanche books that debris sets up like concrete the instant it comes to a stop, but itCs one o) those )acts you donCt entirely belie&e+ Sure enou%h, 1 *as in a body cast )rom the chest do*n+ Barehanded, 1 chipped a*ay at the rock:hard sno* )or a %ood 10 minutes *ith my sho&el be)ore 1 could )inally *ork my le%s )ree+ In one )oot, the heelpiece o) the bindin% hun% )rom the sa)ety strap *ith a >:inch section o) the top:skin o) the ski still attached to the scre*s+ 1t had pulled completely o)) the ski+ In my other )oot, the ski *as still intact but both the tip and the tail *ere broken+ 6o* 1 could ha&e broken both skis, yet none o) my bones, has al*ays been a mystery to me+ 1 decided that day that, no, 1 *asnCt an a&alanche eBpert, not e&en close, and that *as the real be%innin% o) my a&alanche education+ Within a month 1 luckily landed a 4ob on the ski patrol doin% a&alanche control *here the old pros Auickly took me under their *in%+ 1 ha&e al*ays been %rate)ul to those %uys, especially my childhood )riend and ski racin% buddy .ou% Dichmond, *ho patiently tutored me throu%h those )irst couple years+ 6e could see that 1 *as an accident *aitin% to happen, as )ull o) mysel) as 1 *as, and li&in% *ith the delusion that 1 kne* much more about a&alanches than 1 did+ 6is )riendship, instruction, and lo&e ha&e sa&ed my li)e many times o&er since then and helped set me on the path o) a ne* career+ 1 promised mysel) 1 *ould do the same )or others, *hich 1 ha&e, and this book is part o) that promise+ 1 donCt think itCs possible to *atch a hu%e natural e&ent, especially a cataclysmic one, *ithout ha&in% the eBperience chan%e your li)e+ 7olcano *atchers, tornado chasers, eclipse 4unkies=they all sa* their )irst one and then nothin% *as the same anymore+ The unspeakable po*er, the beauty, the horror, the insi%ni)icance o) humanity in the )ace o) it all+ They spend the rest o) their li&es tryin% to )ind it a%ain+ 1n an a&alanche, the mountainside shatters like a pane o) %lass and roars to the bottom at >0 mph, rippin% out trees+ 1 rode one do*n and someho* sur&i&ed and ha&e been haunted by them and hunted them e&er since+ A&alanches *ill probably ne&er let me %o+ What Ha##ens When 6ou 2et Burie' in an Avalanche7 'i%ure 1:1+ A %enerali8ed %raph o) 0uropean a&alanche &ictims *ho *ere completely buried and in total contact *ith the sno* ?no people in &ehicles or houses@+ 6al) o) &ictims are dead *ithin about 2; minutes+ This %raph does not include &ictims killed by trauma, *hich account )or about a Auarter o) a&alanche deaths+ I&er a Auarter o) a&alanche &ictims die )rom trauma by hittin% trees and rocks on the *ay do*n+ I) those *ho sur&i&e the ride, the lucky ones end up *ith their head abo&e the sur)ace or close enou%h to the sur)ace to breathe and they or their partners can o)ten di% them out+ -ompletely buried &ictims be%in a desperate race a%ainst time, in *hich only 2! percent li&e+ 0&en dense a&alanche debris contains about >0 to 20 percent air, plus sno* is &ery permeable, so a&alanche &ictims *ould be able to breathe almost inde)initely i) it *ere not )or one little problem5 A&alanche &ictims die )rom rebreathin% their o*n carbon dioBide ?asphyBia@ rather than the lack o) oBy%en ?su))ocation@+ Moreo&er, the condensation o) the &ictimCs breath )orms an Hice maskH around their mouth, )urther eBacerbatin% the buildup o) carbon dioBide+ 6o* much time do you ha&eG (ot lon%+ A&alanche books )rom 1; years a%o said hal) the people are dead in the )irst hal):hour+ As a&alanche rescue times become shorter and shorter, *eCre )indin% that people are not li&in% as lon% under the sno* as *e thou%ht+ The latest research )rom 0urope no* indicates that 2 percent o) completely buried &ictims can be re&i&ed i) they are reco&ered in the )irst 1; minutes, but the number drops catastrophically a)ter that, lea&in% only 22 percent ali&e a)ter "; minutes+ 1t is thou%ht that &ictims *ho sur&i&e a)ter "; minutes must ha&e some sort o) air pocket, *hich allo*s the )inal 22 percent o) &ictims to sur&i&e to 100 to 120 minutes, a)ter *hich the numbers sink to near 8ero+ Most contemporary data su%%est that hal) the &ictims are dead *ithin the

)irst 2; minutes ?'i%ure 1:1@+ This is a soberin% number, especially considerin% that brain dama%e starts *ell be)ore death=perhaps at 10 minutes )or an a&era%e &ictim+ 1 ha&e kno*n a number o) people *ho *ere du% out *ithin ; minutes, and they *ere already unconscious and blue:)aced+ 1n other *ords, a&alanche &ictims are like dro*nin% &ictims+ They ha&e to be du% out o) the sno* )ast+ 1) the &ictim is *earin% an a&alanche rescue beacon ?see -hapter @ and their partners escape or sur&i&e the slide and they ha&e been re%ularly practicin% *ith their beacons, then chances are %ood that they can di% the &ictim out in time=but this doesnCt happen &ery o)ten+ 1n practice, )or approBimately e&ery 10 people *ho die in an a&alanche, only one is rescued )rom a complete burial by their partners+ The numbers usually donCt add up to many happy endin%s+ Why This Book7 People are %ettin% slau%htered by a&alanches+ 1 donCt think slau%hter is too stron% a *ord considerin% that bet*een 1 !; and 2000, 2>> people ha&e died in a&alanches in the 3nited States+ /ookin% at the last )i&e years o) the millennium, an a&era%e o) 2> people died each year in the 3nited States *ith an a&era%e o) 1; per season in -anada, and the trend is on a steep up*ard slope that sho*s no si%ns o) abatin%+ 1n the 3nited States, more people die each year in a&alanches, on a&era%e, than )rom either hurricanes or earthAuakes ?'i%ure 1:2@+ P002+ 'i)teen years a%o sno*mobiles could only rarely access a&alanche terrain ri%ht a)ter storms, but modern sno*mobiles can %o nearly any place a skier or climber can %o, and in a day they can co&er nearly 100 times the amount o) terrain as human:po*ered recreationists+ -onseAuently, sno*mobiler a&alanche )atalities ha&e skyrocketed in recent years+ $ Bruce Tremper And no *onder+ Pick your sport5 skiin%, sno*mobilin%, sno*boardin%, climbin%, sno*shoein%+ 1tCs hard to pick up a ma%a8ine or *atch one o) the eBtreme &ideos *ithout succumbin% to the siren call=ima%es o) elite athletes in remote mountains, stunnin% scenery, on the ed%e o) their sport, and almost al*ays in dan%erous a&alanche terrain, yet almost ne&er sho*n *earin% sho&els, turnin% on their beacons, or di%%in% sno*pits+ 'i%ure 1:2+ A&alanche )atalities in the 3nited States continue to rise at an alarmin% rate+ A&alanches kill more Americans, on a&era%e, than either hurricanes or earthAuakes+ -ompare 3+S+ statistics *ith international statistics, *hich ha&e remained more or less )lat+ 1n addition, the eAuipment manu)acturers make it easy to %et into a&alanche terrain+ Sno*mobilers can no* %o nearly any place skiers can %o and can co&er one hundred times the terrain skiers can and in nearly any kind o) sno* condition+ /ike*ise, skis, sno*boards, sno*shoes, and climbin% eAuipment ha&e made Auantum leaps in per)ormance, *ei%ht, and &ariety+ This translates into more people in the mountains, %oin% more places, %oin% more o) the time, and %ettin% killed in record numbers+ Also, the pro)ile o) recreationists has chan%ed dramatically in recent years+ The hi%h mountains used to be the eBclusi&e play%round o) climbers and skiers, but these users ha&e since become the minority compared *ith rapidly increasin% numbers o) sno*mobilers, sno*boarders, sno*shoers, hunters, hikers, and Boy Scout troops+ Althou%h most &ictims are &ery skilled at their sport, their a&alanche skills in&ariably la% )ar behind their sport skills+ Possibly because o) this, nearly all a&alanche &ictims o&erestimate their a&alanche skills=usually &astly o&erestimate them+ -ombine these )acts *ith a dearth o) )undin% )or public a&alanche in)ormation ser&ices and the )act that a&alanche trainin% &ideos and books are scarce and poorly )unded, and itCs easy to see *hy an increasin% number o) encounters *ith a&alanches end badly+ Almost all a&alanche )atalities in&ol&e recreationists, most notably sno*mobilers, climbers, backcountry skiers, and sno*boarders, in that order+ Almost all are &ery skilled in their sport, male, )it, educated, intelli%ent, middle class, and bet*een the a%es o) 1! and #0 ?'i%ure 1:"@+ .oes this sound anythin% like youG There is hope+ 1n 0 percent o) a&alanche accidents, the a&alanche is tri%%ered by the &ictim or someone in the &ictimCs party+ Which is %ood, because as the Po%o cartoon says, HWe ha&e met the enemy and he is us+H The %ood ne*s is that *e ha&e t*o important thin%s %oin% )or us, )irst, *e ha&e a choice, and second, *e already kno* the enemy+ The bad ne*s is that the enemy is us, and that is the hardest enemy o) all to conAuer+ 'i%ure 1:"+ 3+S+ a&alanche )atalities by acti&ity, %ender, a%e, and state 8o#ular 3yths About Avalanches 9An' What )eally Causes Avalanche .atalities: 3yth H(oise tri%%ers a&alanches+H

Truth Inly in the mo&ies+ 1n 20 years as an a&alanche pro)essional 1 ha&e ne&er once seen an a&alanche tri%%ered by, say, a shout or e&en a sonic boom or a lo*:)lyin% helicopter+ 1 ha&e heard o) &ery rare incidents *here lo*:)lyin% helicopters tri%%ered a&alanches in eBtremely unstable conditions+ 6o*e&er, most noise 4ust does not eBert enou%h )orce+ 1t must be a tremendously loud noise like an eBplosi&e %oin% o)) at close ran%e+ 1n almost all a&alanche )atalities, the a&alanche is tri%%ered by the *ei%ht o) the &ictim, or someone in the &ictimCs party+ 3yth HAn a&alanche is a bunch o) loose sno* slidin% do*n the mountain+H Truth Technically, yes, but a&alanche pro)essionals call these Hslu))s,H or loose sno* a&alanches, *hich account )or only a small percenta%e o) deaths and property dama%e+ When *e talk about a&alanches, *e %enerally mean HslabH a&alanches= cohesi&e plates o) sno* slidin% as a unit+ Picture a ma%a8ine slidin% o)) the table, *ith the &ictim standin% on the middle o) the ma%a8ine+ 3yth HA&alanches strike *ithout *arnin%+H Truth 1 o)ten hear the *ord HstrikeH used in the popular media+ 0arthAuakes, meteor impacts, and lost lo&e may strike *ithout *arnin%, but a&alanches usually ha&e ob&ious si%ns+ 1n addition, a&alanches donCt Hstrike+H They happen at particular times and in particular places )or particular reasons+ 1Cll say it a%ain because itCs so important5 1n 0 percent o) all a&alanche accidents, the a&alanche is tri%%ered by the &ictim or someone in the &ictimCs party+ (atural a&alanches occur because ne* or *indblo*n sno* o&erloads *eak layers or because o) rapid *armin% or rain, but there are usually ob&ious si%ns o) instability by the time a&alanches come do*n on their o*n+ 3yth H1) you see an a&alanche comin%, %et out o) the *ay+H Truth Well, at least you can try+ An a&era%e:si8e dry a&alanche tra&els >0 to 120 km<hr ?>0 to !0 mph@, so youCll need to be mi%hty ca%ey and mi%hty Auick to %et out o) the *ay+ People ha&e been kno*n to scoot o)) to the side in time, especially on a sno*mobile, but as )ar as outrunnin% an a&alanche, *ell, you *ill need to be either a *orld champion do*nhill racer or a &ery %ood dri&er o) a &ery )ast sno*mobile *ith no obstacles in the *ay+ Also, naturally tri%%ered a&alanches that descend )rom abo&e kill )e* people+ .o 1 sound like a broken record hereG The &ast ma4ority o) a&alanche incidents are tri%%ered by the &ictim or someone in the &ictimCs party+ P00"+ A skier:tri%%ered so)t slab a&alanche in *hich the &ictim *as unin4ured+ The &ictim or someone in the &ictimCs party tri%%ers 0 percent o) a&alanche accidents, makin% a&alanches the only natural ha8ard usually tri%%ered by the &ictim+ This is %ood ne*s because it means that *e can pre&ent most a&alanche )atalities by masterin% a&alanche and decision:makin% skills+ ?Talkeetna Mountains, Alaska@ $ Bruce Tremper 3yth HWhen buried in an a&alanche, spit to tell *hich *ay is up and di% in that direction+H Truth 1t doesnCt matter *hich *ay is up+ Fou canCt di% yoursel) out+ 1) you could di% yoursel) out, )e* people *ould die in a&alanches+ A&alanche debris instantly entombs you in place, as i) you *ere )ro8en in concrete, and most o) the time you canCt e&en mo&e your )in%ers+ Sometimes, i) itCs )airly so)t debris and they ha&e a hand near the sur)ace, people ha&e been able to di% themsel&es out, but the &ast ma4ority o) the time thereCs only t*o *ays to %et out o) the sno*=to be du% out or to melt out+ 3yth HAll the a&alanche eBperts are dead+H Truth Deali8in% that it may be bad luck to e&en say this, 1Cm happy to report that 4ust the opposite is true+ Skilled a&alanche pro)essionals en4oy a &ery lo* a&alanche )atality rate compared to other %roups, especially *hen you consider the amount o) time an a&alanche pro)essional spends in dan%erous a&alanche terrain+ /ess than 1+; percent o) all a&alanche )atalities in&ol&e a&alanche pro)essionals+

1earnin* About Avalanches the Har' Way (early e&ery one o) us has to learn about a&alanches the hard *ay, and 1Cm certainly no eBception+ 1 must ha&e made e&ery mistake possible, short o) %ettin% killed+ 1C&e taken a couple &ery )ri%htenin% rides in a&alanches and 1C&e *orn a brace on my knee )or a month because o) one o) them+ 1C&e had to ski o)) mo&in% slabs on se&eral occasions and 1C&e cried o&er the deaths o) students, )riends, and e&en a co*orker because 1 blamed mysel) )or not teachin% them enou%h+ 1Cm not sure *hat it is about a&alanches, but people in&ariably o&erestimate their skills, usually &astly o&erestimate them+ This doesnCt happen *ith, say, accountin% or physics or %ardenin%, so *hat is it *ith a&alanchesG Maybe *e can chalk it up to bein% a man:thin%+ Maybe itCs like %ri88ly bears or huntin% or startin% a )ire in the *oods+ We pu)) up our chests, tell our lies, and *ould literally rather die than admit our ineptitude+ This *ould eBplain *hy the &ast ma4ority o) a&alanche &ictims are men+ 1 donCt kno*+ 1 think one o) the ma4or contributin% )actors is kno*n as Hpositi&e rein)orcement+H This means that you %o out into a&alanche terrain, nothin% happens+ Fou %o out a%ain, nothin% happens+ Fou %o out a%ain and a%ain and a%ainE still nothin% happens+ Fes, thereCs nothin% like successJ But hereCs the critical )act5 sno* is stable about ; percent o) the time+ So i) you kno* absolutely nothin% about a&alanches, you automatically %et a nineteen:out:o):t*enty:times success rate+ Pretty %ood odds, 1Cd say+ But the )lip side o) the coin is that one out o) t*enty times, youCre %oin% to %et scared spitless, beat up, in4ured, or killed+ ?See Table 1:1 later in this chapter+@ The )ri%htenin% truth is that in most close calls, the a&era%e person has no idea they e&en had a close call=kind o) like playin% soccer on a mine)ield and you didnCt *ei%h Auite enou%h to set the thin% o))+ 1n an ideal *orld, e&eryone *ould take a multiday a&alanche classE then buy a beacon, probe, and sho&el and practice *ith themE and )inally, *hen they )elt ready, they *ould &enture into a&alanche terrain, *orkin% their *ay into increasin%ly ha8ardous terrain as they %ain con)idence in their skills+ What happens in the real *orldG 9ust the opposite+ While *eCre still in the i%norance:is:bliss sta%e, *e 4ump into one steep slope a)ter another and ; percent o) the time *e come home *ith smiles on our )aces, because a)ter all, sno* is stable about ; percent o) the time+ But i) a slope can produce an a&alanche, it e&entually *ill+ When the ine&itable happens, *e %et an eBpensi&e lesson, *hereupon *e reali8e that maybe *e should buy one o) those Hbeepers+H A)ter a couple more close calls, *e reali8e *e should practice *ith them, too+ A)ter a )riend dies, *e reali8e that maybe *e should take an a&alanche:a*areness class+ A)ter a couple more close calls, *e reali8e *e should take a multiday class and read some books+ ThatCs the *ay almost e&eryone learns about a&alanches+ 1 certainly did+ So donCt be like me+ ThereCs standin% room only in the .umb Mistakes -lub+ Dead this book )irst, and then %o out and practice e&erythin% you learned+ Start slo* in lo*: risk terrain and *ork your *ay into pro%ressi&ely more dan%erous terrain as you %ain more con)idence+ Buildin% your a&alanche skills to the point *here you can sa)ely tra&el in a&alanche terrain + percent o) the time=the minimum sa)ety mar%in )or a reasonably lon% career=usually takes many years+ Maybe you bou%ht this book because youC&e had some close calls or lost a )riend+ .onCt %o back out until you )inish the book and practice *ith *hat youC&e learned+ Take the time+ 1t *ill sa&e on %ray hairs, lost eAuipment, lost pride, hospital bills, tears shed at the )unerals o) )riends, or de&astatin% the li&es o) your lo&ed ones+ Where 8eo#le 2et 0ille' in Avalanches Ski areas and hi%h*ay )orecasters do an eBtremely thorou%h 4ob o) )orecastin% a&alanches and controllin% them *ith eBplosi&es be)ore people arri&e each mornin%+ Because o) this, less than 1 percent o) a&alanche )atalities since 1 !0 ha&e occurred *ithin ski area boundaries on open runs or on open hi%h*ays+ The &ast ma4ority o) a&alanche incidents occur in the P00#+ (early all a&alanche )atalities occur in the backcountry and nearly all )atalities in&ol&e recreationists *ho are Auite skilled at their sport+ 6o*e&er, there is almost al*ays a lar%e %ap bet*een sport skills and a&alanche skills+ ?Wasatch Dan%e, 3tah@ $ (eil Deiland Table 1:1 is a )ictional actuarial table that uses these conceptual numbers to %i&e you an idea o) your odds in a&alanche terrain backcountry, *hich *e de)ine as areas outside o) ski area boundaries *here no a&alanche control is done+ ?Althou%h hi%h*ay departments o)ten do a&alanche control *ith eBplosi&es to protect the hi%h*ay, *e still consider those slopes as backcountry+ /ike*ise )or terrain occasionally eBplosi&e:controlled by helicopter skiin% companies+@

/oin* the Nu-bers To %i&e you an eBample, letCs make the )ollo*in% assumptions5 K Fou tra&el in a&alanche terrain 100 days per year+ K Fou cross 10 a&alanche slopes per day+ K The sno* is stable enou%h to cross on ; percent o) the slopes+ K 'or e&ery a&alanche you accidentally tri%%er, you %et cau%ht e&ery third time and killed e&ery tenth time+ Table 1;1 .ictional Avalanche Actuarial Table 8ercent Correct Avalanches Tri**ere' #er Nu-ber of Ti-es 0ille' E<#ecte' 1ifeti-e /ecisions 6ear #er 6ear + +1 +01 100 years + 1 +1 10 years +! 2 +2 years +2 " +" ! years +> # +# 2 years +; ; +; > years +# > +> ; years +" 2 +2 # years +2 ! +! " years +1 + 2 years +0 10 1 1 year ;L ;0 ; 2 months L People *ith no a&alanche skills and assumin% sno* is stable on ; percent o) the slopes 1) *e belie&e these conceptual numbers, completely i%norant people *ho %o out 100 days per year *ill probably %et killed sometime that )irst year or perhaps the neBt year+ 1) they a&oid %oin% out durin% storms, as many people do, they mi%ht %o a )e* years *ithout %ettin% cau%ht+ In the other end o) the spectrum, i) skilled helicopter skiin% %uides eBpect to ha&e a reasonably lon% career, they ha&e to make the correct a&alanche decision better than + percent o) the time+ Sa)e tra&el rituals and *ell: practiced rescue skills can push the number up to + percent o) the time+ Althou%h this mi%ht seem like an impossible )eat, hundreds o) a&alanche pro)essionals are currently li&in% lon% and happy li&es in a&alanche terrain+ Fes, it is possible+ A&alanche pro)essionals %ain this ad&anta%e in se&eral *ays5 K They make it their business to kno* e&erythin% they can about sno* and a&alanches and the terrain in *hich they *ork+ K They communicate closely *ith one another so that e&eryone stays abreast o) rapidly chan%in% a&alanche conditions+ K They try to make their decisions based on )acts instead o) emotions=&ery importantJ K They utili8e a lar%ely un*ritten set o) sa)e tra&el rituals that help to minimi8e the dama%e in case somethin% does %o *ron%+ K They re%ularly practice rescue techniAues in realistic situations )or the ine&itable times *hen somethin% %oes *ron%+ K Most important, they ha&e seen bad thin%s happen and kno* the conseAuences+ They ha&e seen uneBpected thin%s happen and kno* the limitations o) their kno*led%e and technolo%y+ 1n other *ords, the pros sur&i&e by learnin% to master their arro%ance and nurture their humbleness+ 5sin* this Book When 1 )irst started learnin% about a&alanches 1 continually became )rustrated because &ery )e* hard:and:)ast rules seemed to *ork+ A&alanches are )illed *ith double:ed%ed s*ords, %ood ne*s= bad ne*s situations+ Dain is bad, ri%htG Well, it depends+ 1n the short term it makes the sno* less stable, but in the lon% term it makes it more stable+ Anchors are %ood, ri%htG Well, it depends+ Fou %et the idea+ ThatCs 4ust ho* a&alanches are+ FouCll notice a number o) %ood ne*s:bad ne*s sections in this book+ /earn them and use them to your ad&anta%e+ 6ereCs the )irst one+ 2oo' News=Ba' News The %ood ne*s is that itCs possible to a&oid nearly all a&alanches+ The bad ne*s is that it reAuires *ork+

This book *ill not %uarantee that you *onCt die in an a&alanche+ This is only the )irst baby: step in a li)etime o) a&alanche education+ Fou didnCt become an accomplished sno*mobiler, climber, skier, or sno*boarder by readin% a book or takin% one lesson, and a&alanches are no di))erent+ The more you kno* about a&alanches, the )arther you *ill be able to push the arro* to*ard the top o) the a&alanche actuarial chart+ Fou can ne&er push the sa)ety arro* to 100 percent=ne&er= but you can %et &ery close+ The more tricks you kno*, the more kno*led%e about sno* stability, the better your tra&el skills and rescue skills, and most important, the more mastery you ha&e o&er your o*n human )oibles, the better the odds )or li&in% a lon%, stress:)ree li)e in a&alanche terrain+ 1n this book 1 attempt to pass alon% the current state o) a&alanche kno*led%e=*hat *e kno* and *hat *e donCt kno*=and the &arious techniAues and procedures pro)essionals use to keep themsel&es and others ali&e in dan%erous a&alanche terrain+ This book is a compilation o) decades o) a&alanche kno*led%e learned by the pros throu%h science and )rom trial and error=sometimes tra%ic error+ 1C&e tried to make it as step:by:step as possible, but a&alanches donCt particularly lend themsel&es to rule:based decision makin%+ 1C&e taken the approach that itCs better to learn concepts and %et a )eel )or ho* a&alanches *ork because you can apply concepts in all situations but you can apply rules in only a &ery limited number o) situations+ )a# on 3easure-ent 5nits 1n this book 1 primarily use metric units, but 1 also %i&e American units in parentheses+ 1 call them American units because e&en 0n%land doesnCt use them anymore+ The 3nited States is the only industriali8ed country in the *orld not on the metric system+ 1t certainly makes the a&alanche business di))icult+ Because scientists ?and the rest o) the ci&ili8ed *orld@ use the metric system, *e al*ays describe e&erythin% beneath the sno* sur)ace in metric units, but because the (ational Weather Ser&ice still communicates to the public in American units, *e usually describe e&erythin% abo&e the sno* sur)ace in American units+ -ra8y, 1 a%ree but hey, *eCre Americans+ So to make this book understandable to people outside the 3nited States, and to stick *ith international standards, 1 use metric units+

CHA8TE) 1> A?A1ANCHE BAS4CS

Life is short, the art long, opportunities fleeting, experience treacherous, judgment difficult. =6ippocrates /ry Slab Avalanches 1) youCre lookin% )or the killer, then this is your man+ This is the White .eath, the Sno*y Torrent, the Bi% ,uy in the White Suit+ .ry slab a&alanches account )or nearly all the a&alanche deaths in (orth America and, not surprisin%ly, 0 percent o) this book )ocuses on ho* to a&oid %ettin% cau%ht in them+ A HslabH is a cohesi&e plate o) sno* that slides as a unit on the sno* underneath+ Picture tippin% the li&in% room table up on ed%e so that a ma%a8ine slides o)) the table+ (o* picture you standin% in the middle o) the ma%a8ine+ The crack )orms up abo&e you and there you are, thereCs usually no escape and youCre o)) )or the ride o) your li)e+ A typical slab is about the si8e o) hal) a )ootball )ield, usually about #0 centimeters ?1 to 2 )eet@ deep, and it usually reaches speeds o) "0 km<hr ?20 mph@ A dry slab a&alanche bein% tri%%ered by an eBplosi&e ?Adamant Mountains, -anada@ $ Do%er Atkins *ithin the )irst " seconds and Auickly accelerates to around 1"0 km<hr ?!0 mph@ a)ter the )irst, say, > seconds+ The bonds holdin% a slab in place )racture at about ";0 km<hr ?220 mph@ and the slab appears to shatter+ 'i%ure 1:1+ 1n%redients o) a slab a&alanche .ry slab a&alanches can lie teeterin% on the &er%e o) catastrophe, sometimes )or days or e&en months+ The *eak layers beneath slabs are eBtremely sensiti&e to the rate at *hich they are stressed+ 1n other *ords, the rapid addition o) the *ei%ht o) a person can easily initiate the )racture on a slope that *ould not ha&e a&alanched other*ise ?'i%ure 1:1@+ A slope can sometimes be a %iant booby trap= seemin%ly *aitin% )or 4ust the ri%ht person to come alon%+ The crack o)ten )orms *ell abo&e the &ictim, lea&in% little room )or escape+ .oes any o) this sound dan%erous to youG 8arts of a Slab Avalanche 9.i*ures 1;2 an' 1; : K Slab@ Delati&ely harder, or more cohesi&e sno* that slides+ A Weak layer or weak interface@ Delati&ely *eaker or less cohesi&e sno* that )ractures, causin% the slab to slide+ A Be' surface5 6arder layer o) sno* the slab slides upon+ The %round can also be a bed sur)ace+ A preeBistin% bed sur)ace is not reAuired but it helps+ I)ten the a&alanche creates its o*n bed sur)ace+ What 3akes a Slab7 Weather deposits sno* in layers+ 0ach di))erent kind o) *eather a))ects the sno* in a di))erent *ay5 Sunshine makes a sun crust+ Wind erodes sno* )rom the up*ind side o) a rid%e and deposits that same sno* on the do*n*ind side in a dense *ind slab+ -lear skies at ni%ht create a layer o) )rost on the sur)ace o) the sno*+ And so on+ As each storm buries the layers, the sno*pack becomes a compleB stack o) layers, some relati&ely stron%er and some relati&ely *eaker+ When stron%er sno* o&erlies *eaker sno*, *e call it a slab+ Ir as Karl Birkeland o) the 'orest Ser&ice (ational A&alanche -enter puts it, HA slab is *hen you ha&e somethin% sittin% on top o) nothin%+H 'i%ure 1:2+ Parts o) a slab a&alanche Demember that a slab doesnCt ha&e to be so hard that you can hardly kick your boot into it+ 1t 4ust has to be relati&ely stron%er than the sno* underneath+ P00>+ A&era%e:si8e hard slab a&alanche ?Montana@+ .ry slab a&alanches ran%e )rom &ery hard to &ery so)t+ So)t slabs are composed o) mostly ne* sno*, *hile hard slabs are composed o) either old, harder layers o) sno* or *ind slabs+ $ Karl Birkeland /i%ht, dry po*der sno* can beha&e as a slab as lon% as it has an e&en *eaker layer underneath+ What 3akes a Weak 1ayer7 (early any kind o) sno* can be a *eak layer or a *eak inter)ace, but they tend to be ?listed in order o) importance@5 A Sur)ace hoar ?a )ancy name )or )rost@

K 'aceted sno*, *hich is an%ular, lar%er:%rained sno* that )orms *ithin the sno*pack because o) lar%e temperature %radients A /i%ht:density or poorly bonded layers *ithin ne* sno*, such as stellar crystals or plates ?like a sno*)lake desi%n on a s*eater@ or %raupel ?pellet sno* like a Styro)oam ball@ A A *eak inter)ace, such as ne* sno* slidin% on a slippery ice crust+ See -hapter ; )or more details on *eak layers+ 'i%ure 1:"+ Parts o) an a&alanche slide path What 3akes a Be' Surface7 Fou donCt need a bed sur)ace to make an a&alanche, but it helps+ Sometimes a&alanches )racture *ithin a thick layer o) *eak sno* and the a&alanche creates its o*n bed sur)ace+ -ommon bed sur)aces include5 K Dain crusts K Sun crusts K 6ard, old sno* sur)ace K Wind:hardened sno* 2oo' News=Ba' News The %ood ne*s is that simple and easy obser&ations and tests can detect potential a&alanche ha8ard most o) the time+ The bad ne*s is that hundreds o) combinations o) slabs, *eak layers, and bed sur)aces commonly eBist in the sno*pack, and each combination beha&es a bit di))erently+ 1oose Snow Avalanches /oose sno* slidin% do*n a mountainside is called a loose sno* a&alanche+ Small loose sno* a&alanches are called Hslu))s+H /oose sno* a&alanches usually start )rom a point and )an out*ard as they descend, and because o) this they are also called Hpoint releases+H 'e* people are killed by loose sno* a&alanches because they tend to be smaller and they tend to )racture beneath you as you cross a slope instead o) abo&e you as slab a&alanches o)ten do+ The a&alanche culture tends to minimi8e the dan%er o) loose sno* a&alanches, or slu))s, sometimes callin% them Hharmless slu))s+H I) course, this is not al*ays the case+ 6ouses ha&e been destroyed by Hharmless slu))s,H and i) cau%ht in one, the &ictim can be taken o&er a cli)), into a cre&asse, or buried deeply in a terrain trap, such as a %ully+ Most o) the people killed in loose sno* a&alanches are climbers *ho are cau%ht in naturally tri%%ered slu))s that descend )rom abo&e= especially in *et or sprin%time conditions=or eBtreme skiers and boarders in &ery steep terrain+ Slu))s can actually be a si%n o) stability *ithin the deeper sno* *hen ne* sno* slu))s do*n *ithout tri%%erin% deeper slabs+ ?Slu))s are relati&ely easy to deal *ith, but slabs are de)initely not+ See -hapter ! )or a discussion on slu)) mana%ement techniAues+@ P002+ A skier tri%%erin% a small loose sno* a&alanche, also called a Hslu))+H ?-hu%ach Dan%e, Alaska@ $ Scott Marke*it8 4ce Avalanches When %laciers )lo* o&er a cli)) they )orm the ice eAui&alent o) a *ater)all=an ice)all+ 'allin% blocks o) ice create an a&alanche o) ice, *hich o)ten entrains sno* belo* it or tri%%ers slabs+ 0specially in bi% mountains, ice a&alanches can be lar%e and tra&el lon% distances+ .espite this, ice a&alanches kill )e* people compared to dry slabs that people tri%%er themsel&es+ Most o) the deaths )rom ice a&alanches occur to climbers in bi% mountains *ho happen to be in the *ron% place at the *ron% time+ 1ce a&alanches occur more or less randomly in time+ 1n *armer climates, more ice tends to cal&e o)) in the heat o) the day than at ni%ht+ In a lon%er time scale, %lacier &elocity tends to &ary o&er time+ 'or instance, sometimes an ice:)all seems &ery dormant )or se&eral months, then suddenly it produces a lot o) acti&ity )or se&eral days to a month+ The best *ay to deal *ith ice a&alanches, o) course, is to a&oid tra&elin% on them or beneath them+ When you choose to tra&el beneath them, do so Auickly+ At the risk o) bein% too ob&ious=ne&er camp under ice)alls+ Sometimes bad *eather pre&ents climbers )rom seein% ice)all ha8ard *hen they set up camp, or bad *eather )orces them to camp in the *ron% spot+ Many accidents *ith ice a&alanches happen this *ay+ The use o) a map and a ,lobal Positionin% System ?,PS@ can eliminate many o) these accidents+ Cornice .all Avalanches

-ornices are the )atal attraction o) the mountains, their beauty matched only by their dan%er+ -ornices are ele%ant, cantile&ered sno* structures )ormed by *ind dri)tin% sno* onto the lee ?do*n*ind@ side o) an obstacle, such as a rid%eline+ Similar to ice)all a&alanches, the *ei%ht o) a )allin% cornice o)ten tri%%ers an a&alanche on the slope belo*, or the cornice breaks into hundreds o) pieces and )orms its o*n a&alanche=or both ?'i%ure 1:#@+ Similar to ice a&alanches, statistically cornice )all a&alanches donCt kill &ery many people+ And similar to slab a&alanches, the ones *ho %et into trouble almost al*ays tri%%er the a&alanche, in this case, by tra&elin% too close to the ed%e o) the cornice+ -ornice )all )atalities, ho*e&er, are a si%ni)icant problem in bi% mountains, especially )or climbers+ -ornices ha&e a nasty habit o) breakin% )arther back than you eBpect+ 1 ha&e personally had three &ery close calls *ith cornices and 1 can attest that you need to treat them *ith an eBtra:lar%e dose o) respect+ (e&er *alk up to the ed%e o) a drop:o)) *ithout *earin% a rope or )irst checkin% out the drop:o)) )rom a sa)e place+ Wet Avalanches P00!+ 1ce)all a&alanches in bi% mountains can be &ery lar%e+ They can represent a si%ni)icant ha8ard to climbers and trekkers+ ?Pakistan@ $ 0&elyn /ees and Dick Wyatt 'i%ure 1:#+ The structure o) a cornice Most a&alanche pro)essionals make a hard separation bet*een *et sno* a&alanches and dry sno* a&alanches, because they are so di))erent+ We )orecast *et and dry a&alanches &ery di))erently5 much o) their mechanics are di))erent, they mo&e di))erently, and itCs only natural )or us to think o) them as t*o alto%ether separate beasts+ But really, thereCs a continuum bet*een *et and dry a&alanches+ 'or instance, there are damp a&alanches, and o)ten, lar%e, dry a&alanches start out dry and end up *et by the time they %et to the bottom because either the ener%y o) the descent heats up the sno* or they tra&el into a re%ion o) *armer sno*+ /ike dry sno* a&alanches, *et a&alanches can occur as both slu))s and slabs+ Wet a&alanches usually occur *hen *arm air temperatures, sun, or rain cause *ater to percolate throu%h the sno*pack and decrease the stren%th o) the sno*, or in some cases, chan%e the mechanical properties o) the sno*+ ?See -hapters 2, ;, >, and 2 )or more details+@ Ince initiated, *et sno* tends to tra&el more slo*ly than dry sno*=like a thousand concrete trucks dumpin% their load at once instead o) the ho&ercra)t:like mo&ement o) a dry a&alanche+ A typical *et a&alanche tra&els around 1; to "0 km<hr ?10 or 20 mph@, but on steeper terrain they can %o nearly as )ast as a dry a&alanche+ Probably because not as many recreation ists are out on *et sno* days, *et a&alanches donCt account )or nearly as many a&alanche )atalities as dry sno* a&alanches+ 6o*e&er, they still account )or a si8eable percenta%e o) a&alanche )atalities in maritime climates, especially to climbers+ Wet slides can also dama%e property or )orests and o)ten cause si%ni)icant ha8ards on hi%h*ays+ 2li'e Avalanches A type o) *et a&alanche, the %lide a&alanche, occurs *hen the entire sno*:pack slo*ly slides as a unit on the %round, similar to a %lacier ?'i%ure 1:;@+ ,lide is a slo* process that usually takes place o&er se&eral days, *eeks, or e&en months+ ,lide occurs because melt *ater lubricates the %round and allo*s the o&erlyin% sno*pack to slo*ly H%lideH do*nhill+ The presence o) %lide cracks in the sno* does not necessarily mean dan%er+ Iccasionally they can release catastrophically as a %lide a&alanche+ 1tCs o)ten di))icult )or a person to tri%%er a %lide a&alanche, but at the same time itCs not smart to be muckin% around on top and especially not smart to camp under them+ P00 + $ Bruce Tremper 'i%ure 1:;+ ,lide occurs *hen *et sno* slo*ly slides on the underlyin% %round, similar to a %lacier+ 1t can o)ten last )or se&eral days ,lide cracks and %lide a&alanches tend to occur more in *et climates on smooth slopes, but *hen they occur in dry climates, they do so in sprin% *hen *ater has percolated throu%h the sno* or sometimes durin% mid*inter tha*s+ Slush Avalanches Althou%h slush a&alanches are rare in temperate climates, they are Auite common in &ery northern latitudes, such as the Brooks Dan%e o) Alaska, northern (or*ay, ,reenland, and northern Dussia+ TheyCre unusual because they occur on &ery %entle slopes compared *ith other a&alanches, typically ; to 20 de%rees, and they rarely occur on slopes steeper than 2; de%rees+ Similar to a )lash )lood, they can tra&el #0 to >0 km<hr ?20 to #0 mph@, o&errunnin% a camp in lo*:lyin% areas *ell a*ay )rom *hat most people *ould reco%ni8e as a&alanche terrain+ A typical slush a&alanche occurs on impermeable perma)rost soil, *hich allo*s *ater to pool up+ 1n &ery northern latitudes, sprin% is brie)5 *inter o)ten turns into summer in 4ust a *eek or t*o+ When a cold, dry sno*pack suddenly becomes

saturated *ith *ater, it catastrophically loses its stren%th and the resultin% slush o)ten runs lon% distances on %entle terrain+ Ince a%ain, &ery )e* people are killed by slush a&alanches, possibly because so )e* people li&e or recreate in hi%h:latitude perma)rost mountains+ But they can certainly be dan%erous to people camped in %ullies or allu&ial )ans or to structures built in the *ron% locations+ Avalanche Cli-ates We o)ten re)er to three di))erent a&alanche climates in (orth America5 maritime, intermountain, and continental ?'i%ure 1:>@+ Maritime sno*packs tend to be thick, *arm, and stron%E continental sno*packs tend to be thin, cold, and *eakE intermountain climates tend to be in bet*een+ Althou%h the climate is named )or the re%ion *here *e usually )ind it, remember that this is only a namin% con&entionE each climate can occur any*here and considerable o&erlap eBists+ 'or instance, o)ten coastal mountains ha&e a thin sno*pack *ith cold temperatures in the early part o) the season and there)ore ha&e a HcontinentalH sno*pack=at least )or a )e* *eeks+ /ike*ise, an unusually *arm and *et *inter on the east slopes o) the Dockies can create a HmaritimeH sno*pack+ In an e&en smaller scale, a *indblo*n rid%eline may resemble a continental sno*pack *hile a )e* )eet a*ay a thick *ind dri)t mi%ht resemble a maritime sno*pack ?'i%ure 1:2@+ 3ariti-e=3ountains Bor'erin* Oceans -haracteristics5 K .eep sno*pack ?o&er " metersE o&er 100 inches@+ K Warm temperatures ?near )ree8in%E :; to M; de%rees -elsius, 20 to #0 de%rees 'ahrenheit@+ K 6i%h:density ne* sno* ?commonly 100 to 200 k%<m" or 10 to 20 percent ice by &olume@+ K 'reAuent storms *ith hi%h precipitation rates+ K Most a&alanches occur as Hdirect actionH a&alanches, i+e+, a&alanches directly caused by precipitation or *ind+ K Weak layers tend not to persist throu%h time and a&alanches tend to occur durin% or immediately )ollo*in% storms+ K -ommon *eak layers include lo*:cohesion layers *ithin ne* sno*, %raupel, *eak inter)aces such as ice crusts, and *eak layers produced by rain or rapid *armin%+ 'aceted sno* is more rare but does occur, especially in the early season+ Sur)ace hoar is common+ K Stability e&aluation tends to utili8e *eather parameters and obser&ed a&alanche acti&ity *ith less reliance on sno*pit tests+ K Mid*inter rain commonly )alls and *et a&alanches can occur throu%hout the *inter+ 4nter-ountain=3ountains with an 4nter-e'iate 4nfluence of Oceans -haracteristics5 'i%ure 1:> A %enerali8ed map o) the three a&alanche climates 'i%ure 1:2+ The three a&alanche climates can occur locally, dependin% on the conditions+ K 1ntermediate sno*pack depths ?1+; to " metersE ;0 to 100 inches@+ K 1ntermediate temperatures ?:1; to :" de%rees -elsiusE 10 to "0 de%rees 'ahrenheit@+ K Weak layers include both *eak layers *ithin ne* sno* and persistent *eak layers, such as )acets and sur)ace hoar+ K 1nstabilities o)ten persist )or se&eral days a)ter a storm and can lin%er )or lon% periods, especially *ith persistent *eak layers and cold temperatures+ K Stability e&aluation tends to in&ol&e all )actors5 *eather, a&alanche acti&ity, sno*pit tests, and sur)ace clues+ K Mid*inter rain occurs, but only rarely+ Continental=3ountains .ar fro- the 4nfluence of Oceans -haracteristics5 K Thin sno*pack ?less than 1+; metersE 20 inches@+ K -old temperatures ?:10 to :"0 de%rees -elsiusE 20 to :20 de%rees 'ahrenheit@+ Storms occur less o)ten and deposit relati&ely smaller amounts o) li%ht:density sno*+ K -ommon *eak layers include )aceted sno*, depth hoar, and sur)ace hoar *eak layers that are &ery persistent throu%h time+ K A&alanches can occur many days a)ter storms and chan%es in stability )rom nonstorm:related e&ents+ Because o) these notoriously persistent instabilities, *e o)ten see hi%h )atality rates in areas *ith lar%e mountain populations, such as -olorado+ K Mid*inter rain is eBtremely rare+

CHA8TE) 2> HOW A?A1ANCHES WO)0S

valanches cannot readily !e su!divided, reconstructed, or reduced to la!oratory scale... "hey are !est o!served in their native ha!itat, and this is an occupation something like trailing a wounded frican !uffalo. = Monty At*ater, %rand)ather o) American a&alanche study This chapter describes the mechanical *ay that a&alanches )ail, )racture, and )lo*+ The best rule o) thumb in the a&alanche business is that there are no rules o) thumb+ ThatCs *hy 1 think itCs )ar better to learn ho* to think like an a&alanche, *hich means that *e need to de&elop a three: dimensional, stress:and:strain )eel )or ho* they *ork+ When a mechanic *ants to learn ho* an en%ine *orks, he takes it apart and then puts it back to%ether a%ain and *eCre %oin% to do the same thin% in this chapter *ith a&alanches+ P010 $ Bruce Tremper .orces that 3ust .ail for an Avalanche to Occur 1n order )or a slab to become an a&alanche it must o&ercome the )ollo*in% )orces holdin% it in place5 K Sno* %rain bonds at the slab boundaries K 'riction bet*een the slab and the bed sur)ace K Pinnin% e))ect o) anchors /etCs look at them one at a time ?'i%ure 2:1@+ Snow 2rain Bon's at the Slab Boun'aries Which boundary is the most importantG ,ood Auestion+ /etCs look at some numbers+ Take the case o) three di))erent a&alanches+ 'irst, letCs look at a &ery small and &ery stout a&alanche+ /etCs say itCs 1 meter deep and 10 meters sAuare ?'i%ure 2:2@+ That means that the area o) the bed sur)ace is 2+; times the combined sur)ace area o) the perimeter ?cro*n )ace, )lanks, and stauch*all@+ Since slabs are commonly ten times stron%er than the *eak layer under them, in this case, the stren%th o) the slab becomes a si%ni)icant )actor+ But letCs take a look at a lar%er a&alanche, )or eBample, one 100 meters sAuare and 1 meter deep+ 1n this case, the area o) the bed sur)ace is 2; times that o) the perimeter+ An a&era%e:si8e a&alanche mi%ht be 100 meters sAuare and only ;0 centimeters deep, makin% the bed sur)ace ;0 times the area o) the perimeter+ 'inally, letCs look at a &ery lar%e a&alanche, 1000 meters sAuare and 1 meter deep+ 1n this case the bed sur)ace is 2;0 times the si8e o) the perimeter+ 1n other *ords, the stren%th o) the slab compared to the *eak layer &aries *ith the si8e and proportion o) the a&alanche, but in most cases, the stren%th o) the slab is insi%ni)icant compared *ith the stren%th o) the *eak layer+ 'i%ure 2:1+ 'orces that hold a slab in place 'or most typical a&alanches the bond bet*een the slab and the bed sur)ace is the important one, and this has been con)irmed eBperimentally, namely, that )ailure and )racture start *ithin the *eak layer )irst=not the slab+ ThatCs *hy *e spend most o) our time thinkin% about, testin%, and *orryin% about the all:important *eak layer ?'i%ure 2:"@+ 6a&in% said this, it certainly doesnCt mean that *e ha&e to completely i%nore the stren%th o) the slab+ 'or instance, as 1C&e mentioned abo&e, *ith stout slabs on small a&alanche paths, the stren%th o) the slab can become an important )actor+ Also, the Hbrid%in%H e))ect o) slabs is &ery important ?more on this later@+ To understand all o) this, letCs head to the kitchen and do an eBperiment+ 'ind three di))erent HslabsH o) about the same si8e but di))erent stren%th5 a paper to*el, a piece o) cardboard, and a *ooden cuttin% board+ 0&en thou%h they ha&e about the same bed sur)ace area, itCs easiest to tear the paper to*el, harder to tear the cardboard, and impossible to tear the *ooden board+ Thick, stout slabs are more di))icult to )racture and they )orm much better bonds to the cro*n, )lanks, and stauch*all than thin, )limsy slabs+ Because o) this, itCs di))icult to tri%%er stout slabs on a &ery small a&alanche path+ These slabs ha&e a relati&ely lar%e amount o) compressi&e support at the bottom, shear stren%th at the )lanks, and tensile stren%th at the cro*n )ace+ 0&en *ith little or no bondin% on the bottom, the stren%th o) the slab itsel) can usually hold it in place ?'i%ure 2:#@+ In the other end o) the spectrum, so)t slabs *ith little internal stren%th ?paper to*els@ can slide on nearly any slope, e&en small slopes and slopes *ith lots o) anchors ?trees, etc@+ Because theyCre so so)t, the stren%th o) these slabs plays a relati&ely insi%ni)icant role in keepin% the slab in place+ 'i%ure 2:2+ Three si8es o) a&alanches *ith a 1:meter:thick slab+ The bonds around the slab

perimeter ?cro*n, )lanks, and stauch*all@ are more important in smaller slabs than in lar%er slabs+ P011 $ Bruce Tremper Althou%h the bed sur)ace is by )ar the most important boundary, like a 4a88 trio, the mechanics o) an a&alanche release depend on the properties o) all three components, the slab, the *eak layer, and the bed sur)ace+ 0&en thou%h one has the solo *hile the other t*o )ollo* alon%, it still takes all three to make music+ ?More on this later+@ .riction Between the Slab an' the Be' Surface To make a book slide o)) the table, you need to tip up the table to the point *here )riction o&ercomes %ra&ity+ 'or a&alanches, this usually happens some*here bet*een 2; and "; de%rees+ With a &ery *eak and slippery *eak layer and bed sur)ace it can dip belo* 2; de%rees+ Demember that *ithout )riction, only sno* %rain bonds and anchors hold sno* on steeper slopes+ An eBample o) a &ery slippery sur)ace *ould be a stout and smooth rain crust *ith a layer o) sur)ace hoar on top o) it+ When *e Auickly put a hea&y slab on top o) it, a&alanches can occur on unusually lo* slope an%les+ The shallo*est a&alanche 1 ha&e e&er seen is 2; de%rees at the tri%%er point, but they ha&e been kno*n to slide on slopes as shallo* as 1! de%rees in eBtremely unusual circumstances+ 8innin* Effect of Anchors Anchors such as trees and rocks help to hold the slab in place+ The e))ecti&eness o) anchors depends on the )ollo*in% )actors5 K Stiffness of the slab> Deturnin% to our paper:and:cardboard eBperiment5 take a paper to*el and attach it to a bulletin board *ith a thumbtack+ .o the same *ith the piece o) cardboard+ (o* pull do*n on both o) them *ith an eAual amount o) )orce until one o) them pulls )ree+ Assumin% that the thumbtack stayed in place, the paper to*el probably pulled a*ay )irst+ A Nu-ber of anchors> The more thumbtacks you use, the harder it *ill be to rip either the cardboard or the paper o)) the bulletin board+ A Effectiveness of the anchors+ 1) *e use nails instead o) thumbtacks, it *ill be harder still+ 'or instance, trees *ith )e* branches, such as aspens, anchor the sno*pack much less e))ecti&ely than spruce trees, *ith their lo*er branches )ro8en into the slab+ A Si&e 9or wei*ht: of the slab> 1tCs easier )or a thumbtack to secure a piece o) cardboard the si8e o) this book than one the si8e o) your li&in% room+ ?See -hapter " )or more details on anchors+@ 'i%+ 2:", 2:# How Slabs .racture The Bri'*in* Effect of Slabs 1) you han% around a&alanche pros you *ill hear them talk about the slab Hbrid%in%+H To understand brid%in%, you need to %o sit on the ed%e o) your bed+ (otice that your *ei%ht makes the mattress sprin%s sink do*n ri%ht under your bouncin% butt, yet the sprin%s 4ust a )oot a*ay hardly compress at all+ (o* %o %et your bi%%est cuttin% board )rom the kitchen=the bi% one that slides out )rom under the countertop=put it on the bed, and sit on the cuttin% board+ (otice that the sprin%s under your butt donCt sink do*n as )ar+ Four *ei%ht is Hbrid%edH out*ard ?'i%ure 2:;@+ (o* ima%ine that you are in a spy mo&ie and that someone has planted a pressure:sensiti&e bomb under your mattress+ As soon as the s*itch )eels your )ull *ei%ht, 0A8OWB So *hat are you %oin% to doG Are you %oin% to sit on the cuttin% board or notG Maybe youCll %o %et a bi%%er, sti))er cuttin% board=ho* about a bi% piece o) ply*oodG This is *hy itCs much easier )or a person to tri%%er so)t slabs than hard slabs+ There are t*o reasons )or this@ 'i%ure 2:;+ Brid%in% 1> Sti)) slabs tend to spread a personCs *ei%ht o&er a lar%er area+ 2> 0&en *ith &ery poor *eak:layer bondin% directly beneath the person, a sti)) slab can brid%e out*ard to places *here the slab mi%ht be better bonded to the bed sur)ace, like a drunkard stumblin% alon% supported on the shoulders o) t*o sober )riends+ 2oo' News=Ba' News The %ood ne*s is that hard slabs are more di))icult to tri%%er, but the bad ne*s is that they tend to propa%ate )arther and make a much lar%er and more deadly a&alanche+ Also, the sti))er the slab, the )arther abo&e you the )racture line *ill usually )orm, and the harder it *ill be to escape ?'i%ure 2: >@+ 'inally, remember that the sti))ness and<or thickness o) slabs can &ary a lot )rom place to place, so 4ust because you may not be able to tri%%er a slab in a thick spot, as soon as you cross to a thinner area =)or instance, *here it may thin near a rid%eline=you may be able to tri%%er the *hole sheban%+ Which brin%s us to the neBt point+

'i%ure 2:>+ So)t, shallo* slabs tend to break at your )eet+ 6ard or thick slabs tend to break abo&e you+ Tri**er 8oints The stren%th o) the bond bet*een the slab and its bed sur)ace &aries, as *ell as the sti))ness o) the slab, sometimes dramatically )rom one place to the other+ 'or instance, ima%ine a pane o) %lass sprinkled *ith a thin layer o) )lour+ We then blo* the )lour o)) only one part o) the %lass+ 'inally, *e spread %lue on the bottom o) a piece o) ply*ood and lay it do*n on top o) the )loured %lass+ The %lue *ill stick to the bare %lass, but it *onCt stick to the )loured %lass+ The slab is *ell bonded in one place but not as *ell bonded in another+ A similar scenario happens in the mountains *hen, )or instance, sur)ace hoar ?)rost@ )orms on the sur)ace o) the sno*, a little *ind comes up *hich destroys the sur)ace hoar in locali8ed areas, and then )inally ne* sno* )alls, creatin% a slab=a slab that is only sporadically bonded to the underlyin% sno* ?'i%ure 2:2@+ Ither areas o) poor bondin% include around bushes and rocks or areas o) shallo* sno*pack+ These areas o) poor bondin% ha&e been called Hde)icit areasH or Hsuper*eak 8onesH by some researchers+ Ski patrollers call them Hs*eet spotsH because they can tri%%er a&alanches *ith eBplosi&es *hen they hit 4ust the ri%ht spot+ 1 like to call them Htri%%er points+H The trouble, o) course, is that theyCre in&isible+ We kno* about them only because patrollers ban% a*ay at the slope *ith eBplosi&es until they )inally )ind the tri%%er point or sno*mobilers hi%h mark a slope all a)ternoon until one person )inally brin%s the entire slope do*n+ By the time *e )inally )ind out *here they are, itCs too late to a&oid them+ This phenomenon alone accounts )or most o) the so: called mysterious and unpredictable nature o) a&alanches And no *onder+ .an%er is one thin%, but in&isible dan%er is Auite another+ But 4ust because itCs in&isible doesnCt mean that itCs mysterious+ 1t 4ust means that *e donCt yet kno* ho* or *here to look+ So ho* do *e deal *ith in&isible dan%erG Ine *ay is to %ather more in)ormation=perhaps di% more sno*pits to see the aerial eBtent o) the de)icit areas, or thro* more eBplosi&es+ 1) you donCt ha&e the time or resources to %et more in)ormation, your only hope is to take a %iant step back*ard )rom the Hstupid lineH=the line bet*een reasonable and unreasonable risk+ Then a lot o) the old pros take another %iant step back+ 1n other *ords, *e need to al*ays remember that a sno*pit test or an eBplosi&es test or e&en trundlin% a cornice do*n a slope tells us *hat is %oin% on in only one place+ Since the stren%th o) the buried *eak layer o)ten &aries )rom place to place, *e ha&e no choice but to either do additional tests or di))erent tests to eliminate the uncertainty=or simply take a more conser&ati&e approach+ Al*ays be suspicious *hen you ha&e a lot o) &ariability in your test results+ The trend is your )riend and surprises are not+ As you %ain more eBperience and mountain:smarts, you *ill learn *hat kinds o) *eak layers tend to be more continuous, *hich ones tend to be locali8ed, *hich ones you can trust, and *hich ones you canCt+ ?See -hapter ; )or more details+@ Slab Stren*th an' 8ro#a*ation /istance 1n %eneral, the sti))er the slab, the )arther the )racture can propa%ate+ 1n other *ords, the sti))er the slab, the bi%%er and scarier the a&alanche, and it tends to )racture abo&e you instead o) at your )eet+ 'i%ure 2:2+ The creation o) a slab that is only *idespread natural a&alanche acti&ity sporadically bonded to the underlyin% sno* on all kinds o) slopes, e&en small slopes+ P012 6ere is an eBample that *e notice in many areas o) (orth America5 .urin% and ri%ht a)ter a storm, *e see *ith a lot o) compressi&e support and e&en in relati&ely thick trees, but the )ractures typically donCt propa%ate &ery )ar+ Since the slab is so)t, *e can also tri%%er a&alanches easily, and they usually )racture at our )eet or sno*mobile instead o) abo&e us+ But as time passes, the slab settles and %ains stren%th=and the slab typically %ains stren%th much more Auickly than the *eak layer beneath it+ When this happens, *e usually see )e*er a&alanches and they are less sensiti&e to tri%%ers, but the ones *e do see *ill occur on lar%e, open slopes *ithout anchors, the )ractures *ill occur abo&e us instead o) at our )eet, and because o) the sti))er slab, the )ractures *ill propa%ate much lon%er distances+ With HpersistentH *eak layers ?see -hapter ;@, such as sur)ace hoar and )aceted sno*, itCs not unusual )or )ractures to propa%ate around corners and o&er rid%es, or to tri%%er the slopes Hsympathetically,H meanin% )rom a distance a*ay+ This is because the sti))er slab transmits ener%y )arther and can store more elastic ener%y ?see the Silly Putty eBample belo*@ ?'i%ure 2: @+ 'i%ure 2:!+ A sno*mobile )inds the tri%%er point o) the a&alanche, *here the slab is thinner or the *eak layer is more )ra%ile+ P01" A common pattern *ith so)t slab a&alanches+ Many smaller a&alanches o)ten occur

durin% storms or immediately a)ter*ard+ As the slab %ains stren%th, a&alanches become harder to tri%%er but )ractures propa%ate )arther and create lar%e, more dan%erous a&alanches+ ?S*it8erland@ $ 9uer% Sch*ei8er Althou%h most a&alanches occur durin% or immediately )ollo*in% storms, especially *ith persistent *eak layers, a&alanche dan%er to people is sometimes *orse a)ter a storm than durin% a storm=a)ter the slab has had a chance to sti))en up+ Most a&alanche pro)essionals 1 kno* *ould rather deal *ith the slab *hile itCs still so)t because itCs easier to mana%e the ha8ard+ Snow 4s 1ike Silly 8utty ,o to nearly any lecture on a&alanches and chances are pretty %ood that you *ill see the instructor pull out their trusty Silly Putty+ ?1C&e also seen people use a miBture o) cornstarch and *ater+@ This is the only *ay 1 kno* to demonstrate the &isco:elastic nature o) sno*+ Silly Putty, like sno*, eBhibits both a &iscous and an elastic nature+ 1) you roll it in a ball, you can bounce it ?elastic ener%y@+ But sno* ?and Silly Putty@ also )lo* &iscouslyE like the pro&erbial molasses in *inter+ P01# Sno* beha&es &iscously *hen it mo&es slo*ly as demonstrated by this roo) %lide+ When strained to its breakin% point, it beha&es elastically and )ractures+ ?S*it8erland@ $ 9uer% Sch*ei8er The most interestin% part o) the sno*:Silly Putty metaphor is that = *hen de)ormed slo*ly, it )lo*s like ta))y, but *hen de)ormed rapidly, it )ractures like %lass+ Sno* is &ery sensiti&e to the rate at *hich it is de)ormed+ This is probably the most important property to remember about sno*, and itCs the cause o) most a&alanche )atalities+ 1n other *ords, sno*, 4ust like people, does not like rapid chan%e+ ?1) you raise taBes slo*ly enou%h, no one *ill notice+@ 'or eBample, letCs add >0 centimeters ?2 )eet@ o) slab on top o) a *eak layer, but letCs add it o&er the course o) t*o *eeks=a )e* centimeters here, a )e* there+ Will *e ha&e any a&alanchesG Probably not+ The sno* has time to ad4ust to its load+ ?See the HSettlement and Sinterin%H section belo*+@ /etCs add >0 centimeters ?2 )eet@ o) sno* in, say, t*o days+ Any a&alanchesG Probably+ (o* letCs add >0 centimeters ?2 )eet@ o) sno* in 2 hours+ Any a&alanchesG Fou bet+ Wait, >0 centimeters ?2 )eet@ o) sno* in 2 hoursG That canCt happen, can itG Ih yes, it can= )rom *ind+ Wind can deposit sno* ten times more rapidly than sno* )allin% out o) the sky, makin% it usually the most important *eather )actor to consider+ 'inally, letCs de)orm the sno* at an eBtremely rapid rate+ A 0 kilo%ram ?200 pound@ rider %ets a 200 kilo%ram ?;00 pound@ sno*mobile stuck on a steep slope, and no* you can be%in to understand *hy people make such %reat a&alanche tri%%ers+ The stress is bein% added o&er the course o) seconds or milliseconds instead o) o&er hours or days+ Sno* can ad4ust to a certain amount o) stress in a certain amount o) time+ 1) you reach that limit, you %et an a&alanche+ This is *hy *e pay such close attention to *hat *e call Hloadin% rateH ?discussed in more detail in -hapter #@+ By loadin% rate 1 mean the rate at *hich ne* sno*, *ind: dri)ted sno*, rain, or people add *ei%ht to the sno*pack+ Dapidly added *ei%ht rapidly de)orms sno* and that means a&alanches ?'i%ure 2:10@+ Settle-ent an' Sinterin* A ne*born sno*)lake that )alls out o) the sky doesnCt stay that *ay )or lon%+ As soon as it lands on the sno* sur)ace it be%ins a rapid process o) chan%e+ Ince a%ain, 4ust like people, as a sno*)lake a%es, its beauti)ul, an%ular shape becomes pro%ressi&ely more rounded throu%h time and it )orms bonds *ith its nei%hbors+ 1n people, itCs called %ro*in% upE in the sno*pack itCs called Hsinterin%H=)ormin% bonds *ith nei%hborin% crystals to create the )abric o) the sno*pack+ 'i%ure 2:10+ 1) *e add the eBact same load but &ary the loadin% rate, )ast loadin% rates produce more instability because the sno* has not had time to ad4ust to its load+ As sinterin% pro%resses, the sno* becomes denser and stron%er, *hich *e call Hsettlement+H Sometimes you *ill hear people incorrectly use the term HsettlementH to describe the catastrophic collapse o) a sno*pack that o)ten makes a %iant W6IIMP6 sound, as in, H6ey, did you hear that settlementG Maybe *e should %et out o) here+H 1nstead, *e call these collapses, or H*hoomphin%,H *hich in -anada has been adopted as the technical term )or a collapsin% sno*pack+ 1t sounds )unny, but itCs a %reat description+ Settlement is the slo* de)ormation o) the sno* as it becomes denser and sa%s under the in)luence o) %ra&ity+ At *armer temperatures, ne*, )lu))y sno* settles relati&ely Auickly, *ithin minutes to hours, and at &ery cold temperatures it settles &ery slo*ly ?more details on this later@ ?'i%ure 2:11@+ When ne* sno* settles, it )orms Hsettlement conesH around trees and bushes *here the sno* bonds to the bush *hich props up the sno* like a circus tent+ Caveat@ When *e see si%ns o) settlement, such as settlement cones, many people )eel that it means that

the sno*:pack is stable, ri%htG Whoa, not so )ast+ As 1 ha&e said, slabs usually %ain stren%th much )aster than the *eak layers beneath them+ As *e *ill see in -hapter ;, the old sno* may contain persistent *eak layers, such as sur)ace hoar and )acets, *hich %ain stren%th much more slo*ly than ne* sno*+ These persistent *eak layers ha&e 4ust been loaded by the ne* sno*=*ei%ht rapidly added onto its shoulders=and it may still be sta%%erin% under the strain+ So itCs important to make the distinctionE are *e talkin% about stability *ithin the ne* sno* or *ithin the old sno*G Fes, settlement cones may indicate stability *ithin the ne* sno*, but they tell us nothin% about the preeBistin% sno* underneath+ 1n )act, this is precisely the setup that creates many deadly a&alanches+ The old sno* is brittle and o&erloaded *ith a )resh layer o) Hsucker sno*H on top=sucker sno* *ith settlement cones, *hich indicate stability, ri%htG Wron%+ They indicate settlement only *ithin the ne* sno*+ Cree# H-reepH is simply settlement on an inclined slope, *hich causes the sno* to actually )lo* do*nhill ?'i%ure 2:12@+ Sno* on a slope is in constant motion, slo*ly )lo*in% do*n the slope=not the entire sno*pack slidin% on the %round like a %lacier ?*e call this %lide@ but a slo* de)ormation *ithin the sno*pack+ This do*nhill mo&ement o) sno* occurs more in the upper, li%ht:density layers than in the older, denser sno* belo*+ 'or instance, letCs drill a completely &ertical hole in the sno* and )ill it *ith, say, sa*dust+ When *e come back in a *eek or t*o and di% it out, the sa*dust column *ill be bent do*nhill like a *illo* tree blo*in% in the *ind+ P01; When ne* sno* slo*ly settles ?becomes more dense and )orms internal bonds@ it remains propped up by bushes like the center pole in a circus tent+ We call these settlement cones+ ?Wasatch Dan%e, 3tah@ $ Bruce Tremper 'i%ure 2:11+ Settlement o) ne* sno*5 the sno* slo*ly compresses and densi)ies under its o*n *ei%ht+ 'i%ure 2:12+ -reep can cause shear de)ormation to concentrate in *eak layers or *eak inter)aces+ 7ery interestin%, you say, but *hat does this ha&e to do *ith a&alanchesG -reep is &ery important in the sno*pack because the sur)ace layers tra&el do*nhill )aster than deeper layers, *hich causes Hshear stress+H Shear stress tends to concentrate alon% any discontinuity in the sno*pack, such as a *eak layer or a *eak inter)ace, *hich can cause a&alanches+ Te-#erature Be%innin% a&alanche students tend to )ocus on temperature because itCs such an easy number to measure+ Temperature plays a critical role in near:)ree8in% or *et sno* ?more on this later@, but in dry sno*, temperature is a complicated, o)ten contradictory, )actor in the a&alanche %ame+ Most o) the time, temperature is a minor player, especially *hen compared to loadin%+ /oadin% causes a&alanches )ar more o)ten than temperature chan%es=perhaps ten or a hundred times more o)ten, dependin% on the conditions+ 3sually loadin% reAuires rapid *armin%, not slo* *armin%, combined *ith a tender buried *eak layer+ Dapid loadin% plus rapid temperature chan%e plus a tender *eak layer is an especially po*er)ul combination+ The bottom line is that dry sno* is hi%hly sensiti&e to rapid chan%e=mostly mechanical chan%e=and to a lesser eBtent, thermal chan%es+ 6a&in% said this, itCs still important to kno* ho* temperature a))ects the mechanical properties o) the sno*pack+ Bill ,lude, a *onder)ul Alaska a&alanche instructor, uses an analo%y he calls the HBetty -rocker principleH to eBplain the role o) temperature in the sno*:pack+ Say you *ant to bake a cake+ The directions on the Betty -rocker boB say Hbake the cake at ";0 de%rees )or 20 minutes+H Well, youCre in a hurry so *hat do you doG ThatCs ri%ht, you turn up the heat to maybe #;0 de%rees+ 0&erythin% happens )aster at *armer temperatures than colder temperatures+ The battery in our car *orks better, trees %ro* )aster, paint dries )aster+ All chemical reactions=includin% metamorphosis o) the sno*=*ork )aster at *armer temperatures than cold ones+ Warm sno* de)orms )aster and easier than cold sno*+ This also includes creep, and an increase in the creep rate o) sno* *ill also increase the rate o) shear de)ormation alon% buried *eak layers *ithin the creepin% sno* and this means a&alanches+ /et me %i&e you an eBample+ 1 remember once in Alaska, *here 1 used to *ork as an a&alanche )orecaster, *e had se&eral *eeks o) cold, clear *eather that turned the entire sno*pack into depth hoar+ Then slo*ly *e %ot a couple li%ht sno*storms on top o) the depth hoar *ith no a&alanches and temperatures remained cold+ 'inally, a *arm, *et air mass )rom the Paci)ic pushed into the interior, *armin% up the sur)ace o) the sno* )or the )irst time in se&eral *eeks, and locali8ed a&alanches started e&en be)ore any precipitation )ell+ When 1 measured the temperature pro)ile in the sno*pack, 1 )ound that the *armer temperatures had penetrated much o) the slab, but the *armth had not yet reached the *eak layer+ 1n other *ords, the *armer temperatures caused a&alanches by a))ectin% the properties o) the slab, not the

*eak layer+ A commonly accepted eBplanation is that as a slab *arms up, it increases the settlement and creep rate o) the slab, *hich can accelerate shear *ithin the still cold and brittle *eak layer ?'i%ure 2:1"@+ 'i%ure 2:1"+ A rapidly *armed slab can accelerate settlement and creep in the slab, causin% shear )ailure on cold, brittle *eak layers+ 0d /a-hapelle and S*iss a&alanche scientist 6ans ,ubler eBplains the process usin% the term H&iscosity+H 7iscosity simply means ho* much a )luid resists )lo*+ 'or instance, molasses in 9anuary resists )lo* much more than molasses in 9uly+ When the &iscosity o) the slab is about the same as the &iscosity o) the *eak layer, the sno* tends to be stable+ But thin%s %et sketchy *hen the slab )lo*s more easily ?throu%h settlement and creep@ than the *eak layer, or *hen the *eak layer )lo*s more easily than the slab+ The bottom line5 sno* does not like rapid chan%es, *hether it is the rapid addition o) *ei%ht or a rapid increase in temperature+ Most important in terms o) human:tri%%ered a&alanches5 cold slabs mean sti)) slabs, and sti)) slabs not only brid%e better ?brid%in% the *ei%ht o) a person o&er a *ider area@ but the de)ormation o) the sno*pack )rom the *ei%ht o) a person doesnCt penetrate as deeply in a cold slab as a *arm one+ This *ould eBplain *hy *e ha&e noticed that people tend to tri%%er a&alanches more easily a)ter a slab has been *armed by sun or rain=especially a)ter rapid *armin% ?'i%ure 2:1#@+ This, ho*e&er, is a complicated and poorly understood process and, as *e *ill learn later, *ith dry a&alanches you should ne&er base your entire stability e&aluation on temperature *hen se&eral other )actors are usually more important+ Perhaps 0d /a-hapelle, one o) the %rand)athers o) American a&alanche research, said it best5 HAny rapid chan%e in the mechanical or thermal ener%y state o) the sno*pack is a precursor to a&alanchin%+ And 1 emphasi8e rapid+H /efor-ation A&alanches donCt Hstrike *ithout *arnin%H as *e so o)ten read in the press+ They are only the most spectacularly &isible e&ent in a lon% series o) precursors leadin% up to the %rand )inale+ 'i%ure 2:1#+ People tend to tri%%er a&alanches more easily a)ter a cold slab has been *armed by the sun, *armer air, or rain+ The process be%ins many hours=or e&en days=be)ore, usually *hen ne* sno* or *indblo*n sno* be%ins to pile *ei%ht on top o) a buried *eak layer Added *ei%ht causes the underlyin% sno* to de)orm+ 1nside a *eak layer under stress, bonds are bein% both broken ?)rom de)ormation@ and re)ormed ?)rom sinterin%@ at the same time+ /etCs look at three de)erent rates o) de)ormation5 slo*, medium, and )ast+ Slow /efor-ation )ate 1) the *eak layers shears slo*ly, it simply de)orms the bonds bet*een the sno* %rains+ 1) de)ormation is )ast enou%h to break bonds, then more bonds )orm than break+ This means that the *eak layer ad4usts to its load and %ains stren%th+ 3e'iu- /efor-ation )ate With an increasin% rate o) de)ormation, the sno* reaches a point *here nearly as many sno* %rain bonds break as )orm and the stren%th o) the *eak layer remains about the same+ With sensiti&e microphones *e can actually hear the rupture o) indi&idual bonds bet*een the sno* %rains, like the sound o) slo*ly rippin% 7elco+ )a#i' /efor-ation )ate 1) shear occurs rapidly=past a certain critical threshold=then more bonds break than )orm+ The *eak layer ineBorably loses stren%th and be%ins the slippery slide to*ard disaster+ We call this H)ailureH=*hen the sno* be%ins to pro%ressi&ely lose stren%th+ We also call this Hstrain so)tenin%+H To understand )ailure and strain so)tenin%, do this eBperiment5 Take a paper clip and bend it in the same place repeatedly+ A)ter about 10 bends youCll notice that it is %ettin% *eaker ?)ailure@ and a)ter about 1; bends, it snaps ri%ht o)) ?)racture@+ Stretchin* the )ubber Ban' Dapid chan%es create *hat *e call Hstored elastic ener%yH in the sno*pack+ To understand the concept o) stored elastic ener%y, try another eBperiment5 Take a rubber band and a sharp kni)e+ 6ook one end o) the rubber band around a doorknob and stretch the rubber band 4ust a little+ (o* touch the rubber band *ith the kni)e and youCll see that it is &ery hard to cut the rubber band+ (eBt, stretch the

rubber band about hal)*ay and touch it *ith the kni)e a%ain, and most o) the time it still *onCt cut the rubber band+ 'inally, stretch the rubber band all the *ay and touch it *ith the kni)e a%ain+ (o* the kni)e easily cuts the rubber band+ A stable sno*pack is like a limp rubber band+ 0&en lar%e disturbances usually donCt tri%%er a&alanches, but a)ter rapid chan%es occur in the sno*pack ?stretchin% the rubber band@ e&en small disturbances can tri%%er a&alanches+ Demember that this stored elastic ener%y eBists throu%hout the entire sno*pack, includin% both the slab and the *eak layer and ticklin% either o) them can ha&e the same e))ect+ As a&alanche researcher Dand .ecker likes to say, HA&alanches are like a barroom bra*l+ (o matter ho* much tension you ha&e in the air, you usually ha&e to %i&e somebody a thump to %et thin%s %oin%+H -a&eat5 6a&in% said this, scientists still donCt kno* eBactly ho* a&alanches )ail and )racture because sno* is such a de&ilishly di))icult substance to study+ 'irst, lar%e &ariations commonly eBist o&er both distance and time+ Second, as you can ima%ine, catchin% a natural a&alanche in the act is stupendously di))icult and dan%erous+ So 10 or 20 years )rom no*, these para%raphs=like so many o) the H)actsH *e belie&e about a&alanches=may seem like yet more Auaint, %ee8er ramblin%s+ 2oo' News=Ba' News The bad ne*s5 all o) this is in&isible+ 1t happens underneath the per)ect )acade, and it becomes &isible only throu%h si%ns or )rom someone %ettin% out the old sho&el and doin% some honest *ork+ The %ood ne*s is that *hene&er the slope is close to )racture, it *ill usually %i&e ob&ious si%ns=such as other a&alanches, collapsin%, and crackin%+ Plus, i) you di% a sno*pit in a representati&e spot, the instability is usually &ery ob&ious+ Four columns *ill o)ten )all o)) be)ore you can e&en sa* them out and most o) your other tests *ill be 4ust as apparent ?see -hapter >@+ So donCt %et too )reaked out Auite yet+ Dead on+ Avalanche .low /ry Avalanches 'e* si%hts on 0arth are as stunnin%ly beauti)ul as a bi% a&alanche stormin% do*n the mountain in the %olden li%ht o) da*n+ Ski patrollers li&e a li)e o) renunciation 4ust to be able to *itness it at close Auarters on a daily or *eekly basis=renouncin% hi%h pay, steady *ork, peace)ul mornin% slumber, and a youth)ul )ace unblemished by *ind and sun+ But the beauty o) the billo*in% po*der cloud belies the &iolence that %oes on underneath+ 1nside the misty en&elope o) the po*der cloud is a rushin% mass o) sno* called the HcoreH o) the a&alanche that is a )luidi8ed miBture o) air and sno*= about 20 percent air and "0 percent ice particles+ Thirty percent doesnCt seem like &ery much, but itCs about the same density as se&en adults standin% *ithin a 1:meter:sAuare boB dra*n on the )loor, in other *ords, about like a &ery cro*ded dance )loor+ (o*, picture a basketball court ti%htly packed *ith people at a rock concert tipped up to a #0:de%ree an%le and ima%ine the )orce o) all the people slammin% a%ainst the *all+ This *ould eBert about the same amount o) )orce as a 2:meter:thick a&alanche slidin% 100 meters=not &ery )ar in the a&alanche *orld+ (o* ima%ine that same basketball court o) people tra&elin% do*n a lar%e a&alanche path at 100 km<hr ?>0 mph@ and slammin% into a brick *all at the bottom and itCs easy to ima%ine ho* a&alanches can rip out trees and turn a house into toothpicks+ This is also *hy o&er a Auarter o) a&alanche &ictims die )rom trauma, by hittin% trees and rocks on the *ay do*n+ P01> The po*der cloud o) a dry a&alanche ?Sunset Peak, Alberta, -anada@ $ Brad White<Alpenstock 'i%ure 2:1;+ Parts o) an a&alanche in motion As the sno* rushes throu%h the air, it kicks up an en&elope o) po*der, appropriately enou%h called a Hpo*der cloud,H *hich is composed o) only about 1 percent sno* and percent air=the part o) the a&alanche that %i&es it beauty+ 1n )ront o) the po*der cloud is the in&isible Hair blast,H *hich is, as you mi%ht ima%ine, a burst o) air that is pushed out in )ront o) the mo&in% sno*+ The air blast typically carries only about 10 percent o) the *allop o) the core o) mo&in% sno* ?'i%ure 2:1;@+ The a&alanche is slo*ed do*n mainly by the )riction *ith the sur)ace it runs upon=rocks, &e%etation, and the sno* sur)ace+ To a lesser eBtent, the )riction *ith the air slo*s the a&alanche do*n+ The sno* nearest the bed tra&els more slo*ly than the sno* abo&e+ I)ten, i) you look close enou%h, you can see a&alanches come do*n in *a&es+ Ine *a&e shoots out in )ront, is slo*ed by )riction *ith the %round and air, and then the neBt *a&e=tra&elin% on the back o) the )irst *a&e= shoots out ahead o) the )irst *a&e, and so on+ 1t looks kind o) like pulses o) sno* bein% spit out the )ront o) the a&alanche about once e&ery )e* seconds+

The eBtreme &iolence inside the )lo*in% debris %rinds up all the sno* into )iner and )iner particles and e&en i) the sno* started out li%ht and )lu))y, it can become &ery dense by the time it )inally comes to a stop+ 1tCs not uncommon )or a lar%e a&alanche that starts out *ith a density o) ; to 10 HpercentH ?&olume o) sno* &ersus air@ to end up as "0 to #0 percent at the bottom+ This means that *hen e&erythin% comes to a stop, the dense sno* packs &ery ti%htly+ Also, small %rains sinter much more Auickly than lar%e %rains, and the tiny %rains makin% up a&alanche debris can sinter as much as ten thousand times )aster than the lar%er %rains o) the initial slab+ 'inally, all o) the kinetic ener%y liberated on the *ay do*n heats up the sno* a little and creates small drops o) liAuid *ater on the sur)ace o) the ice %rains+ ?1 remember once *alkin% around on the debris o) a bi% a&alanche ri%ht a)ter it came do*n and my %o%%les steamed up )rom all the *arm moisture risin% o)) the debris+@ -ombinin% all these )actors, itCs easy to see *hy a&alanche debris sei8es up like concrete the instant it comes to a stop+ An a&alanche &ictim is )ro8en in place+ Wet Avalanches A *et a&alanche resembles 10,000 concrete trucks dumpin% their loads all at once+ Wet a&alanches tra&el more slo*ly than dry a&alanches, typically 1; to #0 km<hr ?10 to "0 mph@ as opposed to 20 to 1"0 km<hr ?#0 to !0 mph@ )or dry slides+ 6o*e&er, *et a&alanches in steep terrain can tra&el nearly as )ast as dry slides+ Wet a&alanches tra&el do*n the hill like )lo*in% *ater, typically )ollo*in% the draina%e and terrain )eatures much more precisely than dry slides+ Althou%h *et a&alanches donCt usually tra&el as )ar as dry slides, they can sometimes run lon% distances on )lat slopes, o)ten mo&in% &ery slo*ly like a la&a )lo*+ They o)ten lea&e &ertical %roo&es in the bed sur)ace and they di% out a de)ined channel *ith hi%h banks on the sides+ Wet a&alanches sometimes ha&e impact pressures about t*ice that o) dry a&alanches and can be eBtremely destructi&e to )orests and structures+ They tend to lea&e a sharp line o) demarcation *hen they tra&el throu%h )orests *ith a line o) untouched trees 4ust a )oot a*ay )rom cleanly snapped:o)) trees+ Wet a&alanches tend to break o)) trees *ith near sur%ical precision compared *ith the ra%%ed strand lines le)t by dry a&alanches+ 3echanical 8ro#erties of Wet Avalanches .ry a&alanches and *et a&alanches are t*o di))erent beasts, especially the mechanics o) ho* they are tri%%ered+ To &isuali8e this, ima%ine a to*er o) %ymnasts standin% on each otherCs shoulders+ There are t*o *ays to make them crumple5 )irst, you can add too many %ymnasts to the pile until one o) the %uys belo* %i&es *ay, or second, you can tickle one o) the %ymnasts until he starts to %i%%le and loses his stren%th ?'i%ure 2:1>@+ Althou%h simpli)ied, the main di))erence bet*een dry and *et a&alanches is that dry a&alanches are tri%%ered because stress increases enou%h to o&ercome the stren%th o) the *eak layer ?addin% too many %ymnasts@ *hile *et a&alanches occur )or the opposite reason5 the stren%th o) the sno* decreases enou%h to eAual stress eBerted on it ?ticklin% one o) the %ymnasts@+ When 1 *orked as a ski patroller doin% a&alanche control, this *ould dri&e me cra8y+ To tri%%er a dry sno* a&alanche, you use an eBplosi&e to o&erload the stren%th o) the buried *eak layer+ But *hen 4 *ould try the same thin% *ith *et a&alanches, nothin% happened+ Fou pronounce it sa)e and a hal):hour later, the *et slab pulls out on its o*n+ What happenedG Wet a&alanches are like mules, they come do*n *hen theyCre %ood and ready, not be)ore+ 0Bplosi&es donCt *ork as *ell because eBplosi&es *ork by addin% a lar%e and rapid load=the *ron% tool )or the 4ob+ Also, *et sno* tends to beha&e more &iscously *hile dry sno* tends to beha&e more elasticallyE *et sno* does not transmit eBplosi&e shock *a&es nearly as *ell+ 1tCs not that you canCt tri%%er *et slides *ith eBplosi&es or the *ei%ht o) a person, itCs 4ust that tri%%ers tend to *ork only *hen the a&alanche is on the &er%e o) comin% do*n on its o*n any*ay+ Some people think that *et a&alanches are easier to )orecast, but most o) these people are )rom dry climates+ 1 think *et a&alanches are tricky+ Fou must closely *atch the *eather and the sno* and ha&e a lot o) eBperience *ith them+ ?See more details on *eather controls o) *et a&alanches in -hapter #, metamorphism o) *et sno* in -hapter ;, and )orecastin% )or *et slides in -hapter 2+@ )unout /istance How )ar *ill an a&alanche runG 1t depends on )our )actors 5 'i% 2:1> 1> Si&e 9-ass: of the avalanche> The %reater the mass, the )arther an a&alanche runs+ Small slu))s may run only about 10 percent o) the maBimum runout distance *hile HclimaBH a&alanches that Hbreak to the %roundH ?takin% out the entire seasonCs sno*pack@, or ones that in&ol&e a lar%e amount o)

ne* sno*, o)ten run to the maBimum runout+ 2> Slo#e confi*uration> Planar slopes or slopes *ith %entle transitions produce lon%er runnin% a&alanches than slopes *ith abrupt transitions+ Plus, lar%er &ertical drops produce lon%er:runnin% a&alanches than short &ertical drops+ "+ Slo#e rou*hness> Slope rou%hness includes rocks, trees, or shrubs that stick up abo&e the bed sur)ace that can slo* do*n an a&alanche+ Typically, a&alanches donCt run nearly as )ar in the early season *hen shrubs and rocks in the track slo* the a&alanche do*n+ A)ter the sno*pack has accumulated enou%h to co&er the shrubs and rocks, or a)ter the rou%hness is smoothed o&er by a&alanches=H%reasin% the trackH as pro)essionals call it=then a&alanches can run much )arther+ 'orecasters )or hi%h*ays, railroads, and *ork sites re%ularly take this into account+ Also, a&alanches run )arther on a hard sno* sur)ace than in so)t sno*, *hich %obbles up the a&alancheCs ener%y+ P012 $ Bruce Tremper 'i%ure 2:12+ Three o) the )our )actors that determine ho* )ar an a&alanche *ill run5 1+ the mass o) the a&alancheE 2+ the slope con)i%uration, includin% the &ertical )all and the transition shapeE and "+ the slope rou%hness+ #+ Ty#e of snow in the avalanche + An a&alanche composed o) blocky, hard, old sno* doesnCt run as )ar as an a&alanche composed o) ne*, po*dery sno*+ 3sually, the lon%est runnin% and most destructi&e a&alanches occur durin% &ery lar%e storms that lay do*n unprecedented amounts o) lo*: density ?li%ht@ sno*+ This sno* has little internal )riction and once it %ets %oin%, it %oes into Hho&ercra)t modeH as .a&e Medara, a 3tah hi%h*ay a&alanche )orecaster, puts it+ These a&alanches can do nearly unima%inable thin%s, like runnin% lon% distances across )lats and e&en tra&elin% uphill+ Bi%, dry a&alanches can 4ump o)) terrain )eatures and )ly throu%h the air )or lon% distances be)ore they come back do*n, o)ten lea&in% the trees beneath their )li%ht untouched+ They can easily H4ump their trackH=*hen the momentum o) the a&alanche takes them outside their normal draina%e+ They can *ipe out lar%e s*aths o) mature trees+ Desearchers ha&e estimated that as much as 20 percent o) the mass o) some a&alanches comes )rom sno* entrained on the *ay do*n *ith "0 percent )rom the initial slab+ ?See -hapter " )or details on a simple *ay to 4ud%e ho* )ar an a&alanche *ill run+@

CHA8TE)

> TE))A4N

.onCt tri&iali8e the importance or the subtlety o) terrain+ 1t takes a li)etime to %et a handle on readin% terrain=maybe t*o li)etimes+ = -hris Stethem, prominent -anadian a&alanche consultant (o* *e *ill start on the basic buildin% blocks o) a&alanches+ 0&erythin% *e kno* about a&alanches )its into one o) three cate%ories5 terrain, sno*pack, and *eather+ This is the data trian%le made )amous by the &enerable Alaska a&alanche specialists .ou% 'esler and 9ill 'redston ?'i%ure ":1@+ 'irst, terrain+ 1) youCre %oin% to learn nothin% else about a&alanches, at least learn ho* to mana%e terrain+ 0&en i) youCre a complete klut8 at stability analysis and e&en on days *hen the %uacamole is hittin% the )an, you can almost al*ays )ind sa)e terrain=on %entle slopes out )rom under a&alanche terrain, on rid%elines, in thick trees+ The bi% payo)) o) ha&in% %ood terrain skills comes durin% yello*:li%ht conditions5 *hen tra&el in ha8ardous terrain can be sa)e=i) you kno* *hat youCre doin%=but there are still enou%h booby traps around to make thin%s interestin%+ These are eBactly the conditions in *hich most a&alanche accidents occur, *hen people percei&e that the situation is sa)e yet they lack the skills to tell stable sno* )rom unstable sno*+ 0&en i) you donCt ha&e %ood sno* stability skills, most o) the time your terrain skills can keep you out o) trouble=by helpin% you to choose slopes *ith lo*er probabilities o) slidin% and slopes *ith sa)er conseAuences i) one does+ 1) youCre %oin% to pick 4ust one chapter to read in this book, this is it+ .e)initely reAuired readin%+ Ince a%ain, letCs make like Aristotle and take terrain apart, piece by piece, and then *eCll put it back to%ether a%ain in an or%ani8ed *ay at the end o) the chapter+ 'i%ure ":1+ The data trian%le Stee#ness ,ra&ity ne&er sleeps+ The steeper the slope, the more sno* *ants to slide o)) the mountainside, but a&alanche dan%er doesnCt necessarily *ork that *ay+ .an%er increases *ith increasin% slope steepness up to a point=about "! to #0 de%rees, at *hich point a&alanche dan%er counter:intuiti&ely starts to decrease+ As the slope climbs abo&e ;0 de%rees, slu))s and smaller slabs run more )reAuently and si%ni)icantly reduce the number o) deeper, more dan%erous slabs+ This does not mean that lar%e slab a&alanches donCt occur on >0:de%ree slopes because they certainly do+ 1t 4ust means that they are less common than on #0:de%ree slopes+ 2oo' News=Ba' News The %ood ne*s is that the intermediate slope an%les cause most o) the problems+ The bad ne*s is that those are the eBact ones *here most o) us like to recreate+ Slopes bet*een "; and #; de%rees cause the &ast ma4ority o) a&alanche )atalities ?'i%ure ":2@+ Decent statistics )rom -anada and S*it8erland indicate that hal) o) human:tri%%ered a&alanches occur bet*een "2 and #2 de%rees ?'i%ure ":"@+ The bulls:eye is around "! de%rees+ Memori8e this number= "! de%rees+ Table ":1 illustrates the relationship bet*een steepness and a&alanche dan%er+
Stee#ness Slo#e )atin* at a Ski Area Avalanche Activity 10:2; Be%inner to intermediate Slush )lo*s in arctic climates+ 1n)reAuent *et slopes ?%reen slopes@+ a&alanche runouts+ .ry slabs in eBtremely unusual situations+ 2;:"0 1ntermediate slopes ?blue 1n)reAuent slabs in unstable conditions+ Those that do slopes@+ occur tend to be "0:"; Ad&anced slopes ?black Slabs increasin% rapidly in )reAuency as you approach diamond@+ "; de%rees+ 3sually reAuires )airly unstable conditions+ ";:#; 0Bpert slopes ?double black This is prime a&alanche terrain *ith the bulls:eye diamond@+ around "! de%rees+ 'reAuent slab a&alanches, #;:;; 0Btreme terrain ?couloirs in 'reAuent smaller slabs and slu))s reduce the number cli))s= usually roped o))@+ ;;: 0 Alpine climbin% terrain 'reAuent slu))s and small slabs dramatically reduce ?cli))s and &ery steep the number o) lar%er slabs+ couloirs@+ 8erce#tion of /an*er What is this, a %ol) courseG IK, but not steep enou%h to ha&e )un+ Startin% to %et steep enou%h to ha&e )un+ Per)ectJ ?But this is *here most a&alanches happen+@ Whoa, this is %ettin% steep+ 1Cm scared+ Wo*, itCs a cli))+ ,i&e me a rope+

'i%ure ":"+ Slope steepness o) human:tri%%ered a&alanches )rom -anada and S*it8erland+ The steepness o) human:tri%%ered a&alanches is probably sli%htly steeper than )or natural a&alanches+ Also, donCt be )ooled by lo* numbers o) a&alanches on steep slopes+ This is partially an arti)act o) )e*er people tra&elin% on steep slopes than on more moderate slopes+ 'i%ure ":2+ The &ast ma4ority o) a&alanche )atalities are caused by slopes bet*een "; and #; de%rees+ -a&eat 5 1n continental and intermountain climates, *e rarely see a&alanches on slopes steeper than ;0 de%rees+ Maritime climates are *etter, so the sno* tends to %et plastered onto steep slopes, like a %iant spatula icin% the side o) a cake+ 1 ha&e seen se&eral lar%e slab a&alanches on >0: de%ree slopes in maritime climates+ 1 think the main reason they donCt sho* up in the statistics and on the slope steepness %raphs is that no one is *illin% to %o up and measure them ?'i%ure ":#@+ P01! This slope is about "" de%rees=de)initely steep enou%h to slide but not &ery o)ten ?Wasatch Dan%e, 3tah@ $ Bruce Tremper #igure $%&. conceptual diagram of how slope steepness of avalanches varies !y climate The most important point to remember *ith slope steepness is that *ithin the ran%e o) "0 to #; de%rees, a&alanches are eBtremely sensiti&e to slope steepness+ Thirty de%rees is barely steep enou%h to slide yet a&alanche acti&ity reaches a maBimum at "! de%rees+ This di))erence o) only ! de%rees doesnCt seem like much to humans but itCs monumentally important to a&alanches+ There)ore, skilled a&alanche pro)essionals Auickly de&elop a keen distinction bet*een subtle di))erences in slope an%les, especially in the ran%e bet*een "0 and #0 de%rees+ This skill, more than any other, distin%uishes those *ith *hat .ou% 'esler and 9ill 'redston call Ha&alanche eyeballsH )rom those *ithout+ 1) you *atch a skilled backcountry skiin% %uide break a climbin% track uphill, they *ill *ork the terrain like a hound do%, back and )orth, seekin% the lo*est an%led terrain possible to %et to the top o) the slope+ They *ill study a slope )or a lon% time to see ho* to most e))iciently connect all the lo*er an%led sections+ They *ill )ollo* sub:rid%es and sub:rid%es o) sub:rid%es to %et to main rid%es+ The closer the slope is to "! de%rees, the more they *ill a&oid it+ This skill takes years to de&elop, and itCs one o) the main testin% criteria )or certi)ication o) *inter mountain %uides+ More than any other skill, it separates the master artists )rom the apprentices+ 1tCs a beauti)ul thin%, to *atch a true artist at *ork= readin% the terrain, *orkin% the terrain, dra*in% their line on the mountain+ Terrain an' 8eculiar Tricks of 8erce#tion 6a&e you e&er *alked on slopes in summer that you are used to skiin% or sno*mobilin% or sno*boardin% in *interG The )irst time 1 did this *hen 1 *as a kid, 1 couldnCt belie&e ho* steep the slope *as+ 1t seemed so much less steep on skis than on )oot+ 6o* about *hen you %et up on your roo) to )iB the shin%lesG 1t seems steep and dan%erous+ (o* picture yoursel) on a lar%e slope o) the same steepness on skis or sno*board or sno*mobile in *inter and it doesnCt seem nearly as bad+ The same little perception tricks happen in &ery deep sno*+ In skis or a sno*board you ha&e to be on somethin% steep 4ust to %et %oin%+ In a 20:de%ree slope, e&en %oin% do*nhill, you ha&e to hike throu%h the *aist: deep sno*, on a "0:de%ree slope you can barely %et %oin%, and a #0:de%ree slope seems 4ust ri%ht )or makin% turns+ FahooJ But i) that sno* 4ust )ell, then *hat is all that *ei%ht doin% to buried *eak layers, and *hat the heck are you doin% on a #0:de%ree slope in those kinds o) conditionsG (o* ho* about that same #0:de%ree slope *ith rock:hard hard iceG 'orty de%rees is *ay scary and e&en the "0:de%ree slope seems too steep=maybe 20 de%rees is about ri%ht+ (o* picture yoursel) descendin% a con&eB slope, like droppin% o)) the ed%e o) a basketball+ Fou tend to keep creepin% do*n o&er the ed%e until you can see the entire slope, by *hich time itCs usually a much steeper place than *here you ou%ht to be+ 'inally, picture ho* you )eel on a steep slope thatCs about 100 meters ?"2! )eet@ )rom top to bottom+ Then picture yoursel) on a slope o) the eBact same steepness thatCs 1000 &ertical meters ?"2!0 )eet@ to the bottom+ Fet to an a&alanche, the t*o slopes are eBactly the same steepness+ Demember that perception is somethin% that happens to humans and not a&alanches+ To an a&alanche, the closer the slope is to "! de%rees, the more it *ants to send a slab rumblin% do*n the mountain+ And the a&alanche doesnCt care about you and your peculiar perceptions+ 1nclinometers The best *ay to de&elop slope steepness skill is to use an inclinometer=a de&ice that measures the steepness o) a slope+ Many relati&ely ineBpensi&e compasses also )eature an inclinometer, and some a&alanche educators say that i) youCre %oin% to carry only one a&alanche prediction tool, this should be it+ Many a&alanche sa)ety supply companies also distribute a small inclinometer card that

utili8es a strin% as a plumb bob+ 1 pre)er the compass:inclinometers because they *ork so much better+ FouCre %oin% to need a compass any*ay, so you mi%ht as *ell %et one *ith an inclinometer+ 'i%ure ":;+ With a compass inclinometer, simply si%ht alon% the top o) the compass and use the mirror to see the inclinometer at the same time+ Si%ht alon% a slope )or an accurate measurement+ .onCt lay a ski pole on the slope because then you measure small &ariations in the sno* sur)ace instead o) the a&era%e slope an%le+ P01 Some a&alanche books recommend layin% a ski pole on the slope and settin% the inclinometer on top o) the ski pole to measure the slope an%le+ 1 ha&e )ound this method to be &ery inaccurate+ The best *ay is to si%ht up or do*n the slope *ith the inclinometer because you can a&era%e out all the small undulations that *ould )ool the ski pole method+ Fou can also measure the medium:scale undulations )rom some distance a*ay, thus not puttin% yoursel) at risk+ A&alanches are o)ten tri%%ered *hen crossin% the steepest part o) a slope, *hich may be 4ust a small undulation ?'i%ure ":;@+ (ote5 Most ineBperienced people o&erestimate slope steepness by about ; to 10 de%reesE theyCll tell you they 4ust sno*boarded a ;0:de%ree slope that upon measurement is barely #0 de%rees+ Fou can %et a %eneral idea o) slope steepness by practicin% *ith an inclinometer on slopes at a ski area as illustrated in Table ":1+ What 4s the Slo#e Connecte' To7 Fou donCt ha&e to be on a steep slope to tri%%er it+ This is a &itally important pointJ 0specially in eBtremely unstable sno*packs, itCs common to tri%%er steep slopes )rom ad4acent )latter slopes and sometimes the a&alanche on the steeper slope can pull the )latter slope alon% )or the ride+ We call these HremoteH tri%%ers *hen a person can tri%%er an a&alanche )rom a distance+ 1n eBtreme conditions, )ractures can propa%ate lon% distances+ Demote tri%%ers are common in the )ollo*in% circumstances5 K Fou can tri%%er a steep slope abo&e by crossin% a %entle or )lat slope belo* nearly as easily as crossin% the steep slope itsel)+ 1n Alaska 1 ha&e collapsed )lat slopes that tri%%ered a&alanches on steep slopes up to a Auarter mile a*ay+ 1 ha&e lost a couple o) )riends *ho died doin% this &ery thin%= people *ho should ha&e kno*n better ?'i%ure ":>@+ K Fou can tri%%er a&alanches belo* you )rom a )latter slope and especially )rom a rid%e top+ 1n eBtreme conditions, especially *ith thick, hard slabs, &ictims ha&e been pulled o)) )lat rid%es this *ay =like *hen a child %rabs onto the ed%e o) a tablecloth and pulls all the dishes do*n onto the )loor ?'i%ure ":2@+ K Fou can tri%%er an ad4acent slope+ The slope you are standin% on mi%ht not be steep enou%h to slide, but an a&alanche on the ad4acent steeper slope mi%ht pull your slope alon% )or the ride+ 'i% ":> 'i%ure ":2+ 0specially in &ery unstable conditions, you can tri%%er slopes )rom the top=or ha&e the slab pulled out )rom under you, like a tablecloth bein% pulled o)) a set table+ Esti-atin* )unout /istance Speakin% o) remote tri%%ers, once 1 *as skiin% in the backcountry on an eBtremely unstable day *ith my )riend Dip ,ri))ith, a &ery eBperienced 3tah .epartment o) Transportation )orecaster+ A&alanches *ere comin% do*n e&ery*here, so *e tra&eled on HmaBimum security,H that is, *e stayed strictly on %entle slopes and rid%es or in thick trees and kept our a&alanche antennae )ully eBtended+ We *ere )ollo*in% an old ski track, *hich made trail breakin% easier e&en thou%h it *as no* buried under a couple )eet o) ne* sno*+ The old ski track *ent ri%ht underneath a ";:de%ree slope and as soon as *e %ot close enou%h that the inclinometer in my head started %i&in% me the alarm si%nal, 1 &eered o)) the trail and started breakin% a ne* trail throu%h the thick trees o)) to the le)t, to skirt around the steep slope+ 0&en thou%h it *as a royal pain to break a ne* trail throu%h the thick trees, there *as no *ay 1 *as %oin% under that steep slope on a day like that+ 1 didnCt ha&e to say anythin% to Dip+ 6e kne* *hat 1 *as doin%+ And i) 1 hadnCt broken a ne* trail, he certainly *ould ha&e insisted on it+ In the *ay back a couple hours later *e )ound oursel&es on the )lat rid%e at the top o) that same ";:de%ree slope+ H6ey,H he said, H1Cll bet *e can tri%%er the slope do*n there )rom up here on the )lat rid%e i) *e both 4ump at the same time+H HIkay,H 1 said+ HIn three+H We 4umped and the cro*n )racture opened up about 20 meters a*ay )rom us, do*n o&er the ed%e *here *e couldnCt see it but *e could hear the slope belo* erupt into action+ We sa* the trees *a&in% around and the dust cloud roll up into the air at the bottom+ Then *e did *hat most a&alanche pro)essionals do a)ter they tri%%er a slide, *e 4umped into the a&alanche path and did a sno* pro)ile+ (o better *ay to learn than that=direct, )resh data on a slope that is no* &ery sa)e+ As *e eBited the

bottom o) the path, *e noticed that the debris stopped about 10 )eet a*ay )rom *here *e decided to break another trail instead o) )ollo*in% the eBistin% one+ The debris completely co&ered up the preeBistin% track+ 1) *e had )ollo*ed the old track *e *ould almost certainly ha&e tri%%ered the a&alanche )rom the bottom and the ne*spaper headlines *ould ha&e had a )ield day *ith our deaths+ The embarrassment alone *ould ha&e killed us+ /ike %uys, *e slapped each other on the back and said, H6ey, are *e %ood or *hatGH 1 tell this story not only to bra% about mysel), *hich 1 %reatly en4oy, but also to illustrate the point that the road to destruction is sometimes pa&ed by a *ell:broken trail+ The person *ho broke the trail mi%ht not ha&e kno*n much about a&alanches and e&en i) they did, they broke it durin% di))erent conditions+ Fou must make your o*n decisions+ The story also sho*s the importance o) al*ays measurin% slope an%les+ .o it o&er and o&er until you can %uess a slope an%le *ithin a couple o) de%rees+ Many o) the old:timer a&alanche eBperts 1 kno* can %uess a slope an%le to *ithin a hal) de%ree+ )unout An*les 6o* )ar *ill an a&alanche runG 1tCs an important Auestion *hen you set up camp, cross under a slope, or decide *here to build your dream home+ The runout an%le, or Halpha an%le,H pro&ides a %ood, Auick, easy solution+ To measure a runout an%le, either stand at the bottom o) an a&alanche path and measure the an%le to the top or stand at the top and measure the an%le to the bottom ?'i%ure ":!@+ Dunout an%les &ary dependin% on climate, terrain, and len%th o) runout, but typical &alues are5 Maritime climates++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++2" to 2; de%rees 1ntermountain climates+++++++++++++++++++++++20 to 2" de%rees -ontinental climates+++++++++++++++++++++++++++1 to 22 de%rees Four )riends *ill think youCre an incorri%ible nerd, but 1 su%%est that you measure as many a&alanche paths in your area as you can to %et a )eel )or the common runout an%les+ 1 o)ten *ear an inclinometer around my neck *hen 1Cm out in the *inter and sometimes 1 take one on summer hikes+ Someday it may sa&e your li)e+ -a&eat5 Demember that runout an%les are only a %eneral tool+ 1) determinin% a&alanche runout *as that easy, then a&alanche consultants *ouldnCt be able to char%e premium prices )or doin% a&alanche 8onin% and )i%urin% out i) someoneCs dream home is %oin% to %et hit+ -ombine the runout an%le *ith all your other in)ormation=other local runout an%les, &e%etation clues, path shape and path rou%hness, and sno*pack depths+ ?See -hapter 2 )or more details on a&alanche )lo*+@ 'i%ure ":!+ When choosin% a campsite in a&alanche terrain, a&oid campin% in a&alanche runouts+ 1n poor &isibility or in areas *ithout &e%etation clues, you can tell i) you are in an a&alanche runout by usin% a topo%raphic map and a ,PS+ Simply measure the &ertical )all o) the a&alanche path youCre *orried about and make sure your camp is more than approBimately 2+; times that hori8ontal distance )rom the startin% 8one, )arther in continental climates, and a little closer in maritime climates+ ?e*etation Clues Fou can o)ten determine the maBimum runout o) an a&alanche path )rom the &e%etation= missin% trees, knocked do*n trees, or H)la%%edH trees=trees *ith the branches stripped o)) the uphill side but still eBistin% on the do*nhill side+ Plus, by lookin% at the trees, you can usually tell ho* many years ha&e passed since an a&alanche last hit them+ 'or instance, you mi%ht )ind a uni)orm blanket o) 10:year:old trees in the lo*er section o) the a&alanche path, *hich suddenly terminates in 100:year:old )la%%ed trees on the lo*er boundary o) the path, indicatin% that 10 years a%o an a&alanche ran to its maBimum runout=or at least the maBimum runout in the past 100 years+ A&alanches run to their apparent maBimum runout about e&ery 20 to ;0 years, but their real maBimum runout is usually much )arther+ About e&ery 100 years an a&alanche *ill run )ar enou%h to rip out )ully mature trees and about e&ery ;00 years it *ill run bi%%er and )arther than you could ha&e e&er ima%ined+ Demember that no matter ho* bi% or ho* )ar youC&e seen an a&alanche run in the past, %i&en enou%h time, it *ill al*ays run bi%%er and )arther+ P020 Anchors such as thick trees can e))ecti&ely hold slabs in place+ 6ere the &e%etation makes the bi% a&alanche paths ob&ious+ ?Wasatch Dan%e, 3tah@ $ Bruce Tremper Anchors Anchors such as trees, rocks, and bushes help to hold the slab in place+ These are points to consider5 K Anchors need to be thick enou%h to be e))ecti&e+ The more thickly spaced, the more e))ecti&e they are+ Sparse anchors, especially combined *ith a so)t slab, ha&e &ery little e))ect ?'i%ure ": @+

K Anchors that donCt stick up throu%h the *eak layer ha&e no e))ect+ They need to penetrate *ell into the slab ?'i%ure ":10@ are much more e))ecti&e than sparse anchors+ 'i%ure ": + Thicker anchors 'i%ure ":10+ These anchors hold the lo*er slab in place but do nothin% )or the upper slab+ Spruce and )ir trees *ith branches )ro8en into the slab are much more e))ecti&e anchors than trees *ith )e* lo* branches, such as aspens or lod%epole pines+ Also, sno* )allin% o)) trees tends to stabili8e the sno*pack around trees and they tend to capture and reradiate more heat, *hich also a))ects the surroundin% sno* ?'i%ure ":11@+ Anchors hold in place hard slabs much better than so)t slabs+ A&alanche )racture lines tend to run )rom anchor to anchor because they are stress concentration points+ 1n other *ords, you stand a better chance o) stayin% on the %ood side o) a )racture line by standin% abo&e a tree instead o) belo* it ?'i%ure ":12@+ Also, anchors tend to break up the continuity o) the slab so )ractures tend not to propa%ate as )ar as they *ould *ithout anchors+ 'i%ure ":11+ 0&er%reen trees *ith branches )ro8en in place are much more e))ecti&e than trees *ithout branches+ 'i%ure ":12+ Anchors tend to be stress concentration points and )racture tends to break )rom anchor to anchor+ Another reason it is probably better to stand on the uphill side o) trees+ K 'la%%ed trees=trees *ith all the uphill branches stripped o))=indicate trees that re%ularly %et hit by a&alanches+ 2oo' News=Ba' News The %ood ne*s is that anchors are our )riendsE they help to hold a slab in place+ The bad ne*s is that i) they donCt, your best )riends suddenly turn into your *orst enemiesE trees and rocks turn into %iant baseball bats that *ill break your bones ?'i%ure ":1"@+ ?See the H-onseAuencesH section in this chapter+@ -a&eat5 1n continental climates, or in any depth hoar sno*pack, )aceted sno* commonly )orms around rocks because they conduct the %round heat to the sur)ace &ery e))iciently and because sno* tends to thin around a rock ?thin sno* means *eak sno*@+ Because o) this, itCs common to tri%%er a&alanches *hile crossin% near rocks or other shallo* sno*pack areas+ There)ore, in continental climates, donCt think o) rocks as islands o) sa)ety or anchorsE they can be tri%%er points ?'i%ure ":1#@+ ?See -hapter ; )or more details on this+@ 'i%ure ":1"+ A&alanche paths that terminate in thick trees are &ery dan%erous+ 'i%ure ":1#+ .epth hoar tends to %ro* around rocks+ Slo#e As#ect with )es#ect to the Sun The direction a slope )aces *ith respect to the sun ?aspect@ has a pro)ound in)luence on the sno*pack+ .e&elopin% an appreciation )or the importance o) aspect o)ten takes se&eral years o) eBperience in a&alanche terrain+ Fou mi%ht not kno* your north, south, east, and *est, but you had better learn, because someone *ho doesnCt kno* the aspect o) the slope they are standin% on has missed one o) the most important pieces o) the a&alanche pu88le+ Buy a compass+ 3se it o)ten and *ork on de&elopin% a constant a*areness )or slope aspect+ The in)luence o) aspect *ith respect to the sun is most important at mid:latitudes, say, )rom about "0 de%rees to around ;; de%rees=)rom about the southern 3+S+ border to about the northern British -olumbia border+ At eAuatorial latitudes, the sun %oes almost strai%ht o&erhead, shinin% more eAually on all slopes+ At arctic latitudes, in the *inter, the sun is too lo* on the hori8on to pro&ide much heat, but in )all and sprin%, aspects are nearly as important in arctic latitudes as temperate latitudes ?'i%ure ":1;@+ -onsider the )ollo*in% points *ith re%ard to slope aspect *ith respect to the sun at mid: latitudes in the (orthern 6emisphere5 K (orth:)acin% slopes recei&e &ery little heat )rom the sun in mid*inter+ -on&ersely, south: )acin% slopes recei&e much more heat+ There)ore, a north:)acin% slope *ill usually de&elop a dramatically di))erent sno*pack than a south:)acin% slope+ K 0ast:)acin% slopes catch sun only in the mornin% *hen temperatures are colderE *est:)acin% slopes catch the sun in the *arm a)ternoon+ -onseAuently, east:)acin% slopes are colder than *est: )acin% slopes ?'i%ure ":1>@+ K A cold sno*pack tends to de&elop more persistent *eak layers than a *arm sno*pack as lon% as itCs not too cold ?see belo*@+ A cold sno*pack commonly de&elops notoriously )ra%ile *eak layers, such as )acets and sur)ace hoar+ ?See -hapter ; )or more details+@ /ar%ely because o) this, the lionCs share o) a&alanche accidents occur on north: and east:)acin% slopes, partly because that is *here *e )ind the best sno* and conseAuently people tend to tri%%er more a&alanches there, but mostly because those slopes eBhibit more persistent *eak layers ?'i%ure ":12@+

K 1n *et sno* conditions due to stron% sun, itCs 4ust the opposite o) a dry sno*pack5 south: and *est:)acin% slopes usually produce more *et a&alanches than the more shady slopes=at least at the be%innin% o) a *et slide a&alanche cycle in sprin%+ The north:)acin% slopes are less dan%erous ?see -hapter > )or more details@+ K .urin% prolon%ed cloudy or stormy conditions *hen the sun seldom shines on the sno*, little di))erence eBists bet*een sunny and shady slopes+ p021 $ Bruce Tremper 'i%ure ":1;+ Aspect is not &ery important abo&e about ;; N ( because the sun is too *eak in *inter, but aspect becomes more important in sprin% and )all+ 'i%ure ":1>+ 0ast:)acin% slopes are colder than *est:)acin% slopes+ K 6ereCs a tricky one5 When itCs too cold, the situation is o)ten re&ersed+ .urin% arctic outbreaks o) &ery cold air, or in &ery cold climates, itCs sometimes so cold on north:)acin% slopes that the a&alanches are in a deep )ree8e and nothin% much happens+ In south:)acin% slopes, itCs *arm enou%h to produce persistent *eak layers and thin sun crusts+ -onseAuently, mid*inter instabilities occur more on sunny aspects than on shady ones ?'i%ure ":1!@+ ?See -hapter ; )or more details+@ Demember that in the Southern 6emisphere the situation is 4ust the opposite+ South:)acin% slopes are colder than north:)acin% ones+ 'i%ure ":1!+ 1n &ery cold climates or durin% arctic outbreaks *ith temperatures less than about :20 N -, )aceted sno* %ro*s better on sunny slopes because shady ones are 4ust too cold+ Seemin%ly subtle di))erences in slope aspect can ha&e a hu%e e))ect on the stability o) the sno*+ 1 canCt count the number o) accidents 1 ha&e in&esti%ated in *hich people start skiin% or sno*mobilin% in a bo*l on a sa)e aspect, but as they use up the sno*, they not only %ain con)idence but also tend to slo*ly *ork their *ay around the bo*l onto the pro%ressi&ely more dan%erous aspects, until someone )inally tri%%ers an a&alanche+ Win' What direction the slope )aces *ith respect to the *ind is a hu%e )actor+ This takes many people by surprise, but i%nore *ind at your o*n peril+ 6uman bein%s are bi%, hea&y creatures and, most o) the time, *ind doesnCt a))ect our li&es &ery much+ But ima%ine yoursel) as a bird, *here *ind is your entire *orld+ Then ima%ine yoursel) as somethin% e&en smaller and li%hter=like a )eather or, ho* about ne* )allen sno*G Wind to a delicate sno*)lake is like the ocean current to plankton+ Why is *ind importantG As *e ha&e learned, loadin% ?added *ei%ht@ causes most a&alanches and the )astest *ay to load a slope is by *ind+ Wind erodes )rom the up*ind side o) an obstacle, such as a rid%e, and it deposits on the do*n*ind side+ Wind can deposit sno* ten times more rapidly than sno* )allin% )rom the sky ?'i%ure ":1 @+ Wind deposits sno* most commonly on the lee*ard side o) upper ele&ation prominent terrain )eatures, such as rid%es, peaks, and passes+ We call this Htop loadin%+H Wind can also blo* across a slope, *hich *e call Hcross loadin%,H and *ind can e&en cause loadin% *hen it blo*s do*n a slope ?'i%ure ":20@+ Demember that *ind can blo* )rom any direction and thus deposit sno* on most any slope+ ?See -hapter # )or *eather )actors that a))ect *ind slab de&elopment+@ Wind slabs are dan%erous because o) the )ollo*in% reasons5 K As the *ind bounces eroded sno* across the sno* sur)ace, it %rinds up the sno* into small, dense particles+ When they come to a rest on the lee o) an obstacle=*here the *ind slo*s do*n=they pack into a hea&y, dense layer that can o&erload any buried *eak layer+ P022 'i%ure ":1 + Typical *ind:loadin% patterns K When stron% *ind starts to blo*, *ithin minutes, *ind can turn nice )lu))y po*der into a dan%erous *ind slab+ Sa)e conditions that Auickly turn into dan%erous conditions take people by surprise+ K Wind slabs can )orm in eBtremely locali8ed areas+ I)ten only a )e* inches separates sa)e sno* )rom dan%erous sno*+ We o)ten hear people say, H1 *as 4ust *alkin% alon% and suddenly the sno* chan%ed+ 1t started crackin% under my )eet, and then the *hole slope let loose+ 'i%ure ":20+ -ross loadin% and top loadin% How to )eco*ni&e Win' Slabs /ucky )or us, *ind creates easy:to:read teBtures on the sno* sur)ace and characteristically shaped deposits+ (o one should %o into a&alanche terrain *ithout )irst learnin% ho* to read these ob&ious si%ns+ An old a&alanche hunterCs ada%e5 i) you ha&e de&eloped a %ood eye )or slope steepness and the e))ects o) *ind, you can a&oid about 0 percent o) all a&alanches+ P02" -ross:loaded %ullies and nBait *ind slab a&alanches on Mount WikoB, Athabasca Puss+

0roded sno* is usually sa)e, and recently *ind deposited sno* is almost al*ays dan%erous+ I)ten 4ust a )e* inches separates &ery sa)e sno* )rom &ery dan%erous sno*+ $ Brad White<Alpenstock Ero'e' Snow Su--ary Also calle'@ HSastru%i+H 1ooks like@ 6as a sandblasted, scoured, scalloped, rou%hed:up look .eels like@ I)ten hard sno* and di))icult to ne%otiate on skis, sno*board or sno*mobile+ What it -eans@ Wei%ht ?sno*@ has been remo&ed )rom sno*pack and it usually means that the sno* has become more stable than be)ore+ /e#osite' Snow 9Win' Slabs: Su--ary Also calle'@ Pillo*s, *ind slabs, sno* transport+ 1ooks like@ Smooth and rounded, lens:shaped, pillo*:shaped, chalky *hite color ?'i%ure ": 21@+ .eels like@ HSlabby,H i+e+, harder sno* on top o) so)ter sno*+ Soun's like@ I)ten hollo* like a drum=the more drumlike, the more dan%erous+ Often notice@ K -racks shootin% a*ay )rom you=the lon%er the crack, the more dan%erous+ K 'allin% throu%h a harder sur)ace layer into so)ter sno* belo*+ Fou can easily )eel this *ith a ski pole or a sno*mobile track punchin% throu%h+ K -an be di))icult trail breakin%+ Keep )allin% throu%h the slab+ Har'ness@ -an ran%e )rom &ery so)t to so hard that you can hardly kick a boot into it+ What it -eans@ Wei%ht has been added to the sno*pack+ 1) the *ei%ht has been added recently, and itCs on a steep slope *ithout anchors, then it almost al*ays means dan%er+ What you shoul' 'o when you fin' a win' slab on a stee# slo#e@ K Stop immediatelyJ .onCt %o any )artherJ K Back o)) to a sa)e spot and di% do*n to in&esti%ate ho* *ell the slab is bonded to the underlyin% sno* ?see -hapter >@+ K 9ump on a )e* sa)e, test slopes to see ho* the sno* responds+ K 1) the slab breaks a*ay easily on your tests, donCt cross lar%er slopes+ -o back the *ay you came or )ind another route that a&oids *ind slabs+ K 1) you absolutely ha&e to cross the slope ?and 1 can think o) damned )e* reasons *hy you ha&e to cross a dan%erous slope *ithout del&in% into B:mo&ie plot de&ices@, stay on the eBtreme upper ed%e o) the *ind slab, *ear a belay rope tied to a solid anchor, and hope the cro*n )racture breaks at your )eet instead o) abo&e you+ Slo#e Sha#e 9Confi*uration: Whether a slope is conca&e, con&eB, or planar makes some di))erence in a&a lanche dan%er, althou%h usually not a si%ni)icant di))erence+ A&alanches happen on any steep slope *ithout thick anchors despite the shape o) the slope+ Slope shape makes more di))erence on smaller slopes than on lar%er ones+ Concave Slo#es 9Bowl;sha#e': A In small conca&e slopes, o)ten there is enou%h compressi&e support )rom the bottom to pre&ent hard slabs )rom releasin%, but on medium to lar%e slopes, compressi&e support plays &ery little role ?'i%ure ":22@+ A -onca&e slopes o)ten accumulate *ind:deposited sno*+ Conve< Slo#es 9Basketball;sha#e': -on&eB slopes statistically produce more a&alanches and more a&alanche accidents than other kinds o) slopes, partly because they are inherently less stable and, 4 think, mostly because they present more sa)e tra&el problems than other slopes ?'i%ure ":2"@+ 'i%ure ":21+ The smooth Hrounded pillo*H o) a *ind slab 'i%ure ":22+ -onca&e slope 'i%ure ":2"+ -on&eB slope K -on&eB slopes ha&e less compressi&e support at the bottom than other slopes, *hich makes a di))erence )or small a&alanche paths, makes some di))erence on medium:si8ed a&alanche paths, but has little e))ect on lar%e a&alanche paths+ K -on&eB slopes are tricky to descend because each step or turn you take adds another de%ree o) steepness until suddenly you )ind yoursel) on terrain thatCs too steep+ Fou can also use this characteristic to your ad&anta%e+ With a so)t slab, i) you descend slo*ly, especially 4umpin% on the

sno* or slope:cuttin% *hile you descend, the a&alanches tend to break at your )eet instead o) abo&e you more so than on planer or conca&e slopes+ ?Demember that hard slabs tend to break abo&e you+@ K -on&eB slopes are di))icult to assess because the conditions you )ind on the upper )lat part o) the slope o)ten are much di))erent than on the steepest part o) the slope *here you *ill most likely tri%%er an a&alanche+ 'or instance, 4 ha&e heard o) se&eral cases in *hich someone di%s a sno* pro)ile or does a slope cut on the upper section, pronounces the slope sa)e, and then tri%%ers an a&alanche on the steeper part belo*+ K Sno* conditions o)ten chan%e %radually on con&eB slopes+ By the time you reali8e it has become too dicey, itCs o)ten too late+ K -on&eB slopes are di))icult to eBit *hile descendin% i) you start to )ind dan%erous conditions+ Fou ha&e to climb back up+ Too many people, it seems, *ould rather risk their li)e by descendin% than climbin% back up+ K Probably the most dan%erous shapes are double con&eBities=con&eB &ertically and hori8ontally=like droppin% o)) the ed%e o) a basketball+ These slopes tend to *ind load both )rom the top and )rom the side, ha&e no compressi&e support, and are di))icult to descend, ascend, or cross sa)ely+ 1) youCre lucky, the *ind *ill erode one side o) the slope and load the other side, allo*in% you to choose the sa)er, eroded side+ ConseCuences What *ill happen i) the slope slidesG -onseAuences can ran%e )rom &ery sa)e to absolutely unsur&i&able+ A&alanche Paths *ith 7ery .an%erous or 3nsur&i&able -onseAuences K A&alanche paths o) nearly any si8e that terminate in trees, brush, a lar%e cli)), or an ice)all ?'i%ure ":2#@+ K Terrain traps, such as a %ully or an a&alanche path that suddenly )lattens out at the bottom+ 0&en a small slide o)) the side o) one o) these paths *ill bury someone &ery deeply, and deep burials ha&e almost no chance o) sur&i&al+ Sno*boarders=remember %ullies are not hal):pipes, they are terrain traps that can kill in the *ron% conditions+ K 'unnel:shaped a&alanche paths that terminate in a %ully because e&en small a&alanches *ill bury a &ictim &ery deeply+ K 7ery lar%e a&alanche paths+ 1tCs di))icult to sur&i&e a 1000:&ertical:meter ?"2!0:)oot@ ride in an a&alanche path+ P02# Terrain traps such as %ullies are &ery dan%erous because e&en small slides can bury a &ictim &ery deeply+ ?7ail Pass, -olorado@ $ Bruce Tremper 'i%ure ":2#+ .i))erent types o) terrain *ith bad conseAuences Terrain Su--ary .an%erous a&alanche terrain5 K 1s bet*een "0 and ;0 de%rees="; to #; de%rees is prime time K 1s lee*ard or cross:loaded K 6as )e* anchors K 6as bad conseAuences Sa)er a&alanche terrain5 K 1s either %entle ?0 to 2; de%rees@ or &ery steep ?;; to 0 de%rees@ K 1s *ind*ard K 6as thick anchors K 6as less dan%erous conseAuences 'i%ure ":2;+ The Hterrain:o:meterH illustrates the spectrum o) types o) terrain bet*een &ery sa)e and &ery dan%erous+

CHA8TE) !> WEATHE)

Fou donCt need a *eatherman to kno* *hich *ay the *ind blo*s+ =Bob .ylan Ib&iously, *eather plays a critical role in the a&alanche business+ Weather creates the sno*pack, *eather chan%es the sno*pack, and *eather can o&erload the sno*pack+ Weather is the mother o) a&alanches, and one o) the )irst lessons *e learn in li)e is that *hen Mama ainCt happy, ainCt nobody happy+ Weather is so important that pro)essional a&alanche )orecasters keep a detailed, up:to:date %raph o) their local *eather either pinned to the *all or 4ust a mouse click a*ay on their computer screens+ They labor o&er *eather record:keepin% on a daily basis, and durin% storms they keep a close eye on up:to:the:minute %raphs )rom their automated *eather stations+ P 02; 1t *as a dark and stormy mornin%+ Weather is the architect o) all a&alanches+ ?Wasatch Dan%e, 3tah@ $ Bruce Tremper ,ood a&alanche )orecasters can look at a seasonal history chart and then dra* a detailed sno* pro)ile )rom it+ They can also do the process in re&erse+ 6o*e&er, this kind o) eBpertise comes )rom years o) *atchin% the *eather and *atchin% *hat e))ect the *eather has on the sno*pack, day in and day out+ 1) you %re* up in a sno*y climate, you probably already ha&e an intuiti&e )eel )or ho* the *eather a))ects the sno*pack, or at least the sno* sur)ace+ 6o* *eather a))ects the deeper layers in the sno* takes more study+ Weather is a bi% sub4ect and this is not a book about *eather+ So 1 *onCt talk &ery much about ho* *eather *orks or ho* to )orecast *eather+ ?See the biblio%raphy )or su%%ested *eather books+@ This chapter )ocuses instead on ho* *eather *orks in the mountains and ho* *eather a))ects the sno*pack and sno* stability+ Te-#erature an' Elevation The hi%her you %o, the colder the temperature is ?*ith the eBception o) temperature in&ersions =see belo*@+ This is because the sun *arms the %round, *hich in turn *arms the air, *hich means that air is *armed )rom the bottom, not )rom the top, like the *ay a pan o) *ater is *armed+ Air also cools as it eBpands, *hich is called HadiabaticH coolin%+ 1n other *ords, *hen *ind pushes the hi%h:pressure air near the %round up the mountainside, it cools, and by the time the air reaches the mountaintop, it *ill be much cooler than *hen it started out+ To understand adiabatic coolin%, try this eBperiment5 /et some air out o) a bicycle tire+ Fou can )eel that the escapin% air has cooled because it has suddenly lost pressure+ Fou can use a sensiti&e thermometer to test this theory+ To try the eBperiment in the other direction, pump up the bicycle tire and notice that the pump %ets hot+ The muscle po*er you put into pushin% the pump handle compresses the air molecules to%ether, %i&es them ener%y, and *arms them up+ 7ery interestin%, but *hat does this ha&e to do *ith a&alanchesG Adiabatic coolin% is the main cause o) somethin% dear to our hearts=precipitation+ Disin% air eBpands, and *hen it eBpands, it cools+ When air cools, it causes the *ater &apor in the air to precipitate, thus the miracle o) sno* and rain+ Without it, none o) us *ould e&en be here+ 6o* )ast does air cool *ith ele&ationG As you %o up in ele&ation, the air usually %ets colder bet*een > to 10 de%rees -elsius per 1000 &ertical meters ?" to ; de%rees 'ahrenheit per 1000 &ertical )eet@+ 6o* )ast it %ets colder as you %o up depends on the layerin% o) the atmosphere at the time ?'i%ure #:1@+ Te-#erature 4nversions (o* that 1C&e told you that air %ets colder the hi%her you %o, let me tell you about *hen it doesnCt+ HTemperature in&ersionsH occur *hen, as the name implies, cold air lies underneath *arm air+ -old air is denser than *arm air, so it tends to sink and pool in &alleys+ This actually happens Auite o)ten in the mountains durin% calm, clear conditions+ Sno* is a &ery e))icient radiator o) heat, and on clear ni%hts, it radiates most o) its heat a*ay into space and %ets &ery cold+ ?See the HDadiation and Sno* TemperatureH section later in this chapter+@ Thus, the cold air sinks into the &alleys+ Temperature in&ersions also occur durin% a *arm )ront *hen *arm air Ho&errunsH cold air+ 1n other *ords, *hen *arm air pushes in at hi%her ele&ations, it rides up o&er the denser, colder air, thus trappin% it in the &alleys+ 'i%ure #:1+ As air is pushed up a -ountain by *ind, it eBpands and cools, thus precipitates+

'i%ure #:2+ Temperature in&ersion+ .urin% calm conditions *ith a clear sky, o)ten a temperature in&ersion de&elops *ith cold air trapped under a cap o) *arm air+ Fou can usually reco%ni8e in&ersions because in many populated mountain &alleys the dreaded *inter smo% ?or )o% i) youCre lucky@ sets in *ith e&ery temperature in&ersion+ When you scrape )rost o)) your *indshield in the mornin%, thereCs o)ten a temperature in&ersion %oin% on as *ell ?'i%ure #:2@+ Temperature in&ersions are important to a&alanche hunters )or the )ollo*in% reasons5 K Temperature in&ersions tend to )orm sur)ace hoar on the sno* sur)ace, *hich as we kno*, is a notoriously dan%erous and persistent *eak layer+ K Temperature in&ersions tend to create more )aceted sno* at lo*er ele&ations than upper ele&ations+ This is a double *hammy since the sno*pack is usually shallo*er at lo*er ele&ations any*ay+ ?Demember that shallo* sno* combined *ith cold temperatures means hi%h temperature %radients, *hich means *eak sno*+@ p02> Temperature in&ersions create sur)ace hoar, a particularly nasty *eak layer *hen buried+ ?Wasatch Dan%e, 3tah@ $ Bruce Tremper K Temperature in&ersions cause )ree8in% rain+ When rain )alls )rom the *armer air abo&e into sub)ree8in% air belo*, the rain instantly )ree8es on contact *ith the cold %round sur)ace+ This can dramatically *arm the cold sno* belo* the in&ersion layer, *hich sometimes initiates a&alanches, not to mention that it can create a slippery bed sur)ace )or )uture a&alanches+ K Temperature in&ersions that suddenly dissipate can cause the sno* sur)ace to *arm rapidly+ This can make dry sno* less stable or increase meltin% or initiate meltin% o) *et sno*+ K Temperature in&ersions can )ool you+ 'or eBample, letCs say itCs sprin% *ith a clear sky o&erni%ht *ith no *ind ?*ith clear, calm conditions you should al*ays assume thereCs a temperature in&ersion@+ Fou start out in the mornin% )rom the &alley *here the sno* is supportable and *ell re)ro8en+ As you %ain ele&ation and %et abo&e the in&ersion layer, you %et into sno* that did not re)ree8e o&erni%ht, and youCre suddenly tri%%erin% *et a&alanches+ Fou think, HWo*J This sno* sure *armed up Auickly today+H But no+ The sno* didnCt suddenly *arm up, you tra&eled into *armer sno* =by %oin% up= 4ust the opposite o) *hat youCre used to+ Win' an' 3ountains 8revailin* Win's Almost e&ery part o) the *orld has a Hpre&ailin%H *ind, meanin% the direction the *ind usually blo*s+ 'or instance in the continental 3nited States, -anada, 0urope, and e&ery other place at mid:latitudes, pre&ailin% *inds blo* )rom the *est, since %lobal circulation at that latitude comes )rom the *est+ Bet*een the latitude o) about 1; de%rees to about "0 de%rees the pre&ailin% *inds blo* )rom the east ?trade *inds@+ P022 This cornice *as unintentionally tri%%ered by the person *ho made the tracks sho*n at the lo*er ri%ht+ (e&er *alk up to the ed%e o) a drop:o))+ $ 9ohn Kelly Fou can usually tell the direction o) pre&ailin% *inds by lookin% at the rid%elines+ The pre&ailin% *inds tend to erode sno* )rom the *ind*ard side o) the rid%e and cornices )orm on the lee side+ A)ter a season o) pre&ailin% *inds, the sno* can become &ery deep on the lee side o) a rid%e+ /raina*e Win's .raina%e *inds, or HkatabaticH *inds, are *inds that blo* do*n a &alley+ When clear skies cause the sno* sur)ace to cool, the air cools abo&e it, makin% it denser than the *arm air abo&e, and it drains out o) the mountain &alleys like a ri&er o) air+ This happens especially on clear, calm ni%hts and the *inds o)ten blo* stron%er and stron%er until they reach their maBimum in the mornin%+ 0specially in lar%e, %lacial &alleys, these draina%e *inds can cause si%ni)icant sno* transport ?'i%ure #:"@+ 5#slo#e Win's 3pslope *inds are the opposite o) draina%e *inds=they blo* uphill or up canyon+ When the sun *arms the mountains, it *arms the air, *hich rises up the slopes makin% upslope *inds+ Air is also sucked up the draina%es+ 3pslope *inds are usually stron%est in the a)ternoon on clear days+ 'i%ure #:"+ Katabatic *inds and upslope *inds Channelin* of Win's When *ind encounters mountains, the *ind is o)ten channeled either up or do*n the local mountain &alleys ?'i%ure #:#@+ Because o) channelin%, *inds in mountain &alleys seldom blo* the same direction as the *inds on the peaks+ HOT T48B

Fou donCt need a *eatherman to kno* *hich *ay the *ind blo*s+ 1n the mountains, the direction in *hich the *ind blo*s in the mountain &alleys is seldom the same as that on the rid%e tops+ 6o* do you tell the rid%e:top *ind directionG /ook at the clouds near the rid%es+ Demember that clouds at di))erent ele&ations *ill mo&e in di))erent directions, so pick clouds near the rid%e tops+ With no clouds, you can sometimes see the plumes o) sno* blo*in% o)) the rid%es+ A&alanche %eeks are constantly *atchin% rid%e:top clouds and sno* plumes and takin% a lot o) teasin% )rom their )riends= until itCs time to choose a route+ 6aJ De&en%e o) the nerds a%ain+ 1oa'in* 8atterns fro- Win' Storms rarely deposit sno* uni)ormly o&er a mountain ran%e+ Fou need to kno* the common loadin% patterns that occur in the mountains, and you also need to reco%ni8e unusual loadin% patterns produced by unusual storms because, a)ter all, unusual *eather makes unusual a&alanches+ 6ere are some o) the common patterns+ 1oa'in* an' Elevation More sno* usually )alls at hi%h ele&ations than at lo* ele&ations+ As air rises, it eBpandsE as air eBpands, it coolsE and *hen air cools, it precipitates+ Thus, Horo%raphic li)tin%H=air risin% to %et o&er a mountain=is the main mechanism responsible )or more sno* )allin% at hi%h ele&ations than lo* ele&ations+ -a&eat5 See the H/oadin% Patterns in Bi% MountainsH section+ 1oa'in* an' Win' /irection 'i%ure #:#+ Winds in mountain &alleys seldom blo* the same direction as *inds alon% the peaks+ 6ereCs another tricky situation+ 6o* much sno* that )alls on a mountain depends on scale+ In a lar%e scale, more sno* )alls on the *ind*ard ?up*ind@ sides o) mountain ran%es than the lee ?do*n*ind@ side+ As air rises up the *ind*ard side o) a mountain ran%e, it cools and condenses its moisture into sno*+ When the air passes o&er the crest and be%ins its descent, it *arms, thus endin% sno*)all+ The *ind*ard side o) a lar%e mountain ran%e typically has t*ice as much sno* as the lee side, or more ?'i%ure #:;@+ In a smaller scale, ho*e&er, such as near the rid%es o) that same mountain ran%e, itCs a di))erent story+ (ear the rid%es, as *e kno*, *ind erodes sno* )rom *ind*ard slopes and dri)ts that sno* onto lee slopes, )ormin% cornices alon% the rid%eline and *ind pillo*s in the )irst hundred &ertical meters o) the summit+ Also, especially *ith stron% *inds, oro%raphic li)tin% occurs so rapidly that by the time the sno*)lakes )orm and )all out o) the clouds, much o) the sno* ends up on the lee side o) the mountain crest+ 1n other *ords, the hea&iest loadin% durin% a storm *ith moderate *inds occurs in the )ollo*in% areas5 K In the up*ind side o) the mountain ran%e=more at hi%h ele&ation than lo* ele&ation and *ithin 1 km ?+; mile@ or so do*n*ind o) the rid%e crest+ K In a smaller scale, near the rid%e crest, *ind erodes sno* )rom the *ind*ard side and deposits deep dri)ts on the lee side+ Stor-s with 1ittle Win' Althou%h oro%raphic precipitation accounts )or most o) the di))erence bet*een upper ele&ation and lo*er ele&ation sno*, some storms come in *ith little *ind, and as such, donCt ha&e enou%h oomph to push the moisture up the mountainsides+ 1n storms like this, 4ust as much=i) not more=sno* )alls in the &alleys as in the mountains+ 'or instance, in 3tah *here 1 li&e, i) > inches o) sno* )all in Salt /ake -ity, most people eBpect se&eral )eet o) sno* in the mountains because the air has to rise o&er 2000 &ertical meters ?2000 &ertical )eet@ to %et o&er the mountains= *hich is a lot o) &ertical relie)+ But se&eral times each *inter, a bi% storm *ill arri&e *ith the center o) the lo* directly o&erhead, so thereCs no *ind to push the moisture up the mountains+ SiB inches in to*n+ FahooJ Fou head up to the mountains but thereCs only " inches+ What happenedG 'i%ure #:;+ In a lar%er scale, more sno* )alls on the up*ind sideE on a smaller scale, near the rid%e tops, more sno* )alls on the do*n*ind side+ P02! Wind usually increases *ith ele&ation+ 'rom the &alley ?top photo@, itCs ob&ious that itCs a scary day in the mountains+ Part*ay up ?middle photo@, itCs still not too *indy *here *e are+ In top ?bottom photo@ *e can barely stand up+ A %ood day to a&oid lee terrain *here *ind slabs are rapidly )ormin%+ ?/a Sal Mountains, 3tah@ $ Bruce Tremper

1oa'in* 8atterns in Bi* 3ountains 1n bi% mountains, especially mountains o&er #000 to ;000 meters ?1#,000 to 12,000 )eet@ or ones *ith more than about "000 meters ?10,000 &ertical )eet@ o) relie), the mountains are lar%e enou%h to block lo*:le&el moisture and shallo* cold )ronts+ Thus, more sno* )alls at lo*er ele&ations than at upper ele&ations+ 1n *inter, most o) the *eather eBists belo* #000 meters ?1#,000 )eet@ any*ay, so bi% mountains stick up abo&e the clouds and o)ten recei&e much less precipitation+ They %et most o) their precipitation in the summer *hen deeper, *armer layers o) moisture can rise to hi%her ele&ations ?'i%ure #:>@+ 6o*e&er, more sno* and ice accumulates at hi%her ele&ations, because the temperatures are cold enou%h that sno* seldom melts+ Weather .actors Affectin* Win' Slab /evelo#-ent Win' S#ee' Wind usually starts dri)tin% sno* at around 1; km<hr ?10 mph@ and most o) the real action happens bet*een about 2; to !0 km<hr ?1; to ;0 mph@+ Wind )aster than about !0 km<hr actually blo*s less sno* around because, at least in dry conditions, it tends to blo* the sno* into bi% plumes that 4et o)) the rid%e tops, and most o) the sno* e&aporates be)ore it e&er reaches the %round a%ain+ The sno* that does make it back to the %round tends to be not only )ar, )ar a*ay but also spread out more e&enly instead o) in discrete dri)ts+ So 4ust like slope steepness, itCs the intermediate &alues that cause the problems ?'i%ure #:2@+ 'i%ure #:>+ 1n bi% mountains, o)ten more sno* )alls belo* #000 meters than abo&e because most *eather eBists at lo*er ele&ations+ Pro)essional a&alanche )orecastin% operations maintain at least one anemometer ?a de&ice )or measurin% *ind speed@ and *ind &ane in a representati&e location+ They pay close attention to the a&era%e *ind speed and especially the speed o) the %usts, because once the easily transported sno* has been mo&ed, the %usts transport the rest o) it+ Win' /uration 'i%ure #:2+ Wind can transport li%ht, )lu))y sno* more easily than old, hard sno*+ Ten minutes o) *ind is a *hole di))erent story than 10 hours o) *ind+ More time eAuals more transport=but once a%ain, only up to a point+ Most o) the dama%e usually comes in the )irst couple hours o) the *indstorm+ Ince all the li%ht )lu))y sno* %ets blo*n around, then the *ind has to *ork harder to blo* the rest o) it+ Snow Ty#e Ib&iously, *ind can blo* around li%ht )lu))y sno* easier than dense, hea&y sno*+ 6o* easily the sno* blo*s around is called Hsno* a&ailable )or transportH by a&alanche pro)essionals+ 1n other *ords, i) a lot o) sno* is a&ailable )or transport ?li%ht )lu))y sno*@, then not much *ind speed is reAuired to blo* it around+ In the other hand, i) no sno* has )allen in se&eral days and the sno* is old and hard, then thereCs 4ust not much to blo* around+ 0&en a storm *ith lots o) hu)) and pu)) *onCt )orm many *ind slabs+ Hu-i'ity 6umid air )orms denser, sti))er *ind slabs than dry air and they tend to be more dan%erous because they *ei%h more and their sti))ness tends to propa%ate )ractures )arther+ 1ma%ine a pile o) dry, *indblo*n lea&es &ersus a pile o) damp, *indblo*n lea&es+ Most a&alanche pro)essionals pay close attention to humidity durin% *indstorms+ Also, humidity plays a critical role in ho* cold air becomes at ni%ht+ ?See the HWet Sno* A&alanchesH section in -hapter > and the H6umidity and MountainsH section in this chapter+@ Te-#erature an' New Snow Sno* that )alls at near )ree8in% temperatures can easily *ei%h three times as much as li%ht )lu))y sno* )allin% at cold temperatures+ A common mistake amon% a&alanche neophytes is to )ocus on the amount o) sno* instead o) the *ei%ht o) the sno*+ Most a&alanche pro)essionals communicate *ith each other in units o) *ater *ei%ht, )or eBample, HThis last )e* centimeters o) sno* brin%s us up to 1# centimeters o) *ater )or the storm+H 1 remember a storm in Montana that laid do*n sli%htly less than a meter ?" )eet@ o) sno* that contained only 2+; centimeters ?1 inch@ o) *ater=less than " percent *ater+ 1n other *ords, i) a barrel o) ne* sno* melted do*n, it *ould lea&e only a 2+;:centimeter ?1:inch@ puddle on the bottom+ 1t *as as insubstantial as a cloud o) smoke and e&en thou%h it *as a meter deep, my skis clattered o)) the old

icy sur)ace underneath+ Althou%h some lar%e slu))s occurred in the ne* sno* that day, the ne* sno* *as so li%ht that it had almost no e))ect on the preeBistin% sno*pack+ In the other side o) the coin, *e ha&e all su))ered throu%h storms *e *ould rather )or%et in *hich 2 centimeters ?" inches@ o) so%%y sno* contained 2+; centimeters ?1 inch@ o) *ater+ Fet both o) these eBamples *ei%h eBactly the same and eBert eBactly the same stress on buried *eak layers+ The moral o) the story is to pay attention to *ei%ht, not depth+ )i*ht Si'e 5# or 5#si'e /own7 The per)ect storm starts out as relati&ely hea&y, *et sno*, so it bonds *ell to the old sno*, then pro%ressi&ely turns colder, thus depositin% li%hter and li%hter sno*+ We call this Hri%ht:side:up sno*+H 1t bonds *ell to the old sno*, the ne* sno* doesnCt ha&e a slab, and i) there are no instabilities in the old sno*, e&erythin% is hunky:dory+ -on&eniently, most *inter storms are associated *ith cold )ronts, so they tend to produce ri%ht:side:up sno*+ Iccasionally, ho*e&er, *arm )ronts or occluded )ronts or stron% *inds )ollo*in% a sno*storm *ill produce Hupside:do*n sno*H=hea&y sno* on top *ith li%ht sno* on the bottom+ People o)ten describe upside:do*n sno* as bein% Hslabby+H Fou can )eel the sur)ace slab as you punch throu%h it into so)ter sno* underneath+ 1t usually makes horrible skiin% and boardin% and sno*mobiles %et stuck easily+ 3pside:do*n sno*, especially accompanied by *ind, commonly produces so)t slab a&alanches *ithin the ne* sno*, especially durin% the storm and in the )irst )e* hours a)ter the storm+ I)ten &ariations in temperature or *ind durin% a storm cause a correspondin% &ariation in the density and stren%th o) the ne* sno*+ 'or instance, a storm may be%in *ith dense, *et sno*, then colder temperatures *ill lay do*n li%ht, dry stellar )lakes, then *ind mi%ht blo*, or *armer air suddenly arri&es makin% a denser, stron%er slab on top+ We o)ten describe a&alanches in this kind o) sno* as Hso)t slabs runnin% on a density in&ersion *ithin the ne* sno*+H Hu-i'ity an' 3ountains 6umidity, or relati&e humidity, simply means the amount o) *ater &apor the air does hold compared to the amount o) *ater &apor the air can hold+ Think o) it this *ay+ 1) you can usually eat ten pancakes be)ore you )eel )ull and you eat only )i&e, you ha&e a relati&e pancake:idity o) ;0 percent+ When air rises to %et o&er a mountain ran%e, it cools, becomes more humid, and *hen it becomes saturated ?no thanks, 1 4ust couldnCt eat another pancake@, it )orms clouds+ 1) the clouds continue to rise and cool, precipitation occurs+ Because o) this, upper ele&ations tend to ha&e more humid air than lo*er ele&ations+ Sometimes the situation is 4ust the opposite, ho*e&er, *ith clear, calm conditions that create temperature in&ersions+ Then the colder, humid air tends to sink and pool in lo* areas, such as mountain &alleys or basins+ Also remember hi%h humidity causes sti))er slabs to )orm on the sno* sur)ace than lo* humidity+ )a'iation an' Snow Te-#erature Dadiation usually controls sno* sur)ace temperature much more than air temperature= somethin% that most people donCt reali8e+ 1) you *ant to understand sno* and a&alanches, you need to %et this concept )irmly do*n, so %rab a cup o) tea and letCs take a moment to di&e in under the hood and %et our hands dirty+ As 1 type this, the mornin% sun is streamin% in my *indo* and the heat radiated by the sun has heated up the )loor under my chair and it )eels nice and toasty on my bare )eet+ .ark ob4ects, like the le%s o) my chair, absorb heat more than li%ht ob4ects, like the *hite stacks o) paper on the )loor ?the chapters o) this book, in this case@+ 1) 1 pull the shade, the heat )rom the )loor then radiates out*ard in all directions and the )loor slo*ly cools do*n a%ain+ Ib4ects that absorb heat e))iciently also tend to radiate heat 4ust as e))iciently+ (o* hereCs the tricky part+ The ener%y that reaches the 0arth )rom the sun is composed o) di))erent *a&elen%ths+ 'irst, thereCs &isible li%ht and ultra&iolet radiation, *hich scientists call short: *a&e radiation, and second, there is heat, *hich *e call lon%:*a&e radiation+ 0&en thou%h sno* is *hite=meanin% that it re)lects most &isible li%ht=*hen it comes to the heat part o) the spectrum ?lon%*a&e radiation@, sno* is a nearly per)ect Hblack body radiator,H as physicists describe it+ This means that it absorbs almost all the radiant heat that reaches it and like*ise, it &ery e))iciently reradiates any heat it contains+ 1n other *ords, i) you shine a )lashli%ht on the sno*, it re)lects most o) the ener%y, yet i) you shine a heat lamp on the sno*, it absorbs the ener%y and *arms up Auickly+ When you turn the lamp o)), the sno* cools do*n 4ust as Auickly by radiatin% its heat a*ay+ Since it is such an e))icient heat radiator, the sur)ace o) the sno* can easily be se&eral de%rees colder than the air abo&e ?'i%ure #:!@+

Try this eBperiment5 'ind a shady spot on a clear day *here the sno* sur)ace is eBposed to the clear sky+ /ay your thermometer on top o) the sno* sur)ace ?in the shade, remember@, *ait a minute )or it to ad4ust, and read the temperature+ Then measure the air temperature in the shade ?remember to %i&e the thermometer a minute to ad4ust@+ The sno* sur)ace temperature *ill almost al*ays be se&eral de%rees colder than the air temperature+ At ni%ht o)ten an e&en %reater di))erence in temperature eBists =e&en by as much as 10 de%rees -elsius+ As *e *ill see in -hapter ;, this process accounts )or many o) the nastiest *eak layers in the sno*pack+ Clou' Cover an' )a'iation 1tCs ob&ious enou%h that clouds can pre&ent much o) the radiation )rom the sun )rom reachin% the sno* sur)ace, but much less ob&ious ho* clouds block and trap radiation )rom %oin% in the other direction=)rom the sno* sur)ace to the sky+ When the sno* radiates its heat to*ard the sky, clouds can capture that same radiation and reradiate it back to the %round a%ain, *hich *e call a %reenhouse e))ect ?'i%ure #: @+ 1n other *ords, *e can think o) clouds like %iant heat lamps in the sky+ The sno* sur)ace can become much colder *ithout clouds o&erhead than *ith clouds+ 'i%ure #:!+ Dadiation and sno* temperature 'i%ure #: + Thin )o% can create a %reenhouse e))ect by trappin% out%oin% radiation+ 'i%ure #:10+ -louds trap and reradiate out%oin% radiation, actin% like %iant heat lamps in the sky+ .urin% the day, the %reenhouse e))ect *arms the sno* sur)ace most dramatically *hen the clouds are thin enou%h to allo* some solar radiation to %et throu%h but thick enou%h to capture some o) the out%oin% radiation as *ell+ This commonly happens *ith thin, *ispy clouds, such as cirrus, or *ith a thin layer o) )o% or lo* clouds+ 'or instance, you may be en4oyin% %reat, cold po*der on a clear day and then *hen )o% or thin hi%h clouds appear, suddenly the po*der turns to somethin% resemblin% mashed potatoes+ 3sually the air temperature didnCt chan%e &ery much, 4ust the radiation balance+ At ni%ht, any kind o) cloud co&er can capture and reradiate the out%oin% radiation+ Thus, the sno* sur)ace usually stays much *armer on cloudy ni%hts than on clear ni%hts ?'i%ure #:10@+ How to 2ra#h Weather Pro)essional a&alanche )orecastin% operations keep either hand:dra*n or computer:%enerated *eather charts on the *all so that *orkers can keep up:to:date on *eather trends+ Most a&alanche pro)essionals )eel out o) touch *ith the sno*pack and *eather a)ter only a couple days o)), especially i) they *ere a*ay )rom the mountains+ A %lance at the *eather chart can catch them up ?'i%ure #:11@+ 'i%ure #:11+ An eBample o) a hand:dra*n seasonal *eather chart+ This one *as dra*n by Tom Kimbrou%h o) the 3tah A&alanche -enter+ Weather charts usually contain the )ollo*in% parameters5 K (e* sno* amount K (e* sno* density ?or *ater eAui&alent@ K Total sno* K Temperature ?maBimum and minimum@ K Wind speed K Wind direction K A&alanche acti&ity K -loud co&er 1 kno* many pro)essional )orecasters *ho dili%ently maintain their o*n notebook *ith a seasonal history chart, sno* pro)iles ?see -hapter ;@, and copies o) )ield notes+ The a&era%e *eekend *arrior probably doesnCt need to keep a chart at home, but 1 kno* se&eral *ho do+ I)tentimes, %ettin% on the 1nternet on 'riday and lookin% at a time pro)ile o) se&eral local automated stations %i&es you the speci)ic in)ormation you need+ ?-onsult ***+a&alanche+or% )or links+@ 6o*e&er, i) you recreate in a remote area *ithout an a&alanche )orecast center or e&en any automated mountain *eather stations, then keepin% a little *eather station in your backyard and chartin% your o*n *eather is a %ood idea+ By dili%ently )ollo*in% the *eather e&ery day, and then comparin% it *ith chan%es in the sno*pack and sno* stability, e&en a)ter one season, you can %et a &ery %ood )eel )or ho* *eather a))ects the sno*pack+ How to .orecast Weather 'or the past 1> years, part o) my 4ob has been )orecastin% mountain *eather+ 1 can personally attest that )orecastin% *eather is a di))icult proposition and )orecastin% mountain *eather is doubly so+ 0&en *hen 1 ha&e all the latest computer models and satellite and radar ima%es in )ront o) me, 1Cm %enerally ri%ht about )our out o) )i&e times and speci)ically ri%ht only about hal) the time+ When 1 donCt

ha&e all the technolo%y in )ront o) me=*hen 1Cm out in the mountains *ithout e&en my trusty (ational Iceanic and Atmospheric Association ?(IAA@ *eather radio=and 1Cm in an un)amiliar area, 1 )eel like 1Cm doin% pretty *ell i) 1Cm ri%ht hal) the time=only about the same as )lippin% a coin+ 1n other *ords, *ithout technolo%y, 1 suck+ The moral o) the story is5 3se technolo%y+ 1t *orks+ 'irst, i) you donCt o*n a (IAA *eather radio, run, donCt *alk, to the local electronics store and buy one+ The (ational Weather Ser&ice maintains a net*ork o) lo*:po*er radios throu%hout the 3nited States that broadcast a continuous loop o) *eather in)ormation+ 9ust turn on the radio and ; minutes later you ha&e a pretty complete picture o) the %eneral *eather setup+ The bad ne*s is that, especially in the Docky Mountain states, *here at least in my opinion, *eather seems to ha&e a more pro)ound in)luence on peopleCs li&es, the transmitters are )rustratin%ly )e* and )ar bet*een+ Sometimes you ha&e to be on a mountaintop to pick up anythin%, and in the bottom o) a mountain &alley or a canyon you can pretty much )or%et about it+ Ither tools o) choice include the plethora o) ne*er technolo%ies such as a cell phone, a personal di%ital assistant *ith a modem, a laptop *ith a modem, a t*o:*ay radio, or the old, reliable ham radio+ When all else )ails, tune in your little AM<'M radio and listen to the local stations+ The bi% disad&anta%e, o) course, is that you ha&e to listen to the top #0 and )urniture store ads )or an hour be)ore you %et a *oe)ully brie) )orecast, but itCs better than nothin%+ Demember that )orecasts are al*ays )or the &alleys unless stated other*ise and mountains almost al*ays ha&e *orse *eather than &alleys+ A "0 percent chance o) rain in the &alleys o)ten means a 100 percent chance o) sno* in the mountains+ Also remember that at ni%ht, AM radio *a&es can bounce o)) the ionosphere and tra&el lon% distances+ Fou may )ind that your *eather )orecast is )rom east TeBas+ 'M )reAuencies donCt tra&el as )ar, but in remote areas you may not be able to %et 'M stations and *ill ha&e to take your chances *ith AM+ 1) you do ha&e access to technolo%y such as tele&ision and especially the 1nternet, an astoundin%ly hu%e &ariety o) hi%h:Auality *eather in)ormation is a&ailable+ Many a&alanche pro)essionals are also Weather -hannel 4unkies and they ha&e bookmarked all their )a&orite *eather sites on the 1nternet+ The in)ormation on the 1nternet chan%es so rapidly that itCs not *orth discussin% here, but you can &isit ***+a&alanche+or% )or links to the best sites and directions on ho* to use them+

CHA8TE) "> SNOW8AC0

.ra%ons li&e under the hills+ Address them properly and theyCll tell you all they kno*+ Ask them the *ron% Auestions and theyCll burn you up+ ='redric /ehrman + )a# on 3eta-or#his1n this chapter, *e learn, as .ou% 'esler likes to say, *hat kind o) Ha&alanche dra%onH *eCre dealin% *ith, ho* it )orms, ho* it beha&es, and ho* to deal *ith it+ Why do *e need to kno*G Well, 1Cll sheepishly admit here that *e really donCt need to kno* about all the subtleties o) crystal identi)ication and metamorphism+ 1C&e kno*n a number o) &ery ca%ey a&alanche pros *ho *ould be hard:pressed to tell a )acet )rom a )aucet, but they ha&e ne&ertheless mana%ed to de&elop a nearly in)allible )eel )or the sno*pack+ The truth is, i) you learn to mana%e terrain, are a keen obser&er o) *eather, )ollo* %ood route)indin% and sa)e tra&el rituals, plus, ha&e a %ood mastery o&er your o*n human )oibles, you can %et percent o) the *ay to*ard bein% com)ortably sa)e in a&alanche terrain *ithout e&er di%%in% in the sno*+ p02 'irst thin%s )irst+ Be)ore *e introduce you to the cast o) characters, %o out and %et acAuainted+ ?Wasatch Dan%e, 3tah@ $ Bruce Tremper So ha&in% said this, *hy e&en take the hard trip into the nerdy realm o) sno* scienceG 'or the same reason that Attila the 6un said HKno* your enemy+H As *e *ill see, each di))erent a&alanche condition has its o*n characteristic patterns, route)indin% considerations, and )orecastin% considerations+ Kno*led%e o) the sno*pack is an eBtremely po*er)ul tool in the battle a%ainst the White .eath, and 1 personally *ould )eel &ery naked *ithout kno*in% *hat kind o) a&alanche dra%on 1Cm dealin% *ith+ 1n this chapter *e *ill del&e into the esoteric and sometimes scary *orld o) sno* crystal morpholo%y and metamorphism+ The *ords alone are enou%h to hurl you back+ But Hcrystal morpholo%yH is 4ust a )ancy *ord )or *hat a sno* crystal looks like and HmetamorphismH is 4ust a )ancy *ord )or chan%e+ Since the a&alanche %ame is played in a uni&erse o) constantly chan%in% sno* crystals, itCs important to kno* somethin% about the *orkin%s o) the uni&erse that *ill control *hether you li&e or die+ Fes, 1 admit, ha&in% a science back%round %i&es you a bi% ad&anta%e, but 1C&e presented the in)ormation here in mostly non:science terms and kept the eBplanations to plain 0n%lish+ 1) you end up skippin% this chapter, promise that youCll e&entually come back to it *hen youCre ready+ 6ome*ork assi%nment5 'irst, be)ore *e di&e in, you need to do a home*ork assi%nment, or in this case an Hout:o):homeH *ork assi%nment+ 1) you ha&e ne&er du% into the sno* be)ore, you need to do so )irst+ Because, unless youCre a %lutton )or punishment, readin% this chapter *ithout ha&in% a %ood picture o) *hat 1Cm talkin% about *ould be like listenin% to a protracted con&ersation about people youC&e ne&er met+ So letCs meet the enemy+ ,rab your sho&el and head to the mountains or the backyard+ WhatG Fou donCt ha&e a sho&elG FouCll need one any*ay to be able to di% your )riend out o) a&alanche debris+ (o eBcuses on this one+ Fou absolutely must ha&e a sho&el i) you %o into a&alanche terrain+ 1 like the li%ht*ei%ht metal sho&els sold at outdoor shops+ The smaller plastic ones *ill do, but the metal ones *ill mo&e more sno*, can cut throu%h tree branches better ?*hich you o)ten )ind in a&alanche debris@, and they donCt *ei%h much more than the plastic sho&els+ ,et one that breaks do*n into t*o pieces so that you can )it it in your pack better *ithout bonkin% your head on the handle all the time+ While youCre at the outdoor shop, buy a sno* crystal identi)ication book ?see the biblio%raphy )or a list o) books@ and practice identi)yin% *hat youCre lookin% at+ 'inally, buy a sno* sa*+ Fou can %et by *ithout one, but you *ill hate di%%in% sno*pits, *hich means that you *ill soon Auit di%%in% them, *hich means that you *ill miss a bi% piece o) the a&alanche pu88le+ A sno* sa* *ill make your li)e much easier and sa&e you countless hours+ Since youCre still in shoppin% mode, pick up a cheap hand lens, too+ ,o to the local photo%raphy shop and ask )or an ineBpensi&e Hphoto loupe+H A plastic !:po*er one costs under O10+ A)ter you %et more serious about this, or i) youCre a total %i8mohead, spend about O100 on a handheld 20:po*er microscope+ Take your sho&el and %et out in the mountains ?or your backyard, i) thereCs enou%h sno*@+ At this sta%e it really helps to ha&e a )riend *ho can teach you, or better yet, take a multiday a&alanche class+ Whether youCre learnin% )rom someone else or teachin% yoursel) )rom this book, the most important part is to %et your nose in the sno* and do it o)ten+ Sno* and a&alanches tend to be sel): eBplanatory i) youCre *illin% to take the time to look+ (o* that you ha&e all your %ear, di% do*n into the sno*+ .onCt di% *here the sno*pack is more than about 2 meters ?2 yards@ deep+ 1tCs likely to be borin%+ .i% in shallo*er areas *here you are more likely to see )aceted crystals and other more interestin% layers+ Shady slopes tend to be more

interestin% than sunny slopes+ Mo&in% sno* is easier i) youCre on a steep slope and in so)t sno*+ ,et do*n on one kneeE your back *ill thank you+ Make the sno*pit bi% *ith lots o) *orkin% room=about 2 meters *ide:and sho&el out the do*nhill side so you donCt ha&e to li)t the sno* up o&er the ed%e o) the hole+ This usually takes under ; minutes+ (o* that you ha&e a hole, 4ump in and run your hands o&er the layers and )eel them+ See ho* the *eak layers erode a*ay *hen you )eel them *ith your mitten and ho* the stron% layers stick out, 4ust like rock strata in the ,rand -anyon+ Put a thin layer o) sno* )rom a *eak layer on your mitten and look care)ully at the crystals+ Take out the hand lens and take a closer look at them+ /ook in your book to see *hat kind o) crystal it is+ Take your time+ A)ter more practice, youCll do all o) this &ery Auickly+ Take a credit card and run it &ertically throu%h the sno* to )eel the layers+ Play *ith your sno* sa*+ -ut out &ertical columns and thump on them so you can see ho* *eak layers )racture and ho* much )orce it takes to make slabs slide on top o) *eak layers+ This *ill also be a *arm up to -hapter 2+ /ook, )eel, smell, taste, listen+ (o* that you ha&e been introduced to the cast o) characters, *eCre ready to %ossip about them in earnest+ 'irst, )or a map o) *here *eCre %oin%5 Table ;:1 is a simpli)ied &ersion o) the international -lassi)ication o) Seasonal Sno* on the ,round, *hich is, more or less, the bible that a&alanche *orkers use throu%hout the *orld to describe sno*+ ?See biblio%raphy+@ 1n a typical sno*pack, *e can )ind many o) these layers in &arious combinations+ Sketch out the pro)ile you )ind in your o*n sno*pit+ 1) you donCt ha&e any layers or i) identi)yin% the crystals is di))icult, then di% in another location+ Try a shallo*er area to )ind )acets and try di%%in% on a sunny slope to )ind sun crusts+ (o* letCs talk about each kind o) layer that *e commonly )ind in the sno*pack+ Stron* 1ayers in the Snow#ack To make an a&alanche you need both a slab and a *eak layer ?or a *eak inter)ace@+ Slabs tend to be made up o) stron% layers o) sno*+ A common mistake o) be%innin% a&alanche students is to concentrate on the stron% layers instead o) the *eak ones+ Stron% layers are a&alanches ?slabs@ or bed sur)acesE *eak layers cause a&alanches+ Thus, a&alanche pro)essionals donCt spend a lot o) time *orryin% about types and characteristics o) stron% layers+ But here are the most common kinds+ A*e'D Settle' Snow 1 talked brie)ly about sinterin% and settlement in -hapter 2+ 1n the absence o) a steep temperature %radient ?more on this later@, as sno* crystals a%e, they become rounded and )orm bonds *ith their nei%hbors+ We call this HeAuilibriumH sno* or HroundedH sno* or simply Hrounds+H 1n your sno*pit, layers o) eAuilibrium sno* ?rounds@ are usually harder than the other layers and are composed o) &ery small, hard:to:see %rains+ 1) you canCt )i%ure out *hat the sno* is, itCs probably eAuilibrium sno* ?rounds@+ 1) all sno* *ere as *ell beha&ed as eAuilibrium sno*, *e *ouldnCt ha&e to *orry about most a&alanches+ Win' Slabs Wind slabs are perhaps the most common slab material and constitute an important stron% layer in the sno*pack+ Wind %rinds up sno*)lakes into smaller particles+ Small particles bond much more Auickly than lar%er particles and they pack to%ether much more e))iciently+ Thus, *ind slabs are o)ten dense and stron%+ ?Sinterin% occurs to the in&erse o) the )ourth po*er o) the crystal si8e, i) you *ant to %et technical+ 1n other *ords, small crystals can bond ten thousand times )aster than lar%e crystals+@ )i-e Dime is that crunchy, rou%h sno* that looks like popcorn or Styro)oam plastered onto trees on *indy mountaintops ?makin% Hsno* %hostsH@+ Dime )orms on the sur)ace o) the sno* *hen super: cooled *ater in clouds )ree8es onto the sno* sur)ace, trees, chairli)t to*ers, or any solid sur)ace+ 1t usually )orms *hen clouds rise rapidly o&er a mountain ran%e+ The air rises so )ast that tiny *ater droplets donCt ha&e time to )orm sno*)lakes ?or %raupel in this case@, so the *ater droplets actually cool *ell belo* the )ree8in% le&el+ When they touch somethin% solid, they )ree8e instantly, thus the spikes %ro* into the *ind ?as opposed to *ind loadin% in *hich dri)ts )orm on the do*n*ind side@+ Dime usually )orms a stron% layer on the sur)ace o) the sno*pack+ Within ne* sno*, itCs usually a si%n o) stability because, as .ou% 'esler likes to say, H1tCs like thro*in% a car%o net o&er the sno*+H 1s it a si%n o) stability *ithin the old sno*G (ot necessarily+ The *ei%ht o) the ne* sno*

accompanyin% the rime, plus the *ei%ht o) the rime itsel), may o&erload buried *eak layers+ P0"0 Dounded, or eAuilibrium, sno* is stron% and de)orms easily+ 1t usually )orms stron% layers in the sno*pack such as slabs or bed sur)aces+ ?Fello*stone (ational Park, Wyomin%@ $ Bruce Tremper P0"1 Dime )orms *hen supercooled *ater droplets in a cloud instantly )ree8e onto a solid sur)ace such as the sno* sur)ace or other sno*)lakes+ Dime %ro*s to*ard the *ind+ ?Brid%er Dan%e, Montana@ $ Bruce Tremper Weak 1ayers in the Snow#ack 5ncohesive New Snow H-ohesionH means ho* *ell sno* sticks to%ether+ Fou can think o) cohesion as HhardnessH or Hstren%thH i) you *ant, but technically, HcohesionH is the more proper term+ -ohesi&e sno* makes %ood sno*balls because it holds to%etherE uncohesi&e sno* makes sno*balls that )all apart be)ore they hit their &ictims+ /i%ht, )lu))y ne* sno* tends to be uncohesi&e and dense ne* sno* tends to be cohesi&e+ Fou o)ten hear a&alanche pro)essionals talk about a&alanches slidin% on Hli%ht:density sno*H or Hdensity in&ersionsH in the ne* sno*+ They are talkin% about relati&ely more cohesi&e sno* slidin% on relati&ely less cohesi&e sno*+ 5ncohesive New Snow Su--ary /ooks like5 Sparkly, o)ten star:shaped, &ery so)tE sometimes con)used *ith sur)ace hoar+ Also called5 /o*:density sno*, density in&ersion+ .istribution pattern5 'alls )airly eAually on all aspects and ele&ations ?eBcept *here *ind: a))ected@+ Persistence5 Stabili8es *ithin hours to days, dependin% on temperature+ 'orecastin% considerations5 0asy to miss durin% a storm, especially i) sand*iched bet*een denser layers *hen youCre not lookin%+ Crau#el ,raupel is that Styro)oam:ball type o) sno* that stin%s your )ace+ 1t )orms )rom stron% con&ecti&e acti&ity ?up*ard &ertical motion@ *ithin a storm caused by the passa%e o) a cold )ront or sprin%time con&ecti&e sho*ers+ The static buildup )rom all these )allin% %raupel pellets sometimes causes li%htnin% as *ell+ 'i%ure ;:1+ Weak layers or *eak inter)aces responsible )or human:tri%%ered a&alanches in -anada and S*it8erland+ Persistent *eak layers such as )acets, depth hoar, and sur)ace hoar make up !2 percent o) the cases+ ?'rom Sch*ei8er and 4amieson, 1nternational Sno* Science Workshop, 2000+@ P0"2 ,raupel acts like tiny ball bearin%s in the sno*pack+ They can roll o)) steep terrain and collect on less steep terrain belo*+ ?Wasatch Dan%e, 3tah@ $ 0&elyn /ees ,raupel looks and beha&es like a pile o) ball bearin%s+ 1t is a common *eak layer in maritime climates, but itCs )airly rare in continental climates+ ,raupel is eBtra tricky because it tends to roll o)) cli))s and steeper terrain and collect on the %entler terrain at the bottom o) cli))s ?'i%ure ;:2@+ -limbers, eBtreme skiers, and eBtreme sno*boarders sometimes tri%%er %raupel a&alanches a)ter they ha&e descended steep terrain ?#; to 0 de%rees@ and ha&e )inally arri&ed on the %entler slopes belo* ?"; to #; de%rees@=4ust *hen they are startin% to relaB+ ,raupel *eak layers usually stabili8e about a day or t*o a)ter a storm, dependin% on temperature+ 2rau#el Su--ary /ooks like5 /ittle Styro)oam balls+ 'eels like5 Stin%s your )ace+ Mechanical properties5 /ike ball bearin%s+ .istribution pattern5 Dolls o)) cli))s and steep slopes and collects on %entler terrain and in pockets+ (ot aspect: or ele&ation:dependent+ Persistence5 Stabili8es about 1 or 2 days a)ter deposited, dependin% on temperature and metamorphism+ Weak 4nterfaces Most a&alanche )ractures occur *ithin a distinct *eak layer sand*iched bet*een t*o harder layers, but sometimes the )racture occurs simply because o) a poor bond bet*een t*o layers=in other *ords, a *eak inter)ace+ 'or instance, a hard slab mi%ht slide directly on a hard rain crust *ith no distinct *eak layer in&ol&ed+ A slick bed sur)ace combined *ith a &ery *eak and persistent *eak layer on top o) the crust is an especially nasty combination+ I)ten a *eak inter)ace in&ol&es t*o layers *ith distinctly di))erent %rain si8es+ Sno* tends to bond better to its o*n kind+ Small %rains tend to bond

poorly to lar%e %rains and especially poorly to )lat sur)aces like a planer ice crust+ Al*ays be suspicious o) t*o layers that ha&e distinctly di))erent %rain si8es+ Weak inter)aces such as sun crusts, rain crusts, and *arm air crusts o)ten e))ecti&ely Hraise the %round le&elH because they tend to stabili8e and stren%then the sno* belo* the crust, thus, a&alanches seldom break belo* these crusts+ 'i%ure ;:2+ ,raupel tends to roll o)) cli))s and steep slopes ?%reater than #;N@ and collect on %entler terrain ?less than #0N@+ Sun Crusts A )ro8en sun crust sometimes )orms a hard bed sur)ace )or )uture a&alanches to run upon+ 6o*e&er, a sun crust typically has a )airly rou%h teBture *hen compared to the more slippery rain crust, and sno* deposited on the crust tends to bond better than you *ould ima%ine+ 6o*e&er, a sun crust )orms a stron% mechanical discontinuity in the sno*pack, *hich tends to concentrate any shear de)ormation *ithin the sno*pack to the layers 4ust abo&e and belo* the sun crust+ Probably more important, crusts tend to concentrate temperature %radients abo&e and belo* them and they can %ro* a thin and almost in&isible layer o) *eak )aceted sno*+ ?See the H(ear:Sur)ace 'aceted Sno*H section later in this chapter+@ This probably accounts )or most o) the a&alanches that occur on sun crusts, especially in non:maritime climates+ Also, sur)ace hoar that %ro*s on top o) a sun crust can be a &ery nasty *eak layer+ Sun crusts, o) course, )orm only on sunny slopes and not at all on the shady ones+ So *e )ind them mostly on southeast:, south:, south*est:, and *est:)acin% slopes in the (orthern 6emisphere ?and con&ersely )orm more uni)ormly on all aspects in tropical latitudes and durin% sprin% and )all in arctic latitudes@+ 1nstabilities associated *ith sun crusts usually stabili8e )airly Auickly a)ter a storm, dependin% on temperature, eBcept i) )aceted sno* has %ro*n around the sun crust or sur)ace hoar has %ro*n on top o) the crust, it can produce much more persistent a&alanche acti&ity+ HOT T48B When ne* sno* )alls on a sun crust, check out *hether the sun crust is *et or )ro8en *hen the sno* starts+ 1) itCs *et, the ne* sno* *ill stick to it and you most likely *onCt ha&e any immediate a&alanche problem+ 1) the crust is )ro8en, then the ne* sno* does not tend to bond &ery *ell+ -a&eat5 See the HMelt /ayer Decrystalli8ationH section later in this chapter+ P0"" Sun and rain crusts tend to )orm shiny, slick layers on the sur)ace that can be bed sur)aces )or )uture a&alanches+ ?Wasatch Dan%e, 3tah@ $ Bruce Tremper Sun Crusts Su--ary Also calle'@ 'irnspei%el ?one type o) sun crust@+ 1ooks like@ Shiny *ith sli%htly rou%h sur)ace+ .or-e' by@ Stron% sun on the sno* sur)ace+ /istribution #attern@ 'orms only on sunny aspects, none on shady aspectsE moderately ele&ation:dependent+ 8ersistence@ 1nstabilities usually last )or se&eral days, dependin% on temperature+ .orecastin* considerations5 1s it *et or )ro8en *hen the neBt storm comes inG 1) itCs *et, it *ill bond *ellE i) itCs )ro8en, it *ill bond more poorly, eBcept )or melt layer recrystalli8ation+ )ain Crusts Dain crusts tend to be more smooth and slippery than sun crusts eBcept in cases o) hard, drenchin% rain+ 1nstabilities associated *ith them tend to last much lon%er, typically se&eral days a)ter a storm deposits sno* on top o) a rain crust and sometimes throu%h se&eral storms+ Also, unlike sun crusts, rain crusts )orm uni)ormly on all aspects, but like rain, rain crusts are hi%hly ele&ation: dependent+ Typically, rain )alls at lo*er ele&ations and as you ascend throu%h the )ree8in% le&el, the rain pro%ressi&ely turns to sno* ?'i%ure ;:"@+ Prolon%ed or hard rain on ne* sno* )orms draina%e channels do*n the )all line and makes a corru%ated pattern in the sur)ace sno*+ These draina%e channels, also called Hrill marks,H are a si%n o) stability+ HOT T48B Dain crusts are not al*ays dan%erous+ /ike a sun crust, you ha&e to *atch closely to see *hether the rain crust is so%%y or )ro8en *hen the neBt sno*storm be%ins+ 1) itCs *et, the ne* sno*

*ill usually bond to it and you probably *onCt ha&e any problems=at least in the short term+ 1), ho*e&er, the rain crust is *ell )ro8en and the neBt storm be%ins *ith li%ht:density dry sno*, then itCs like tryin% to make )eathers stick to a slopin% pane o) %lass+ Fou can eBpect )airly *idespread so)t slab acti&ity runnin% on the hard rain crust+ -a&eat5 See the HMelt /ayer Decrystalli8ationH section later in this chapter+ )ain Crusts Su--ary 1ooks like@ Shiny, smooth sur)ace+ Prolon%ed rain on ne* sno* )orms draina%e channels do*n the )all line, makin% a corru%ated sur)ace pattern+ .or-e' by@ Dain )allin% on sno*+ .istribution #attern@ 'orms on all aspects, but stron%ly ele&ation:dependent+ Cli-ates@ Typical in maritime, occasional in intermountain, rare in continental+ 8ersistence@ 1nstabilities persist )or se&eral days, sometimes se&eral storms+ 'aceted sno* or sur)ace hoar associated *ith rain crusts can produce instabilities )or a &ery lon% time+ .orecast considerations5 -are)ully *atch the rain crust *hen the neBt storm arri&es+ 1) itCs still *et, the ne* sno* *ill bond to itE i) itCs )ro8en, the ne* sno* *ill probably bond poorly+ Watch out )or melt layer recrystalli8ation i) a *et rain crust %ets buried by cold, ne* sno*+ Weak 1ayers Within Ol' Snow .acete' Snow 'aceted sno* causes many o) the a&alanche )atalities in (orth America ?see 'i%ure ;:1@+ And no *onder+ 1t seems like a made:to:order plot de&ice out o) a scary mo&ie+ 1t %ro*s like a parasite *ithin the sno*=o)ten out o) si%ht=until itCs too late+ 1t becomes ineBorably more and more dan%erous durin% the seemin%ly most beni%n conditions=clear skies, cold temperatures=and it lays in *aitin%, sometimes )or *eeks, until itCs brou%ht suddenly to li)e by a )resh load o) sno* or rapid *armin%+ Then *hen its &ictim bumbles into the *ron% place, it pulls the ru% out )rom under them, rockets them do*n the mountain at a terri)yin% speed, rippin% them limb )rom limb as they bounce o)) trees and rocks, and )inally entombs them under tons o) icy, hard sno*+ How .acete' Snow 4s .or-e' 'aceted sno* )orms )rom lar%e temperature %radients *ithin the sno*:pack+ A temperature %radient is simply ho* )ast temperature chan%es o&er a certain distance *ithin the sno*pack+ Because *arm air holds more *ater &apor than cold air, temperature %radients also create *hat *e call H&apor pressure %radientsH=more *ater &apor in one place than another+ What happens *hen you concentrate somethin%=especially a %asG 1t *ants to di))use, to mo&e )rom areas o) hi%h concentration to areas o) lo* concentration+ When *ater &apor di))uses rapidly, it chan%es rounded crystals into )aceted ones= chan%in% stron% sno* into *eak sno*+ 1n other *ords, temperature %radients create potential *eak layers that can kill us+ ThatCs *hy *e pay so much attention to them ?'i%ure ;:#@+ 'i%ure ;:"+ Precipitation )alls as sno* abo&e the )ree8in% le&el and as rain at lo*er ele&ations+ This process is completely re&ersible+ Stron% %radient turns rounds to )acets+ Weak %radient turns )acets back to rounds+ The process in re&erse, ho*e&er, occurs much more slo*ly, because to create a )aceted crystal reAuires so much ener%y that *hen the ener%y source is taken a*ay ?the stron% temperature %radient@, the crystal needs a lot o) time to return to its eAuilibrium state ?rounds@+ 1n other *ords, it mi%ht take a *eek or t*o o) a stron% temperature %radient to )orm lar%e )aceted crystals, but a)ter the temperature %radient is taken a*ay, the crystals can take *eeks or months to stabili8e, dependin% on the ambient temperature o) the sno* and ho* much compressi&e load is on top+ The take:home point here is this5 small temperature %radients make the sno* stron%erE lar%e temperature %radients make the sno* *eaker+ 6o* lar%e is a lar%e temperature %radientG 'or sno* o) an a&era%e sno*pack temperature, say, around :; de%rees -elsius, the critical temperature %radient is about 1 de%ree centi%rade per 10 centimeters ?1 de%ree -elsius<10 centimeters@+ 1n cold sno*, say, colder than :10 de%rees -elsius, you need a hi%her temperature %radient to cause )acetin%+ 1n *arm sno* you need less ?'i%ure ;:;@+ 'or eBample, suppose *e stick t*o thermometers into the sno*pit *all, one 10 centimeters ?about # inches@ abo&e the other+ 1) *e measure a di))erence o) only 0+; de%ree -elsius in 10 centimeters, it means that eAuilibrium sno* is %ro*in% ?sno* is %ettin% stron%er@+ 1) *e measure a temperature di))erence o) 2 de%rees -elsius in 10 centimeters, it means that )aceted sno* is %ro*in% ?sno* is %ettin% *eaker@+ All you ha&e to do is )ind a )aceted layer in the sno*pack, measure the %radient, and you kno* *hether the layer is %ainin% stren%th or losin% stren%th+ -ool, huhG This is actually a po*er)ul )orecastin% tool ?'i%ure ;:>@+ 'i%ure ;:#+ 6o* )aceted sno* is )ormed P0"# Stron% temperature %radients *ithin the sno*pack )orm )aceted sno*+ I&er the course o) se&eral days, the crystals %ro* pro%ressi&ely lar%er and more )aceted+ $ 3+S+ .epartment o) A%riculture

/e#th Hoar=.acete' Snow Near the 2roun' -ontrary to popular belie), as lon% as the %round has an insulatin% blanket o) sno*, the %round is almost al*ays *arm=near )ree8in%=e&en *ith &ery cold air temperatures+ Sno* is a *onder)ul insulator and e&en *ith &ery cold air temperatures, itCs common )or the sno* near the %round to remain damp )or most o) the season+ The only eBception to this is in perma)rost areas ?&ery hi%h ele&ations at mid:latitudes or arctic latitudes@ or in areas *ith a thin sno* co&er combined *ith &ery cold temperatures+ 'i%ure ;:;+ Subcritical, critical, and supercritical temperature %radients 'i%ure ;:>+ 1ce crusts tend to concentrate a temperature %radient, so it is common to )ind )aceted sno* 4ust abo&e and belo* ice crusts+ The top o) the sno* sur)ace, on the other hand, can become eBtremely cold= especially *hen eBposed to a clear sky=thus creatin% one o) the most common temperature %radient conditions+ 0specially in the early *inter, cold temperature o)ten combines *ith a thin sno*pack makin% the per)ect breedin% conditions )or the dreaded )aceted sno* near the %round, *hich *e call depth hoar+ Pop Aui85 Since temperature %radient means a chan%e in temperature o&er some distance, *e can increase or decrease temperature %radient in t*o *ays+ What are theyG Ans*er5 1+ -han%e the temperature+ 2+ -han%e the distance+ 'or instance, one *ay to decrease temperature %radient is to *arm the sno* sur)ace ?*armer air temperatures, sun, or clouds abo&e shady slopes@+ ThatCs ob&ious enou%h, but most people donCt think about the second *ay to decrease the temperature %radient=increase the distance by addin% more sno* ?'i%ure ;:2@+ /earnin% to appreciate the importance o) total sno* depth on the stren%th and stability o) the sno*pack usually takes se&eral years o) eBperience+ ThatCs *hy you o)ten see a&alanche pro)essionals constantly probin% the sno* *ith their collapsible probes or their ski poles+ They are mappin% the sno* depth so that they *ill kno* *here the thin and *eak sno* eBists=tri%%er points )or )uture a&alanches+ Demember, thin sno* means *eak sno*, and *eak sno* can easily be o&erloaded by the *ei%ht o) an additional load or by the *ei%ht o) a person+ 'i%ure ;:2+ T*o *ays to chan%e temperature %radient ?)acetin%@ /istribution 8attern We normally think o) depth hoar as an early season phenomenon+ 1t be%ins to )orm a)ter the )irst sno*)all as soon as temperatures %et cold or, more important, *hen the skies clear+ As *ith sur)ace hoar, radiation plays an eBtremely important role in sno* sur)ace temperature+ ?See the HDadiation and Sno* TemperatureH section in -hapter #+@ 1n most climates, it plays a more important role than air temperature+ There)ore, in mid:latitudes, depth hoar %ro*s primarily on the shady aspects, the north*est:, north:, northeast:, and o)ten east:)acin% slopes+ I)ten in mid*inter *hen the sno* is deep enou%h that depth hoar Auits %ro*in%, *e )ind depth hoar on the slopes *ith thin sno*, such as *est: and south:)acin% slopes and near rid%elines *here the *ind has thinned the sno*:pack+ 1n hi%h latitudes durin% mid*inter, such as in Alaska and northern -anada, as *ell as in eAuatorial latitudes, i) depth hoar %ro*s, it tends to do so on all aspects nearly eAually+ More than most other *eak layers, the stren%th o) depth hoar &aries Auite dramatically )rom one location to another, dependin% mostly on the depth o) the sno*pack+ Demember5 thin sno*pack means a *eak sno*pack+ Thicker sno*packs insulate the cold air )rom the *arm %round, ha&e a small temperature %radient, and thus a stron%er sno*pack+ 'or this reason, you usually donCt )ind bad depth hoar under the thick layers o) *ind:loaded sno* near the rid%e tops+ 1tCs usually much *eaker at mid: slope and especially near the bottom o) basins, *here thin sno*packs combine *ith cold air poolin%, and around rock outcroppin%s ?'i%ure ;:!@+ 1n cold climates, depth hoar usually doesnCt )orm on top o) %laciers as much as the %round because %laciers are usually colder than the %round, but depth hoar does )orm on *arm %laciers+ /e#th Hoar an' Cli-ate 1n continental climates, depth hoar is eBtremely commonE in )act, depth hoar o)ten makes up nearly the entire sno*pack until about 'ebruary o) each year, and then in thin sno*pack years, lar%e *et slabs )ail on depth hoar in sprin%+ .epth hoar accounts )or most a&alanche )atalities in continental climates and most sno* stability and )orecastin% decisions re&ol&e around it+ At the other end o) the spectrum, in maritime climates, depth hoar usually )orms only in the early season and Auickly disappears a)ter the )irst couple sno*storms bury it+ 1n &ery *arm maritime climates you can %o se&eral years *ithout e&en seein% it+ 1n bet*een these t*o eBtremes, in intermountain climates, depth hoar )orms in the early season durin% most years and depth hoar instabilities commonly last until .ecember or 9anuary, and it

is not much o) a problem a)ter that+ 1n bad depth hoar years, lar%e *et slabs may release in sprin% *hen melt *ater saturates the old depth hoar layers+ 3echanical 8ro#erties of /e#th Hoar Mechanically, depth hoar is one nasty dude+ .epth hoar beha&es like a stack o) champa%ne %lasses+ Althou%h itCs stron%er in compression than in shear, it can also )ail in a catastrophic collapse o) the layer+ 'ractures o)ten propa%ate lon% distances and around corners+ Almost all catastrophic, climaB a&alanches ?in&ol&in% the entire seasonCs sno* co&er@ occur on depth hoar+ A hard *ind slab on top o) depth hoar is double trouble+ 1tCs like layin% a pane o) %lass on top o) a stack o) champa%ne %lasses ?'i%ure ;: @+ 1t brid%es a personCs *ei%ht out o&er a lar%er area until they either %i&e it a hard thump, reach a place *here the slab is thinner, or *here the depth hoar is *eaker, and then the *hole slope shatters catastrophically+ 'ractures in&ol&in% hard slabs commonly )orm abo&e the &ictim, lea&in% &ery little chance )or escape+ 'i%ure ;:!+ .istribution o) depth hoar 'i%ure ;: + .epth hoar is stron%er in compression than shear+ Mechanically, a hard *ind slab on depth hoar is like a pane o) %lass on top o) a stack o) champa%ne %lasses+ When a hea&y load o) *ind:blo*n sno* or ne* sno* is slammed do*n on top, itCs as i) the champa%ne %lasses are tryin% to support a load o) bricks+ Wind slabs on depth hoar eBist throu%hout most o) the season in continental climates, and *hen you add lar%e populations to the eAuation, the result is lar%e numbers o) )atalities+ 1tCs easy to see *hy -olorado leads the nation in a&alanche )atalities+ .orecastin* Consi'erations As -anadian a&alanche specialist -lair 1srealson once told me, H.epth hoar is like ha&in% your cra8y aunt come )or a &isit+ She stays )ore&er and you 4ust ne&er kno* *hen sheCs %oin% to snap+H /ar%e:%rained depth hoar persists lon%er than any other kind o) *eak layer+ And as lon% as it does, you 4ust tiptoe around and accumulate %ray hairs+ 3sually the lar%er the %rain si8e, the more persistent the instability+ The time:honored ada%e amon% eBperienced a&alanche pro)essionals is H(e&er trust a depth hoar sno*pack+H -are)ully *atch each loadin% e&ent all *inter=especially the bi% ones+ 0&en a)ter you think youC&e seen the last o) it, percolatin% melt *ater in the sprin% can reacti&ate the depth hoar layer and produce lar%e, *et slab a&alanches+ FikesJ The best stability tests )or depth hoar, listed rou%hly in the order o) reliability are recent a&alanche acti&ity, eBplosi&es tests, cornice drops, rutschblock tests, compression tests ?do lots o) them in representati&e places@, and 4umpin% on test slopes+ Weather isnCt Auite as reliable unless itCs really ob&ious *eather like a hea&y loadin% or rapid *armin% o) the o&erlyin% slab+ ?See -hapter > )or more in)ormation on tests+@ 1) you canCt use acti&e tests, use a thermometer and care)ully measure the temperature %radient across the *eakest layers+ As soon as the temperature %radient drops belo* the critical le&el ?about 1 de%ree centi%rade per 10 centimeters@ then the sno* is %ainin% stren%th+ Demember that depth hoar is Auick to )orm but takes a lon% time to %ain stren%th a)ter the temperature %radient is remo&ed+ With no additional loadin% and a *eak layer o) :; de%rees -elsius or *armer, the sno* can take se&eral days to a *eek to stabili8e+ -old *eak layers and a li%ht*ei%ht o&erlyin% layer can take much lon%er+ )outefin'in* Consi'erations 1n latitudes, say, )rom about the southern 3nited States to the -anadian border, depth hoar usually eBists only on shady aspects ?north*est:, north:, northeast:, and o)ten east:)acin% slopes in the (orthern 6emisphere@+ (orth o) the -anadian border, depth hoar is )ound on a *ider &ariety o) aspects+ 1n &ery cold climates, or durin% arctic outbreaks, the temperatures are 4ust too cold to %ro* depth hoar &ery rapidly and it )orms instead on sunny aspects *here itCs *arm enou%h to %ro* )aster+ .epth hoar %ro*s best in sno* temperatures bet*een :2 to :1; de%rees -elsius ?2! to ; de%rees 'ahrenheit@+ (o matter *hat aspect *ith respect to the sun, you usually )ind depth hoar in thin sno*pack areas, such as *indblo*n aspects+ At mid:latitudes, people %et into trouble in the early season *ith the )irst slab that )orms on top o) depth hoar+ The sun melts the sno* a*ay on the sunny slopes, )orcin% people onto the shady slopes *here the depth hoar li&es and they end up takin% lots o) rides in a&alanches ?'i%ure ;:10@+ .epth hoar a&alanches are )reAuently tri%%ered )rom lon% distances a*ay+ Many people, includin% a co*orker o) mine, ha&e been killed *hen they tri%%ered the slope )rom the bottom, in this case, )rom nearly a Auarter mile a*ay+ Tri%%erin% a steep slope is also easy by standin% on a )lat slope

abo&e or to the side+ Sometimes the steep slope belo* *ill pull a hard slab o)) a )lat rid%e abo&e+ 'i%ure ;:10+ Typical early season pattern 7ictims usually tri%%er depth hoar a&alanches )rom shallo* ?thus *eaker@ sno*pack areas, like a *indblo*n rid%e, a rock outcrop in the middle o) a slope, or a spur rid%e neBt to a steep slope+ Most o) the time *e think o) a rock outcrop in the middle o) a steep slope to be an Hisland o) sa)ety,H but in depth hoar sno*pack, itCs a tri%%er point+ /e#th Hoar Su--ary Also calle'@ Temperature ,radient ?T-@ sno* ?this is an outdated term@, su%ar sno*, sAuares, )acets sometimes incorrectly called Hhoar)rostH by old, rural %ee8ers+ 1ooks like@ Sparkly, lar%er %rained, sometimes cup:shaped )acets # to 10 mm+ .eels like@ /oose, runs throu%h your )in%ers, %ranular, crunchy *hen che*ed+ S-ells like@ The %round, because the rapid di))usion o) *arm, moist air )rom the %round causes depth hoar+ .or-e' by@ /ar%e temperature %radients bet*een the *arm %round and the cold sno* sur)ace+ 3sually reAuires a thin sno*pack combined *ith a clear sky or cold air temperature+ ,ro*s best at sno* temperatures )rom :2 to ;1; de%rees -elsius ?2! to ; de%rees 'ahrenheit@+ 3echanical #ro#erties@ -ollapses like a stack o) champa%ne %lasses+ Delati&ely stron%er in compression than in shear+ 'ails both in collapse and in shear+ -ommonly propa%ates lon% distances, around corners, and easily tri%%ered )rom the bottom=your basic ni%htmare+ /istribution #attern@ At mid:latitudes, )orms mainly on shady aspects ?north*est to northeast@+ 1n &ery cold climates, )orms on *armer slopes ?sun:eBposed, near )umaroles, non: perma)rost areas@+ At arctic and eAuatorial latitudes, it sho*s much less pre)erence )or aspect+ .oesnCt tend to )orm as o)ten on %laciers as on the %round+ Cli-ates@ -ontinental5 0Btremely common throu%hout the season+ I)ten makes up the entire sno*pack until about 'ebruary+ 1ntermountain5 -ommon be)ore about 9anuary+ Maritime5 (ot as common and usually in the early season+ 8ersistence@ 0Btremely persistent in the sno*pack )rom se&eral days to se&eral *eeks, dependin% on temperature+ The lar%er the %rain, the more persistent+ Percolatin% melt *ater in sprin% o)ten reacti&ates lar%e:%rained depth hoar+ .orecastin* consi'erations@ (e&er underestimate the persistence o) )aceted sno* as a *eak layer+ Makes lar%e and scary a&alanches, o)ten throu%hout the season+ -are)ully measure temperature %radients across the *eak layer+ /ar%e %radients mean the sno* *ill remain *eakE small %radients mean the sno* is %ainin% stren%th but stren%thenin% takes se&eral days to se&eral *eeks dependin% on temperature+ Best stability tests@ Decent a&alanches, eBplosi&es tests, cornice drops, rutschblock test, compression test, test slopes+ )outefin'in* consi'erations5 0asily tri%%ered )rom the bottom o) a slope or )rom an ad4acent )lat area+ Pay attention to *hat your slope is connected to+ .epth hoar a&alanches are usually tri%%ered )rom a shallo* sno*pack area= a&oid rock outcroppin%s in the middle o) a slope+ Near;Surface .acete' Snow -ontrary to popular belie), depth hoar is not the most common type o) )aceted sno*+ 'acets )orm any*here lar%e temperature %radients de&elop, and thereCs no place in the sno*pack that eBperiences as much temperature abuse as the sno* sur)ace+ These lar%e temperature %radients near the sur)ace o) the sno* cause lo*:density sur)ace sno* to )acet &ery Auickly+ (ear:sur)ace )aceted sno* is caused by one o) three mechanisms5 diurnal recrystalli8ation, melt layer re:crystalli8ation, or radiation recrystalli8ation+ /iurnal )ecrystalli&ation 0ach day, the sun heats up the sno* sur)ace and each ni%ht, especially *ith a clear sky, it cools do*n+ These temperature eBtremes can be &ery dramatic+ 'or instance, itCs not unusual )or the sno* sur)ace to be 20 de%rees *armer durin% the day than at ni%ht and eBperience a temperature %radient o) 20 de%rees -elsius per 10 centimeters, *hich, as youCre be%innin% to learn, is a steep temperature %radient ?'i%ure ;:11@+ With all this monkey business %oin% on itCs no *onder that the top )e* centimeters o) the sno* sur)ace can Auickly metamorphose into *eak, small:to:medium:si8ed )aceted crystals, *hich *e call diurnal recrystalli8ation+ 1) ne* sno* )alls, )ollo*ed by a clear ni%ht, the neBt mornin% people o)ten report that the sno* has Hdried outH o&erni%ht+ What really happened is that the clear sky allo*ed the sno* sur)ace to radiate all its heat a*ay and become &ery cold, thus producin% a stron% temperature %radient in the top

)e* centimeters o) the ne* sno*+ As a result, this ne* sno* ?*ith its interlockin% arms and thus sti))er )eel@ metamorphosed into loose, )ine:%rained )acets that )eel li%hter and )lu))ier than the sno* o) the day be)ore, makin% it )eel eBactly like the sno* dried out+ 'i%ure ;:11+ .iurnal recrystalli8ation The bottom line5 *ith the eBception o) &ery *arm temperatures, as lon% as the sky remains clear, the sur)ace o) the sno* becomes *eaker and *eaker+ A)ter se&eral days o) clear skies, people o)ten describe the sno* as Hloud po*der+H By this time the crystals ha&e %ro*n as lar%e as 2 mm and the loose, %ranular, and an%ular crystals make a hissin% sound *hen you tra&el throu%h it+ 1) clear skies keep up )or a *eek or t*o, the sur)ace o) the sno* can become so *eak that itCs di))icult to ski, board, or sno*mobile on a slope because the sno* slu))s out )rom underneath, and it sometimes becomes so *eak that it slu))s on its o*n+ These slu))s o) )aceted sno* carry much more o) a *allop than the slu))s o) the po*dery ne* sno*, and they can easily knock people o)) their )eet and bury them deeply+ .iurnal recrystalli8ed sno* is more eAually distributed by aspect than depth hoar but still )orms mostly on shady aspects+ 1t seems to )orm best on slopes that recei&e some direct sun, but not enou%h to melt the sno* sur)ace+ 'or instance, it can )orm on south:)acin% slopes in cold climates+ At arctic latitudes in mid*inter and at hi%h ele&ations in eAuatorial latitudes, it *ill )orm on all slopes more eAually+ 3nlike depth hoar, *hich &aries dramatically in thickness and stren%th )rom one part o) a slope to another, diurnal recrystalli8ed sno* seems to )orm a layer o) more e&en thickness and stren%th+ 1t pre)erentially )orms *ithin lo*:density sno* as opposed to crusts or *ind slabs, but %i&en enou%h time, near:sur)ace )acetin% can Heat upH crusts=like an alchemist, it can turn hard sno* into so)t sno*+ /ike sur)ace hoar, it also )orms on open slopes eBposed to a clear sky and not as much in the trees, but unlike sur)ace hoar, a little bit o) direct sun seems to enhance its %ro*th, especially in cold climates+ /iurnal )ecrystalli&ation Su--ary 1ooks like@ Sparkly, small to medium %rained ?0+; to 2 mm@+ .eels like@ /oose, runs throu%h your )in%ers, *hen buried it )eels like lo*:density ne* sno* yet more %ranular and sparkly+ Soun's like@ A hissin% sound as you tra&el throu%h it+ /istribution #attern@ Mostly on shady aspects or slopes *ith *eak sun+ 1n eBtremely cold climates it occurs on the *armer sunny aspects+ 'orms on slopes eBposed to a clear sky, and not as much in the trees+ Delati&ely e&en thickness and stren%th across a slope+ 'orms mostly in lo*:density sno* and not as much )rom hard layers such as *ind slabs and crusts+ 8ersistence@ Moderately persistent ?one *eek or more dependin% on temperature, and up to 0 days in eBtreme cases@+ .orecastin* consi'erations@ -are)ully map layer be)ore itCs buried+ The lon%er the sky remains clear, the *eaker the sno* sur)ace becomes+ 3elt 1ayer )ecrystalli&ation (o* here is a &ery tricky situation+ When ne* sno* )alls on a *et rain or sun crust, it usually bonds *ell and thereCs no problem+ 6o*e&er, i) the temperatures %et cold a)ter the storm and stay cold )or more than a couple days=yes, thatCs ri%ht=*e suddenly ha&e a stron% temperature %radient *ithin the ne* sno*, and you kno* *hat that means+ Moisture )rom *arm, *et rain crust di))uses up*ard throu%h the ne*, li%ht:density sno* and it Auickly %ro*s )aceted sno*, especially near the *arm crust ?'i%ure ;:12@+ 0&en thou%h the sno* bonded *ell initially, a)ter 2 to # days under a stron% temperature %radient, you suddenly start tri%%erin% a&alanches on )ine:%rained )aceted sno*+ WhoaJ 1n this case, *e ha&enCt added any *ei%ht to buried *eak layers, but instead, *eC&e decreased the stren%th o) the buried *eak layer=*ith the same result+ /ike 1 say, trickyJ /ook )or this scenario any time a stron% cold )ront blo*s throu%h+ 3sually the stron%er the )ront, the more it sucks up *arm air )rom the south ahead o) the )ront, *hich makes the pre:storm sno* *et and *arm+ Then ne* sno* )alls, )ollo*ed by &ery cold temperatures+ 0specially *ith a clear sky at ni%ht, si%ni)icant melt layer recrystalli8ation can )orm o&erni%ht, and e&en i) sno* be%ins a%ain the neBt mornin%, you ha&e 4ust buried a persistent *eak layer+ 1) you donCt pay close attention, it can easily surprise you+ 3elt 1ayer )ecrystalli&ation Su--ary 1ooks like@ Sparkly, loose, %ranular, 0+; to 2 mm+ 6ard to see *ith the naked eye+

.eels like@ ,ranular *eak layer in the sno*+ .or-e' by@ /ar%e temperature %radients bet*een a *arm, *et sno* sur)ace and cold, dry ne* sno* on top+ 3echanical #ro#erties@ Same as other types o) )aceted sno*+ 0specially *ith a hard and slippery bed sur)ace, it can run on lo* slope an%les and can be &ery sensiti&e to tri%%ers+ 8ersistence@ /ar%e ran%e o) persistence, )rom days to months+ 1n eBtreme cases can last )or *eeks to months+ Persistent *eak layers on top o) a slippery rain almost al*ays eAuals bi%, lon%:term trouble+ 1nstability lasts lon%er than you *ould eBpect )rom instabilities *ithin ne* sno*+ .orecastin* considerations5 Watch )or it any time cold ne* sno* )alls on a *et old sno* sur)ace, or *hen cold, clear *eather )ollo*s a *arm storm+ -are)ully monitor the temperature %radient+ )a'iation )ecrystalli&ation Dadiation recrystalli8ation is a scary name, but it )orms )rom a &ery cool process+ As you recall )rom -hapter #, *ith a clear sky, the sur)ace o) the sno* radiates heat into space &ery e))iciently and the sno* sur)ace can become eBtremely cold, e&en on a *arm day+ 0specially at hi%h ele&ations, say, abo&e "000 meters ?10,000 )eet@, thereCs so little atmosphere that the sno* sur)ace can remain cold and dry e&en *ith direct sun shinin% on it+ 9ust belo* the sno*:sur)ace, some o) the sunCs ener%y penetrates the sno* and heats it up, but the o&erlyin% sno* pre&ents radiation )rom escapin%=kind o) like a miniature %reen:house=and the sun can *arm it to the meltin% point, e&en thou%h the sno* sur)ace stays cold and dry+ The result is an eBtremely steep temperature %radient in the top 1 to 2 centimeters o) the sno* sur)ace ?'i%ure ;:1"@+ Dadiation:recrystalli8ation crust looks like a thin sun crust *ith )ine to medium:%rained )acets on top and sometimes on the bottom+ When buried, it )orms a )airly persistent, thin *eak:layer in the sno*pack and, i) youCre not lookin% &ery care)ully, you could mistake it )or a sur)ace hoar layer+ 1t )orms mostly on hi%h:ele&ation, sun:eBposed slopes on sunny days *hen there is a balance bet*een incomin% and out%oin% radiation+ 'i%ure ;:12+ Melt layer recrystalli8ation 'i%ure ;:1"+ Dadiation recrystalli8ation )a'iation )ecrystalli&ation Su--ary 1ooks like@ Thin, *eak sun crust *ith small:%rained ?0+; to 2 mm@ )aceted sno* on top and bottom=sometimes mistaken )or sur)ace hoar+ 3echanical #ro#erties@ Beha&es like a thin layer o) sur)ace hoar=makes a nasty *eak layer+ /istribution #attern@ 6i%h:ele&ation sun:eBposed slopes, none on shady slopes+ Cli-ates@ -ommon in continental, some*hat common in intermountain, and rare in maritime eBcept at hi%her ele&ations+ 8ersistence@ 'orms a persistent *eak layer that can last )or days or *eeks, dependin% on temperature+ .orecastin* consi'erations@ Althou%h at mid:latitudes sun:eBposed slopes tend to be more stable than shady ones in mid*inter, they can still )orm a nasty and persistent *eak layer that commonly surprises people+ Surface Hoar P0"; Sur)ace hoar=like millions o) tiny potato chips ?Wasatch Dan%e, 3tah@ $ Bruce Tremper Sur)ace hoar is 4ust a )ancy name )or )rost+ 1t doesnCt )all )rom the sky, it %ro*s on the sur)ace o) the sno* on clear, calm, and humid ni%hts+ Sur)ace hoar is probably the trickiest *eak layer on the planet+ Statistically, it accounts )or more accidents than any other kind o) *eak layer ?see 'i%ure ;:1@+ Sur)ace hoar on a slippery ice crust is probably the scariest situation o) all+ When buried, itCs eBtremely persistent, &ery sensiti&e, and can produce a&alanches on surprisin%ly %entle slopes+ The take:home point here is that sur)ace hoar is thin, hard to detect, pockety, lon%:lastin%, and &ery scary+ How 4t .or-s 1) youC&e )or%otten the discussion on radiation and sno* sur)ace temperature in -hapter #, )lip back and reread it because radiation is *hat causes sur)ace hoar and you need to ha&e a )irm %rasp o) the concepts+ .urin% a clear sky, the sno* in the shade or at ni%ht radiates a tremendous amount o) heat and the sno* sur)ace becomes &ery cold+ Since *e kno* )rom earlier in this chapter that *arm air

holds more *ater &apor than cold air, the &apor )rom the *armer air abo&e the sno* *ill condense onto the sur)ace o) the sno* and, &oila, *e ha&e sur)ace hoar+ Sur)ace hoar is simply the *inter eAui&alent o) de*+ (eBt, *e need humid air and, )inally, *e need the last in%redient, calm air+ Too much *ind *ill destroy the )ra%ile sur)ace hoar crystals, plus, too much *ind doesnCt allo* the cold air to pool and become humid+ Actually about ; km<hr ?" mph@ is best )or sur)ace hoar production because itCs 4ust )ast enou%h to brin% a continuous supply o) humid air to the sno* sur)ace but not too )ast to destroy it ?'i%ure ;:1#@+ /istribution 8attern of Surface Hoar With this kno*led%e o) both radiation and humidity in mind, letCs see *here *e *ill most likely )ind sur)ace hoar a)ter a clear, calm ni%ht+ 'irst, the sno* must be eBposed to a clear sky+ This means that sur)ace hoar doesnCt %ro* under a canopy o) thick e&er%reen trees, *hich disrupt the back: radiation process+ 6o*e&er, sur)ace hoar %ro*s 4ust )ine in a sparse %ro&e o) aspen trees because they donCt block much radiation+ What about humidityG We kno* that cold air sinks and *ith cold, clear conditions, cold air *ill pool in the bottom o) a &alley or a mountain basin+ 'i%ure ;:1#+ Sur)ace hoar )ormation When air cools it becomes more humid, thus, sur)ace hoar tends to )orm more at lo*er ele&ations or especially in the bottom o) mountain basins and not nearly as much on mountaintops or rid%es+ We also )ind thick layers o) sur)ace hoar near open streams because they pro&ide such a constant &apor source+ (ormally *e eBpect more a&alanche dan%er the hi%her *e %o on a mountain because thereCs more sno* and more *ind+ But *ith sur)ace hoar as a *eak layer, counterintuiti&ely, o)ten more dan%er eBists at lo*er ele&ations, *hich commonly surprises people *ho arenCt accustomed to sur)ace hoar+ What happens i) the air in the &alley bottom becomes so humid it turns into )o%G ?Demember, the sno* sur)ace has to be eBposed to a clear sky to )orm sur)ace hoar+@ 1) the )o% is thick enou%h, it pre&ents sur)ace hoar )rom )ormin%+ With a thin )o%, sur)ace hoar %ro*s like cra8y+ /etCs say the )o% is thick, perhaps "00 meters ?1000 &ertical )eet@, *hich is usually thick enou%h to pre&ent sur)ace hoar )rom )ormin% on the &alley )loor+ 1t can )orm alon% the top o) the )o% layer, thou%h, *here *e still ha&e the per)ect conditions )or sur)ace hoar+ So like a bathtub rin%, in the mornin% *e o)ten see a thick layer o) sur)ace hoar alon% the top o) the )o% layer+ I)ten you see this same bathtub:rin% e))ect alon% the top layer o) stratus clouds that are lo* enou%h )or the mountaintops to rise abo&e them ?'i%ure ;:1;@+ 'i%ure ;:1;+ 0Bample o) sur)ace hoar %ro*in% under an in&ersion layer+ P+0"> A typical a&alanche on sur)ace hoar+ This one *as sli%htly *ind:a))ected mo* o&erloadin% &ery *eak sur)ace hoar+ 1t *as &ery sensiti&e to tri%%ers and so unstable it broke abo&e the steepest part o) the breako&er=hi%her than a&alanches usually break+ ?Alaska@ $ .ou% 'esler Ince )ormed, sur)ace hoar is &ery )ra%ile, and e&en a li%ht *ind can blo* it a*ay+ Because the *ind can remo&e sur)ace hoar )rom some areas and lea&e it in others, once buried, it can be de&ilishly di))icult to detect+ A sno*pit in one place mi%ht sho* nothin% suspicious *hile one " meters a*ay mi%ht sho* a &ery )ra%ile layer+ We donCt )ind as much sur)ace hoar on mountaintops, not only because o) the a)orementioned humidity di))erences but also because the *ind blo*s more on mountaintops and rid%es than in &alleys+ Sur)ace hoar )orms much more commonly in maritime climates than in continental climates because it needs humid air+ 1n arctic and subarctic latitudes, sur)ace hoar %ro*s all day lon% since the sun is so *eak in mid*inter+ 1 ha&e seen *idespread areas o) 10: to 20:centimeters:thick sur)ace hoar crystals in Alaska, in the bottom o) mountain basins+ 3echanical 8ro#erties of Surface Hoar Sur)ace hoar makes perhaps the per)ect a&alanche *eak layer+ 1tCs thin, &ery *eak, notoriously persistent, and commonly )orms on hard bed sur)aces, *hich are also slippery+ 'inally, thin, *eak layers tend to )ail more easily because any shear de)ormation *ithin the sno*pack is concentrated into a small area+ Sur)ace hoar can )ail either by collapse or in shear+ 1t can )ail in collapse i) the ne* sno* is added slo*ly and the sur)ace hoar crystals remain standin% up like columns+ When critically loaded, 4ust one thump and all the columns collapse catastrophically, like the old colle%e trick *here you can stand on an upri%ht, empty beer can *ithout crushin% it, but one tap o) a )in%er and=crunchJ=ready )or the recycle bin+ 1n )act, this is probably the most common scenario )or sur)ace hoar, as *ell as other persistent *eak layers5 o)ten the )irst or second storm on top o) a sur)ace hoar layer doesnCt *ei%h

enou%h to o&erload it, but the third or )ourth storm )inally adds up to the critical *ei%ht+ WhamoJ 9ust like the colle%e beer can eBperiment+ Sur)ace hoar can also )ail in shear *hen the )irst sno*)all lays the sur)ace hoar crystals o&er on their sideE they remain as a paper:thin discontinuity in the sno*pack *ith &ery poor bondin% across that layer+ These laid:o&er crystals, ho*e&er, tend to bond up more Auickly than the ones that remain standin% on end+ .orecastin* Consi'erations Sur)ace hoar crystals are notoriously persistent in the sno*pack+ 1nstabilities commonly last )or a *eek or t*o and up to months in cold sno*packs+ The best *ay to deal *ith sur)ace hoar is to care)ully map it e&ery time it )orms be)ore ne* sno* co&ers it up+ Anytime *e ha&e sur)ace hoar on the sno* sur)ace and 1 kno* a storm is on the *ay, 1 duti)ully march around and care)ully notice *here it still eBists and *here either the sun has melted it a*ay or the *ind has destroyed it, and 1 document it )or )uture re)erence+ As you can ima%ine, this in)ormation literally takes on li)e:and:death importance durin% each successi&e loadin% e&ent+ 6ere is another tricky situation *ith sur)ace hoar+ .urin% a sno*storm, it mi%ht be sno*in% and cloudy *hen you %o to bed and still sno*in% and cloudy *hen you *ake up+ But durin% the ni%ht, unbekno*nst to you, the *inds died do*n, the sky cleared )or a )e* hours, and a thin layer o) sur)ace hoar )ormed+ The neBt day, youCll notice sensiti&e so)t:slab a&alanches *ithin the ne* sno*+ FouCll eBpect them to calm do*n a)ter a day like usual, but instead, they last )or se&eral days+ Fou di% to in&esti%ate and )ind the culprit+ .arn that sneaky sur)ace hoarJ Surface Hoar Su--ary Also calle'@ 6oar )rost, )rost, )eathers+ 1ooks like@ Sparkly, )lat, )eatherlike or *ed%e:shaped or platelike, stepped, striated crystals= sometimes mistaken )or )acets or stellar sno* that )alls )rom the sky+ .or-e' by@ -lear sky, li%ht to calm *ind, humid air+ /istribution #attern@ Ipen areas *ithout thick trees or sparse trees eBposed to a clear skyE lo*er ele&ations as opposed to upper ele&ationsE the bottoms o) mountain basinsE beneath thin )o% layer, the top o) a thick )o% layer, or stratus cloud layerE shady, calm areasE near streams+ 8ersistence5 0Btremely persistent *eak layer=one *eek to months dependin% on temperature+ 0specially persistent and dan%erous *hen on top o) a )irm ice crust+ Best snow#it tests@ Sho&el shear test or compression test+ /ook at the bottom o) the block to see the crystals+ .orecastin* considerations5 -are)ully map the distribution o) sur)ace hoar be)ore it is buried by subseAuent sno*+ Be suspicious o) it *ith each loadin% e&ent+ Wet Snow Most pro)essionals make a hard distinction bet*een dry sno* and *et sno*+ Althou%h dry sno* and *et sno* a&alanches eBist on a continuum )rom dry sno* to damp sno* to *et sno*, itCs only natural to dra* a distinct line bet*een them because they are such di))erent beasts alto%ether+ Wet a&alanches are tri%%ered di))erently, they mo&e di))erently, theyCre )ormed by di))erent conditions, you )orecast )or them di))erently, their deposits are di))erent, and the scars they lea&e on the &e%etation are di))erent+ 'irst, letCs start *ith ho* *et a&alanches )orm, )ail, and )racture+ Decall )rom -hapter 2, the main di))erence bet*een *et and dry a&alanches is that dry a&alanches are caused by o&erloadin% the stren%th o) buried *eak layers *hile *et a&alanches are caused by decreasin% the stren%th o) buried *eak layers+ To understand the di))erence bet*een dry sno* and *et sno*, %o to the store and buy a bunch o) %rapes+ 1n this analo%y, the %rapes are the sno* %rains and the %rape&ines are the crystalline bonds bet*een them+ When *ater percolates throu%h the sno*pack, it dissol&es the bonds bet*een crystals= the more saturated the sno*, the more it dissol&es the bonds, thus, dramatically decreasin% the stren%th o) the sno*+ 1n our %rape analo%y, *hen you *ash the %rapes, ima%ine that the %rape&ines dissol&e, lea&in% you *ith nothin% but )ree:)loatin% %rapes+ Why doesnCt all saturated sno* instantly a&alancheG Part o) the reason comes )rom the bondin% po*er o) *ater itsel)+ 1n the /illiputian *orld o) sno* crystals, a tiny bead o) *ater clin%in% bet*een the %rains ser&es as a *eak H%lueH because o) the Hsur)ace tensionH o) *ater+ Sur)ace tension means that *ater tends to clin% to itsel), kind o) like %ra&ity, *hich is *hy rain comes do*n as discrete drops instead o) )allin% as a )o%+ The sur)ace tension o) *ater can hold *et sno* to%ether e&en a)ter sno* %rain bonds dissol&e, but itCs only a &ery *eak %lue+

Try this eBperiment5 ,o to a slushy pond and %rab a hand)ul o) completely *et, so%%y sno*, but donCt make a sno*ball+ The loose sno* sticks to%ether because o) the )orce o) the sur)ace tension o) *ater+ (o* sAuee8e the sno* into a sno*ball+ SAuee8in% to%ether melts the sno* *here the %rains touch each other, and releasin% the pressure instantly )ree8es the sno* at these points o) contact+ 1n other *ords, most *et sno* is held to%ether not only by tiny beads o) *ater but also by sno* %rain bonds bet*een the %rains, *hich can dissol&e &ery easily, *hich brin%s us to the )inal part o) the eBperiment+ Put the sno*ball back in the puddle o) slush, and notice that it doesnCt take lon% )or the *ater to dissol&e the ice bonds bet*een the %rains+ When you )lood the ca&erns in the pore spaces bet*een the %rains, thereCs no more sur)ace tension because thereCs no more sur)ace+ As a double *hammy, the *ater Auickly dissol&es the bonds bet*een the %rains, and as a triple *hammy, the ice particles ha&e suddenly become buoyant=)loatin% in the *ater like tiny iceber%s+ 1n other *ords, *hen sno* becomes saturated, it Auickly loses stren%th and can no lon%er hold up the *ei%ht o) o&erlyin% sno*+ A *et slu)) or a *et slab a&alanche )ractures out and heads do*n the mountainside like a %iant mar%arita+ P0"2 Sno* sub4ected to stron% rain or stron% meltin% )orms &ertical percolation columns *here *ater drains to lo*er le&els+ These )ro8en columns *ere then eBhumed by *ind erosion, %i&in% us a rare &ie* o) percolation columns+ ?Alaska@ $ .ou% 'esler (ote on %lide a&alanches5 ,lide occurs *hen the entire sno*pack slo*ly slides on the underlyin% %round=similar to a %lacier=usually o&er the course o) se&eral days+ These %lide slabs can release catrastrophically more or less at random+ ParadoBically, they seem to sho* a pre)erence )or releasin% durin% colder temperatures or )ree8in% )ollo*in% a protracted period o) meltin%+ Fou should treat %lide cracks like ice)alls=donCt lin%er beneath them+ What Causes the Snow to Beco-e Saturate'7 'irst, *ater must percolate throu%h the sno*pack+ The *ater comes )rom either rain or meltin% o) the sno* sur)ace ?*arm temperature or stron% sun@+ When *ater percolates throu%h the sno*pack, it can either pool up abo&e a less permeable crust or it encounters a less permeable *eak layer that acts like a spon%e and soaks up the *ater+ 'ine:%rained ne* sno* and buried *ind slabs especially tend to ha&e a spon%elike Auality ?'i%ure ;:1>@+ )ain on Snow Dain on sno* does not al*ays cause a&alanches+ 1t depends on the preeBistin% sno*+ 'ine: %rained sno* soaks up rain like a spon%e, Auickly loses stren%th, and causes almost instant a&alanchin%+ Ild, lar%er:%rained sno*, especially sno* that has already been rained on, is more permeable and the *ater tends to )lo* throu%h it instead o) poolin% up+ Ilder melt:)ree8e sno* is especially permeable+ The )irst *ater that percolates throu%h a cold, dry sno*pack comes as Auite a shock+ The )irst time cold, dry sno* *arms up it o)ten produces Hrollerballs,H Hpin*heels,H or Hsno* snailsH that roll do*n the slope, sometimes so bi% that they can bo*l a person o&er+ As meltin% continues, *ater be%ins to percolate throu%h the sno*pack+ When it encounters ice layers or spon%elike layers o) )iner:%rained sno*, the *ater pools up, *hich causes *et slab a&alanches or *et loose sno* a&alanches+ A)ter some time, ran%in% )rom hours to days, the layers be%in to dissol&e, sno* %rains %ro* in si8e, and draina%e channels )orm so that *ater can more e))iciently drain throu%h the sno*+ The sno* be%ins to stabili8e+ When rain: or sun:melted sno* percolates throu%h old melt:)ree8e sno* that has already been sub4ected to percolatin% *ater the sno*pack says, H(o problem+ Been there+ .one that+ 1 can handle it+H The bottom line5 The )irst )e* hours o) rain on ne* sno* are the most dan%erous+ By the second day, most likely the sno* *ill ha&e stabili8ed or already slid+ Sun on Snow 1n continental and intermountain climates, rain on sno* thank)ully occurs &ery rarely, so most *et a&alanches occur )rom heatin% by the sun, usually in sprin%+ 'i%ure ;:1>+ T*o common eBamples o) *et slab a&alanches A typical sprin% *et a&alanche cycle o)ten plays out like this5 Warm sun on ne* sno* makes the usual round o) pin*heels and shallo*er *et sno* slu))s o)) steep cli))s, especially o)) rocks that *arm up in the heat o) the sun+ As the meltin% continues, the *ater reaches impermeable ice layers or saturates *eak layersE then lar%er, *et loose sno* a&alanches, *et slab a&alanches, or %lide a&alanches be%in breakin% out+ This can take se&eral hours to se&eral days, dependin% on conditions+ A)ter se&eral days o) melt *ater percolatin% throu%h the sno*pack, the sno*pack stabili8es because o) the a)orementioned establishment o) draina%e channelsE the de&elopment o) more porous, lar%e:%rained

sno*E and the dissol&in% o) ice layers ?'i%ure ;:12@+ 1n temperate climates, the south:)acin% slopes are usually the )irst to slide in a sprin%time *et a&alanche cycle and the )irst to stabili8e a)ter*ard+ As sprin% pro%resses, the east: and *est:)acin% slopes %o throu%h the *et slide cycle, until late in the sprin%, the north )aces )inally *arm up enou%h to %o throu%h a *et slide cycle+ Sun:induced *et slide cycles tend to start on one side o) the mountain, *ork their *ay around to either side, and )inally end up on the cold side o) the mountain o&er the course o) a month or t*o each sprin%+ ?See also -hapter >, 'i%ure >:11+@ 'i%ure ;:12+ A typical li)e cycle o) a col'D dry sno*pack that transfor-s into a stableD isothermal sno*pack Wet Snow Su--ary Also calle'@ Melt:)ree8e, corn sno*, clustered sno*, mashed potatoes ?*hen ne* sno* %ets *et@+ 1ooks like@ Shiny, )orms damp or *et sno*balls+ .or-e' by@ 'ree *ater in the sno*pack caused by rain, sun, or *arm temperatures+ /istribution #attern@ Belo* rain:sno* line, sunny slopes, all slopes in *arm temperatures+ 8ersistence@ 3sually short:li&ed, *ithin a day or t*o+ /on%er )or %lide a&alanches+ .orecastin* consi'erations@ What is the porosity o) the sno*G Percolation throu%h ne* sno* or )ine:%rained old sno* causes a&alanchin%, *hile percolation throu%h sno* that has already been sub4ect to )ree *ater usually doesnCt cause a&alanchin%+ Best stability tests@ Sno*pit tests donCt *ork &ery *ell since *et sno* is so transient+ Best to closely *atch the *eather and other clues ?ho* )ar are you sinkin% inG@+

CHA8TE) $ > STAB414T6

(ature does not re&eal its secrets+ 1t only responds to a method o) Auestionin%+ =Werner 6eisenbur% /ike almost e&erythin% in the uni&erse, the sno*pack stru%%les throu%h its li)e in a constant state o) con)lict bet*een opposin% )orces+ 1 like to think o) the sno*pack as a )urniture mo&er tryin% to carry di))erent kinds o) household appliances+ The )urniture mo&er represents all the )orces that hold a slab in place ?sno* %rain bonds, )riction, and anchors@+ The household appliances represent all the )orces that try to make the *eak layer )racture ?the *ei%ht on top o) the *eak layer and the shear stress on the *eak layer@=in other *ords, stren%th &ersus stress+ 1n &ery stable conditions, a bi%, burly )urniture mo&er carries an empty cardboard boB+ 1n less stable conditions, the burly )urniture mo&er carries a micro*a&e o&en+ When thin%s are &ery unstable, Mr+ Burly is tryin% to carry a re)ri%erator+ 1n other *ords, *e ha&e the same stren%th, but di))erent stress ?'i%ure >:1@+ Also notice that *e can t*eak the eAuation )rom the other side+ The burly %uy can carry the re)ri%erator or a *impy little %uy could try to carry the re)ri%erator ?same stress, di))erent stren%th@+ .i))erent process but same result+ When *e do stability analysis, our 4ob is to )i%ure out *here *e sit in the con)lict bet*een stress and stren%th+ The bad ne*s is that *eCre not only dealin% *ith hundreds o) di))erent combinations bet*een slabs and *eak layers, but *eCre dealin% *ith somethin% thatCs in&isible+ The %ood ne*s is that most o) the time the in&isible becomes &isible throu%h obser&ations and tests, but only as lon% as you kno* ho* to ask the Auestions and listen )or the ans*ers+ 1n this chapter, *eCll eBplore a number o) simple obser&ations and tests that can re&eal sno* stability+ 9ud%in% sno* stability is a lot more like playin% a %iant %ame o) -oncentration than usin% any rules o) thumb+ 1n other *ords, you ne&er, e&er %et all the pieces o) the pu88le in )ront o) you at one time=you ha&e to )ill in the missin% pieces *ith your ima%ination+ The more kno*led%e and skill you ha&e, the easier the %ame becomes+ 1n other *ords, stability e&aluation means inte%ratin% a lot o) di))erent pieces o) in)ormation=puttin% the pieces o) the pu88le to%ether in an or%ani8ed *ay+ /atchin% onto 4ust one test or obser&ation and basin% your *hole opinion on that one test is a serious mistake=kind o) like decidin% to %et married on the )irst date+ Bad mistake+ (o, you need to shop around, do some home*ork, put them throu%h a ri%orous series o) stress tests, tra&el )or a month in a third *orld country, meet the in:la*s, remodel the kitchen to%ether+ Then youCll ha&e a lot better idea *hether to in&est your li)e in this person=or, in this case, in&est your li)e in the slope you are about to cross+ 'i%ure >:1+ Stron% sno*packs can support lar%e amounts o) stress, but *eak sno*packs are easily o&erloaded by the same stress+ Please donCt 8ero in on any one o) these tests and obser&ations as the kno*:all and end:all+ The po*er o) sno* stability assessment is in the inte%ration o) the in)ormation, and e&en more important, the *illin%ness to update your preconcei&ed notions *hen the )acts chan%e, *hich is o)ten the hardest part o) all+ Observations Fou can tell a lot about the stability o) the sno*pack by simply obser&in%= bein% a*are o) your surroundin%s+ 6ere are some o) the important clues+ )ecent Avalanches The best si%n o) a&alanches are a&alanchesJ The absolutely best, bulls:eye, top:o):the:list clue that a particular slope is dan%erous is i) you see a recent a&alanche on a similar slope+ 1tCs such an ob&ious clue that many people miss it+ Time a)ter time, *e in&esti%ate a&alanche accidents in *hich the &ictims *alk ri%ht past a recent a&alanche, then %et cau%ht on a slope eBactly like it+ HOT T48B Ine o) the best *ays to learn about a&alanches is to re%ularly do sno* pro)iles on the )lank *all o) a recent a&alanche+ Fou %et to see the beast up close and personal+ 1) you di% in alon% the )racture line, you can see the eBact layer that )ractured 4ust minutes, hours, or days a%o+ .onCt pass up these opportunities+ Also, itCs usually sa)e to %o into an a&alanche path a)ter it has slid *ith some

eBceptions+ ?See -hapter on ho* to 4ud%e+@ -a&eat5 Demember that you *onCt )ind the eBact conditions that caused the a&alanche because much o) the time, all the unstable sno* is no* in the debris pile+ The stable sno* tends to %et le)t behind+ 1n my eBperience, you *ill almost al*ays )ind more stable conditions in the cro*n and the )lank *all than you *ould eBpect+ 1C&e )ound that )lank *alls %i&e much more representati&e in)ormation than cro*n )aces+ Fou can probably )ind the most representati&e conditions in the neBt a&alanche path o&er=the one *ith the same aspect and ele&ation as the one that 4ust slid=and yes, that should set o)) alarm bells in your head because that slope is eBtremely dan%erous+ ,ood ne*s=bad ne*s+ Colla#sin* -ollapsin% sno* ?sometimes mistakenly called settlement@ is *hen the sno*:pack collapses under you *ith a loud W6IIMP6+ ?Actually, *hoomph has been adopted by the -anadians as a technical term to describe collapsin% sno*+@ Whoomphin% is the sound o) Mother (ature screamin% in your ear that the sno*pack is unstable and i) you %ot a similar collapse on a slope that *as steep enou%h to slide, it *ouldnCt hesitate to do so+ -ollapsin% sno* occurs *hen your *ei%ht is enou%h to catastrophically collapse a buried *eak layer, *hich is most commonly depth hoar or sur)ace hoar+ Fou can easily brin% a&alanches do*n )rom abo&e in collapsin% sno* conditions+ When the *eak layer is already holdin% up the *ei%ht o) a si%ni)icant amount o) sno* and 4ust the *impy addition o) your *ei%ht can collapse all the sno* in sometimes a &ery lar%e area and cause it to propa%ate lon% distances, then itCs bi%:time scary out thereJ Crackin* P0"! -ollapsin% sno* is an ob&ious si%n o) instability+ 6ere the le)t side o) this sur)ace hoar layer has collapsed+ $ Bruce 9amieson -rackin% is the sno* eAui&alent o) the bu88 )rom a rattlesnake+ Take one more step and youCre in trouble+ -rackin% sno* means that your *ei%ht is not only o&erloadin% a buried *eak layer but the slab is also storin% enou%h elastic ener%y to propa%ate a )racture+ Ince a%ain, Mother (ature is screamin% in your ear=you can tri%%er an a&alanche i) youCre in the *ron% place+ ,enerally, the lon%er the crack, the *orse it is+ Stop+ .onCt %o any )arther+ -heck out *hatCs %oin% on+ Fou may ha&e to choose another route+ We see crackin% mostly in )resh *ind slabs, but it can occur in many other kinds o) instabilities+ 1 like to take students to small test slopes that ha&e been recently *ind loaded, like a 10: )oot:hi%h road cut, and let them 4ump on the *ind slabs to %et a )eel )or them+ 1tCs an important skill to de&elop=reco%ni8in% *ind slabs, kno*in% the )eel o) them, kno*in% ho* they crack, reco%ni8in% that cracks mean dan%er+ ?See -hapter " )or details on ho* to reco%ni8e *ind slabs+@ Hollow Soun's Similar to crackin%, hollo* sounds usually mean that you are standin% on a slab ?the drum skin@ and thereCs not much underneath them+ Wind slabs on top o) so)t sno* usually sound hollo* as *ell as a lot o) other kinds o) instabilities+ .i% do*n and in&esti%ate or 4ump on test slopes to test the sensiti&ity o) the *ind slab+ 3nlike crackin%, hollo* sounds do not al*ays indicate dan%er, but you should de)initely ha&e your a&alanche eyeballs on+ ?See -hapter " )or details on ho* to reco%ni8e *ind slabs+@ ?olunteer Stability Testers The mountains are increasin%ly )illed *ith &olunteer stability testers= sno*mobilers, skiers, climbers, sno*boarders, sno*shoers, hunters, hikers, helicopter skiers, )ilm cre*s, and Boy Scout troops, as *ell as )allin% cornices, )allin% seracs, and slu))s+ 1) &olunteer stability testers make it do*n *ithout tri%%erin% an a&alanche, then the chances are better that you *ill too=not %uaranteed, remember=but tracks are almost al*ays better than no tracks+ Decall the discussion about tri%%er points+ Perhaps the )irst 10 people on a slope 4ust didnCt )ind the tender area=the lynchpin that *ill set e&erythin% in motion+ Also, ho* old are the tracksG The older the better, since that much time has passed since the slope *as loaded by ne* or *indblo*n sno* and tested by &olunteers+ ?The sno*pack has had time to ad4ust to its load+@ There are not too many rules o) thumb in the a&alanche business, but one o) them is this5 1) 9oe ,narly Po*der Pi% *ants )irst tracks, let him ha&e it+ 1 al*ays try to %o last=ne&er )irst+ 1 ha&e a million eBcuses=eatin% my lunch, )iddlin% around *ith my sno*mobile or skis, or %ettin% on the cell phone to Hcall in a report+H This is your li)e *eCre talkin% about here+

Avalanche Weather Weather that creates dry slab a&alanches includes rapid chan%es to the mechanical or thermal ener%y state o) the sno*pack, such as *ind loadin%, loadin% o) ne* sno*, or rapid temperature rise o) the slab+ Also, *hat *as the ma%nitude and the rate o) chan%e and ho* lon% has it been since any o) these a&alanche:producin% conditions ha&e occurredG ?6as the sno*pack had enou%h time to ad4ust to its loadG@ ?See -hapters 2 and # )or more details+@ 'or *et a&alanches, look )or conditions that *ill produce )ree *ater in the sno*pack+ Dain, sun, or *arm temperatures can make cold, dry sno* damp and start pin*heels, or rollerballs+ With continued or stron%er meltin% o) sur)ace sno*, *ater percolates throu%h the sno*pack and can cause shallo* *et slu))s and *et slabs+ With continued percolation, deeper *et slabs can occur+ ?See -hapters # and ; )or more details+@ Active Tests As an a&alanche pro)essional, 1 spend most o) my career ne&er %ettin% a %ood look at the one thin% 1 *ant to see=the buried *eak layer+ WhyG Because itCs in&isible, hidden beneath the per)ect )acade+ So *e ha&e all kinds o) arti)ice to make the stability o) the sno* re&eal itsel)+ -ountin% all the usual tests, the unusual ones, and their &ariations, 1 ha&e heard o) at least a hundred *ays to test sno* stability+ 6ere 1Cll list only those tests that )it my criteria+ 'irst, the test has to actually *ork+ Second, it has to be Auick=; minutes maBimum+ Third, it must be simple and li%ht*ei%ht+ (o %i8mos+ 1 like to %o )ast, co&er a lot o) %round, and do a lot o) tests in a lot o) places+ Plus, sno* stability tests canCt resemble drud%ery or no one *ill do them+ P0" -rackin% sno* is bad ne*s+ .onCt take another step+ ?Wasatch Dan%e, 3tah@ $ Bruce Tremper Ski 8ole Test 91 to " secon's: Push your ski pole or ice aB into the sno*, )eelin% the unseen layers belo*+ Most a&alanche pro)essionals do this dosens=sometimes hundreds=o) times per day+ With hard sno*, use the handle: end o) the ski pole+ Demember that you are dealin% *ith the in&isible here, so you are like a blind person+ 3se your *hite cane to HseeH the unseen ?'i%ure >:2@+ A'vanta*es K Fou can per)orm hundreds o) tests per day+ K Works *ell *ith depth hoar and )aceted sno*, especially in shallo* sno*packs+ K Works *ell )or density in&ersions *ithin the ne* sno*+ /isa'vanta*es K .oesnCt detect sur)ace hoar *ell+ K .oesnCt *ork *ell )or deeper *eak layers, thin layers, or *eak inter)aces+ K Sno*mobilers and sno*boarders donCt carry ski poles+ Han' Shear Test 9also calle' Ar-#it Test: 9" to 2, secon's: A)ter a storm, 1 *ill do this do8ens o) times as 1Cm tra&elin% alon%+ .i% out a small hole *ith your hand, and then on the uphill side, sa* out a small sAuare o) sno* *ith either your hand or the handle:end o) a ski pole+ Pull to see ho* *ell the sur)ace slab is bonded to the underlyin% sno*+ A'vanta*es K Fou can per)orm do8ens o) tests per day+ K Works *ell *ith ne* sno* instabilities+ K Works *ell *ith shallo* *eak layers+ /isa'vanta*e K Inly %ood )or shallo* *eak layers+ Ste##in* Above the Ski Track 9" to 2, secon's: When )ollo*in% a dia%onal or hori8ontal ski track, step abo&e the trail and try to kick some sur)ace sno* onto the trail belo*+ Ir kick the sno* at the apeB o) each s*itchback+ 1) the lo*er track penetrates throu%h the slab, it can also be a Auick *ay to test the brid%in% ability o) the slab+ A'vanta*e K Fou can per)orm do8ens o) tests per day+ P0#0 A Auick test o) sur)ace layers5 -ut out a small block and tu% on it+ ?Wasatch Dan%e,

3tah@ $ Bruce Tremper Slo#e Cuts 9also calle' Ski Cuts: ?; to 20 seconds@ Ski cuts ha&e been a standard techniAue amon% ski patrollers and helicopter ski %uides )or decades+ But sno*boarders and sno*mobilers can do them as *ell, so 1 call them slope cuts ?see %lossary@ instead o) ski cuts+ The theory is i) you do tri%%er an a&alanche, your momentum *ill help to carry you o)) the mo&in% slab, *hich helps minimi8e the chances o) %ettin% cau%ht+ ?See -hapter ! )or more details+@ A'vanta*es K Puick+ K ,ood )or so)t ne* sno* *ith shallo* *eak layers+ K Sno*mobilers, sno*boarders, and skiers can do them+ /isa'vanta*es K (ot &ery e))ecti&e on hard slabs or deep *eak layers+ .an%erous i) done improperly or *ithout a belay rope on paths *ith bad conseAuences+ K -limbers and sno*shoers canCt do them+ 'i%ure >:2+ Ski pole probin% Test Slo#es 9( to , secon's: This is my )a&orite backcountry test+ 'ind a small, steep slope *here the conseAuences o) a slide are small, such as a road cut, the side o) a bi% stump, or a small breako&er in the slope+ Then 4ump on the slope to see ho* it responds+ 1) you %et an a&alanche on the test slope, *hat does that tell you about the bi% slope you *ere headed )or *ith eBactly the same steepness and aspectG A test slope is a %i)t )rom the a&alanche %ods+ .onCt e&er pass a test slope *ithout 4umpin% on it+ Demember that e&en on small slopes, itCs possible to %et buried+ Al*ays ha&e your partner *atch )rom a sa)e spot+ A'vanta*es K 0asy:to:interpret results+ K Delati&ely sa)e+ K Puick+ K 0&eryone can do them=sno*mobilers, skiers, sno*boarders, climbers, and sno*shoers+ /isa'vanta*es K .an%erous i) done on slopes *ith dan%erous conseAuences+ K (ot a %ood test o) deep *eak layers, especially ones o&erlain by hard slabs because o) the compressi&e support )rom the bottom+ P0#1 Test slopes, my )a&orite test5 .onCt pass by these sources o) &aluable in)ormation+ By 4umpin% on small, sa)e slopes, you can %et an idea o) *hether the bi%, dan%erous slopes are likely to kill you+ $ Bruce Tremper K Because o) compressi&e support )rom the bottom o) a small slope, hard slabs are especially hard to tri%%er on small slopes and may not be representati&e o) lar%er slopes+ Tilt Test 92, to $, secon's: This has lon% been a standard test )or ne* sno* instability at study plots, such as )or hi%h*ay a&alanche )orecasters+ Simply cut out a sAuare o) ne* sno* the same dimensions as the blade o) your sho&el+ Slide the sho&el blade under the block and pick it up+ Tilt the sho&el blade on ed%e pro%ressi&ely steeper and steeper *hile tappin% li%htly on the bottom o) the sho&el until the sno* )ails+ 6old the bottom o) the column *ith your hand so that the column doesnCt 4ust slide o)) the sho&el+ The steeper the tilt, the more stable the sno*+ Fou can measure the an%le *ith an inclinometer i) you *ant an eBact number+ A'vanta*es K Puanti)iable ?you can put a number on it@ i) you use an inclinometer+ K Works *ell *ith ne* sno* instabilities+ /isa'vanta*e K .oesnCt *ork as *ell )or deeper *eak layers+ Cornice Test 9" secon's to " -inutes: P0#2 Tilt test5 Take a sample o) sno* and tilt the sho&el steeper and steeper *hile tappin% on the bottom until it )ails+ ?Wasatch Dan%e, 3tah@ $ 6o*ie ,arber<Wanderlust 1ma%es SAueamish )olks or laypeople mi%ht think cornice tests are dan%erous ?and they can be i) done improperly@, but they ha&e been standard techniAues )or decades amon% ski patrollers, helicopter ski

%uides, and especially climbers+ -ornices are the Hbombs o) the backcountry+H 'irst, make sure no one is belo* you=&ery important+ (eBt, )ind a cornice that *ei%hs si%ni)icantly more than a person and knock it do*n the slope+ A cornice the si8e o) a re)ri%erator or a small car bouncin% do*n a slope pro&ides an eBcellent stability test+ The smaller the cornice, the less e))ecti&e the test+ Fou can kick the cornice, sho&el it, or best o) all, cut it *ith a sno* sa* mounted on the end o) a ski pole+ With lar%er cornices you can use a parachute cord *ith knots tied in it e&ery )oot or so, *hich acts like teeth on a sa*+ Thro* the cord o&er the cornice or push it o&er the ed%e *ith an a&alanche probe+ Fou can sa* o)) a )airly lar%e cornice in under ; minutes+ 1tCs best to *ork *ith small, )resh cornices, not the lar%e, old hard ones+ Fou can also trundle hea&y rocks do*n the slope i) you canCt )ind a suitable cornice, but rocks are o)ten harder to )ind+ This is also a %reat *ay to create a sa)e descent route durin% &ery unstable conditions+ 1n other *ords, make an a&alanche and use the slide path to descend+ ?See -hapter ! )or more discussion on cornices and cornice:tri%%erin% techniAues+@ -a&eat5 1t doesnCt take much ima%ination to see that knockin% cornices do*n a&alanche paths can be &ery dan%erous+ Al*ays use a belay rope on slopes *ith bad conseAuences and practice your cornice techniAues on sa)e slopes until you %et the techniAues *orked out+ -ornices ha&e a nasty habit o) breakin% )arther back than you think they should+ A'vanta*es K Probably the best test o) a slopeE itCs similar to usin% eBplosi&es+ K 0asy to interpret+ /isa'vanta*es K 7ery dan%erous i) done improperly+ K Small cornices donCt stress the slope enou%h )or a reliable test+ K -ornices arenCt al*ays a&ailable+ Tests for /ee#er Weak 1ayers Most o) the time *e can %ather enou%h in)ormation about the sno*pack *ithout e&er takin% out the dreaded sho&el+ But sometimes the only *ay to %et %ood in)ormation about deeper *eak layers is to %rease up the elbo*s and do some honest *ork+ 1 al*ays di% at least one sno*pit in a representati&e location to %et the %eneral picture o) *hatCs %oin% on in the sno*pack+ Where to /i* a Snow#it Where to di% a sno*pit is probably more important than ho* to di% one+ -hoosin% a representati&e location is an art, and art is di))icult to describe, but here are some pointers+ .i% your pit on a slope most representati&e o) the slope you are interested in but *ithout puttin% yoursel) in dan%er+ I)ten you can )ind a small test slope= one that *onCt kill you i) it does slide+ Ir you can *ork your *ay into pro%ressi&ely more dan%erous terrain+ 'or instance, i) a sno*pit on sa)e terrain %i&es you a %reen li%ht, then it %i&es you the con)idence to di% another one on more dan%erous terrain+ ,reen li%ht thereG Then:mo&e onto e&en more dan%erous terrain, and so on+ (e&er di&e into the middle o) a dan%erous a&alanche path *ithout )ust %atherin% lots o) additional data about the stability o) the slope+ .onCt di% a sno*pit alon% rid%elines *here the *ind has a))ected the sno*= a common mistake+ Althou%h sometimes the cro*n )ace o) an a&alanche may break ri%ht up to the rid%e, the place *here *e most o)ten tri%%er a&alanches is do*n o)) the rid%e+ A&oid areas o) thick trees because conditions are o)ten Auite di))erent there than on open slopes+ A&oid compression 8ones+ A&oid places *here people ha&e compacted the sno*+ P0#" Stop alon% your route on a con&enient slope to di% a sno*pit be)ore you %et to the dan%erous slopes+ ?,allatin (ational 'orest, Montana@ $ /ance Deik Bottom line5 /ook )or neutral, open areas at mid:slope *ithout *ind e))ects+ HOT T48B 3se an a&alanche probe to )ind a representati&e place *ith a&era%e depth+ Pokin% around *ith a probe can sa&e you )rom di%%in% in stupid places like on top o) a rock or tree or *here a pre&ious party had their lunch+ Many ca%ey a&alanche pro)essionals di% their sno*pits 4ust abo&e a tree so they can %rab it i) the slope does slide+ Better yet, tie a belay rope onto that tree and di% belo* the tree+ People donCt tend to ski, sno*board, or sno*mobile 4ust belo* trees+ 1 carry a li%ht*ei%ht belay rope and use it on a re%ular basis+ Most important, di% lots o) sno*pits in lots o) di))erent areas because the sno* can &ary Auite a bit )rom place to place+ /ook )or the pattern o) instability+

How to /i* a Snow#it -ontrary to popular belie), sno*pits donCt ha&e to take a lot o) time+ My philosophy is that i) your )eet %et cold, youCre doin% somethin% *ron%E 1 almost ne&er spend more than 10 minutes in a sno*pit+ Since sno* can sometimes &ary Auite a bit )rom place to place, 1 *ould much rather di% se&eral Auick pits and a&era%e the results than spend "0 minutes in one pit documentin% e&ery detail+ WeCre tryin% to %et the bi% picture here+ .i% one pit, and then mo&e on to another location+ I)ten 1 di% the hole *ithout e&en takin% o)) my skis or board, but it usually helps to at least take o)) the uphill ski or take one )oot out o) the board bindin%+ 'irst, the sho&elin%5 ,et do*n on one knee *hen you sho&el+ 1tCs easier on your back+ Make the hole *ide=about the *idth o) a ski len%th+ .onCt di% a &ertical hole, but instead sho&el out the do*nhill side so you ha&e room to *ork, *hich actually takes less time in the lon% run+ 9ust slide the chunks o) sno* do*nhill on your sho&el *ithout li)tin% it+ This takes only a couple minutes i) youCre on a steep slope ?*here you should be@ and in so)t sno*+ A)ter di%%in% the sno*pit ?*hich %i&es you a lot o) in)ormation in itsel)@ 1 like to 4ust di&e in and )eel *ith my hands+ Some people like to use a little *hisk:broom and %ently brush the *all, but 1Cm a kinesthetic person and 1 like to )eel it *ith my hands alon% the layers, pre)erably on the side *all so you donCt ruin the uphill *all+ 9ust like an eroded rock outcroppin%, notice ho* the *eak layers crumble a*ay *hile the stron% layers remain stickin% out+ Then stand back and see the layers, too+ Demember that this is not 4ust an academic eBercise+ This is your li)e *eCre talkin% about here+ 9ust lookin% and thinkin% *ill not *ork+ -ra*l around, sho&e your arms into the *eak layers+ 'eel it, see it, che* on it, smell it= li&e it+ 3se as many path*ays as possible=be the sno*pack, as they say+ .ust yoursel) o)) ?i) youCre not %ettin% sno* on you, youCre doin% somethin% *ron%@ and care)ully smooth the upper sno*pit *all in preparation )or the &arious stress tests you *ill per)orm+ Make sure itCs smooth and &ertical+ This is important because only %ood tests *ill %i&e you %ood ans*ers+ Whate&er tests you do, they must be done eBactly the same each time so that you can accurately compare one sno*pack to another+ How /ee# to /i* Since itCs di))icult )or humans to tri%%er a&alanches more than about 1+; meters ?; )eet@ thick ?unless they are tri%%ered )rom a shallo*er spot@, 1 seldom di% sno*pits deeper unless 1 kno* that a deeper *eak layer may cause problems+ 0ach situation is a little di))erent and in time you *ill %et a )eel )or it+ 1n %eneral, keep your sno*pits less than 1+; to 2 meters deep unless you kno* o) a %ood reason to %o deeper+ Snow#it Tests 'or almost all o) these sno*pit tests you need to be on a slope o) at least "0 de%rees in steepness+ The optimum steepness is "! de%rees, since thatCs the most dan%erous slope steepness )or slab a&alanches+ 'inally, usin% a sno* sa* makes all these tests %o much )aster, but you can %et by *ithout one in a pinch+ The times listed )or these sno*pit tests donCt include the time o) di%%in% the hole+ Most sno*pits du% in reasonably so)t sno*, *ith a %ood sho&el, and on a steep slope take only a couple minutes+ 6ard sno* may take t*ice that time+ Co-#ression Test 9% fo 2 -inutes: 1 lo&e this test ?and its cousin, the stu)):block test@+ Besides the rutschblock test, itCs about the only one 1 do anymore+ 1tCs Auick, easy to interpret, and *orks )or most kinds o) *eak layers+ Start by isolatin% a column about the same si8e as the blade o) your sho&el, in other *ords, about "0 by "0 centimeters ?1 )oot by 1 )oot@+ Be sure to completely isolate the column+ Take the blade o) your sho&el and lay it )lat on top+ (o* tap on the sho&el blade *ith your hand, tappin% pro%ressi&ely harder until the column )ails+ Start *ith 10 taps by articulatin% )rom your *rist, then 10 more taps by articulatin% )rom your elbo*, then 10 more )rom your shoulder usin% the )ull *ei%ht o) your arm+ .onCt push your arm into the sno*, but let it )all *ith its o*n *ei%ht+ 1n this *ay, the test is some*hat Auanti)iable+ 1n other *ords, it doesnCt depend on H)eelH or the opinion o) the tester, but it has a reproducible number, *hich is more or less the same )or most people and can easily be communicated to others+ 'or instance, perhaps the column )ailed on an easy tap )rom the elbo*, or it )ailed on a moderate tap )rom the elbo* or a hard tap )rom the shoulder+ 1tCs also common to rank *ith a number )rom 1 to "0+ Since sno* stability is dependent on the si8e o) the tri%%er reAuired to make it )ail, this test is especially easy to interpret+ I) course, i) you ha&e an unusually li%ht arm or an unusually hea&y one, you need to take that into account+ Table >:1 ranks the sno* dan%er+

P0## -ompression test or tap test ?Wasatch Dan%e, 3tah@ $ Bruce Tremper Table >:1 )esults What 4t 3eans Breaks *hen articulatin% )rom the *rist ?1:10 taps@ Ded li%ht Breaks *hen articulatin% )rom the elbo* ?11:20 taps@ Fello* li%ht Breaks *hen articulatin% )rom the shoulder ?21:"0 taps@ ,reen li%ht (ote5 Ded, yello*, and %reen li%hts are similar to a stopli%ht+ Ded means donCt %o ?unstable sno*@, yello* means caution, %reen means %o ?stable sno*@+ Stuff;Block Test 9?ariation on the Co-#ression Test: Karl Birkeland and Don 9ohnson o) the ,allatin (ational 'orest A&alanche -enter in Bo8eman, Montana, ha&e de&eloped *hat they call the stu)):block test, *hich is a more Auanti)iable &ersion o) the compression test+ A)ter isolatin% the column, take a stu)) sack, )ill it *ith #+; k% ?10 pounds@ o) sno* ?*ei%h it *ith a li%ht*ei%ht )ishin% scale@, place the sho&el blade on top o) the column, and drop the stu)) sack onto the column )rom pro%ressi&ely %reater hei%hts until the column )ails+ This &ersion is similar to the compression test+ Table >:2 ranks the sno* dan%er+ Table >:2 )esults Breaks *ith drop )rom 20 cm or less Breaks *ith drop )rom 20 to #0 cm Breaks *ith drop )rom o&er #0 cm What 4t 3eans Ded li%ht Fello* li%ht ,reen li%ht

P0#; Stu)):block test ?Wasatch Dan%e, 3tah@ Photo courtesy o) the 3+S+ 'orest Ser&ice A'vanta*es K Puick+ K 0asy to interpret+ K Puanti)iable+ K Works )or any type o) *eak layer, especially e))ecti&e *ith )aceted sno* or sur)ace hoar+ K Works *ell )or non:skiers since you donCt need skis+ /isa'vanta*es K Small sample si8e+ Fou need to do se&eral tests )or consistent results+ K .oesnCt *ork as *ell on )lat slopes+ 1oa'e' Colu-n Test ?1 to 2 minutes@ This is mostly an a&alanche )orecasterCs test that can estimate ho* much additional sno* *ill make a slope a&alanche+ The test is also Auanti)iable ?you can put a number on it@+ In a slope o) at least "0 de%rees, completely isolate a column, it doesnCt matter ho* bi%+ 'latten o)) the top o) the column+ -ut blocks o) sno* the same si8e as the top o) the column and care)ully stack them on top o) the column until it )ails+ The test basically duplicates *hat happens on a slope durin% a storm but in a much shorter time+ The more stable the sno*pack, the more *ei%ht reAuired to make it )ail+ By estimatin% the density o) the added sno*, this test is Auanti)iable+ This test doesnCt su))er )rom any o) the di))iculties in interpretation like the sho&el shear test ?see belo*@, but it does take more time+ P0#> /oaded column test ?Wasatch Dan%e, 3tah@ $ Bruce Tremper P0#2 6utschblock test ?Wasatch Dan%e, 3tah@ Photo courtesy o) the 3+S+ 'orest Ser&ice -a&eat5 1 notice that this test tends to o&erestimate the amount o) ne* sno* reAuired to make a slope a&alanche usually by a )actor o) about t*o, but it depends on the loadin% rate durin% the storm+ 1 ima%ine this is because durin% a storm, the loadin% comes more slo*ly, *hich allo*s strain so)tenin% to occur, *hich decreases the stren%th o) a *eak layer+ So take the numbers you %et )rom this test *ith a %rain o) salt+ Demember, as *ith all sno*pit tests, the absolute numbers are not as important as the comparisons )rom one sno*:pack to the neBt or )rom one time to another+ A'vanta*es K ,ood )orecastin% tool=ho* much sno* *ill make it slideG K 0asy to interpret+ K Some*hat duplicates *hat happens durin% a storm ?but )aster@+ K Puanti)iable+ /isa'vanta*es K Takes more time than the compression test+

K Small sample si8e ?must do many tests )or consistent results@+ K Must estimate or calculate the density o) the sno* blocks added+ K Puick loadin% doesnCt take strain so)tenin% into account+ (umbers tend to o&erestimate the amount o) load reAuired )or a natural a&alanche+ )utschblock Test 9 to " -inutes@ The rutschblock ?pronounced DIIT-6 block@ test has rapidly become the standard sno*pit tests o) choice )or a&alanche pro)essionals+ The main ad&anta%e is that it utili8es a lar%er sample si8e, *hich tends to smooth out any local &ariations in the sno*+ Second, the test is Auanti)iable and easy to interpret+ 'inally, it duplicates the kind o) shock to the sno*pack *hen a person crosses the slope+ 'irst, on a slope o) at least "0 de%rees, completely isolate a block o) sno* about a ski len%th across, and a ski:pole len%th up the slope ?2 meters *ide by 1+; meters upslope@+ Demember to completely isolate the block, includin% cuttin% out the back+ 1) you donCt cut the back, itCs not a rutschblock test+ ?See discussion belo*+@ 1) you use a sno* sa* mounted on the end o) a ski pole, you can usually cut the block in a minute or t*o+ With t*o people *orkin% to%ether *ith sno* sa*s, the 4ob takes about a minute+ Fou can also insert t*o probe poles at the upper corners and run a parachute cord around the outsides o) the probes+ T*o people can %rab each end o) the cord and sa* out the block+ 1t %oes pretty Auickly but you need t*o people+ Fou can also use the tail o) a ski to sa* out the block, but it takes lon%er+ 'inally, you can sho&el out the block, but this takes a &ery lon% time, especially in hard sno*+ 1 think a sno* sa* mounted on the end o) a ski pole *orks best+ 1t doesnCt reAuire t*o people, itCs Auick and li%ht*ei%ht, and you can sa* cornices *ith it=de)initely standard eAuipment )or anyone &enturin% into a&alanche terrain+ (eBt, simply step onto the upper third o) the block *hile *earin% your skis or sno*board and 4ump pro%ressi&ely harder until the block )ails+ Most people rank the test on a scale o) one throu%h se&en+ Table >:" ranks the sno* dan%er+ Table $; Nu-ber 1 2 ! " $ % What Ha##ens 'ails *hile isolatin% the block 'ails *hile steppin% onto the block 'ails *ith an easy *ei%hin% 'ails *ith one easy 4ump 'ails *ith one hard 4ump 'ails *ith se&eral hard 4umps .oesnCt )ail What 1t 3eans Ded li%ht Ded li%ht Ded li%ht Fello* li%ht Fello* li%ht ,reen li%ht ,reen li%ht

A'vanta*es K /ar%e sample si8e makes the test more reliable+ K .uplicates *hat happens *ith a person on the slope+ K 0asy to interpret+ K Puanti)iable+ K Anyone can do it=sno*mobilers, climbers, skiers, sno*boarders, and sno*shoers+ /isa'vanta*es K Takes more time, but *ith the proper sno* sa* not much more time+ K -limbers and sno*mobilers ha&e to do it on )oot, *hich ske*s the results, but itCs still &ery use)ul+ Not Cuttin* the Back of the Block Some people donCt cut out the back o) a rutschblock and they call it a Hthree:sided rutschblock+H Some people )eel that itCs more realistic to not cut out the back because, a)ter all, the slab properties are 4ust as much a part o) the a&alanche eAuation as the characteristics o) the *eak layer+ 6ence, testin% the stren%th o) the slab and the *eak layer at the same time better duplicates ho* the *ei%ht o) a person may tri%%er an a&alanche+ Keep in mind that i) you donCt cut the back, you are testin% the stren%th o) both the slab and the *eak layer at the same time=miBin% apples and oran%es, as it *ere+ 1) you donCt cut out the back, the results *ill o)ten be dramatically di))erent than those *ith a rutschblock test+ The stron%er the slab, the more di))erence bet*een the tests+ This makes it hard to interpret them+ My main pet pee&e *ith not cuttin% the back is that you canCt call it a rutschblock, because itCs not+ 1) you donCt cut out the back, call it another name+ (ame it a)ter your do% or somethin%, but donCt

call it a rutschblock+ Shovel Shear Test 9 , secon's to 1 -inute: The %ood:old sho&el shear test has been tau%ht in almost e&ery a&alanche class since the da*n o) time but, un)ortunately, it is o)ten the only test tau%ht in many classes+ 0&en the in&entors o) the test a%ree that it may be %ood )or )indin% and identi)yin% *eak layers, but itCs not &ery %ood )or determinin% the stability P0#! Sho&el shear test ?Wasatch Dan%e, 3tah@ $ Bruce Tremper o) the sno*pack+ (e&ertheless, 4 still do it because itCs a %ood test )or )indin% sur)ace hoar and itCs one o) the only tests that *orks *ell on a )lat slope, )or instance, *hen youCre in camp or ha&in% lunch+ Make &ertical cuts *ith your sno* sa* in the sno*pit *all about the same *idth as your sho&el+ Then turn your sno* sa* &e rtically and cut behind the column about "0 to >0 centimeters ?1 to 2 )eet@ do*n+ .o not cut the *hole column+ (o* insert your sho&el behind the column and pull it to*ard you until it )ails ?'i%ure >:"@+ .onCt le&er on the sho&el, but pull it strai%ht to*ard you+ Then remo&e the block and cut another "0 to >0 centimeters ?1 to 2 )eet@ do*n, and pull a%ain, and so on, until you reach the bottom o) the column+ Pay attention only to the smooth, strai%ht shears that pop out easily, and rank the shears as easy, moderate, hard, and so on+ Turn each block upside do*n to see *hat *eak layer *as in&ol&ed+ 'i%ure >:"+ Sho&el shear test This test is hard to interpret because you are remo&in% the o&erlyin% sno* be)ore you test each layer+ There)ore, you )ind that the deeper *eak layers tend to be stron%er because they must support the load o) o&erlyin% sno*+ This )actor is di))icult to take into account+ 1n my eBperience, most be%inners usin% the sho&el shear test tend to consistently o&errate the dan%er+ 1n addition, because o) the small sample si8e, you need to do many tests to %et a true )eel )or the stability o) the sno*+ A'vanta*es K Works on a )lat slope+ K ,ood test )or identi)yin% *eak layers+ K Anyone can do it=sno*mobilers, climbers, skiers, sno*boarders, and sno*shoers+ K ,ood test )or )indin% sur)ace hoar+ /isa'vanta*es K 6ard to interpret=reAuires a skilled obser&er+ K Sub4ecti&e+ K Small sample si8e ?must do many tests )or consistent results@+ K Sno* seems less stable than it actually is+ Euality of the Shear 'or all these tests, itCs important to note the Auality o) the shear ?see Table >:#@+ 3nstable sno* usually pops ri%ht out *ith Hener%yH on a clean, smooth )racture+ 1tCs di))icult to describe *hat 1 call ener%y, but youCll kno* it *hen you see it+ The slab kind o) pops out like itCs sprin%:loaded+ A hi%h: Auality shear means ?1@ the shear is planar and continuous and can likely propa%ate a )racture easily, ?2@ there is a poor bond bet*een the layers, and ?"@ the sno*pack probably contains stored elastic ener%y, *hich is one o) the main precursors to tri%%erin% an a&alanche+ .oes this mean that i) your sno*pit tests )ail easily, yet they do so *ith only a P2 shear, you ha&e a %reen li%ht to cross the slopeG (o+ But most a&alanche pro)essionals pay close attention to the Auality o) the shear+ 1tCs 4ust one more item in your ba% o) tricks+ Table $;! Shear Characteristics Shear )atin* Breaks on a clean, smooth break like itCs sprin%:loaded P1 Breaks on a smooth plane, but not like itCs sprin%:loaded P2 Breaks on a rou%h or broken plane P" Su--ary of Stability Tests Best Active Test for /ee# Slab 4nstability 1+ -ornice test ?as lon% as itCs a lar%e cornice@ Best Active Tests for New Snow 4nstabilities 9in or'er of reliability: 1+ -ornice test 2+ Test slopes "+ Slope cuts ?ski cuts@

#+ 6and shear test ;+ Ski pole test Best Snow#it Tests for /ee# Slab 4nstabilities 9in or'er of reliability: 1+ Dutschblock test 2+ -ompression test, or stu)):block test "+ /oaded column test #+ Sho&el shear test How to 2ra#h a Snow 8rofile 1) youCre %oin% to %et serious about a&alanches, sooner or later youCll *ant to document *hat you )ind in the sno*pack+ FouCll *ant to keep a )ield notebook and track chan%es o&er time=to ha&e some systematic *ay to compare *hat you )ind in the sno*pack *ith a&alanche acti&ity+ Most people like to use a small *aterproo) )ield notebook and a pencil+ Some people like to *rite data do*n in columns and later enter the data into a sno*pit %raphin% computer pro%ram+ ?See the biblio%raphy )or a list o) so)t*are+@ Althou%h computers *ork *ell )or sharin% data *ith others in a computer net*ork, itCs an unnecessary step i) you do sno* pro)iles only )or your o*n edi)ication+ A&alanches are somethin% you 4ust ha&e to %et a )eel )or and 1 think that analo% in)ormation *orks best )or that+ 1 *ould su%%est that you start out by simply sketchin% a %raph o) the sno*pack in a )ield notebook+ 'irst, as described be)ore, run your %lo&ed hands alon% the layers and %et a nice tactile )eel )or ho* the *eak layers *ill easily crumble a*ay *hile the stron% layers remain stickin% out+ Then stand back and sketch the layers in your pit book+ .o a Auick hand hardness test5 Push your hand into the sno* and )eel ho* much resistance you encounter+ Push 4ust hard enou%h so that you )eel the pressure in your *rist bone+ Dank it on the scale sho*n in Table >:>+ ,raph the sno*pit like that sho*n in the eBample ?'i%ure >:#@+ (otice that your %raph looks similar to the sno*pit *all a)ter youC&e run your hands o&er it+ The stron% layers stick out and the *eak ones erode a*ay+ Demember to include the date, location, aspect, ele&ation, steepness, and *eather+ (o* identi)y the crystal types in the layers o) sno*+ This takes some practice and patience at )irst, so make sure youCre dressed *armly+ The best *ay to learn to reco%ni8e the layers is to take an a&alanche class and ha&e the instructor sho* you *hat they look like, or buy a sno* crystal book ?see the biblio%raphy@ and use your loupe to identi)y the crystal types )or yoursel)+ Fou donCt really need to identi)y the crystal types+ But i) you *ant to push into the realm o) a&alanche )orecastin%, then youCll need to kno* *hat kind o) a&alanche dra%on youCre dealin% *ith+ 1) youCre %oin% to %et serious about a&alanches, e&entually, youCll *ant to mo&e up to the neBt le&el=into the nerdy realm o) sno* crystal identi)ication+ Kno*led%e is po*er=the po*er to stay ali&e and play sa)ely in places *here others )ear to tread+ Table >:; Summary o) Acti&e Tests and Sno*pit Tests
Active Tests -ornice ; seconds:; minutes Test Slopes Slope -uts

S, .

;:"0 seconds S ;:20 seconds S

Ski Pole

1:; seconds

( K .eli&ers bi% shock to the slope K 0asy to interpret K Tests )or all kinds o) *eak layers K -an create a sa)e *ay do*n ( K Sa)e i) done properly K 0asy to interpret ( K ,ood techniAue )or minimi8in% the odds o) %ettin% cau%ht K ,ood )or sur)ace instabilities K -an do them on skis, sno*board, or sno*mobile ( K Puick, can do hundreds o) tests K ,ood )or )aceted sno* or density in&ersions ( K Puick, can do do8ens o) tests per day K ,ood )or sur)ace instabilities ( K Puick, can do do8ens o) tests per day K ,ood )or sur)ace instabilities

K .an%erous i) done improperly K -ornices arenCt al*ays a&ailable K .an%erous i) done improperly K Test slopes arenCt al*ays a&ailable K .an%erous i) done improperly K (ot e))ecti&e on deep instability or on hard slabs K .oesnCt *ork )or climbers or sno*shoers K .i))icult to detect sur)ace hoar K .oes not test shear stren%th K Sno*boarders and sno*:mobilers donCt carry ski poles K (ot e))ecti&e )or deep instabilities

6and Shear

;:20 seconds S

Ski, Board, or ;:20 seconds S Sno*mobile Abo&e Track

K (ot e))ecti&e )or deep instabilities

Snow#it Tests -ompression 1:2 seconds or Stu)):block

S, .

F K Puanti)iable K 0asy to interpret K Puick K 0asily communicate results to others

K Small sample si8e

Dutschblock

":; minutes ?*ith sno* sa*@

S, .

F K /ar%e sample reduces uncertainty K Puanti)iable K 0asy to interpret K 0asily communicate results to others

K Takes more time

/oaded -olumn

1:2 minutes

S, .

F K Puanti)iable K Takes more time K ,ood )orecastin% test K Small sample si8e K 0asy to interpret K Some*hat duplicates loadin% durin% storm ( K -an identi)y sur)ace hoar K -an per)orm on a )lat slope K 6ard to interpret K Small sample si8e K (ot Auanti)iable K Takes time to de&elop )eel

Sho&el Shear "0 seconds: 1 minute

S, .

'i% >:# )atin* 'ist 'our )in%ers Ine )in%er Pencil Kni)e Har'ness 7ery so)t So)t Medium 6ard 7ery hard E<a-#les K (e* sno*, mature depth hoar K Settled ne* sno* or near:sur)ace )acets K -ommon so)t slab material K 6ard, old sno* K -ommon hard slab material K Sun crust or a stout *ind slab K Dain crust or melt:)ree8e crust

(o* itCs time )or your )a&orite stability tests+ Write the results in your notebook+ Also note the Auality o) the shear )or each stability test+ Take notes, *ritin% do*n other sno* stability clues you see ?a&alanche acti&ity, collapsin%, crackin%, etc+@ so you can compare *hat you )ind in the sno*pack *ith the sno* stability+ 'inally, remember that a sno*pit %i&es you in)ormation only )or the place *here you du% the sno*pit+ The sno* 100 meters ?100 yards@ a*ay may be completely di))erent and sno* on other aspects is almost al*ays completely di))erent+ 1 usually di% se&eral Auick sno*pits in representati&e areas and then 1 sketch out *hat 1 )eel is an a&era%e sno* pro)ile )or that particular aspect and ele&ation+ The bottom line5 (e&er base your *hole stability e&aluation on 4ust one sno*pit+ Wet Snow Avalanches All o) the abo&e stability tests *ork nearly as *ell )or determinin% the stability o) *et sno* as they do )or dry sno*+ 6o*e&er, the stability o) *et sno* is &ery transient, chan%in% )rom minute to minute, compared to dry sno*, *hich chan%es day by day, so these tests end up bein% not nearly as use)ul+ The best *ay to determine the stability o) *et sno* is to care)ully *atch the *eather and test your theories by 4umpin% on test slopes or *atchin% )or a&alanche acti&ity+ See -hapters # and ; )or details on *eather that produces *et sno* a&alanches+ 'or *et melt:)ree8e sno*, such as sprin%, sun: induced *et instability, use ho* )ar you sink into the sno* as a %uide ?see Table >:2@+ Table >:2 When Walkin* on .oot What 1t Means Walkin% on top o) a ,reen li%ht ?unless itCs a thin re)ree8e on supportable crust a *et, recently isothermal sno*pack, *hich may be yello* li%ht@ Sinkin% in to your ankles Fello* li%ht Sinkin% in to your cal&es Ded li%ht What 6ou Shoul' /o ,ood conditions to do most anythin%+ S*itch aspects or head home+ ,et o)) and out )rom

Wallo*in% up to your Ded li%ht *ith siren knees 8uttin* 4t All To*ether

underneath steep slopes+ ,et o)) and out underneath steep slopes+

)rom

(o* lets put the pieces o) the stability pu88le to%ether in an or%ani8ed *ay+ Confi'ence versus 4nfor-ation As *e e&aluate sno* stability, the more in)ormation *e %ather and analy8e, the more con)ident *e become in our assessment o) the stability+ This is %ood+ In the )lip side o) the coin, *hen *e donCt kno* sAuat, our con)idence should also be sAuat+ 3n)ortunately, this is not al*ays the case, and 1 think itCs important to re%ularly do eBercises to combat this+ 'or instance, .ou% 'esler and 9ill 'redston ha&e de&ised a checklist that helps you %et a handle on *hat you kno* and *hat you donCt kno* and ho* it a))ects your opinion o) the stability o) the sno*pack+ 1n the le)t column, you rank *hat you think is the stability o) the sno*pack )rom one to )i&e+ 1n the ri%ht column, you rank ho* con)ident you are in your opinion, once a%ain on a scale o) one to )i&e+ When teachin% students, *e poll the class early in the day, in the middle o) the day, and at the end o) the day+ 0arly in the day, they still ha&enCt %athered much in)ormation and their opinions about the stability o) the sno*pack are usually scattered all o&er the chart and their con)idence in their opinions is usually lo*+ 1n the middle o) the day, they ha&e be%un to 8ero:in on the actual stability and their con)idence rises+ By the end o) the day, they ha&e all pretty much nailed the stability ri%ht on the money and their con)idence is Auite hi%h+ 1 usually do the same eBercise in my head *hen 1Cm e&aluatin% the sno*pack on my o*n tours or *hen 1Cm )orecastin% )or public a&alanche ad&isories+ 1tCs a %ood checklist to keep in your head+ At Be%innin% o) Tour ?B Q each studentCs &ote@ O#inion of Stability Confi'ence in Stability Assess-ent 0Btreme RR 7ery con)ident 6i%h RRR -on)ident RBBB -onsiderable BBBB Medium con)idence Moderate RRR (ot too con)ident /o* At /unch Time O#inion of Stability 0Btreme 6i%h -onsiderable Moderate /o* At 0nd o) Tour 0Btreme 6i%h -onsiderable Moderate /o* BBBB (ot con)ident at all Confi'ence in Stability Assessment 7ery con)ident -on)ident Medium con)idence (ot too con)ident (ot con)ident at all 7ery con)ident R BBBBBBB BBBBBBBB -on)ident Medium con)idence (ot too con)ident (ot con)ident at all BBBBBB BBBBBB BBBBBB BBBB

BBBBBB BBBBB BBBBB BBBBB

R BBBBB BBBBB BBBBBB BBBBBB R

BBBBB BBBB BBBBB BBBBB

6ere is another &ery basic checklist to use in determinin% sno* stability+ Stability Checklist=/ry Snow

Observation Decent a&alanche acti&ity on similar slopes -ollapsin% sno*packs -rackin% -ornice )all tests ?use re)ri%erator si8e or lar%er@ /oadin% ?addition o) ne* or *indblo*n sno*@ Dapid *armin% Dutschblock test -ompression test

)e' 1i*ht Widespread acti&ity

6ellow 1i*ht /ocali8ed acti&ity

2reen 1i*ht (o acti&ity (o collapsin% (o crackin% (o a&alanches

Widespread collapsin% /ocali8ed collapsin% or collapsin% only on )lat or shallo* sno*packs Widespread crackin% /ocali8ed crackin% Sensiti&e, *idespread /ocali8ed HstubbornH a&alanchin% a&alanches 6ea&y and rapid loadin% on a *eak sno*pack Dapid *armin% o) cold, unstable sno* *ith persistent *eak layer Breaks *ith easy 4ump or less Moderate loadin% on a moderate sno*pack

Stu)):block test

/i%ht to moderate loadin% on a stron% sno*pack Dapid *armin% o) Dapid *armin% o) moderately stable sno* on a stable sno* less persistent *eak layer Breaks *ith one hard 4ump Breaks *ith se&eral hard 4umps or no break Breaks *ith taps Breaks *ith taps articulatin% Breaks *ith taps articulatin% )rom the )rom the elbo* ?11 to 20 articulatin% )rom *rist ?1 to 10 taps@ taps@ the shoulder ?21 to "0 taps@ Breaks *ith drop )rom Breaks *ith drop o) 20 to #0 Breaks *ith drop 20 cm or less cm o) o&er !, cm 6ellow /i%ht Sinkin% in to your ankles Dain on old, dry sno* 2reen 1i*ht (ot sinkin% in

Stability Checklist=Wet Snow Observation )e' 1i*ht Sinkin% into *et Sinkin% in past your sno* shins Dain Dain on cold, dry, ne* sno* (o o&erni%ht Three ni%hts *ithout a )ree8es )ree8e on a recently isothermal sno*pack Dollerballs Widespread

Dain on mature melt:)ree8e sno* Ine ni%ht *ithout a )ree8e (o o&erni%ht on a recently isothermal )ree8es on a sno*pack mature, *ell: drained ?summer@ sno*pack /ocali8ed or only o)) &ery (o rollerballs steep slopes

)ankin* the Si*nificance of Tests an' Observations The po*er o) stability e&aluation comes not )rom latchin% onto one test or obser&ation, but throu%h the inte%ration o) the in)ormation+ This sounds like a %reat idea on paper, but itCs hard to do in practice+ 6o* do *e kno* *hich tests and obser&ations are important and *hich ones are not, and in *hich situationsG Well, )unny you should ask because much o) the rest o) this book deals eBactly *ith that Auestion+ We need to )ocus on the in)ormation that does the most to eliminate uncertainty+ 0d /a-hapelle describes it as %oin% )or Hlo*:entropyH in)ormation+ .ou% 'esler describes it as %oin% )or HbullCs:eyeH in)ormation+ Separate the *heat, )rom the cha)), and all that+ To %et some idea o) the si%ni)icance o) clues, 1 ha&e ranked &arious obser&ations and tests on a scale )rom 8ero to 100, *ith 100 meanin% &ery si%ni)icant+ This rankin% is based on an a&era%e, cold, dry, mid*inter sno*pack in a temperate latitude+ Ither a&alanche situations *ill &ary )rom this eBample+ Demember, the )ollo*in% lists %i&e a %eneral idea o) ho* to rank the si%ni)icance o) clues+ P0# /on%, shootin% cracks are a sure si%n o) instability on dry sno*+ $ Bruce Tremper /ry Snow Si*nificance Si*ns of 4nstability

100S 0S !0S 20S >0S ;0S #0S "0S 20S 10S 0S /ry Snow Si*nificance 100S

K Fou tri%%er an a&alanche=canCt %et better than that K Decent a&alanche acti&ity on similar slopes K -ornice tests produce sensiti&e a&alanches K /on% shootin% cracks as you cross the slope K -ollapsin% o) the sno*pack as you tra&el across it K Se&eral representati&e sno*pit tests sho* unstable sno* K 6ollo*, drumlike sound K Decent hea&y loadin% o) ne* or *indblo*n sno* on unstable sno*pack K Ine sno*pit in a representati&e spot sho*ed unstable sno* K Dapid *armin% o) a cold, dry sno*pack *ith unstable sno* on a persistent *eak layer K T*o:day:old a&alanche acti&ity K ,ood sno*pit in an unrepresentati&e spot sho*ed unstable sno* K Fou %ot an HeasyH shear on a sho&el shear test K The T7 anchorman says itCs HeBtreme dan%er out thereH K 9ust not your lucky day K Someone %ot killed on that slope last year Si*ns of Stability K Sorry, thereCs no such thin% as 100 percent+ /etCs say ;S+ K Fou 4ust rolled an Ildsmobile:si8ed cornice do*n the slope *ithout tri%%erin% an a&alanche K A skilled a&alanche specialist di%s se&eral representati&e sno*pits combined *ith others tests and obser&ations and determines the sno* is stable K T*o hundred sno*mobilers 4ust hi%h:marked the slope *ithout incident K Se&eral %ood sno*pits )rom representati&e areas sho* stable sno* K 'i&e bi% skiers *ho )all a lot 4ust descended the slope *ithout incident K Ten smooth skiers 4ust descended the slope *ithout incident K Ine %ood sno*pit )rom a representati&e spot sho*ed stable sno* K T*o sno*boarders made it do*n *ithout incident K Settlement cones around trees and bushes K A %ood sno*pit in a representati&e spot but usin% poor techniAue sho*ed stable sno* K Ine skier made it do*n *ithout incident K 1tCs your lucky day K Ine %ood sno*pit )rom an unrepresentati&e spot sho*s stable sno* Si*ns of 4nstability K Fou tri%%er an a&alanche K Decent a&alanche acti&ity on similar slopes K 6ea&y rain on cold, dry, ne* sno* K Sinkin% in to your knees in *et sno* K Stron% sun or rapid meltin% o) ne* sno* K Sno*pack collapses as you tra&el across it K Three ni%hts *ithout a )ree8e on a recently isothermal sno*pack K Sinkin% in to your ankles in *et sno* K 6ea&y rain on old, dry sno* K Ine ni%ht *ithout a )ree8e on a recently isothermal sno*pack K 6ea&y rain on old, *ell:drained, corn sno* K The T7 anchorman said it *as HeBtreme dan%er out thereH K (e*sstand tabloid says *eCll ha&e Hmonster a&alanchesH this year

0S !0S 20S >0S ;0S #0S "0S 20S 10S 0S Wet Snow Si*nificance 100S 0S !0S 20S >0S ;0S #0S "0S 20S 10S 0S Wet Snow Si*nificance

Si*ns o) Stability

1,,F +,F (,F %,F $,F ",F !,F ,F 2,F 1,F ,F

K Sorry, nothin% is 100S sure in the a&alanche %ame K Solid, multiday )ree8e on a mature, corn sno*pack K Solid multiday )ree8e on a recently isothermal sno*pack K Much cooler *eather )ollo*in% rain or stron% meltin% K Solid, one:day )ree8e on a recently isothermal sno*pack

K Thin )ree8e on a recently isothermal sno*pack that eBperienced stron% meltin% the pre&ious day K Four psychic said it *as IK ?*ell, maybe ;0S )or a %ood psychic@ K The T7 *eatherman said the sno* *as stable K The real estate a%ent didnCt mention anythin% about a&alanche ha8ard to your dream home

So )ar in this chapter, *e ha&e learned ho* to 4ud%e sno* stability on a particular slope at a particular time=a t*o:dimensional &ie*, i) you *ill+ (o* *e *ill eBpand sno* stability into a three: dimensional, ">0:de%ree &ie*+ 1n other *ords, *e learn to 4ud%e the pattern o) sno* stability by aspect and ele&ation+ P0;0 Warm temperatures and prolon%ed meltin% so)ten up cornices that drop o)) randomly+ (ot a %ood place )or a picnic+ ?Beartooth Mountains, Montana@ $ Bruce Tremper 'i%ure >:;+ A sample aspect:ele&ation dia%ram Avalanches in Three /i-ensions Most people need many years o) eBperience in the mountains to %ain a %ood intuiti&e )eel )or ho* a&alanche ha8ard &aries by aspect and ele&ation+ 1tCs hard enou%h to )i%ure out i) one particular slope is dan%erous and itCs e&en harder to de&elop a %ood ">0:de%ree pattern, i+e+, ho* stability &aries *ith aspect, plus ho* it &aries *ith ele&ation+ Ince a%ain, 1 like to use a kind o) checklist, *hich 1 call an aspect:ele&ation dia%ram+ To understand the aspect:ele&ation dia%ram, pretend you are )loatin% in a balloon directly o&er the peak o) a conical:shaped mountain and lookin% strai%ht do*n+ The outside circle in the aspect:ele&ation dia%ram represents the base o) the mountain and concentric circles represent the ele&ation contours as you %o hi%her on the mountain+ 1n other *ords, the center o) the circle is the top o) the mountain and the ed%e o) the circle is the base o) the mountain+ Ali%n the north:south:east:*est on the map *ith real terrain belo* your balloon and youCre ready to start sketchin% sno* conditions and a&alanche ha8ard onto your aspect:ele&ation chart+ Fou can put speci)ic ele&ations on the dia%ram )or your local area i) you *ant ?'i%ure >:;@+ /etCs *ork throu%h a )e* eBamples, startin% in the early season and )inishin% in sprin%+ De)er to -hapters ", #, and ; )or the details o) eBactly ho* a&alanche conditions chan%e *ith &arious combinations o) sno*pack, terrain, and *eather+ E<a-#le 1@ Fou are in the (orthern 6emisphere at mid:latitudes, in an intermountain climate *ith the mountaintops around "000 meters ?10,000 )eet@ in ele&ation+ The )irst couple sno* storms o) the season ha&e laid do*n 100 centimeters ?"+; )eet@ o) ne*, li%ht:density sno*+ I&er the course o) the neBt t*o sunny *eeks, the 1,, centimeters ?"+; )eet@ o) sno* settles to >0 centimeters ?2 )eet@+ Then another storm arri&es and lays do*n >0 centimeters ?2 )eet@ o) dense sno*+ 'i%ure >:>+ Aspect:ele&ation dia%ram for 0Bample 1 WhatCs the *eak layerG Where *ill you )ind itG WhatCs the patternG Answer@ .urin% the sunny t*o *eeks, dependin% on temperature, much o) the sno* *ill melt o)) the sun:eBposed slopes, or at least settle do*n into more stable sno* ?)arther north or at hi%her ele&ations, this mi%ht not occur@+ In the shaded slopes, itCs a di))erent story+ The clear skies ha&e kept the sno* sur)ace &ery cold+ -ombined *ith a thin sno* co&er, *e no* ha&e a thick layer o) the dreaded depth hoar on the north*est: throu%h northeast:)acin% slopes, and possibly on east:)acin% slopes ?since east is al*ays colder than *est@+ Plus, *e may also ha&e sur)ace hoar on the sno* sur)ace+ ?See 'i%ure >:>+@ The ne* load o) dense sno* *ill almost certainly o&erload the depth hoar and be%in a cycle o) so)t slab a&alanches on the northeast: throu%h north*est:)acin% slopes, possibly eBtendin% onto east: )acin% slopes as *ell+ The south*est: throu%h southeast:)acin% slopes *ill tend to stay in place because the ne* sno* has either )allen onto more stable sno* or directly on the rocks, *hich pro&ide %ood

anchorin%+ This is a lose:lose situation+ 0ither you stay on sa)e terrain and %et ban%ed up on the rocks or you tri%%er a&alanches *here the sno* is better+ 6uman )actors are al*ays ni%htmarish because po*der )e&er runs amok in the early season+ These kinds o) conditions usually claim at least a couple li&es in (orth America each )all+ HOT T48B Be)ore the storm arri&es, care)ully memori8e the pattern o) the depth hoar and sur)ace hoar+ Where is it thickG Where is it *eakG Which ele&ationsG Which aspectsG 1tCs usually *orst on mid:slope shady aspects at hi%h ele&ations+ 1) you *ait until a)ter the storm arri&es, the only *ay to map the preeBistin% sno* is to di% a %a8illion sno*pits+ Fou *ant to make li)e easy, donCt youG Watch the *eather )orecast+ Be proacti&e+ E<a-#le 2@ 1tCs no* 9anuary *ith about 2 meters ?!0 inches@ o) settled sno* on the %round and the sno* is mostly stable+ A)ter a moist storm, the skies clear as the moisture lin%ers )or se&eral days+ ThereCs a stron% temperature in&ersion and you ha&e to scrape )rost o)) your *indshield each mornin%+ The neBt mornin%, a south *ind blo*s and that a)ternoon, a )oot o) sno* )alls+ What kind o) a&alanche dra%on *ill you be dealin% *ithG WhatCs the patternG Where *ill you %o to )ind sa)e sno*mobilin% and *hyG 'i%ure >:2+ Aspect:ele&ation dia%ram )or 0Bample 2 Answer@ The *eak layer *ill most likely be sur)ace hoar+ Scrapin% your *indshield is an easy clue+ Most likely, the humid, calm conditions combined *ith a clear sky Auickly laid do*n a thin layer o) sur)ace hoar on all aspects+ Stron% sun may ha&e melted the sur)ace hoar on the sunny aspects, but *hat about ele&ationG Sur)ace hoar tends to )orm more at lo*er ele&ations than on the mountaintops, especially basin bottoms *here cold, humid air pools durin% clear ni%hts+ 6o* about the *indG The *ind most likely destroyed the sur)ace hoar on the *ind*ard slopes, especially alon% the hi%h: ele&ation *ind:eBposed rid%es+ So *here does that lea&e sur)ace hoar still eBistin%G At mid and lo*er ele&ations and basin bottoms on shady slopes+ ?See 'i%ure >:2+@ Where can you sa)ely %o sno*:mobilin%G 'irst, 4ump on lots o) test slopes and<or di% lots o) Auick hand shears to test your theory+ 1) correct, then head )or sunny slopes or slopes that %ot scoured by the pre:storm *inds+ A&oid shady, *ind:sheltered slopes, especially at mid:slope or in basin bottoms+ HOT T48B Ince a%ain, be)ore the storm arri&es, take a reconnaissance trip and care)ully map *here you )ind sur)ace hoar and *here you donCt+ E<a-#le @ A stron% cold )ront passes )ollo*ed by cold, unstable air *ith lots o) con&ecti&e sho*ers+ ThereCs e&en li%htnin%+ When you head out the neBt day to do some eBtreme sno*boardin%, you di% do*n and notice a layer o) %rau:pel buried a )oot deep in the sno*pack, and it still seems sensiti&e to your hand shear tests+ ?See 'i%ure >:!+@ Where *ill you %o to )ind sa)e sno*G Answer@ The a&alanche dra%on in this case is probably %raupel+ Stron% cold )ronts and hi%hly con&ecti&e storms tend to precipitate %raupel, especially at the be%innin% o) the storm+ These storms also tend to ha&e *ild *ind and rapidly chan%in% sno* densities, so there *ill likely be other *eak layers *ithin the ne* sno*+ FouCll )ind them Auickly *ith a hand shear test+ ,raupel is like little Styro)oam balls and it tends to roll o)) steep terrain and collect on %entler slopes belo*+ By steep, 1 mean about #; de%rees or more+ 1t *ill also )all eAually on all aspects+ This mi%ht be a %ood day to abandon your plans )or eBtreme terrain+ 1tCs ne&er a %ood idea to head )or the steeps the day a)ter a storm+ 0&en i) the %raupel isnCt producin% a&alanches, a *ild storm like this *ill surely ha&e some other *eak layers *ithin the ne* sno*+ 0&en i) youC&e done some &ery thorou%h )act:)indin% and determined that e&erythin% is stable, you *ill probably %et some bi% slu))s %oin% on the steep slopes+ 1) you donCt kno* ho* to mana%e slu))s, they could knock you o)) your )eet and send you o&er a cli)) or bury you in a terrain trap+ 'i%ure >:!+ Aspect:ele&ation dia%ram )or 0Bample " 'i%ure >: + Aspect:ele&ation dia%ram )or 0Bample # ,raupel usually stabili8es in a day or t*o so, like 1 say, you really ou%ht to )or%et about today+ Tomorro* *ill al*ays be there unless, o) course, you blo* it today+ E<a-#le !@ 1tCs March, *ith a deep, stable sno*pack+ Fou ha&e 4ust climbed a bi% mountain alon% the Paci)ic -oast and you return to your camp in a bli88ard in a couple )eet o) ne* sno*+ As you

break your camp to descend to your car, you notice that the sno* has turned to li%ht rain+ ?See 'i%ure >: +@ What do you doG Answer@ The )ree8in% le&el has risen+ Dain is no* )allin% on ne* sno*, *hich almost al*ays causes instant a&alanchin%+ 1) you ha&e to cross a&alanche terrain or cross beneath a&alanche terrain on the descent, you are *alkin% into a trap+ The choice is simple+ As lon% as youCre in a sa)e spot, set your camp back up and stay put+ Dain )alls eAually on all aspects, so you canCt )ind a sa)e aspect+ Dain usually )alls more at lo*er ele&ation than hi%h ele&ation, so %oin% do*n is stupid in this case+ DelaB and en4oy+ 0&en i) it keeps rainin% )or a *eek, itCs usually better to cross a slope on the second day o) rain than the )irst day+ Perhaps you *ill disco&er that the steep slope you need to cross has already a&alanched, %i&in% you a sa)er route+ Also, by the second day, perhaps the sno* *ill ha&e de&eloped draina%e channels by then and be more stable a)ter endurin% 2# hours o) rain+ 'i%ure >:10+ Aspect o) ele&ation dia%ram )or 0Bample ; E<a-#le "@ 1tCs May in -olorado and youC&e had lots o) bi% a&alanches do*n to the depth hoar )or most o) the *inter+ So *hat else is ne* in -oloradoG Warm *eather has )inally arri&ed and a)ter a *eek o) meltin% and )ree8in%, it has )inally created passable corn sno* on the south:)acin% slopes+ A)ter a record:*arm day, you *ake up early to catch some %ood corn, but you notice that it didnCt )ree8e &ery *ell the ni%ht be)ore and you notice some hi%h clouds+ While *alkin% on )oot up an east:)acin% slope, you sink in to your knees in punchy, thinly re)ro8en sno*+ What do you doG Answer@ 'irst, youCre on the *ron% slope+ Fou need to )ind a south:)acin% slope to see i) itCs supportable+ The south slopes *ill turn isothermal )irst and produce the most percolatin% melt *ater because they catch the most sun, there)ore, a)ter they re)ree8e, youCll )ind the thickest crust on south: )acin% slopes+ ?See 'i%ure >:10+@ 1) itCs still supportable on south, then %o )ast, %et in a run, and %et the heck o)) the slope and head home *hen you start to sink throu%h the crust *hen *alkin% on )oot+ Fou *onCt ha&e much time in these conditions+ 1) itCs not supportable, abandon your plans and head home+ With yesterday as a record:*arm day, you can bet that the buried depth hoar %ot thorou%hly soaked and thereCs not much holdin% the entire sno*pack to%ether+ Fou can sometimes tri%%er )ull:depth *et slabs to depth hoar e&en *ith a thinly re)ro8en crust on top+ Fou can ne&er trust depth hoar, especially )reshly saturated depth hoar+ In a day like this youCre probably sa)er on a north:)acin% slope that still has cold, dry sno*+ The usual pattern )or sprin%, sun:induced, *et a&alanches is that they o)ten occur )irst on south:)acin% slopes, startin% at lo*er ele&ations and *orkin% to upper ele&ations throu%h time+ A)ter melt *ater has percolated throu%h the sno*:pack )or se&eral days, it destroys all the layers and the sno*pack becomes denser, more homo%enous, and much more stable+ I)ten, a)ter the south:)acin% slopes ha&e Hcooked do*nH and become stable ?combined *ith a %ood re)ree8e o&erni%ht@, *et a&alanches be%in on east: and *est:)acin% slopes+ Then *et a&alanches *ork their *ay around the mountains, endin% on the north:)acin% slopes in late sprin%+ 'inally, they *ill stabili8e as *ell+ ?See 'i%ure >:11+@ 1tCs important to kno* this pattern and ad4ust your terrain accordin%ly+ 'i%ure >:11+ A typical eBample o) a sprin% *et slide cycle+ 1t be%ins on lo*er:ele&ation south: )acin% slopes and ends on hi%h:ele&ation north:)acin% slopes+ Fou can keep track o) sno* stability distribution patterns in your )ield notebook+ 'i%ure >:12 is an eBample o) one method+ The /an*er of 5nusual 1oa'in* 8atterns /ookin% )or unusual loadin% patterns is important because unusual *eather makes unusual a&alanches+ E<a-#le 1@ .urin% the middle o) *inter, the hi%h ele&ations usually ha&e a deep sno*pack *hile the lo*er ele&ations, and the lee sides o) mountain ran%es, usually ha&e a shallo*er sno*pack+ Suppose a cold )ront *ithout much *ind comes throu%h that lays do*n >0 centimeters ?2 )eet@ o) dense sno* in a &ery e&en blanket o&er all the terrain=hi%h ele&ation and lo* ele&ation alike+ Where *ill the a&alanches occurG Answer@ /o* ele&ations and on the lee side o) the mountain ran%e+ WhyG Because as *e ha&e learned, shallo* sno* tends to be *eak sno* ?see -hapter ;@+ There)ore, 1 meter o) ne* sno* on top o) *eak sno* is much more dan%erous than 1 meter o) ne* sno* on top o) stron% sno*+ Also, rememberin% our mantra that unusual *eather makes unusual a&alanches, >0 centimeters ?2 )eet@ o) sno* on top o) an already:deep sno*pack is not unusual+ T*o )eet o) sno* in the &alleys is unusual+ The sno*pack becomes unstable *hen sub4ected to unusual or rapid chan%es+ E<a-#le 2@ 'or the pre&ious month, storms ha&e come )rom the *est, *hich in this case, is the pre&ailin% *ind and storm direction+ Then a storm comes in on an easterly )lo*+ Where can you eBpect to )ind a&alanchesG

Answer@ Ince a%ain, in the places that recei&e an unusual or disproportionate amount o) ne* sno*+ 1n this case, the eastern side o) the mountain ran%e *ill %et more sno* than the *est, and the *ind *ill deposit )resh *ind slabs alon% the *est:)acin% slopes alon% the crest+ The sno*pack in both o) these areas is not used to %ettin% much sno* accumulation and itCs likely to destabili8e+ Also, people tend to %et habituated to, say, al*ays bein% able to climb a certain slope sa)ely because itCs usually *ind scoured+ 3nusual patterns *ill take them by surprise+ Avalanche .orecastin*=8roGectin* Avalanche Ha&ar's into the .uture (o* )or the )inal step+ 6ere *e take sno* stability )rom three dimensions to )our dimensions =ho* stability chan%es throu%h time+ When 1 )orecast a&alanche ha8ard, 1 boil it all do*n in my head to three Auestions5 ?1@ What kind o) a&alanche dra%on am 1 dealin% *ithG ?2@ 1s the rubber band stretchedG ?"@ WhatCs neBtG /etCs take a look at each one o) them in turn+ 'irst, al*ays, start *ith the preeBistin% sno*pack+ 1> What kin' of avalanche 'ra*on are we 'ealin* with7 a+ 1s it dry sno* or *et sno*G These are t*o radically di))erent beasts alto%ether+ They are caused by di))erent processes, *e )orecast )or them di))erently, they beha&e di))erently, and theyCre tri%%ered di))erently+ b+ What type o) *eak layersG Persistent *eak layers ?)acets and sur)ace hoar@G (e* sno*G Wet sno*G Weak inter)acesG 0ach has its o*n characteristics+ 'i%ure >:12+ An eBample o) )ield notes notin% the distribution patterns o) sno* stability ?)rom Sno* and A&alanche 'ield (otebook by 1an Mc-ammon@ c+ What kind o) slabG 6o* thickG 6o* sti))G 1s it uni)orm or does it &ary in thicknessG What is its temperatureG d+ 6o* slippery and continuous is the bed sur)aceG Slick and continuous bed sur)aces produce a&alanches more easily than rou%h or discontinuous bed sur)aces+ e+ What is the distribution patternG Almost all instabilities &ary dramatically by aspect, ele&ation, steepness, terrain type+ WhatCs the patternG 2> 4s the rubber ban' stretchedG 1n other *ords, ha&e there been recent, rapid or lar%e chan%es to the sno*packG Sno* does not like rapid chan%es+ Sno* can ad4ust to slo* or small chan%es much easier than to rapid or lar%e chan%es+ Dapid or lar%e chan%es introduce elastic ener%y into the system=stretchin% the rubber band=*hich makes the sno*pack especially sensiti&e to )ailure and )racture )rom tri%%ers such as the additional *ei%ht o) a person ?a &ery rapid chan%e@+ Symptoms include5 a+ Decent a&alanche acti&ity+ b+ Sensiti&ity to tri%%ers+ c+ -rackin% and collapsin%+ d+ Stability tests sho* unstable sno* and<or shears pop out *ith like theyCre sprin%:loaded+ These are caused by5 a+ A rapid or lar%e addition o) ne* or *indblo*n sno* or rain ?loadin%@+ b+ Dapid *armin% o) a cold sno*pack+ c+ Dapid or prolon%ed meltin% or rain especially on sno* that has not been sub4ected to percolatin% *ater+ 4-#ortant Euestions5 a+ What kind o) a&alanche dra%on are you dealin% *ithG Dapid chan%es do not al*ays cause a&alanchin%+ Stable sno* can *ithstand a lot o) abuse be)ore it %ets cranky+ 3nstable sno* can *ithstand only a small amount+ Persistent *eak layers produce a&alanches )or a lon% time+ b+ 6o* much chan%e and ho* )astG A meter o) dense ne* sno* is a *hole lot di))erent than a meter o) )lu))+ And a meter o) ne* sno* added o&er " *eeks is a *hole di))erent story than a meter added o&er " hours+ c+ Time since chan%es occurredG Wind loadin% a *eek a%o pales in comparison to *ind loadin% an hour a%o+ 6as the sno*pack had enou%h time to ad4ust to chan%esG d+ What is the distribution patternG AspectG 0le&ationG Terrain typeG A&alanche dan%er is almost ne&er the same on all slopes+ ThereCs al*ays a pattern+ > WhatHs ne<t7 9Weather )orecast@ This is the H)orecastin%H part o) it= *here sno* stability %oes into the )ourth dimension=into the )uture+ Take *hat you kno* about the present a&alanche conditions and ima%ine ho* the )uture *eather *ill a))ect it+ Will it make it more stable, less stable or stay the sameG And *hatCs the patternG a+ 0Bpected loadin% and loadin% rate ?sno*, *ind loadin%@+ b+ 0Bpected temperature trend+

c+ 0Bpected rain+ Stability versus Ti-e Stability &aries dramatically throu%h time and each setup is sli%htly di))erent+ 6ere are some conceptual illustrations o) ho* stability may &ary throu%h time *ith di))erent situations+ These eBamples tend to be true in 3tah, but they may be sli%htly di))erent )or other areas+ Pay close attention to ho* stability chan%es throu%h time in your local area and come up *ith your o*n characteristic patterns+ Some o) these eBamples came )rom back:o):the:napkin sketches by my )riend Do%er Atkins, a helicopter ski %uide in -anada, o&er a number o) protracted a&alanche discussions *e ha&e had o&er the course o) se&eral ri&er trips, climbin% trips, bike rides, and late ni%ht ramblin%s ?'i%ures >:1" throu%h >:2"@+ 'i%ure >:1"+ A conceptual dia%ram o) the stabili8ation o&er time o) &arious kinds o) *eak 'i%ure >:1#+ A conceptual dia%ram o) the stabili8ation o&er time o) *eak layers at &arious temperatures 'i%ure >:1;+ A conceptual dia%ram o) small storms *ith no persistent *eak layer 'i%ure >:1>+ A conceptual dia%ram o) lar%e storms on a moderately persistent *eak layer+ 'i%ure >:12+ A conceptual dia%ram o) small storms on a &ery persistent *eak layer+ The sno*pack on that *eak layer becomes less stable *ith each incremental loadin%+ 'i%ure >:1!+ Dain on ne* sno* usually causes nearly instant *idespread a&alanchin%+ SubseAuent rains cause much less a&alanchin% because the sno* has become more permeable and )ormed draina%e channels+ 'i%ure >:1 + Dain on old, *et sno* does not usually produce a&alanches because it has more porosity and has already )ormed draina%e channels+ 'i%ure >:20+ A conceptual dia%ram o) a *et, recently isothermal sno*pack *ith a deeply buried, persistent *eak layer sub4ected to stron% daytime meltin% *ith no o&erni%ht )ree8e 'i%ure >:21+ A conceptual dia%ram o) a *et, recently isothermal sno*pack *ith either a nonpersistent *eak layer or a shallo*ly buried persistent *eak layer sub4ected to stron% daytime meltin% *ith no o&erni%ht )ree8e 'i%ure >:22+ This is a conceptual eBample o) a&alanches produced on one particular persistent *eak layer ?such as sur)ace hoar on a hard bed sur)ace@ that *as buried by the )irst storm+ Demember that this doesnCt include all a&alanches produced durin% each storm, only the ones that slide on the particular *eak layer+ .urin% the )irst storm, a&alanches are small, so)t, and tend to occur on steeper slopes+ There isnCt enou%h o) a load, ho*e&er, to produce *idespread a&alanche acti&ity+ By the third storm, enou%h o) a load has accumulated to produce more *idespread acti&ity and the a&alanches are *ider and deeper+ With each successi&e storm, the )reAuency o) a&alanches on that layer decreases, the si8e o) the a&alanches increase, and those a&alanches run on pro%ressi&ely shallo*er slope an%les+ 1n other *ords, the steep ones run )irst and the %entler ones reAuire a lar%er load to produce an a&alanche+ ?'rom Do%er Atkins, personal communication@ 'i%ure >:2"+ 1n this eBample, *e are in a maritime climate, and the *eak layer is only *ithin the ne* sno*+ The *eak layer stabili8es )airly Auickly a)ter the )irst storm and produces )e* a&alanches a)ter that+ Avalanche Boot Ca-# Maybe all this sounds con)usin% to you, and it should, because only time and *ork *ill make all o) this intuiti&e )or you+ So no* )or the time and *ork part o) itJ WeCre o)) to a&alanche boot camp *here you ha&e to *ork and toil, learnin% about a&alanches by doin%=and doin% and doin%=o&er and o&er until itCs second nature+ 6ut, hut, hut, o)) *e march )or a t*o:*eek crash course in ho* to )i%ht the a&alanche *ar+ /ay 1 'irst, *e ha&e a relati&ely easy day+ Today *e make our seasonal history chart+ ,o %et a lar%e piece o) %raph paper and make it look like the eBample in -hapter #+ 1) possible, %et on the 1nternet, )ind a site *ith data )rom an automated station, and )ill in all the data )rom the )irst sno*)all to the present time+ 1) youCre startin% at the be%innin% o) the season=%reat=thatCs the best time to start+ ThatCs *hen all a&alanche pro)essionals be%in their charts and do a mind:meld *ith the sno*pack, a bond not to be broken until the sno* melts and heads to the ocean in sprin%+ The sno*pack is like a child+ Fou *atch it chan%e each day+ Fou *ake up in the ni%ht to check the *eather+ Fou *atch the sno*pack cra*l, then take its baby steps, then run, then mature, then %o throu%h its li)e chan%es, and

then it )inally dies and %oes back to *here it came+ 0ach season is uniAue and so is each sno*pack, each *ith its distinct personality and characteristics+ 1 kno* it sounds cra8y but 1 %o throu%h a %rie&in% process each sprin% *hen itCs all o&er=e&ery sin%le year+ 1t may take all day to construct this chart so en4oy your rest day *hile you can+ /ay 2 (o* *e %et serious+ Today, *e start the daily routine=a routine most a&alanche 4unkies do e&ery day, all *inter+ 'irst, call the recorded a&alanche ad&isory to %et the bi% picture o) *hatCs %oin% on, *hat kind o) a&alanche acti&ity happened yesterday, *hat they think is %oin% to happen today+ 1) thereCs no )orecast )or your area, check the 1nternet and brin% up the closest one and eBtrapolate the best you can+ -heck the *eather radio to %et the latest )orecast+ Then, %et on the 1nternet )or the latest *eather data, or better yet, keep your o*n *eather station in the mountains in a place you can &isit each day+ Take the latest data and update your seasonal history chart+ 0&ery a&alanche pro)essional 1 kno* %ets completely out o) touch *ith the sno*pack i) they take a &acation in the *inter )or more than a )e* days+ When they %et back it takes se&eral days to %et back in the rhythm o) the *eather and sno*pack+ 1) youCre a *eekend *arrior *ho li&es a*ay )rom the mountains, then you are already at a disad&anta%e, but not an insurmountable one+ -all the )orecast each day+ Keep it on your speed dialer at home or *ork or check the 1nternet each day, like *hen youCre a*ay )rom your )amily )or a *eek, call e&ery day to keep up+ Ither*ise *hen you return home, youCre 4ust another stran%er+ (o*, itCs time to head )or the mountains+ FouCll need all your %ear=sno* sa*, hand lens, compass, inclinometer, rope, sho&el, probe, and )ield notebook+ 6ead )or your )a&orite place= someplace you %o o)ten and kno* *ell, someplace *here there are a&alanches, someplace interestin%+ (otice e&erythin%+ 6o* much ne* sno*G 6o* lon% since it sno*edG What kind o) sno* is on the sur)aceG TemperatureG WindG 6umidityG -loud co&erG 6o* many tracks are on the slopesG Are people tri%%erin% a&alanchesG .o you see any a&alanches, and i) so, ho* old are they, ho* deep, ho* *ideG Write it all do*n in your )ield notebook+ Whate&er you do, donCt %o 4ump on a steep slope+ (o* is the time to %ather in)ormation+ 6ead )or a small, sa)e, test slope thatCs as close to "! de%rees as possible+ 6o* does the sno* )eel on the *ay to the test slopeG .o you notice collapsin%, crackin%, or a slabby )eel, or is the sno* ri%ht side up and solid underneathG In the test slope, position yoursel) at mid:slope at the steepest part+ .i% a sno*pit *ith lots o) *orkin% room and per)orm all the tests in -hapter >+ Today is the day to %o slo* and pay attention+ Write do*n e&erythin%, includin% date, time, ele&ation, aspect, steepness, *eather, sno* sur)ace conditions, sno* pro)ile, temperature pro)ile, results o) stress tests, and crystal types+ WhatCs the *eakest layerG 6o* *eak is itG 6o* much )orce is it %oin% to take to rip it out o) thereG Plan to spend the entire day re)inin% your sno*pit techniAues, so dress *armly and try to pick a *arm, sunny day so you *ill be com)ortable+ Make sure your pit *all is smooth and &ertical+ .o all the tests properly and do them o&er and o&er until you can do them correctly e&ery time+ Spend time identi)yin% all the sno* crystals and all the layers+ /ook at them care)ully throu%h your hand lens+ .i% other sno*pits on the same slope to see ho* the sno* &aries )rom place to place, especially )rom shallo* areas to deep areas+ IK, enou%h )or today+ When you head home, *atch )or recent a&alanches, *ind, clouds, ne* sno*, and recent tracks+ Are people tri%%erin% a&alanches or are they crossin% them *ithout incidentG When you %et home, call the a&alanche report )or the latest a)ternoon update to see *hat happened that day+ .id a&alanche control *ork produce any a&alanchesG Were there any human:tri%%ered or natural a&alanches in the backcountryG 1) your local a&alanche ad&isory doesnCt update in the a)ternoon, then you can %et all this in)ormation durin% your daily call the neBt mornin%+ Write all o) this do*n in an or%ani8ed *ay+ /ay Mornin% routine5 -all the a&alanche recordin%+ -heck your *eather radio+ -heck the 1nternet+ 3pdate your seasonal history chart+ 6ead )or the mountains, back to your )a&orite spot+ This time, )ind another test slope *ith another aspect, a place *here the sno*pack is shallo*er or deeper ?use your probe to )ind a %ood sno*pit spot@+ 6o* is the sno*pack di))erentG What chan%ed and *hyG Then %o to another part o) the test slope *ith yet another aspect or %o to another test slope *ith a di))erent aspect+ .i% a%ain, notice e&erythin%, *rite e&erythin% do*n+ 6o* is it di))erent and *hy is it di))erentG .o you )ind the same layers in all the pits or di))erent onesG 6o* *idespread is the *eak layerG 1s there a lot o) &ariability o) the *eak layer )rom one place to another or is it similarG WhyG 1s there a lot o) &ariability in your stress tests or are they all about the sameG Keep di%%in% more sno*pits until you canCt stand it anymore+ 6ey, *ho said that boot camp *ould be easyG What patterns ha&e you noticedG 6o* does the sno* chan%e by aspect, by depth, by

steepnessG Keep doin% this until you ha&e a %ood ">0:de%ree map o) the sno*pack, north, south, east, and *est+ WhatCs the patternG Write e&erythin% do*n and be%in to construct an aspect:ele&ation dia%ram, or at least the aspect part o) it+ We *ill %et to ele&at4on tomorro*+ /ay ! Fou kno* the mornin% routine5 A&alanche report=*eather radio=1nternet= update your seasonal history chart+ 6ead )or the mountains+ (o* that you ha&e a %ood t*o:dimensional &ie* itCs time )or the third dimension5 %o to a hi%her ele&ation=perhaps 1000 meters ?"000 )eet@ hi%her=and di% more pits+ 6o* does the sno*pack chan%e by ele&ationG Work your *ay around the compass, di%%in% sno*pits a%ain to see ho* it chan%es *ith aspect at this ne* ele&ation+ (o* you are startin% to de&elop a %ood three:dimensional &ie* o) the sno*pack+ Sketch out the pattern on an aspect:ele&ation dia%ram+ 1) you can com)ortably sketch the sno*pack on an aspect:ele&ation dia%ram, then you are already ahead o) 0 percent o) the %eneral public *ho %o into the backcountry+ FouCre doin% *ell+ 1t may take a *eek o) *ork to arri&e at this point, but once you ha&e arri&ed, you should celebrate a little+ ,o )or a *ell:deser&ed play on the slope you ha&e determined is sa)e+ P0;1 A pretty %ood place to di% a sno*pit, on a steep slope in a neutral area, a*ay )rom thick trees+ 1 %enerally pre)er steeper slopes *ith )e*er trees+ ?Wasatch Dan%e, 3tah@ $ Bruce Tremper (o* that you kno* *hat youCre talkin% about, lea&e a messa%e on the a&alanche recordin% tellin% the )orecasters *hat you )ound+ They canCt be e&ery*here at once and they depend on )eedback )rom people like you+ /ay " Sore musclesG Bummer+ Sorry, this is boot camp+ Same routine a%ain today+ -all the )orecast, listen to the *eather radio, %et on the 1nternet, update the *eather chart+ .o you notice any *eather chart patternsG 6o* do they a))ect the sno*packG A)ter a *eek o) sunny, *arm *eather, do you notice sun crusts on sunny slopes and )aceted sno* on shady slopesG 1) the *eather hasnCt chan%ed much, then the sno*pack probably didnCt chan%e either ?unless itCs &ery cold or &ery *arm@+ 1) so, you can take the day o)) to reread this book because no* it *ill all make more sense+ But no such luck today+ A bi% storm came in last ni%ht+ ArenCt you %lad that you mapped the sno*pack yesterday=be)ore the storm arri&edG (o* )or the payo))+ /ots o) a&alanches today, so no time )or rest because this is an eBtremely &aluable opportunity+ 'ind a test slope thatCs sa)e and di% more sno*pits+ (o* the *eak layers that you sa* yesterday ha&e been loaded+ Are you %ettin% di))erent results on your stress testsG .o your columns )all out *hen you isolate them or *hen you 4ust t*eak them a littleG ,reat+ ThatCs *hat unstable sno* )eels like+ Memori8e this and count it as a %reat %i)t+ ,o to other sa)e slopes+ .i% more, test more, notice e&erythin%, *rite it all do*n+ 6o* does the data &ary by aspect, steepness, depth, and ele&ationG .o you notice that the *eak sno* that *as on the sur)ace yesterday is no* the buried *eak layer and itCs &ery sensiti&eG 1) you can )ind a recent a&alanche and %et onto it sa)ely, then %o to the )racture line ?)lank *alls *ork best@ and di% more sno*pits+ What *as the *eak layerG 6o* does the *eak layer and slab thickness &ary )rom one spot to anotherG 6o* steep is the startin% 8oneG Where do you think the tri%%er point *asG Wo*, this is %reat eBperience+ See *hat )resh a&alanche debris )eels like and ima%ine *hat it *ould be like to be cau%ht in it or to ha&e to search )or others in it+ These are %reat days to practice tri%%erin% a&alanches+ But only on &ery sa)e little test slopes *here you *onCt %et hurt too badly i) somethin% %oes *ron%, say a ":meter:hi%h ?10 )oot@ road cut that is %ettin% *ind loaded+ With your partner *atchin% you, 4ump on it or do a slope cut to see i) you can kick somethin% o))+ Tri%%erin% tiny a&alanches teaches you to %et a )eel )or them=to learn *hat sensiti&e *ind slabs )eel and look like and learn *hat slabby sno* )eels like+ Demember to practice on small, sa)e slopes+ These are also %ood days to practice usin% your belay rope+ Today is de)initely not the day to be on or underneath lar%er, steep slopes, so donCt be tempted+ .ays like this are )or learnin%, not )or takin% risks+ When you %et home, lea&e a messa%e )or the local a&alanche center tellin% them *hat you )ound+ /ay $ 3p early a%ain, usual mornin% routine and head back out in the mountains a%ain+ (o* that itCs the day a)ter the storm the sno*pack has had a little time to ad4ust to its load+ 6o* are the stress tests di))erentG .o you ha&e to tap harder on the columns to make them )ail, 4ump harder on the rutschblocksG 1s the sno* still collapsin% or crackin%G 1) the &isibility is better, perhaps you can see all the a&alanches that occurred+ What *as the patternG Aspect, ele&ation, steepness, terrain type=*here did the a&alanches occur, ho* )ar did they runG (otice e&erythin% and *rite it all do*n+ Sketch out

your aspect:ele&ation dia%ram+ 6o* has it chan%ed )rom yesterdayG WhatCs the pattern o) the sno* sur)ace teBture and *hat does that tell you about stabilityG Ince a%ain, *hen you %et home, lea&e a messa%e )or the a&alanche )orecasters about *hat you )ound+ /ay % Same routine, but today itCs sunny and beauti)ul+ T*o days a)ter loadin% and the sno*pack has had e&en more time to ad4ust to its load+ .o you notice that the persistent *eak layers like )acets and sur)ace hoar are takin% a lot lon%er to ad4ust to their load than the other layersG ,reat+ There are eBtremely &aluable lessons here+ .o you notice that the a&alanches may be harder to tri%%er but the ones that are occurrin% are lar%er and more dan%erousG Another %ood lesson+ .o you notice that sunny days put people in a %ood mood and make them more con)ident e&en on slopes *here the sno*pack is still in a )oul moodG Wo*J ThatCs the best lesson o) all=ho* human )actors cause most a&alanche accidents+ .onCt you 4ust lo&e a&alanche boot campG These are the kinds o) days on *hich most a&alanche accidents occur= the )irst sunny day a)ter a storm+ So donCt be tempted to )ollo* all the other people *ho are headed to the upper:ele&ation, steep, shady slopes because thatCs *here the best po*der is, because thatCs also *here thereCs likely to be lin%erin% a&alanche dan%er )rom buried persistent *eak layers+ 6ead )or a sa)e slope instead+ Fou already kno* *here they are because you ha&e been doin% your home*ork+ 1) someone tri%%ers an a&alanche today, help *ith the rescue because thatCs absolutely the best a&alanche education you can %et= learnin% about the conseAuences o) mistakes on unstable days+ .onCt be condescendin% because you could be neBt+ Week Two Same routine+ .i% sno*pits on the slopes *ith persistently *eak layers and see ho* )ast they are %ainin% stren%th+ .o you notice that the lar%er crystals %ain stren%th more slo*ly than the small: %rained crystalsG What other patterns do you noticeG 1s the *eak layer buried beneath a thick slab %ainin% stren%th )aster than the same *eak layer buried beneath a shallo* slabG Are lo*:ele&ation areas %ainin% stren%th )aster than upper:ele&ation areasG 6a&e the *ind slabs and ne* sno* %ained stren%th )aster than the persistent *eak layersG 6as the temperature %radient decreased across the buried *eak layers and ho* has this a))ected the stren%th o) the *eak layerG A&alanches are sel): eBplanatory i) you take the time to ask the ri%ht Auestions in the ri%ht *ay+ Con*ratulationsB Fou ha&e completed t*o *eeks o) boot camp and are *ell on your *ay to becomin% sa)e in a&alanche terrain+ Fou already kno* ho* to a&oid 0 percent o) the problems that White .eath *ill thro* at you+ (o* all you ha&e to do is keep at it+ 0&en on the days *hen you canCt %et out, keep the same mornin% routine5 call the a&alanche report, update the seasonal history chart, check the 1nternet )or past and )uture *eather, listen to the *eather radio, sketch an aspect:ele&ation dia%ram o) *hat chan%es you ima%ine are %oin% on in the sno*pack, and the neBt time you %o out, check your ans*ers+ Fou are a natural detecti&e and your 4ob is to %ather e&idence, make educated %uesses, and systematically test your theories+ When 1 )irst started learnin% about a&alanches, 1 must ha&e du% thousands o) sno*pits and )illed up do8ens o) )ield notebooks and updated many seasonal history charts+ A)ter doin% this )or a )e* years, 1 noticed that 1 didnCt di% nearly as many sno*pits because, i) 1 *as *atchin% the *eather closely, 1 pretty much kne* *hat 1 *as %oin% to )ind be)ore 1 e&en du% the pit+ ,ettin% to that point takes some hard *ork+ Demember that %ut )eelin%s donCt mean &ery much unless theyCre based on a lot o) eBperience, so the bottom line is this5 /earn to make decisions based on the )acts+

CHA8TE) %> HAIA)/ E?A15AT4ON

1) a&alanche decisions *ere easy, thirty years a%o *e *ould ha&e come up *ith one o) those boB dia%rams=a step:by:step *ay to make decisions+ We *ould tape it to our )orehead, hold up a mirror and e&erythin% *ould be simple+ But a&alanches arenCt that *ay+ = -hris Stethem, prominent -anadian a&alanche consultant 1n this chapter, *e )inally add humans to the eAuation, and this is *here thin%s usually %et &ery tricky+ -ountless studies ha&e sho*n that, )or *hate&er reasons, humans %enerally stink at e&aluatin% risk, especially risk to themsel&es+ The it:*onCt:happen:to:me )actor seems to a))ect nearly all other*ise:sensible people+ Beha&ior studies ha&e sho*n a%ain and a%ain that kno*in% the conseAuences o) our actions tends to in)luence beha&ior much more than kno*in% the rules *eCre supposed to )ollo*+ Thus, to help combat this curious sel):destructi&e trait *e all share, 1C&e included checklists, *orksheets, and )lo*charts that not only take into account the sno*pack, *eather, and terrain, but more importantly the probable conseAuences o) our actions and the alternati&es that are a&ailable+ E-otional versus 1o*ical /ecision 3akin* Be)ore *e di&e into the bi% sub4ect o) ha8ard e&aluation, *e ha&e to %et one thin% strai%ht+ 6uman bein%s do not naturally make lo%ical decisions+ Anyone *ho has e&er )ollo*ed the stock market, *orked in sales, or *orked )or a %o&ernment a%ency kno*s this already+ We are emotional creatures and lo%ic does not come easily+ We ha&e to be )orced into the habit o) makin% decisions lo%ically, and e&en then, itCs sporadic at best+ Ask any hi%h:school science teacher and they *ill tell you this is true+ Scott Adams, the creator o) the .ilbert cartoon, probably has a better handle on the intrinsic absurdity o) human nature than anyone+ 6e *rites, HTTo make %ood business decisionsU you ha&e to assume that humans are capable o) lookin% at )acts, )indin% root causes and )ormulatin% solutions+ In my planet thereCs not much e&idence to support this assumption+ 1) humans had the ability to look at the )acts and make %ood decisions, think ho* di))erent the *orld *ould be+ There *ould be only siB kinds o) cars on the market and nobody *ould buy a car that *as second best in its price ran%e+ There *ould be no such thin% as 4ury selection since all 4urors *ould reach the same conclusion a)ter &ie*in% the )acts, and all elections *ould be decided unanimously+ ThatCs not the *orld *e li&e in+ Iur brains are *ired back*ards+ We make decisions )irst=based on irrational )orces and personal moti&es=then *e do the analysis+ The )acts %et *hittled until they )it into the ri%ht holes+H Ine o) the themes o) this book is that *e need to make our decisions based on )acts, but *e need to %o one step )urther+ 1tCs the or%ani8ation and analysis o) the )acts that helps us make decisions =in other *ords, science+ As usual, the a&alanche %ame is much more o) a people problem than an a&alanche problem+ ThatCs *hat ha8ard e&aluation is all about=pro&idin% *ays to or%ani8e in)ormation so that it makes some sense to us and helps us make decisions based on an analysis o) the )acts+ /ike it or not, *e *ill not do this instincti&ely+ We must be )orced+ ThatCs *hy airline pilots use checklists and )ollo* procedures, thatCs *hy stock traders ha&e tradin% systems, and thatCs *hy la*yers dra* up contracts and a%reements+ They donCt do this )or their pleasureE they do it because itCs the only thin% that *orks+ 1 ha&e al*ays been ama8ed at ho* much checklists and dia%rams help to or%ani8e the pieces o) the pu88le=any pu88le+ When )aced *ith an o&er*helmin% delu%e o) sometimes contradictory in)ormation, the best *ay )or the human brain to sort it all out is to put it on paper in some sort o) matriB or dia%ram+ 1 actually learned this )rom my mother+ 1 kno* it sounds like 1Cm bra%%in% a%ain ?because 1 am@, but my mother is no ordinary *oman+ A)ter raisin% siB children, she earned a -PA and an MBA, *as a uni&ersity pro)essor, then earned a la* de%ree and *orked as a la*yer until she retired a )e* years a%o+ Ine day *hen 1 *as maybe ten years old, 1 had some hard decision to make=1 4ust couldnCt )i%ure out *hat to do+ She said, H/et the )acts make the decision+H H6o* do 1 do thatGH 1 asked+ HMake a matriB,H she replied+ H1tCs a *ay you can %et the )acts out in )ront o) you and, like ma%ic, the )acts make the decision )or you+H Across the top o) the paper, she listed my three choices )or the decision 1 *as tryin% to make+ .o*n the le)t side o) the paper, she listed all the )actors 1 thou%ht *ere important about the decision+ Then she dre* hori8ontal and &ertical lines to make a matriB+ 'inally, )or each o) the three decisions, 1

ranked each )actor on a scale )rom one to ten+ When 1 added up the columns under each decision, the numbers told me *hich *as the best+ Ma%icJ 1C&e used this method do8ens o) times since, )rom decidin% *hat career to )ollo* to *hat kind o) car to buy, and *e use it e&ery time *e hire someone ne* at the 3tah A&alanche -enter+ Ha&ar' Evaluation Checklist 6ereCs a checklist de&eloped by Alaska a&alanche educators .ou% 'esler and 9ill 'redston+ This checklist seems decepti&ely simple, but they ha&e put a lot o) thou%ht into it and re)ined it throu%h hundreds o) multiday classes+ The checklist is an easy *ay to or%ani8e the in)ormation and %et it in )ront o) you so that you can take a step:by:step approach to determinin% ha8ard on a particular slope at a particular time+ They use the analo%y o) a stopli%ht5 red means stop, yello* means caution, %reen means %o+ Ha&ar' Evaluation Checklist Terrain=4s the slo#e ca#able of #ro'ucin* an avalanche7 )e' 6ellow Steepness ?1s it steep enou%h to slideG 1s it prime timeG@ Aspect ?/ee*ard, shado*ed, eBtremely sunnyG@ -on)i%uration ?Anchorin% and shape@ Subtotal Snow#ack=Coul' the snow sli'e7 )e' 6ellow 2reen Slab con)i%uration ?SlabG .epthG .istributionG@ Bondin% ability ?Weak layer, tender spotsG@ Sensiti&ity to tri%%ers ?6o* much )orceG Shear testsG -luesG@ Subtotal Weather=4s the weather contributin* to the instability7 )e' 6ellow 2reen Precipitation ?Type, amount, intensity, *ei%ht@ Wind ?Sno* transportG Amount and rate o) depositionG@ Temperature ?Storm trendsG 0))ects on sno*packG@ Subtotal Hu-an .actors=What are the alternatives an' their conseCuences7 )e' 6ellow 2reen Attitude ?To*ard li)eG DisksG ,oalsG AssumptionsG@ Technical skill le&el ?Tra&elin%G 0&aluatin% a&alanche ha8ardG@ Stren%th<0Auipment ?Stren%thG Prepared )or the *orstG@ Subtotal I&erall 2o or No;*o7 5sin* the Ha&ar' Evaluation Checklist /etCs *ork throu%h some speci)ic eBamples usin% the checklist+ E<a-#le 15 The *eather is stormin% like cra8y+ SiB )eet o) ne*, dense sno* has )allen in the past t*o days+ Fou can hear a&alanches roarin% do*n in the mountains+ Fou *ant to %o skate:skiin% on a road that crosses a 20:de%ree slope that has no steeper slopes abo&e or belo*+ ?Fou ha&e measured the runout an%le *hen the &isibility *as %ood+@ ,o or no:%oG Terrain++++++++++++++++++++++,reen Sno*pack+++++++++++++++++Ded Weather++++++++++++++++++++Ded 2reen

6uman+++++++++++++++++++++.oesnCt matter Answer@ 1tCs a %o+ 1tCs nearly impossible to tri%%er an a&alanche on a 20:de%ree slope+ 1) you stay out )rom underneath slopes o) about "0 de%rees or steeper, you *ill be Auite sa)e+ This is a %ood day to stick to %reen:li%ht terrain+ Watch out )or poor &isibility because you mi%ht bumble into dan%erous terrain, in *hich case you could easily %et slau%htered on a day like today=a %ood day )or a map and ,PS+ E<a-#le 25 Fou are a producer o) eBtreme sno*mobile &ideos and you *ant to )ilm hi%h markin% in steep, mountain couloirs+ Fou head to a #;:de%ree chute belo* a lar%e )unnel:shaped a&alanche path+ The *eather has been sunny and *arm )or the past *eek, includin% today+ 'rom all o) your tests and obser&ations, you determine that the sno* is &ery stable+ ,o or no:%oG Terrain++++++++++++++++++++++Ded Sno*pack+++++++++++++++++,reen Weather++++++++++++++++++++,reen 6uman+++++++++++++++++++++Fello* Answer5 1tCs a %o+ Fes, you are in &ery dan%erous terrain, but this is the time to do itE in )act, itCs the only time to do it=durin% times o) %ood *eather and stable conditions+ This is the time to )ollo* your dreams+ Watch out )or human )actors, thou%h+ Kodak coura%e *ill elicit stupid beha&ior in e&en the saintly, but at least you *onCt ha&e to *orry about naturally occurin% a&alanches+ E<a-#le 5 The *eather is )inally beauti)ul and sunny a)ter )our days o) storms+ Fou head )or your )a&orite bo*l )or a day o) skiin%+ In the *ay, you notice collapsin% o) the sno*pack on a deeply buried layer o) depth hoar+ Fou see se&eral a&alanches that ha&e run durin% the storm+ Fou plan to ski on a ";:de%ree north:)acin% slope+ Terrain++++++++++++++++++++++Ded Sno*pack+++++++++++++++++Ded Weather++++++++++++++++++++Decent *eather5 DedE present *eather5 ,reen 6uman+++++++++++++++++++++Ded Answer5 .e)inite no:%o+ These are precisely the conditions that kill most a&alanche &ictims= the )irst sunny day a)ter a storm+ The sunny *eather and )resh po*der makes us )eel %reat, but the sno*pack does not necessarily share our opinion+ 1n this case, the sno*pack is ob&iously unstable and doubly dan%erous since it has some )lu))y Hsucker sno*H on top+ 6uman )actors run rampant because e&eryone desperately *ants to ski %reat po*der in the beauti)ul sunshine, and *e tend to rationali8e nearly anythin% to do so+ This is the time *hen a&alanche eBperts become &ery unpopular in a %roup because they spoil e&eryoneCs )un+ 0&en kno*led%eable %roups sometimes start cautiously on %entle slopes, then *hen nothin% happens, they keep *orkin% up to steeper and steeper slopes until catastrophe strikes+ HOT T48B /ook )or a slope that a&alanched durin% the storm and no* has a little )resh po*der on it+ I)ten you can play on it per)ectly sa)ely *hile you *ait )or the yet unslid slopes to stabili8e or slide+ Also, i) only north:)acin% slopes are unstable, perhaps you can )ind sa)e conditions on south:)acin% slopes or &ice &ersa+ -heck them out+ Be sure to %et a %ood ">0:de%ree &ie* o) sno* stability+ E<a-#le !5 Fou *ant to %o ice climbin% on a north:)acin% )ro8en *ater)all beneath a lar%e )unnel:shaped a&alanche path+ The *eather has been cold and clear )or the past *eek, *hich has kept the ;0 centimeters o) po*der sno* li%ht and dry+ The *eather )orecast calls )or a *arm )ront to push into your area today+ Fou notice increasin% hi%h clouds and *armer temperatures as you approach the climb+ Terrain++++++++++++++++++++++Ded Sno*pack+++++++++++++++++,reen turnin% to Ded Weather++++++++++++++++++++,reen turnin% to Ded 6uman+++++++++++++++++++++.oesnCt matter Answer5 .epends on timin%+ Fou may be able %et a*ay *ith it i) you %o Auickly be)ore the temperature starts to seriously *arm up+ But you could 4ust as easily be too late already, and itCs hard to e&aluate slopes )ar abo&e you+ The *armin% temperatures, *ind, and hi%h clouds *ill *arm up the cold, dry sno* on the north:)acin% slope abo&e and cause loose slu))s that may knock you o)) the ice climb+ 1tCs probably best to choose a route *ithout o&erhan%in% ha8ards+ /an*er )atin*s E<#laine' Many a&alanche:prone areas in the *orld, includin% the 3nited States and -anada, ha&e either a local or re%ional a&alanche center that issues daily a&alanche ad&isories )or the public+ ?See

biblio%raphy )or a current list+@ Ad&isories throu%hout the *orld utili8e a standardi8ed ;:point scale o) a&alanche dan%er ?See the appendiB+@ 1n 0n%lish, they are called lo*, moderate, considerable, hi%h, and eBtreme, and they ha&e eAui&alents in many other lan%ua%es+ These are %enerali8ed Hdan%erH ratin%sE in other *ords, they rate the dan%er to a person o) tri%%erin% an a&alanche+ .an%er depends not only on the likelihood o) someone tri%%erin% an a&alanche but also the si8e o) the eBpected a&alanche=in other *ords, the conseAuences o) tri%%erin% an a&alanche+ 1 donCt )ind the standard de)initions )or these cate%ories ?such as Hhuman:tri%%ered a&alanches possibleH@ to be particularly use)ul+ So a number o) years a%o, se&eral o) us at the 3tah A&alanche -enter hashed out a checklist )or determinin% the dan%er ratin%+ Since then it has been re)ined and adapted to the international ;:point scale+ This is not a standardi8ed checklist )or public consumptionE itCs only our o*n internal checklist that *e use as a systematic *ay o) 8eroin% in on a dan%er ratin%, instead o) usin% the more %enerali8ed *ordin% in the de)inition+ Simply rate each o) the three criteria )rom 1 to ; on the scale in Table 2:1 belo* and add up the numbers to determine the ratin%+ Table %;1> .an%er Datin%s )atin* Sensitivity to Tri**ers

Aerial E<tent of E<#ecte' Avalanche Si&e Hu-an;Tri**ere' 8otential ; (atural a&alanches V;0S -an destroy mature )orests or lar%e buildin%s+ # 0asy human tri%%ers, ;0:2;S -an destroy small )orests or houses+ some natural " Moderate human 2;:10S -an break a )e* trees and mo&e cars+ tri%%ers 2 6ard human tri%%ers 10:2S -atches and buries people, but doesnCt tear out medium trees+ 1 0Bplosi&es tri%%ers W2S ,enerally doesnCt catch people+ /o* " to #E Moderate ; to 2E -onsiderable ! to 10E 6i%h 11 to 1 "E 0Btreme 1# to 1; Workin* throu*h an e<a-#le@ A deeply buried *eak layer that is di))icult to tri%%er may rank as a 2, but i) you )ind a thin spot on the slab, you can easily tri%%er an a&alanche+ 6o*e&er, these thin areas may comprise only 2 percent o) the area, )or a rankin% o) 1 on the eBtent o) human:tri%%ered potential+ 'inally, i) you do tri%%er the a&alanche, it *ould be hu%e=an eBpected a&alanche si8e o) # or ;+ This *ould %i&e you a considerable ratin%+ The )orecaster can choose to modi)y the ratin% in special circumstances+ 'or eBample, say there is a *idespread area o) &ery sensiti&e a&alanches, but they are only 1 centimeter deep and &ery so)t+ This *ould yield a combined total o) 11, but itCs not a hi%h dan%er, itCs more like a moderate dan%er+ Fou can also cross:check the ratin% *ith *hat *e call the Hpucker )actor,H sho*n in Table 2:2+ Table %;2 8ucker .actor /o* dan%er ,enerally com)ortable on all slopes+ Moderate dan%er Willin% to cross most slopes, but *ith care)ul e&aluation and sa)e tra&el practices+ -onsiderable Willin% to cross some slopes under special circumstances+ dan%er 6i%h dan%er Would a&oid crossin% all slopes, but may cross runouts i) done Auickly+ 0Btreme dan%er Would a&oid all slopes and all runouts+ The Atwater;1aCha#elle )isk Evaluation Checklist 6ere is a checklist that is similar to the 'redston:'esler checklist, but this one adds the )actors o) conseAuences and alternati&es+ 1n other *ords, risk to an indi&idual eAuals the likelihood o) somethin% bad occurrin% times the conseAuences o) that somethin% bad takin% place+ Ince people kno* the conseAuences, they are much more likely to consider the alternati&es+ 1n the late 1 ;0s, Monty At*ater and 0d /a-hapelle came up *ith )our simple Auestions to ask yoursel) *hen you tra&el in a&alanche terrain+ The Auestions ha&e been sli%htly re)ined throu%h the years, mostly by .ou% 'esler, to their no*:)amiliar state+ The )our Auestions are5 K 1s the terrain capable o) producin% an a&alancheG

K -ould the sno* slideG K What *ill happen i) it doesG K What are the alternati&esG Whether youCre mana%in% a&alanche ha8ard at a ski resort, %uidin% clients, or recreatin% in the backcountry, you should al*ays run throu%h these Auestions *ith e&ery slope you cross+ .o it o&er and o&er until itCs second nature+ 1 ha&e )leshed out the Auestions into the )ollo*in% checklist, in *hich you can color each )actor red li%ht, yello* li%ht, or %reen li%ht, and inte%rate them to%ether into a no:%o or %o decision+ Many people also add the human )actor to this list, so 1 ha&e as *ell, since human )actors not only color all o) our decisions, but *ithout the skills and kno*led%e, you *onCt be able to e&aluate any o) the rest o) the )actors any*ay+ De)er to -hapters ", #, ;, >, and 10 )or more details on e&aluatin% each Auestion+ The bullets under each Auestion are the )actors 1 consider+ 6uman5 Are you prepared )or the 4obG K Attitude, 4ud%ment, communication, a*areness K Skills and kno*led%e K 0Auipment and stren%th Terrain5 1s the terrain capable o) producin% an a&alanche7 K Steepness K -on)i%uration ?shape, aspect@ K Anchors Sno*pack5 -ould the sno* slideG K Ibser&ations ?recent a&alanches, crackin%, collapsin%D etc>: K Tests ?test slopes, sno*pits, etc+@ K Past and present *eather -onseAuences5 What *ill happen i) it doesG K A&alanche si8e K Terrain conseAuences ?terrain traps, shape, si8e, escape routes, etc@ K (umber o) people in&ol&ed What are the alternati&esG K Back track K 'ind another slope or route K .i% in and *ait it out 'inally, *e can also make the abo&e list into a )lo*chart ?'i%ure 2:1@+ 'i%ure 2:1+ At*ater:/a-hapelle Disk 0&aluation 'lo*chart With the Disk 0&aluation -hecklist in mind, letCs look at some photos and e&aluate the terrain based on e&erythin% *eC&e learned so )ar+++++ P0;2 1) you look at this terrain *ith an eye )or conseAuences, the bi%, u%ly, )unnel:shaped a&alanche path in the middle ?1@ 4umps ri%ht out at you+ 0&en small a&alanches can bury you &ery deeply i) theyCre tri%%ered any*here inside o) the )unnel+ Doute ?2@ is sa)er because it stays on %entler terrain *ith )e*er bad conseAuences+ 1n Doute ?"@ you ha&e to make like a hound do% and sni)) out the %entlest terrain, )ollo*in% subtle spur rid%es+ This route also seems to ha&e more options )or escape routes+ ?Kenai Mountains, Alaska@ $ Bruce Tremper P0;" WhereCs the most dan%erous terrainG 1tCs not al*ays the most ob&ious+ 1 think 1 *ould rather take my chances *ith the steep skyline couloirs than the &ery u%ly terrain trap in the )ore%round ?1@+ The plumes o)) the peaks tell you that the *ind is blo*in% ?#@ and the sno* sur)ace patterns tell you that the *ind *as blo*in% )rom le)t to ri%ht+ ,ullies in the )ore%round ha&e been cross:loaded+ The small ones ?2@ *ould make %ood test slopes, but ?"@ is lar%e enou%h to kill+ The best slope looks like ?;@, *hich seems to be more *ind sheltered and %enerally not steep enou%h to slide+ As )or the steep couloirs on the skyline, theyCre all recently *ind:loaded+ Some sections o) them may be *ind sheltered enou%h to still be sa)e, but youCll ha&e to check them out &ery care)ully as you tra&el+ A mistake *ill send you on a lon%, possibly unsur&i&able ride+ ?Thompson Pass, -hu%ach Dan%e, Alaska@ $ Bruce Tremper P0;# An ob&iously *indy day+ All the pockets labeled ?1@ look like certain death today+ All are acti&ely *ind:loadin%, and all ha&e probably unsur&i&able conseAuences+ The pockets labeled ?2@

are also acti&ely *ind:loadin%, but the conseAuences look like thereCs at least a possibility o) sur&i&al+ Doute ?"@ looks like the only sa)e one today as it )ollo*s the *ind:scoured side o) the rid%e+ Watch out )or small *ind slabs that could send you )or a bone:4arrin% ride o&er the scoured rocks+ The kni)e:ed%e rid%e up hi%h looks mi%hty tricky, thou%h+ This looks like a %ood day to stay home unless you can sni)) out a *ind:sheltered slope some*here+ Watch out )or thin%s comin% do*n )rom abo&e, because the *ind is rapidly loadin% the slopes+ ?Thompson Pass, -hu%ach Dan%e, Alaska@ $ Bruce Tremper

CHA8TE) ( > )O5TE.4N/4N2 AN/ SA.E T)A?E1 )4T5A1S

We *rite a tale o) ad&enture *ith our thou%hts and actions e&ery day+ And itCs a story that *e donCt %et the opportunity to edit and re*rite+ The )irst dra)t is the )inal one+ /etCs *rite it *ell+ =Doyal Dobbins The old 'orest Ser&ice A&alanche 6andbook has a dia%ram o) a skier crossin% a slope *ith sparse trees *ith the caption belo* tellin% you to ne&er cross a steep, open slope *ithout trees+ 1 happen to kno* the %uys *ho *rote that handbook and 1 can assure you that they spent a lot o) their careers skiin% steep, open slopes *ithout trees and they had a lot o) )un in the process+ They 4ust kne* enou%h to do it *hen the sno* *as stable+ Mountain people li&e to play on steep, open slopes *ithout trees, in other *ords, a&alanche terrain+ The Auestion is, ho* can *e do it sa)elyG The rules o) route)indin% are not etched in stone+ They depend on the stability o) the sno*pack, the type o) instability, the kind o) %roup, the %oals o) the %roup, and the mode o) tra&el+ 'or instance, durin% %reen:li%ht conditions, you can %o almost any*here *ith almost any %roup and do almost any kind o) acti&ity+ 1n yello*:li%ht conditions, your choices become more limitedE in red:li%ht conditions the terrain a&ailable to you becomes se&erely limited as *ell as the makeup o) your %roup and the techniAues you use+ P0;; These sno*mobilers are hi%h:markin% ri%ht in the %ut o) a )unnel *here the conseAuences o) a slide *ould likely be unsur&i&:able+ ?Wasatch Dan%e, 3tah@ $ Bruce Tremper Doute)indin% has 4ust as much to do *ith *hat you donCt kno* as *hat you do+ 1n the a&alanche %ame, you ne&er ha&e as much in)ormation as you *ould like, so you need to ad4ust your beha&ior dependin% on ho* much you kno*+ 'or instance, i) you ha&e a lot o) uncertainty, take a conser&ati&e approach and choose a route *here you can %ather in)ormation+ Stop by a little test slope, 4ump on it to see ho* it responds, and then di% a sno*pit on a slope that has the same aspect and ele&ation as the slope you *ant to play on )or the day+ Doute)indin% also has a lot to do *ith your %roup+ 6o* )it are you, *hat kind o) eAuipment do you ha&e, *hat is your le&el o) acceptable risk, ho* )ast do you tra&el, ho* skilled are you, *hat are your %oals, *hat kind o) communication do you ha&e, and *hat are your a&alanche skillsG Doute)indin% is a )ine art that takes years to master+ Makin% a path on the land=the best path )or that particular day in those particular conditions *ith your o*n particular party=is the ultimate test o) mountain smarts+ Stability an' )outefin'in* The rules o) route)indin% are a dynamic process that depend on the stability o) the sno*pack, the *eather, and the kind o) people youCre *ith+ The kind o) terrain that is a&ailable to you and ho* you tra&el on that terrain depends on the conditions+ Doute)indin% also &aries dependin% on *hat kind o) a&alanche dra%on youCre dealin% *ith+ ?See -hapter ; )or a more detailed discussion+@ 'or instance, i) *e consider the stability o) the sno*pack, *e use the 'redston and 'esler stopli%ht analo%y in *hich *e separate the stability o) the sno*pack into the cate%ories o) red li%ht, yello* li%ht, and %reen li%ht+ )e';1i*ht Con'itions Tests and Ibser&ations5 .ry Sno* K /ocali8ed:to:*idespread recent natural a&alanches K Small:to:medium:si8ed cornice blocks rollin% do*n slopes produce a&alanches most o) the time A -ollapsin% and crackin% o) the sno*pack A Most sno*pit tests sho* unstable sno* A Decent hea&y loadin% o) ne* and<or *indblo*n sno* Tests and Ibser&ations5 Wet Sno* K /ocali8ed:to:*idespread recent natural a&alanches K Dain on ne* sno* K Dapid meltin% o) ne* sno* K Sinkin% in past your knees *hile *alkin% in *et sno*

Terrain Available K A&oid slopes steeper than about "0 de%rees K Stay out )rom underneath any slopes steeper than about "0 de%rees 1) you &enture into steeper terrain, do so only in dense trees or hea&ily *ind:scoured slope a&alanche paths *ithout multiple startin% 8ones that ha&e recently a&alanched 8eo#le Consi'erations K Tra&el only *ith stron%, *ell:eAuipped people *ith %ood a&alanche skills 6ellow;1i*ht Con'itions Tests an' Observations@ /ry Snow K /ocali8ed recent natural a&alanches K /ar%e cornice blocks rollin% do*n slopes produce only sporadic or locali8ed a&alanches K /ocali8ed areas o) collapsin% and crackin% K MiBed results on sno*pit tests K More than t*o days since hea&y loadin% or rapid *armin% ?lon%er in cold climates or sno*packs *ith )aceted *eak layers@ Tests and Ibser&ations5 Wet Sno* K /ocali8ed recent natural a&alanches K Sinkin% in past your ankles *hile *alkin% in *et sno* K Dain on old sno* K Dapid *armin% o) old sno* Terrain Available A Selecti&e slopes up to "; de%rees, but you ha&e to really kno* *hat youCre doin%+ 1) you ha&e lo* a&alanche skills, stay on %entle terrain+ K 3se )ull repertoire o) sa)e tra&el techniAues+ 8eo#le Consi'erations A Most a&alanche accidents happen durin% yello*:li%ht conditions+ People percei&e that conditions are sa)e, but enou%h booby traps are still around so that people *ith lo* a&alanche skills e&entually %et into trouble+ 0&en someone *ith %ood a&alanche skills needs to spend a lot o) time %atherin% data to make decisions+ Many o) the common human )actors come into play, such as the herdin% instinct, impatience, euphoria, positi&e rein)orcement, e%o, pride, attitude, etc+ Some people *ith lo*er a&alanche skills can accompany skilled members, but only under super&ision+ 2reen;1i*ht Con'itions Tests an' Observations@ /ry Snow K (o recent a&alanche acti&ity K (o collapsin% and crackin% K /ar%e cornice blocks rollin% do*n a slope produce no a&alanches K Sno*pit tests sho* mostly stable sno* K More than se&eral days *ithout hea&y loadin% or rapid *armin% Tests an' Observations@ Wet Snow A Thick, re)ro8en sno* sur)ace A Mature, isothermal sno*pack ?no layers and course:%rained *ith establishe' draina%e channels@ A (ot sinkin% in past ankles *hen *alkin% Terrain Available A Most routes are sa)e+ A This is the time to do those eBtreme routes you ha&e al*ays dreamed o), but only a)ter care)ully checkin% them out+ A&alanches still occur in %reen:li%ht conditions, theyCre 4ust &ery isolated+ As al*ays, continue to )ollo* sa)e tra&el techniAues+ 8eo#le Consi'erations K This is the time to %o out *ith lar%e %roups or )olks *ith lo* a&alanche skills+ 1) you *ant to break the rules o) sa)e tra&el ritual, this is the time to do it+ )outefin'in* Boot Ca-# (o*, no more practice, you ha&e to do it )or real=bettin% *ith your li)e, usin% *hat *e ha&e learned in -hapter 2 about e&aluatin% ha8ard+ 0&ery time you %o out, look care)ully at the terrain )rom se&eral an%les and dra* the &arious possible routes in your mindCs eye )rom the bottom to the top or

)rom the top to the bottom+ /ist the reasons *hy you *ould choose that route )rom the perspecti&e o) steepness, anchors, aspect *ith respect to both *ind and sun, and conseAuences+ .o you see any alternati&e routesG Where is the cruBG Where *ill you )ind test slopesG Where *ill you di% a sno*pitG What kind o) %roup do you ha&eG What kind o) eAuipment do you ha&eG .ra* each route o&er and o&er in your mind lookin% at pluses and minuses o) each one until you e&entually 8ero in on the best one+ Kno* *hy itCs the best one and list the reasons+ Then itCs time )or the )inal eBam+ Take the route and see ho* it *orks out+ -ontinually make chan%es *hile you tra&el and %ather more in)ormation+ A)ter*ards, re&ie* your mistakes+ Keep doin% this e&ery time you %o out and by the end o) the season you *ill ha&e much:impro&ed route)indin% skills+ A)ter se&eral years, you *ill be *ell on your *ay to bein% a route)indin% master+ How )outefin'in* ?aries with /ifferent Activities Skiers, sno*mobilers, sno*boarders, sno*shoers, and climbers all must tra&el di))erently because o) the nature o) the eAuipment and the sport+ Also, di))erent kinds o) a&alanche *orkers mana%e the terrain di))erently+ 6ere is a short list o) ho* route)indin% &aries *ith each acti&ity+ Sno*mobilers A'vanta*es K Modern machines o))er a nearly unlimited choice o) terrain so sno*mobilers can co&er nearly as much terrain as a helicopter skiin% company+ This means they can easily choose alternate terrain i) one type o) terrain pro&es too dan%erous and they can test many small slopes be)ore %ettin% onto the bi% ones+ K 1tCs easy to 4ettison %ear and s*im i) cau%ht in an a&alanche+ K A helmet *ith )acemask can pro&ide an air space *hen buried+ K Warm clothin% helps pre&ent hypothermia *hen buried, lost, or broken do*n+ K Po*er and speed make it easier to escape o)) a slab+ /isa'vanta*es K Po*er and speed allo* sno*mobilers to co&er up to one hundred times the amount o) terrain as a skier in a day+ This means i) any instability is out there, they *ill likely )ind it+ K Sno*mobiles are hea&y, so they are more e))icient as a&alanche tri%%ers+ K 6elmet, noise, and speed make it di))icult to )eel or hear ob&ious si%ns o) instability and also make it di))icult to communicate+ K Po*er and speed easily %i&e a )alse sense o) con)idence+ K Sno*mobilers usually enter a&alanche terrain )rom the bottom, not the top, *hich is much more dan%erous+ K When ascendin% a bo*l, turnin% into the center o) the bo*l is easier than turnin% to*ard the ed%e, so sno*mobilers tend to end up in the middle o) the a&alanche+ ?A better option is to %o up the center and turn to*ard the ed%e so you ha&e an escape route+@ K Tra&ersin% on a sno*mobile is di))icult, so doin% slope cuts is harder+ K Sno*mobilin% is easy to learn, so anyone, re%ardless o) athletic ability or a&alanche trainin%, can easily access dan%erous a&alanche terrain+ P0;> Sno*mobiler ?Alaska@ $ .ou% 'esler K Sno*mobiles can break do*n and lea&e their riders stranded+ ?Al*ays ride *ith a partner+@ )outefin'in* Consi'erations K Stop re%ularly, %et o)) the machine, and eBamine the sno* )or unstable conditions+ K Since itCs so easy to co&er all kinds o) terrain, thereCs no eBcuse )or not testin% se&eral small slopes be)ore %ettin% onto the bi%, dan%erous ones+ K Al*ays do a slope cut on the )irst hi%h:mark o) a lar%e slope+ .o it lo*er on the slope as a s*oopin%, tra&ersin% cut so that i) you do tri%%er an a&alanche, your momentum *ill take you into sa)e terrain+ K .o hi%h marks on the side o) an a&alanche path or turnin% to*ard the ed%e o) the a&alanche path )or a better chance o) escape+ K .o not come to the aid o) a stuck partner in a&alanche terrain+ ?Thirty:three percent o) sno*mobiler )atalities in&ol&e a stuck sled and "# percent ha&e more than one machine on the slope at the time o) the accident+@ K -hoose )lat or con&eB terrain to hi%h mark instead o) conca&e bo*ls *here a&alanche debris )unnels into a con)ined area+

K 1) you must park at the bottom o) an a&alanche path, at least do it *ith your sleds parked parallel=not one in )ront o) the other=pointed a*ay )rom the slope+ 6a&e the kill s*itches up and ready )or a Auick %eta*ay+ K Many sno*mobiles tend to )loat to the sur)ace o) the debris because they are lar%er ob4ects+ Most &ictims are )ound *ithin " to 10 meters ?10 to #0 )eet@ uphill o) their sled and in line *ith their sled+ Skiers A'vanta*es K Skis are a practical, time:tested, and e))icient &ehicle )or backcountry tra&el, and skiers can mo&e )airly Auickly o&er steep mountainous terrain in many di))erent conditions and terrain types+ K ,ood mobility allo*s skiers to s*itch to a more )a&orable aspect or draina%e as conditions chan%e+ K Slo* ascent and intimate contact *ith the sno* allo*s skiers to e&aluate sno* stability+ K Deleasable bindin%s+ /isa'vanta*es K (o po*er to escape o)) a slab like a sno*mobiler+ K Some )ree:heel bindin%s do not release+ )outefin'in* Consi'erations K Fou spend much more time %oin% up than comin% do*n, so the uphill track needs to be in an especially sa)e place+ 1) youCre %oin% to take risks, do it on the descent instead o) the ascent, and do it one at a time+ K .onCt do 4ump turns+ Ski smoothly and keep your speed up )or an easier escape+ Snowboar'ers A'vanta*es K Sno*boards ha&e %reat )loatation, makin% them )ast and stable %oin% do*nhill, so escape o)) a slab is sli%htly easier than )or skiers+ K 1ntimate contact *ith the sno* allo*s )or on%oin% stability e&aluation+ K When tra&elin% uphill on )oot, choosin% the direct, *ind:eroded side o) a rid%e is easier )or boarders than )or skiers in slippery plastic boots and sno*mobilers+ /isa'vanta*es K (o releasable bindin%s=eBtremely dan%erous i) cau%ht in an a&alanche+ K ,oin% uphill is hard, especially on )oot+ Sno*shoes, split:apart boards, or small skis pro&ide better mobility+ Boarders on )oot tend to *alk in ski tracks, *hich ruins the tracks and can lead to )ist)i%hts *ith skiers+ K Because uphill tra&el is slo* and tra&ersin% on )oot is di))icult, s*itchin% to a di))erent aspect or draina%e *hen conditions chan%e is also di))icult+ 1) youCre tra&elin% on )oot, choose the initial terrain care)ully+ K Sno*boards are &ery stable in many kinds o) conditions that mi%ht )oil a skier, so boarders tend to %et a )alse sense o) security and can end up ridin% in more dan%erous conditions, such as on breakable *ind slabs and so%%y, *et sno*+ K Sno*boardin% is easy to learn, so ineBperienced riders can easily access dan%erous a&alanche terrain+ K ,ullies used as hal):pipes or *ith 4umps on the side are dan%erous terrain traps *here e&en small a&alanches can bury someone deeply+ K -uttin% cornices )or stability tests is harder+ ?Stompin% *ith skis or usin% a sno* sa* on the end o) a ski pole *orks *ell+@ K Most boarders donCt use ski poles, *hich are handy )or probin% into the sno* to )eel )or unseen layers belo* and tra&ersin% a slope+ With a sno* sa* attached to the end o) a ski pole, cuttin% cornices and doin% rutschblock tests is easy+ ?More and more boarders carry poles in the backcountry )or ascendin%+@ )outefin'in* Consi'erations K Because o) slo* speed %oin% uphill and lack o) releasable bindin%s %oin% do*nhill, you ha&e

to be eBceptionally conser&ati&e *ith sno* stability decisions, both %oin% up and do*n+ K When tra&elin% on )oot, choose the initial terrain care)ully because s*itchin% later is hard+ K When tra&elin% uphill on )oot, choose the direct, *ind:eroded side o) a rid%e+ Cli-bers A'vanta*es K (ot as much %ear to 4ettison i) cau%ht, but attached ice aBes can be deadly+ K 1ntimate contact *ith the sno* allo*s )or on%oin% stability e&aluation+ P0;> Sno*boarder ?Wasatch Dan%e, 3tah@ $ 6o*ie ,arber<Wanderlust 1ma%es /isa'vanta*es K -limbers are o)ten in such dan%erous terrain that a&alanches are the least o) their *orries+ Sometimes a *ise mountaineerin% decision mi%ht be an un*ise a&alanche decision+ K -limbers o)ten donCt carry beacons not only to sa&e *ei%ht but because they belie&e that a&alanches in bi% mountains are o)ten unsur&i&able any*ay, *hich is o)ten not the case+ -limbers should carry beacons more o)ten+ K Sometimes lack o) %ood &isibility causes climbers to camp under ice)alls or beneath ob&iously dan%erous a&alanche slopes+ 3se a map and a ,PS or shoot a runout an%le in %ood &isibility+ K 0scape o)) a slab is hard because tra&el is slo* %oin% both up and do*n+ K 0&en small slu))s on steep terrain can knock climbers o)) their )eet and into terrain *ith &ery bad conseAuences+ )outefin'in* Consi'erations K Ib4ecti&e ha8ard is usually the lar%est concern+ Tra&el )ast in dan%erous terrain and choose timin% care)ully+ K -heck out *ater:ice climbs )or loomin% a&alanche ha8ard abo&e, and choose timin% care)ully+ K Because you spend so much time in dan%erous a&alanche terrain, you must be especially dili%ent about the choice o) timin% and route+ K 3se a map and ,PS )or choosin% camps and routes in poor &isibility+ Snowshoers A'vanta*es K 1ntimate contact *ith sno* allo*s )or on%oin% stability e&aluation+ K Many sno*shoers carry ski poles, *hich *ork *ell )or probin% the unseen layers belo*+ A sno* sa* attached to the end o) a ski pole makes cuttin% cornices and doin% rutschblock tests easier+ /isa'vanta*es K (o releasable bindin%s, so sno*shoes are &ery dan%erous in an a&alanche+ K Tra&ersin% steep terrain is di))icult+ K Sno*shoers lack the po*er o) a sno*mobile and the mobility o) skiers and boarders to escape o)) mo&in% slabs+ K Sno*shoein% is easy to learn, so ineBperienced people can easily access dan%erous a&alanche terrain+ Doute)indin% -onsiderations K Tra&el is slo* both %oin% up and comin% do*n, and tra&ersin% steep terrain is di))icult, so you must be especially care)ul about the initial choice o) terrain+ S*itchin% terrain a)ter the in4tial decision is hard+ K Because o) slo* tra&el and lack o) releasable bindin%s, you canCt a))ord to make mistakes in route)indin% and sno* stability decisionsE choose terrain and conditions &ery care)ully+ Workers 98low /riversD Construction Workers: A'vanta*es Workers o)ten ha&e a buildin% or &ehicle that can o))er some protection )rom a&alanches, but this can also create a )alse sense o) security+ K Workers o)ten ha&e the bud%et to hire a dedicated a&alanche )orecaster+

/isa'vanta*es K Workers o)ten spend lar%e amounts o) time at the bottom o) a&alanche paths, so they must be especially dili%ent about choosin% the proper conditions+ K Workers o)ten operate under intense time or money constraints or intense client pressure and may take risks because o) it+ )outefin'in* an' Terrain 3ana*e-ent Consi'erations K 6ire an a&alanche specialist to e&aluate the terrain, control the a&alanches *ith eBplosi&es or de)ense structures, and )orecast a&alanche ha8ard+ Ir better yet, become an a&alanche specialist yoursel)+ K Workers at the bottom o) a&alanche paths usually donCt tri%%er the a&alanches, instead, a&alanches come do*n )rom abo&e durin% times o) hi%h or eBtreme conditions+ This is harder to mana%e than *orkin% in the startin% 8ones, because you canCt see the conditions that may kill you+ Ski Patrollers ?A&alanche -ontrol Workers@ A'vanta*es K Patrollers operate as a *ell:rehearsed team in a &ery controlled en&ironment *ith route partners, back:up rescuers, and detailed in)ormation on path history, sno* stability, and *eather+ K Patrollers can use eBplosi&es to directly and e))iciently test sno* stability= bi% ad&anta%e+ K Patrollers usually *ork )rom the top do*n+ ?They seldom ha&e to ascend dan%erous a&alanche terrain+@ K Patrollers usually ha&e permanent, )iBed belay systems in place *hen necessary+ /isa'vanta*es K Patrollers almost al*ays deal *ith an Harti)icialH sno*pack, *hich has been bombed and skied into submission+ They can easily de&elop a )alse sense o) security and then %et into trouble *hen they ha&e to deal *ith a natural, backcountry sno*pack, such as the )irst )e* days o) the season or *hen they control areas that ha&e not been open )or a )e* days+ K Patrollers spend lar%e amounts o) time in ha8ardous a&alanche terrain and tend to %et cau%ht more o)ten because o) it+ K 1ntense time and money pressure )rom mana%ement and customers+ )outefin'in* an' Terrain 3ana*e-ent Consi'erations K Work )rom the top do*n+ (e&er cross beneath uncontrolled terrain+ K 1nstall permanent belay systems *here necessary+ K Because you can use slope cuts to keep up on an increasin% ha8ard durin% a storm, itCs easy to mis4ud%e or o&eruse slope cuts+ Sometimes you %et into trouble tryin% to slope cut a hard slab or cut too lo* on a slope+ K Slope cuts on hard slabs are dan%erous+ 3se eBplosi&es+ K Watch out )or early seasonE you are dealin% *ith a backcountry sno*pack+ Places that usually ha&e mo%uls can produce dan%erous a&alanches+ Also, in early season you o)ten deal *ith persistent *eak layers, such as depth hoar and sur)ace hoar+ The tri%%er point is o)ten lo* on the slope, not hi%h in the *ind:loaded 8ones like in mid*inter+ Helico#ter Ski 2ui'es A'vanta*es K 6eli %uides ha&e a *ide choice o) terrain and can easily use sa)e terrain in unstable conditions+ K 6eli %uides can use eBplosi&es to directly and e))iciently test )or instability+ K 6eli %uides operate in a more controlled en&ironment than other recreationists+ They use Htail %unnersH ?%uides *ho al*ays %o last so they can per)orm a rescue i) necessary@, back up rescuers, and detailed in)ormation on path history, sno* stability, and *eather+ /isa'vanta*es K The Hma%ic carpet rideH into the middle o) dan%erous terrain does not %i&e heli %uides nearly as much time to e&aluate sno* stability as other recreationists+ They must rely on scout parties, )orecastin%, and intimate kno*led%e o) the sno*pack and terrain+ K ,uides o)ten deal *ith intense client pressure and money pressure )rom eBpensi&e helicopter time or pressure )rom )ilm cre*s+ This can push ineBperienced %uides into unsa)e situations+

K With lar%e %roups, itCs di))icult to %o one at a time+ K ,uides deal *ith hu%e areas o) uncontrolled, backcountry sno*pack and o)ten se&eral days ha&e passed since they last skied a particular slope+ K .i%%in% representati&e sno* pro)iles on a daily basis can be di))icult+ K Because o) euphoria, mana%in% a clientCs route)indin% decisions is di))icult+ )outefin'in* an' Terrain 3ana*e-ent Consi'erations K Keep a close eye on clients=close communication=close super&ision+ They tend to stray o)) the sa)est line and can endan%er themsel&es and others+ K Start on %entle terrain and *ork your *ay onto steeper terrain as you %ather more sno* stability in)ormation )or that area+ Ir start on a sa)e aspect and *ork your *ay onto a suspect aspect as you %ather more in)ormation+ (e&er di&e in *ithout %atherin% in)ormation+ K 1) possible, send an ad&ance HscoutpartyH to check out ne* terrain the day be)ore you plan to )ly there+ K Maintain close communication *ith other a&alanche *orkers in the area ?ski patrols, a&alanche )orecast centers, other helicopter companies, etc+@ K ,uides should re%ularly practice slope cuts at the top o) each slope and at each breako&er+ K When possible, use a tail %unner or use an eBperienced client as a tail %unner+ Safe Travel )ituals 1 take a lot o) com)ort in the )act that only 1+; percent o) the )atalities in the 3nited States in the last 1; years ha&e in&ol&ed a&alanche pro)essionals+ This is true mainly because in 0 percent o) a&alanche accidents, the a&alanche is tri%%ered by the &ictim or someone in the &ictimCs party+ Which means that i) you kno* *hat youCre doin%, stayin% ali&e in a&alanche country is predominantly a matter o) choice, not chance+ A&alanche pro)essionals depend on this )act+ But kno*led%e and eBperience take us only part o) the *ay+ The rest comes )rom %ood habits and %ood techniAues+ This section co&ers a lar%ely un*ritten set o) sa)e tra&el rituals that, throu%h the years, a&alanche pro)essionals ha&e de&eloped throu%h trial and, sometimes tra%ic, error+ Make no mistake, these techniAues donCt %uarantee sa)ety, they 4ust help push the sa)ety arro* a couple notches closer to the 100 percent mark+ The more techniAues *e use, and the more o)ten *e use them, the hi%her *e push the arro* on the scale+ We can ne&er reach 100 percent sa)ety, but *e can %et &ery close+ 6o* closeG As noted in the introduction, helicopter ski %uides ha&e to make the correct a&alanche decision better than percent o) the time i) they eBpect to ha&e a reasonably lon% career+ 0&en the ca%iest a&alanche pro)essional in the *orld is still a human bein% and humans make mistakes+ We *ill all make the *ron% decision at least once in our li)e, and more likely, se&eral times+ When the ine&itable happens, *e had better be practicin% our sa)e tra&el ritual because this is the only *ay to push the sa)ety arro* )rom percent to + percent+ ,ood rescue skills push the arro* up to + percent, *hich is the minimum sa)ety mar%in )or a lon% career+ Sa)e tra&el techniAues are not somethin% *e do only *hen *e think the situation is dan%erous+ Pro)essionals tend to %et cau%ht *hen they either underestimate the ha8ard or o&erestimate their skills and let their %uard do*n+ 1n other *ords, sa)e tra&el is more than a techniAue, itCs a ritual+ 1t *orks only i) you do it all the time+ 1tCs our habits that sa&e our li&es+ When 1 )irst started *orkin% on the ski patrol at Brid%er Bo*l Ski Area 2" years a%o, 1 learned se&eral rules 1 *as to ne&er &iolate *hen runnin% a&alanche control routes+ 1 call them the Dichmond Dules because my old )riend .ou% Dichmond tau%ht them to me+ .ay a)ter day, he *ould drill the Dules into me, and he *ould deal out the punishment accordin%ly *hen 1 )ailed to )ollo* them+ 6e took the Dules seriously, and in later years 1 could see *hy+ 1n almost e&ery death o) an a&alanche pro)essional in the past 20, i) they had been )ollo*in% the Dules, they *ould probably still be ali&e+ The Dichmond Dules ha&e sa&ed my li)e se&eral times+ P0;! Bad eBample o) ho* to tra&el in a %roup+ The )irst rule o) sa)e tra&el is5 ,o one at a time ?or al*ays think about *ho *ill do the rescue i) somethin% %oes *ron%@+ ?Wasatch Dan%e, 3tah@ J Bruce Tremper The )ules 1> One at a ti-e=an' *et out of the way at the botto-> K Desist the herdin% instinct+ The )eelin% o) sa)ety:in:numbers is hard*ired into the human brain and )or %ood reason+ 'or millions o) years, it has been a %ood de)ense a%ainst lions and ti%ers and bears, but it has 4ust the opposite e))ect on a&alanche dra%ons+ 1tCs essential to resist the herdin% instinct

because o) the )ollo*in% reasons5 A+ 1) somethin% does %o *ron%, you al*ays need to ha&e someone le)t in a sa)e spot so they can di% the other?s@ out+ B+ ,roups o) people *ei%h more than a sin%le person and are more likely to o&erload buried *eak layers+ -+ Se&eral people *anderin% all o&er the slope are much more likely to )ind the tri%%er point o) an a&alanche than a sin%le person+ K With small %roups, eBpose only one person to the ha8ard at a time+ K With lar%er %roups, spread out or split the %roup in hal)+ Al*ays lea&e enou%h people in a sa)e place so they can carry out a rescue+ Sometimes itCs better to keep t*o smaller %roups on t*o di))erent slopes in &isual contact than to ha&e t*o %roups on di))erent parts o) the same slope+ K Stay in &isual, &oice, or radio contact+ 2> Never cross above your #artner> Some ski patrols consider crossin% abo&e your partner tantamount to attempted homicide and they deal *ith the in)raction accordin%ly+ 1) you tri%%er an a&alanche on top o) your partner, itCs not only a &ery nasty beha&ior but thereCs a %ood chance that both o) you *ill %et killed because no one is le)t to carry out a rescue+ > Have an esca#e route #re#lanne'D an' always #ractice slo#e cuts> 0Btreme skier .ou% -oombs says that he ne&er enters a slope *ithout preplannin% eBactly *hat he *ill do i) somethin% %oes *ron%+ 6e has all his escape routes planned, and he chooses his route based on mana%in% the ha8ard+ 1) you tri%%er an a&alanche *hen youCre 4ust standin% in the middle o) the a&alanche path ?or youCre on a stationary sno*mobile@, you ha&e almost no chance to escape o)) the mo&in% slab+ That is *hy )or years, ski patrollers and helicopter ski %uides ha&e used *hat they call Hski cutsH as an e))ecti&e techniAue to reduce the odds o) %ettin% cau%ht+ 1 like to call them slope cuts because sno*boarders and sno*mobilers can do them as *ell+ The idea is that i) you tri%%er an a&alanche, you *ant to do it *hen you ha&e your speed built up and are headin% )or an island o) sa)ety so that, in theory, i) the slope does )racture, your momentum *ill carry you o)) the mo&in% slab+ 1n other *ords, i) the )irst person do*n 4ust di&es in and starts crankin% turns, i) an a&alanche breaks, their options are &ery limited+ 1n particular, the )irst person across the slope should al*ays practice slope cuts+ P0; ,ood eBample+ This sno*mobiler is turnin% to*ards his escape route ?%entler terrain *ith more anchors@ at the top o) the turn, not a*ay )rom it+ Al*ays ha&e an escape route preplanned+ ?Wasatch Dan%e, 3tah@ $ Bruce Tremper K 2et off the slabB Skiers an' snowboar'ers techniCue@ Be%innin% at the top o) a slope, cross the slope rapidly at about a #;:de%ree an%le, aimin% at an island o) sa)ety, such as trees, rocks, or hi%h %round at the ed%e o) the a&alanche path+ 0specially, the )irst person do*n should do se&eral slope cuts as they descend the top part o) the slope+ K 2et off the slabB Snow-obile techniCue@ 3nlike skiers and boarders, sno*mobilers ha&e the ability to do slope cuts )rom the bottom+ 1nstead o) doin% your )irst hi%h mark up the middle o) slope, either do a hi%h mark o)) to the side or a s*oopin%, tra&ersin% hi%h mark lo* on the slope *here you can %et o)) the slope in a hurry i) it does break+ Also, *hen hi%h markin% slopes, %o up the center and turn to*ard the outside so that you ha&e the maBimum chance o) escapin% to the side o) a slide i) you do tri%%er it+ 1) you )racture the slope *hile %oin% uphill and you canCt %et o)) to the side, 4ust %rab some throttle and keep headin% up in hopes that most o) the sno* *ill pass beneath you+ 1) you )racture the slope on the *ay do*n and canCt %et o)) to the side, your only choice is to try and outrun the a&alanche, *hich mi%ht *ork )or small a&alanches but probably *onCt )or the bi% ones+ Slope -ut -a&eats5 K Althou%h slope cuts *ork )airly *ell )or so)t, shallo* slabs, slope cuts are much less e))ecti&e )or hard or deep slabs+ (e&ertheless, you should still practice slope cuts on hard slabs as a %ood de)ensi&e techniAue, but reali8e that the third or tenth person across the slope is nearly as likely to tri%%er the slab as the )irst one+ K .onCt %et cocky 4ust because youC&e success)ully cut a )e* a&alanches and escaped+ Slope cuts are best used as a de)ensi&e techniAue, not an o))ensi&e one+ Slope cuts are not a %uarantee, theyCre only one more tool in your ba% o) tricks to push the sa)ety arro* a little closer to 100 percent+ K Keep your speed up+ Slope cuts depend on momentum to take you o)) the slab+ .onCt %et bo%%ed do*n at the top o) a hi%h mark+ When you are on skis or a sno*board, donCt poke alon% like a co*=make like an antelope+

Sluff 3ana*e-ent TechniCues People *ho ski, sno*board, sno*mobile, or climb in eBtreme terrain constantly ha&e to deal *ith slu))s and small slabs+ Since the terrain is so steep, e&en small amounts o) slu))in% sno* can knock you o)) your )eet and send you )or a nasty ride+ 6ere are a )e* pointers )rom my old )riend .ou% -oombs, eB:eBtreme skiin% champion and pioneer o) the 7alde8, Alaska, eBtreme helicopter skiin% phenomenon+ 'irst, a slu)) is not a slu))+ The Alaska helicopter %uides %enerally rate their slu))s in three cate%ories5 -lass 1, -lass 11, and -lass 111+ -lass 1 slu))s are composed o) ne*, li%ht sno*, and you can o)ten ski in them and throu%h them *ithout bein% knocked o)) your )eet++ -lass 11 slu)) carry more punch, and they can de)initely knock you o)) your )eet+ -lass 111 slu))s are composed o) dense sno* like near sur)ace )acets or sur)ace hoar+ They can %o !0 mph, and they can easily tumble you do*n the slope and bury you under 10 )eet o) debris+ P0>0 A %ood eBample o) slu)) mana%ement+ This skier is stayin% alon% the crest o) the spine and s*itchin% to a ne* spine i) thin%s build up too much+ Be sure to %lance o&er your shoulder e&ery other turn+ ?-hu%ach Dan%e, Alaska@ $ Scott Marke*it8 P0>1 0Auipment matters+ When skiin%, *ear releasable bindin%s and no pole strapsE *hen sno*boardin%, ri% your sno*board *ith a Auick:release rip cord+ ?Wasatch Dan%e, 3tah@ $ Bruce Tremper Second, slu))s tend to %o slo*ly at )irst, but *hen they reach a certain critical mass, they 4ump into *arp speed and rocket do*n the mountain, *hich can take an ineBperienced person by surprise+ Third, thereCs t*o *ays to handle slu))s5 %o slo*er than the slu)) or %o )aster than the slu))+ 1) you %o slo*er than the slu)), you make a turn or t*o and *ait )or it to run out ahead o) you+ With the ne* *ide skis and sno*boards, many o) the more elite athletes can stay out ahead o) the slu)), but the most important part is to look o&er your shoulder e&ery turn or e&ery other turn to keep an eye out )or *hen slu))s reach critical mass and suddenly pick up speed+ 'ourth, you need to mo&e across the )all line instead o) strai%ht up or do*n+ (e&er turn back into a slu))+ 3se small sub:rid%es ?spines and )lutes@ to your ad&anta%e+ Stay on or near the crests+ When you drop into the %ullies, stay up on the sides, ne&er crossin% the bottom o) the %ully *hen the slu))s you ha&e kicked o)) *ill be tra&elin%+ When one draina%e )ills up *ith slu))in% sno*, you can o)ten s*itch into a )resh draina%e to your le)t or ri%ht until it )ills up *ith too much sno*E then s*itch a%ain to a )resh slope+ Mana%in% slu))s takes eBperience and skill+ Start practicin% in terrain *ith less bad conseAuences be)ore you 4ump in bi% time, *hich can kill you i) you donCt kno* *hat youCre doin%+ !> Never wear #ole stra#s or safety stra#s> Al*ays *ear releasable bindin%s+ The human body is about three times as dense as )lo*in% a&alanche debris, and as such, it tends to sink+ 1ma%ine 4umpin% into White*ater rapids *ith a sno*board or skis attached to your )eet and holdin% onto poles and youCll reali8e *hy itCs so important to %et rid o) them i) you %et cau%ht in an a&alanche+ 0&en breaka*ay pole straps can be dan%erous because they may pre&ent you )rom %ettin% your hands near your )ace so that you can )orm an air pocket as the debris comes to a stop+ 1 cut o)) my pole straps 22 years a%o and 1 ha&enCt used them since+ "> 3ini-i&e obGective e<#osure> 0specially in bi% mountains, durin% storms or beneath ice)alls, a&alanches that randomly come )rom abo&e become a si%ni)icant ha8ard+ A When crossin% a&alanche terrain, make it Auick+ A Since the time spent breakin% a trail uphill takes so much lon%er than comin% do*n, keep the uphill trail in the most conser&ati&e terrain possible+ A .urin% storms *hen you canCt see the ob4ecti&e ha8ard abo&e, make %ood use o) maps and a ,PS+ Demember to shoot runout an%les *hen you ha&e the &isibility or use the maps to calculate them ?see -hapter "@+ $> Travel in the sa-e track when #ossible> Because the stren%th o) a buried *eak layer isnCt the same e&ery*here on a slope, slabs tend to ha&e discrete tri%%er points, or areas *here itCs especially easy to tri%%er the slab+ There)ore, use a Hmine)ieldH strate%y *hen crossin% a slope+ 1) the )irst person made it across, the second person *ill probably make it as *ell by )ollo*in% eBactly in the )irst personCs tracks+ 3sin% this same strate%y *hen skiin% or boardin% a slope, itCs best to )i%ure:ei%ht or spoon your tracks+ P0>2 Wear a belay rope *hen messin% around *ith cornices, doin% slope cuts in ha8ardous

terrain, or di%%in% sno*pits in terrain *ith bad conseAuences+ ?Wasatch Dan%e, 3tah@ $ Bruce Tremper P0>" Be *ary o) cornices+ Fou canCt see the dan%er until you look )rom the side+ 1s the skier standin% on an unstable cornice no*G Fou ne&er kno* unless you can check it out )rom another location+ (e&er *alk up to the ed%e o) a drop:o))+ ?Wasatch Dan%e, 3tah@ $ Bruce Tremper %> Cross hi*h on the avalanche #ath> Statistically, people cau%ht near the cro*n o) the slab ha&e a better chance o) escapin%, and i) buried, they tend to be closer to the sur)ace o) the debris and hi%her in the deposition 8one+ 6u% the rocks or trees at the top o) an a&alanche path because they tend to anchor the slab and you increase your chances o) bein% on the %ood side o) the )racture line+ (> Carry a belay ro#e> Most serious a&alanche pro)essionals carry and use a belay rope+ 1 usually carry a li%ht*ei%ht piece o) 2:mm:by:"0:meter rope+ Fou can use a belay rope )or di%%in% a sno*pit on a suspect slope, rappellin% past obstacles, slope cuttin%, kickin% or sa*in% cornices, *aitin% )or an eBplosi&e to %o o)t *hen standin% in an insecure spot, or carryin% out a rescue+ Dopes are %ood+ -arry one+ +> Be wary of cornices> 1 ha&e had three &ery close calls *ith cornices and 1Cm deeply )ri%htened o) them+ (e&er, ne&er, ne&er *alk up to the ed%e o) a drop:o)) *ithout )irst checkin% it out )rom another an%le to see i) youCll be standin% on nothin% but air+ 1) you canCt check it out, donCt %o to the ed%e+ 6undreds o) other*ise sensible people ha&e been needlessly killed this *ay+ When tra&elin% alon% a corniced rid%e, itCs ob&ious enou%h that you should tra&el on the up*ind side, but a lot o) people tra&el too close and suddenly %et the bi% ele&ator ride to 6ell+ -ornices ha&e a nasty habit o) breakin% )arther back than you eBpect+ Most old:time mountaineers ha&e a cornice story or t*o, and 1 ha&e seen cornices break )arther back than 1 *ould ha&e e&er ima%ined+ 1 once sa* a cornice break behind a line o) trees and behind a lar%e bush that stood bet*een mysel) and the ed%e+ 1 *ore a brace on my knee )or a month because o) that &ery close call+ Also remember that a person plus a lar%e cornice tumblin% do*n a slope to%ether make a terri)ic a&alanche tri%%er+ Treat cornices *ith respect, use a belay rope *hen possible+ -ornices are not all bad+ Fou can use them as a stability test+ ?See -hapter > )or the cornice test+@ 1,> Travel *ently> The total amount o) *ei%ht on the sno* isnCt nearly as important as the amount o) pressure on the sno*+ 1n other *ords, your *ei%ht spread out o&er a lar%er area puts less stress on buried *eak layers than *ei%ht concentrated in one area, such as *alkin% on )oot+ 'or instance, *ide skis are better than narro* skis, and a sno*board is better yet+ Fou ha&e to *atch out )or HdynamicH loads as *ell as HstaticH loads+ A skier bouncin% bet*een turns puts more stress on buried *eak layers than a skier mo&in% smoothly+ Sno*mobiles are notorious )or tri%%erin% a&alanches *hen they %et stuck at the top o) the hi%h mark+ A&oid ti%ht turns and brakin% hard+ 'inally, a&oid *alkin% on )oot, and especially a&oid hard )alls+ 11> Turn aroun' or *o un'er*roun'> 'e* people consider the option o) simply turnin% around and %oin% back the *ay they came+ The route %ot you there sa)ely and chances are it *ill %et you back as *ell+ The ob&ious eBception is durin% an intense storm *hen the return route may rapidly close o)) because o) additional ne* or *indblo*n sno*+ When conditions are so unstable that all your route)indin% options ha&e been eBhausted, you al*ays ha&e one )inal option+ Stay *here you are+ ,o under%round+ .i% a sno* ca&e or seek the shelter o) a cre&asse+ Sno* ca&es can be surprisin%ly co8y places to spend the ni%ht+ 0&en *ithout )ood or *ater and o&erni%ht %ear, you may be uncom)ortable but at least you *ill be ali&e+

CHA8TE) +> )ESC5E

Demember the a&alanche does not kno* you are an eBpert+ =Andre Doch, retired S*iss a&alanche scientist The %ood ne*s is that humans make mistakes because thatCs ho* *e learn+ The bad ne*s is that mistakes in a&alanche terrain can lead to &ery eBpensi&e lessons+ This is the nub o) the dilemmaE by our &ery nature, *e *ill make mistakes yet in a&alanche terrain *e canCt a))ord to make mistakes, at least &ery many o) them+ So *hat do *e doG We minimi8e the dama%e+ As *e sa* in -hapter !, one *ay to minimi8e the dama%e o) mistakes is to ritualistically practice sa)e tra&el techniAues+ As *e *ill learn in this chapter, *hen that doesnCt *ork, *e re%ularly practice a&alanche rescue techniAues+ This is the place *e all hope that *e *ill ne&er ha&e to &isit because it means that e&erythin% else has )ailed+ 0&en *hen *e do e&erythin% ri%ht, sometimes *e ha&e to rescue another party in need o) help+ 0&entually, i) you spend much time in a&alanche terrain, thereCs a %ood chance youCll be %lad that youC&e been re%ularly practicin% your rescue techniAues+ P0># (ot usin% beacons is not only dan%erous, but it usually means drud%ery )or searchers+ 1) rescuers cannot locate the &ictim usin% do%s or probe lines, they ha&e no choice but to lea&e them to melt out in sprin%+ 6ere )amily and )riends continue e))orts )or se&eral days a)ter rescuers ha&e %i&en up on this sno*mobiler+ ?Wasatch Dan%e, 3tah@ $ Bruce Tremper 6ereCs another soberin% )act5 A&alanche rescue doesnCt *ork &ery *ell+ As *e *ill see, rescues=e&en by pro)essionals=are usually a mess+ With the inherent problems o) *ild emotions, impossible time constraints, lack o) resources, ni%htmarish communication problems, and )oul *eather, itCs a *onder that any rescues succeed at all+ Fet somethin% about rescue captures our ima%ination+ ThereCs action and drama and the potential )or heroism, li)e and death, and a race a%ainst time+ Tele&ision pro%rams lo&e the sub4ect o) rescue and in nearly e&ery a&alanche talk 1C&e e&er %i&en, thatCs all people *ant to kno* about+ What do you do *hen you %et cau%htG 6o* do you sa&e someoneCs li)eG (o* 1 donCt )i%ht it anymore+ 1 talk about rescue in the )irst part o) the talk=%et it out o) the *ay =because a)ter that e&eryone reali8es that, sorry, most o) the time thereCs not a *hole lot you can do a)ter you %et cau%ht and rescue doesnCt *ork &ery *ell any*ay+ Then e&eryone is ready to listen to the important part, that the best a&alanche rescue is to ne&er need one+ Table :1+ Timetable )or a Typical A&alancheL Time 'racture 1 to 2 seconds What to 0Bpect 1) -au%ht Fou may hear a mu))led *hoomph soundE sometimes a loud -DA-K+ Fou notice cracks around you+ The slab starts to mo&e+ 1t )eels like someone pulled the ru% out )rom under you+ Most people almost in&ariably )all do*n+ The slab shatters into blocks+ The slab Auickly picks up speed and a)ter 2 seconds is mo&in% about 1; km<hr ?10 mph@+ 1n other *ords, in order to escape o)) the slab, you need to take action no*+ A)ter this, it *ill be too late+ 1) you ha&enCt preplanned your escape route, you probably *onCt be able to pull it o))+ A)ter ; seconds, the a&alanche is mo&in% 1; to #0 km<hr ?10 to "0 mph@+ The blocks are no* tumblin% )uriously+ Skiin%, sno*boardin%, and sno*mobilin% become impossible+ Ski bindin%s release+ This is your last opportunity to %rab a tree but youCre de)initely mo&in% )ast enou%h to cause in4ury or death+ The a&alanche is tra&elin% 20 to 1"0 km<hr ?#0 to !0 mph@+ Fou are bein% tumbled hard and do not kno* *hich *ay is up+ With e&ery breath, you suck in a sno*:air miBture that )orms a plu% o) ice in your throat+ Breathin% is di))icult+ 6ats, mittens, %o%%les are %one+ 1mpacts *ith trees or rocks cause in4ury or death+ Fou must s*im hard to stay on the sur)ace+ The a&alanche slo*s do*n+ -ontinue s*immin% hard and try to )orm an air pocket in )ront o) your )ace+ .ebris instantly sets up like concrete+ Fou are )ro8en in place and cannot mo&e+ -ompletely buried &ictims cannot di% themsel&es out or )orm an air pocket+ As you rebreathe the carbon dioBide that builds up in the sno* around your mouth, you be%in to lose consciousness+ Most burials *ill still be ali&e but unconscious, and some may ha&e brain dama%e+ 6al) o) completely buried &ictims *ill be dead+

2 to ; seconds ; to 10 seconds

10 to 1; seconds A&alanche stops # minutes 1; minutes 2; minutes

"; minutes 2" percent o) completely buried &ictims *ill be dead+ Anyone *ho sur&i&es a)ter this time must ha&e an air pocket+ 0 minutes !1 percent o) &ictims are dead+ 1"0 2 percent o) &ictims are dead+ Anyone *ho sur&i&es a)ter this time must ha&e an air minutes channel to the sur)ace+ L Also see 'i%ure 1:1 in the 1ntroduction+ Strate*y for ?icti-s Most people donCt make it o)) a mo&in% slab+ 0&erythin% happens &ery )ast and unless you are practicin% a slope cut or already ha&e an escape route planned and ha&e been rehearsin% e&erythin% in your mind, you most likely *onCt be able to do it+ Most people donCt e&en kno* *hatCs %oin% on until itCs too late+ 1) you are cau%ht, )ollo* these steps+ A> While the Avalanche 4s 3ovin* 1+ Fell+ /et your partners kno* that you are cau%ht+ 2+ Try to escape o)) the slab ?see -hapter ! )or techniAues@+ "+ 1) you canCt %et o)) the slab, %et rid o) your eAuipment+ Delease your ski bindin%s+ Skis *ith releasable bindin%s *ill be torn o)) Auickly, but sno*boards and sno*shoes donCt ha&e releasable bindin%s, *hich is a bi% problem+ Some boarders ri% their bindin%s *ith a ripcord to %et out o) them in an a&alanche+ 'or instance, plate bindin%s )or hard boots can be )itted *ith a cord on the latches and -licker bindin%s can be )itted *ith a cord on the release+ #+ 3se your breathin% eAuipment or co&er your mouth+ K ,et A&alun% mouthpiece in your mouth+ ?See the HA&alun%X section belo*+@ K .eploy a&alanche balloon or a&alanche ball+ ?See the HA&alanche Air Ba%s and A&alanche BallsH section belo*+@ K ,et some cloth o&er your mouth or i) youCre *earin% a turtleneck or neck %aiter, pull it up o&er your mouth to help strain out the sno* *hile youCre breathin% on the *ay do*n+ Ither*ise, the sno* clo%s your throat and you canCt breathe+ Sno*mobile helmets *ith )acemasks *ork )airly *ell, but in bi% a&alanches, sometimes sno* %ets sho&ed up past your chin and )ills up the helmet+ Fou *ill most likely be able to %et somethin% o&er your mouth only in small slides+ Fou are thro*n around too &iolently to do much o) anythin% in bi% slides+ ;+ /ea&e your pack on+ Fou should lea&e your pack on )or the )ollo*in% reasons5 K A pack pro&ides &aluable paddin% to your back and kidneys *hen bouncin% o)) trees and rocks+ K Should you sur&i&e, your pack contains e&erythin% youCll need+ 0Btra hat, mittens and *arm clothes, )ood, *ater, sho&el, )irst:aid kit, cell phone, etc+ K /ar%er ob4ects tend to )loat to the sur)ace, similar to shakin% a ba% o) tortilla chips to %et the lar%est pieces+ Four pack helps make you a lar%er ob4ect, *hich *ill help keep you near the sur)ace+ >+ 'i%ht like hell+ Many sur&i&ors report that s*immin% seemed to help them stay on the sur)ace+ Some report that rollin% like a lo% helps+ The bottom line5 )i%ht like hellJ This is your li)e youCre )i%htin% )or+ B> As the Avalanche 4s Co-in* to a Sto# 2+ Make an air space around your mouth+ 0&en dense a&alanche debris is >0 to 20 percent air, so plenty o) oBy%en is a&ailable+ The problem is that carbon dioBide buildin% up around your mouth *ill cause you to die o) asphyBia rather than su))ocation ?lack o) oBy%en@+ ?See the HA&alun%YH section belo*+@ Keep one hand near your mouth to scoop out an air space and *i%%le to make an air space around your body+ Four breath *ill Auickly condense onto the sno* around your mouth and )orm an Hice mask,H an impermeable barrier that allo*s carbon dioBide to more Auickly build up around your mouth+ A lar%er space around your mouth tends to delay the )ormation o) an ice mask, %i&in% you eBtra precious minutes+ Also, a ca&ity around your body lets the carbon dioBide di))use more e))iciently+ 1t is thou%ht that completely buried &ictims *ithout an air pocket usually die in 20 minutes *hile &ictims *ith an air pocket can li&e up to 120 minutes+ Sno*mobilers5 A helmet *ith a )ull )acemask seems to help pre&ent the )ormation o) an ice mask+ Make sure your helmet has a )acemask that doesnCt )lip up too easily, and use one that has %ood seals around the neck+ ?1n rare cases, sno*mobile &ictims are )ound *ith debris packed inside their helmets+@

P0>; Fes, s*eet air at last+ 3nless this happens in the )irst 2; minutes, most rescues donCt ha&e a happy endin%+ ?Wasatch Dan%e, 3tah@ J Bruce Tremper !+ 0Btend a hand to*ard the sur)ace+ Fou mi%ht not e&en kno* *hich *ay is up, but still try to push a hand to the sur)ace+ 1tCs much easier to )ind a &ictim usin% a &isible body part than it is usin% a beacon or probe+ Demember you must do this be)ore the a&alanche comes to a complete stop+ Ince it stops, it *ill set up like concrete and you *ill not be able to mo&e e&en your little )in%er unless you are &ery near the sur)ace or the debris is unusually so)t+ C> When the avalanche comes to a sto#@ + DelaB The sno* instantly )ree8es up like concrete, so most completely buried &ictims cannot mo&e e&en their )in%ers+ ThereCs nothin% more to do+ Try to relaB+ /> ECui#-ent consi'erations@ K Sno*mobilers should al*ays *ear a helmet *ith a )ace shield and a %ood seal around the neck+ 1t helps to maintain an air space around your head *hen buried+ K Sno*mobilers should *ear a sho&el on their back in a small pack instead o) on the sno*mobile+ 1) you sur&i&e and your sno*mobile is buried, you *ill need a sho&el to di% out your )riends+ K Skiers should al*ays *ear releasable bindin%s and not use pole straps+ K Sno*boarders should ri% their bindin%s *ith a ripcord to %et out o) their sno*board in a hurry+ Strate*y for Survivors This is your basic ni%htmare+ Fou ha&e 4ust *atched your partner, )riend, or lo&ed one tri%%er an a&alanche, %et s*ept a*ay, and buried+ (o* their sur&i&al depends on youJ 1ast;Seen Area 'irst, i) you can see the &ictims, *atch them closely+ Memori8e eBactly *here you sa* them last and *atch them tra&el do*n the mountain to see *here they end up+ 1) they are s*allo*ed up by sno*, *atch the parcel o) sno* to see *here it ends up+ I)ten the &ictims tra&el strai%ht do*n the )lo* line )rom their last:seen area and clues such as %lo&es and hats also line up *ith the &ictim+ Kno*in% approBimately *here to start searchin% *ill make thin%s %o much )aster+ 1) you ha&e time, mark the last:seen area+ Witnesses an' Survivors 1) you didnCt see the accident but others did, keep close track o) the *itnesses+ Witnesses ha&e a *ealth o) &aluable in)ormation that you need to speed up the rescue, plus *itnesses and sur&i&ors are o)ten in a di))icult emotional state and they need someone to keep track o) them+ Witnesses, especially )rantic *itnesses, ha&e a habit o) boltin% o)) to call )or a rescue party, *anderin% a*ay )rom the scene =perhaps into the neBt a&alanche path=or inter)erin% *ith the rescue e))orts+ Sit them do*n+ -alm them do*n+ 'ind out *hat you can+ 6o* many peopleG Were they *earin% beaconsG 0Bactly *here did they last see the &ictimG These are all critical Auestions that only the *itnesses or sur&i&ors can ans*er+ -ountless rescues ha&e been delayed because the *itnesses %ot a*ay+ Off to the )escueB 0&ery )iber in your body ur%es you to hurl yoursel) a)ter your )riend *ho has 4ust been s*ept a*ay, )ind them, di% them out=1tCs o)) to the rescueJ Di%htG (ot so )ast+ Ine o) the chie) reasons *e ha&e been so success)ul as a species is because compassion is hard:*ired into the human brain+ There are times= di))icult times=*hen our indi&idual sur&i&al depends on bein% able to suppress our instincts and especially our emotions+ Take a step back, calm do*n, and stop, think, plan+ (o one said this *ould be easy+ 1n an a&alanche rescue, your priorities are as )ollo*s, listed in order5 1> Foursel) 2> The other sur&i&ors > The &ictim P0>> 1s it sa)eG This is a classic eBample o) a path *ith multiple startin% 8ones that all terminate in the same narro* %ully+ 1) one section has run but the others ha&e not, you ha&e a tou%h decision to make+ ?Wasatch Dan%e, 3tah@ $ Bruce Tremper

'irst o) all, the &ictim may be 4ust )ine and not e&en need help =or the &ictim may be mortally in4ured or already dead+ 1n either case, it makes no sense to risk your li)e )or someone *ho doesnCt need it+ Demember that the number:one rule o) rescue is to look out )or number one+ Stop, think, plan+ 4s 4t Safe7 Stop and take a minute to add up the )acts+ 1) you canCt %et to the debris sa)ely, donCt %o+ 1) a lo&ed one is buried under the sno*, this *ill likely be the most di))icult decision o) your li)e+ The %ood ne*s is that most o) the time, conditions *ill be sa)e, )or the same reason that a stick o) dynamite is sa)e a)ter it has already %one o))+ Most o) the time, you can sa)ely 4ump into the a&alanche path and descend or, better yet, come up )rom the bottom+ Whate&er you do, donCt be tempted to 4ump into an ad4acent a&alanche path that has not yet slid+ Demember the best si%n o) a&alanches are a&alanches+ 1) one slope has 4ust a&alanched, the identical one neBt to it *ill likely do the same i) you t*eak it+ -hoose your route care)ully+ When to Consi'er Sayin* No 1> 1) youCre standin% abo&e the a&alanche and there is too much Hhan%)ireH ?unslid sno* abo&e the cro*n )ace@ to cross to %et to the debris+ 1 am not a*are o) any case *here han%)ire has come do*n on its o*n i) it is le)t undisturbed+ 3sually you can cross short sections o) han%)ire sa)ely, say 20 meters ?>> )eet@+ 1) the a&alanche broke mid:slope and an unusual amount o) sno* is han%in% abo&e the )racture, ho*e&er, you can sometimes tri%%er the upper unslid section by descendin%+ This is a tou%h call+ 2+ 1) youCre standin% belo* the a&alanche, itCs almost al*ays sa)e to tra&el uphill onto the debris, unless you are )aced *ith the )ollo*in% combination o) circumstances5 K Multiple a&alanche paths drain onto the rescue area ?'i%ure :1@ and K The &ictim *as buried by a spontaneous a&alanche that descended )rom abo&e and K The *eather that caused the a&alanche *ill likely cause more a&alanches in the immediate )uture ?hea&y loadin% o) ne* or *indblo*n sno*, rain, or rapid meltin%@+ Ib&iously, this situation is another &ery tou%h call+ (umerous times or%ani8ed rescue %roups ha&e decided to abandon a search because o) dan%erous or deterioratin% conditions=o)ten amid heated debate+ But )irst thin%s )irst+ /ook out )or number one+ Personally, in this situation, 1 mi%ht risk doin% a Auick scu)) search or a beacon search, but 1 mi%ht not risk doin% an or%ani8ed probe line that could take considerable time+ 'i%ure :1+ 1s it sa)e to do the rescueG Sto#D ThinkD 8lan 1) it is sa)e to %o in, then *e %o to the neBt step+ Sometimes the best *ay to %o )aster is to %o slo*er+ Stron% emotions, poor communication, eAuipment problems, lo%istical problems=they all conspire to make rescues a messZZnearly e&ery one o) them+ So to reduce the mess )actor, stop, think, plan+ K Any *itnessesG .onCt let them %et a*ay+ Sit them do*n and %et in)ormation out o) them+ K 'i%ure out *hich %roup member has the most a&alanche rescue eBperience and appoint that person as the leader+ K Take a Auick in&entory o) your eAuipment=beacons, probes, sho&els, )irst:aid kit+ K Turn your beacons to recei&e and check e&eryoneCs beacon to make sure, because one inad&ertently transmittin% beacon can short:circuit the entire rescue+ ?This mistake occurs in many rescues+@ K 'ind out *hoCs %ood at *hat+ Put your best beacon people on the 4ob+ K Demind e&eryone to communicate *ith the leader+ K Demind e&eryone to keep their eAuipment *ith them+ .onCt litter up the debris+ Ither*ise, you *onCt kno* *hich eAuipment belon%s to the &ictim and *hich belon%s to the rescuers+ /o Not Sen' So-eone for Hel# ThatCs ri%ht+ .o not send someone )or help+ This is *hy5 1+ Fou donCt e&en kno* yet i) the &ictim needs help+ They may be 4ust )ine+ .onCt endan%er the li&es o) or%ani8ed rescuers unless you kno* you *ill need the eBtra resources+ 2+ An a&alanche &ictim is essentially a dro*nin% &ictim+ Time is o) the essence+ A rescue cre* *onCt sho* up )or at least another hour or t*o, e&en in the best o) circumstances+ By that time, the rescue operation *ill likely ha&e turned into a body reco&ery+ Fou need all your resources to stay and help %et your )riend out o) the sno* and breathin% as soon as possible+

"+ 1) you canCt locate the &ictim?s@ a)ter about an hour, or you kno* you *ill need help, then send someone )or help+ 0&en i) you ha&e contact *ith a cell phone you should still not call )or help until you kno* you *ill need it+ )escue with Beacons Turn Beacons to )eceive 1n nearly e&ery a&alanche rescue practice 1 ha&e done *ith be%innin% students, someone )ails to set their beacon to recei&e+ As a result, the searchers spend the )irst 10 minutes hopelessly con)used by a HmysteriousH si%nal that seems to come and %o until they )inally trace it to one o) their o*n ?*e ha&e met the enemy and he is us@+ 1nstead, i) you hear a si%nal that doesnCt make sense, stop and listen+ 1) the si%nal chan%es, that means itCs comin% )rom a mo&in% source+ 1n a&alanche classes, 1 donCt )i%ht it anymoreE 1 4ust let the ine&itable happen and it al*ays turns out to be a %reat learnin% eBperience+ But i) it happens *hen your )riend is buried )or real, then youCre in deep trouble+ ?Practice, practice, practice+@ Another common mistake is that people *onCt e&en remember ho* to turn their beacon to recei&e+ A )inal common mistake5 some di%ital:display beacons automatically return to transmit a)ter a )e* minutes, *hich is &ery con)usin% i) youCre like most people and read the directions on -hristmas day and then )or%et e&erythin%+ When e&eryone is sa)ely on the a&alanche debris, the leader should check to make sure that all beacons are set to recei&e and that e&eryone kno*s ho* their beacon *orks+ Start /oin* Ii*&a*s an' Watch 6our S#acin* The best *ay to search a lar%e area *ith a beacon is to do 8i%8a%s ?'i%ure :2@+ This is especially e))ecti&e i) you are descendin% )rom the top on skis or a sno*board+ Pick a *idth )or your 8i%8a%s so that you *onCt miss a si%nal+ Demember that some di%ital:display beacons ha&e hal) the ran%e o) other beacons+ 6ope)ully, you ha&e been re%ularly practicin% *ith your beacon and you ha&e some intuiti&e sense )or its recei&e ran%e+ Demember that the buried person may ha&e *eak batteries or a cold beacon, in *hich case, their transmit ran%e *ill be less than ideal, so keep your 8i%8a%s ti%hter than you think they need to be+ When 6ou )eceive the .irst Si*nal .onCt spend a lot o) time *ith the details here+ This is the time to mo&e )ast and %et a %eneral idea o) *here the si%nal is comin% )rom+ 1) youCre usin% the induction method ?see HA&alanche BeaconsH section@, donCt *orry about %ettin% the eBact direction+ 1) the si%nal is %ettin% stron%er youCre %oin% in the ri%ht direction+ Keep orientin%, and keep mo&in%+ .onCt stop each time you reorient your beacon=do it on the mo&e, *hich is )aster+ 1) youCre usin% the %rid method, donCt spend a lot o) time %ettin% the eBact location o) the stron%est si%nal+ In the )irst pass, 4ust identi)y the %eneral area *here the si%nal is the stron%est, turn 0 de%rees, and keep mo&in% )ast to the neBt )ade point+ ?Demember to keep turnin% do*n the &olume, i) it has a &olume control+@ Backtrack to the %eneral area *here the si%nal *as the stron%est, turn 0 de%rees, and do it a%ain+ Fou should be runnin% here or tra&elin% at a )ast *alk or cruisin% )ast on your skis, sno*board, or sno*shoes+ When 6ou 2et Close Fou are no* on the lo*est or neBt to lo*est &olume settin%, or i) you ha&e a di%ital:display beacon *ithout a &olume control, the distance is under about # meters ?12 )eet@+ (o*, you need to slo* *ay do*n+ .onCt e&en think about di%%in% yet+ Take some time=perhaps "0 seconds to a %ood minute =and %et it do*n to the eBact location, or as close as you can+ 1) youCre %ood *ith a beacon, you should be able to %uess the approBimate depth and be able to take out your probe and hit the &ictim on the )irst try+ 'i%ure :2+ [i%8a% do*n or up the a&alanche path+ Make sure your switchbacks are spaced close enou%h to not miss a beacon si%nal+ 'ailin% to %et an eBact location is probably the second most common mistake amon% no&ices ?a)ter )ailin% to set the beacon to recei&e@+ 1tCs only natural to %et eBcited and shout out, H6ereJ 1tCs ri%ht hereJH and se&eral people *hip out their sho&els and start )lin%in% sno*+ A)ter ; minutes o) )urious di%%in%, they still ha&enCt hit anythin%+ Wisely someone %rabs their beacon and takes time to %et a more eBact location and )ind that they ha&e been di%%in% 1 meter ?" )eet@ a*ay )rom the &ictim+ 1 canCt tell you ho* many times 1 ha&e seen o&erly eBcited students start di%%in% in the *ron% place, sometimes 10 meters ?"0 )eet@ a*ay )rom the &ictim+ Slo* do*n+ ,et as close as you can+ A)ter you ha&e 8eroed in on the beacon, donCt start di%%in%+ 'irst, take out your collapsible probe and %et an eBact location+ When you %et a strike, lea&e the probe in place+ Think about ho*

much time it takes to probe an area 2 meters by 2 meters+ Then think about ho* much time it takes to di% a hole in the sno* 2 meters by 2 meters+ A probe can locate a &ictim about a hundred times )aster than by sho&elin%+ Sho&elin% takes a hu%e amount o) time, especially in dense a&alanche debris that is o)ten as hard as concrete+ 1) you )ind that the &ictim is buried deeply and you also ha&e multiple burials, you ha&e a tou%h decision to make+ See the HTria%eH section belo*+ Shovelin* ,ot an eBact locationG ,ood+ (o* itCs time to %o )ast a%ain+ .onCt *orry about hittin% your buried )riend in the head *ith the sho&el+ They are dro*nin% and they need air+ A cut on the head or a bruise is not li)e threatenin%+ ,et se&eral people sho&elin% i) you can+ 1) itCs a deep burial, a couple people should %et in the hole and sho&el *hile the others sho&el the sno* on the ed%e o) the hole, mo&in% the sno* out in sta%es+ 1) you are %ood *ith your beacon and especially i) you ha&e hit them *ith a probe you *ill kno* their eBact depth+ Plan the si8e o) the hole accordin%ly+ .eep burials reAuire a &ery lar%e hole=maybe the si8e o) a lar%e 9acu88i that can hold thirty people+ 'irst, try to unco&er their )ace and chest and %et them breathin%+ Then you *ill ha&e time to sho&el out the rest o) the hole and %et them eBtricated+ 1) the &ictim is lyin% )ace do*n, you *ill ha&e to completely sho&el them out be)ore you can turn them o&er to be%in -PD and this *ill, )rustratin%ly, take t*ice as much time+ 1tCs hard, s*eaty *ork+ 3ulti#le ?icti-s Multiple burials %i&e a *hole ne* le&el o) compleBity to the problem o) a&alanche rescue+ 3nless you ha&e been re%ularly practicin% *ith multiple beacon problems, )indin% multiple &ictims in a realistic situation *ill likely be an insurmountable problem+ ?Practice, practice, practice+@ HOT T48B 6ere is a %ood techniAue )or multiple burials5 A)ter you locate one beacon and %et someone probin% )or the &ictim, locate the other beacon?s@ by *alkin% a*ay )rom the )irst one, perhaps 10 meters+ -ircle around the )irst beacon until you pick up the si%nal )rom another beacon, and then head o)) in that direction to pinpoint its location+ 1) you donCt hear a si%nal, eBpand the si8e o) the circle until you can hear the other beacon+ Keep doin% this until you ha&e located all the buried beacons+ Demember that some brands o) di%ital:display beacons ha&e a processed audio si%nal, meanin% that the microprocessor inside tends to lock onto the stron%est si%nal *hile )ilterin% out the sound o) the *eaker si%nal+ Sometimes, you ha&e no idea that more than one beacon is transmittin%, so itCs important to check )or multiple burials be)ore you start di%%in% out a deeply buried &ictim ?see discussion belo*@+ Tria*e 3n)ortunately, *ith multiple burials you o)ten ha&e to make some hard choices+ 1n the backcountry, most o) the time you *ill ha&e limited resources and you *ill need to e&aluate *hich &ictims are most likely to li&e and %o )or them )irst+ ,o )or the shallo* burials )irst+ A)ter you %et all the shallo* burials breathin%, then %o back )or the deep ones+ .eep burials, say 1+; meters ?; )eet@ or more deep, ha&e a &ery small chance o) sur&i&al+ 6o* )ast can you di% a ;:)oot hole in dense a&alanche debrisG The numbers usually donCt add up to a happy endin%+ A scenario like this takes a lot o) discipline and hard choices are reAuired+ Wastin% &aluable time di%%in% out a deep burial doesnCt make sense *hen you may be able to %et a shallo* burial out o) the sno* much more Auickly+ P0>2 Searchers narro*in% in on the &ictim o) an a&alanche ?Wasatch Dan%e, 3tah@ $ Bruce Tremper Also, i%nore the person on the sur)ace *ho is screamin% in pain or )ear+ WeCre *orried about the ones *ho canCt scream because they canCt e&en breathe+ There *ill be time to deal *ith the screamers later+ The only eBception to this is i) the person on the sur)ace is losin% blood rapidly or has some other condition that reAuires immediate attention+ Plu% the holes Auickly and return to the task o) %ettin% e&eryone breathin%+ .irst Ai' AB-s+ Air*ay, breathin%, circulation+ Are all the rescued people breathin%G (o* %o back and stop the bleedin%, %et them out o) the sno*, and do the splintin%+ Wrap them up to keep them *arm+ .onCt )or%et that *hatCs under them is 4ust as important as *hatCs o&er them+ ?See the biblio%raphy )or %ood )irst:aid books+@ Demember that about a Auarter o) the &ictims *ill die )rom trauma and there

likely *onCt be much you can do about them eBcept stop the bleedin% and treat )or shock+ Inly about 2 percent o) a&alanche &ictims *ill li&e lon% enou%h to die )rom hypothermia+ The rest die )rom asphyBia =breathin% their o*n carbon dioBide+ 2o for Hel# Fes, no*=)inally=is the time to %o )or help+ ArenCt you %lad that you didnCt send someone )or help earlierG 'irst thin%s )irst+ Fou needed all your resources at the scene to %et e&eryone breathin% as soon as possible+ (o* you can take the time to plan ho* someone is %oin% to %o )or help *ithout %ettin% themsel&es killed+ (o* you ha&e the time to *rite do*n all the details so that you can communicate to the rescuers eBactly *hat kind o) in4uries the &ictims ha&e and the eBact location o) the accident+ ?Many people *ho )rantically call )or help early in a rescue donCt kno* either o) these details, *hich are essential in)ormation )or a rescue team=especially the eBact location+@ )escue Without Beacons The only thin% *orse than doin% an a&alanche rescue is doin% one *ithout beacons+ 1tCs your basic needle:in:a:haystack situation+ (ot surprisin%ly, most complete burials *ithout beacons do not sur&i&e+ Beacons are &ery ineBpensi&e *hen compared to a human li)e, especially your o*n+ Beacons also sa&e your )riends )rom ha&in% to spend all ni%ht probin% )or you+ /i)e *ithout beacons is not %ood+ Descue *ithout a beacon means usin% a probe+ 0&eryone in your %roup should ha&e either collapsible probe poles or a&alanche probe ski polesE i) not, then you *ill need to %o all the *ay back to the Stone A%e and use tree branches or *hate&er else you can )ind+ 4nitial Search Some people also re)er to this as a Hhasty search,H but 1 donCt like that term because it implies that speed is more important than thorou%hness+ 1n an initial search, mo&e Auickly do*n or up the a&alanche path and concentrate on places *here the a&alanche debris has piled up such as5 K .ebris piled on the uphill side o) trees K .ebris collected on the outside o) turns K .ebris at the bottom Also concentrate on areas around clues, such as a ski, a %lo&e, or a sno*mobile ?'i%ure :"@+ 1n each one o) these areas, do the )ollo*in%5 K /ook care)ully )or somethin% stickin% out o) the sno*=a hand, a %lo&e, a ski, a sno*mobile+ Probe around these areas+ Sno*mobile &ictims are usually )ound " to 10 meters ?10 to #0 )eet@ uphill o) their sno*mobile+ K Spot:probe these likely areas by random probin%+ .onCt spend a lot o) time probin% at this sta%e+ Try to co&er the entire a&alanche path in about 10 to 1; minutes+ K Iccasionally shout and listen )or the &ictimCs response+ Althou%h the sno* absorbs most o) the sound, some people ha&e been )ound this *ay+ 'i%ure :"+ -oncentrate your initial search on places *here a&alanche debris has piled up+ Or*ani&e' 8robin* 1) the initial search turns up nothin%, then your &ictim?s@ are most likely completely buried+ .onCt send someone a*ay )rom the scene to %et help, at least not yet+ Fou need all your resources to search+ 1) you ha&e no luck a)ter about an hour, then send someone to %et help+ 1) you ha&e only a couple o) searchers, itCs probably best to continue to do spot probin% o) likely areas+ 1) you ha&e, say, )our or more people, then you should or%ani8e them into probe lines, but only a)ter doin% a complete initial search o) the debris+ Start in the most likely area, )or instance, an area in line *ith a clue ?ski, sno*mobile, %lo&e, etc+@ or do*nhill )rom the last:seen area+ Start at the bottom o) the a&alanche debris and *ork your *ay uphill+ 0specially )or small %roups o) searchers, the three:hole probe has the hi%hest probability o) )indin% someone+ /ine up )in%ertip to )in%ertip and then probe three times, once to the le)t, once in the center, and once to the ri%ht, keepin% the holes about >0 cm ?2 )eet@ apart+ ?'i%ure :#@+ Keep track o) the probe holes to keep the probes e&enly spaced and *atch to make sure e&eryone stays in a strai%ht line+ Probin% is much easier i) one person can take the lead and call out the si%nals, HProbe ri%ht+ Probe center+ Probe le)t+ Step )or*ard+H This kind o) Hcourse probin%H has about a !0 percent chance o) )indin% a &ictim on the )irst pass+ Statistically, this is the most e))icient use o) resources *ith the combination o) speed and thorou%hness+ Probe all the likely areas+ 1) you ha&e reason to think that you may ha&e missed a &ictim on one pass, make another pass+ P0>! Without beacons, itCs a classic needle:in:a:haystack situation+ Probin% is &ery time

consumin% and eBhaustin% *ork+ ?/a Sal Mountains, 3tah@ Photo courtesy o) the 3+S+ 'orest Ser&ice 'i%ure :#+ Probers line up )in%ertip to )in%ertip+ Probe once le)t, once center, once ri%ht, and then mo&e )or*ard one step+ 1) you ha&e not had any success a)ter about an hour, then itCs time to send someone )or help+ An or%ani8ed rescue team *ill come in *ith search do%s and, i) the do%s canCt locate the &ictim, then they *ill )orm lar%er teams o) probers to co&er the entire area+ 1) they ha&e no success *ith probes and do%s=*hich is common *ith &ery deep burials=they *ill ha&e no choice but to lea&e the &ictim to melt out in sprin%+ And yes, the price o) a beacon is al*ays better than puttin% lo&ed ones throu%h that ?'i%ure :;@+ /ealin* with the After-ath The death o) a )riend or lo&ed one is one o) the most di))icult chapters most o) us ha&e to )ace in our li&es+ /uckily *e donCt ha&e to do it alone+ .onCt try to be a tou%h %uy and sho&e it back in some hidden place or dissipate the pain throu%h *ork, alcohol, dru%s, or )oolin% around+ 1C&e seen post: traumatic stress syndrome si%ni)icantly disrupt the li&es o) se&eral o) my collea%ues as *ell as mysel)+ So take it )rom me+ ,et some pro)essional help+ ThatCs *hat itCs )or+ 0&en i) there is no death, perhaps you 4ust took a &ery scary ride in an a&alanche and suddenly came )ace to )ace *ith your o*n mortality+ This is o)ten a li)e:chan%in% e&ent+ Fou ha&e to eBpect it to take some time be)ore the echoes Auit re&erberatin% o)) the canyon *alls o) your psyche+ 1t takes time and *ork+ .onCt cheat yoursel)+ )escue Technolo*y 1tCs our birthri%ht as Americans that *e al*ays look )or the per)ect technolo%y so that *e donCt ha&e to think anymore+ Descue technolo%y has made %reat strides in the past 20 years, and especially in the last )i&e years+ 3n)ortunately, rescue technolo%y has not, nor probably e&er *ill, replace a&alanche a&oidance+ The best rescue technolo%y is ne&er needin% a rescue in the )irst place+ (e&ertheless, some people can be sa&ed by technolo%y and itCs important to kno* ho* it *orks and *hat is a&ailable+ 'i%ure :;+ The success o) these &arious rescue methods is a )unction o) ho* )ast the &ictim *as rescued and ho* deeply they *ere buried+ Most &ictims )ound by attached body part or hasty search *ere probably on or near the sur)ace and )ound Auickly by partners+ A&alanche do% and coarse probin% are usually done by or%ani8ed rescue teams, *hich o)ten take se&eral hours to %et to the accident site+ Avalanche Beacons Beacons are simply electronic de&ices about the si8e o) a mobile phone, costin% O2;0:"00, that both transmit and recei&e an electronic si%nal+ 0&eryone in the party *ears one and each member turns it on *hen they lea&e the house or lea&e the car to head into the backcountry+ ?Wear it under yom 4acket to keep the batteries *arm and keep it )rom bein% torn o)) your body durin% the ride+@ When turned on, it automatically starts transmittin%, bet*een one and three electronic HbeepsH per second, dependin% on the model+ Then i) someone is buried, e&eryone else in the party turns their beacons to recei&e, and they can hear the beepin% o) the buried &ictimCs beaconE the si%nal %ets stron%er the closer you %et+ The ran%e o) most beacons is >0 to !0 meters ?yards and meters are about the same@ or about hal) that ran%e )or some di%ital:display beacons+ Beacons are Hdirectional,H meanin% that the recei&in% beacon %ets a stron%er si%nal in one orientation than another, but they are not directional in the *ay you may think+ They donCt point directly at the transmittin% beacon+ 1nstead, they point alon% the lines o) electroma%netic )orce ?'i%ure :>@+ This is an eBtremely important concept to %rasp and 1Cll take some time here to eBplain+ Take yoursel) back to the science eBperiments you did in %rade school in *hich you put iron )ilin%s on a piece o) paper and then put a ma%net under the paper+ The iron )ilin%s lined up alon% the lines o) the ma%netic )ield+ This is a *ay to &isuali8e the lines o) )orce in t*o dimensions ?the plane o) the paper@+ 1tCs important to reali8e that the lines o) )orce eBist in three dimensions and look kind o) like the shape o) an apple+ Fou need to be solid *ith this concept, so try this eBercise+ Take t*o beacons ?do it in the store i) you ha&e only one@+ Turn one to transmit ?turn it on@ and s*itch your beacon to recei&e+ Then lay the transmittin% beacon on the %round so you can see its orientation+ Most beacons ha&e an internal antenna that both sends and recei&es the si%nal and the aBis o) the electroma%netic )ield is parallel to the antenna+ Most o) the time the antenna is oriented alon% the lon% aBis o) the beacon, meanin% that the Hdimples in the appleH are on the ends o) the transmittin% beacon+ (o* turn the recei&in% beacon to its lo*est &olume and orient it to %et the stron%est si%nal+ Mo&e to a di))erent location and do it a%ain+ Then do it a%ain and a%ain+ 1n this *ay you can HmapH out the electroma%netic )ield o) the transmittin%

beacon in three dimensions+ Fou *ill see that it is shaped like a %iant apple+ 'i%ure :>+ Decei&in% beacons %et stron%er si%nals *hen ali%ned parallel to lines o) electroma%netic )orce+ P0> This is the minimum eAuipment 1 al*ays carry5 spare beacon, sho&el, probe, and beacon compass+ $ Bruce Tremper Ince you ha&e this concept do*n, letCs mo&e to the neBt step+ With the transmittin% beacon still on the %round, take the recei&in% beacon and stand about #; de%rees a*ay )rom the lon% aBis o) the transmittin% beacon+ Irient your beacon perpendicular to the transmittin% beacon+ Then *alk past the end o) the transmittin% beacon, keepin% your beacon perpendicular+ FouCll )ind that you %et a Hdouble maBimum+H 1n other *ords, the si%nal %ets stron%er, then it )ades, then %ets stron%er a%ain+ WhyG 1) you look at 'i%ure :>, youCll see that )irst your beacon *as parallel to the electroma%netic )ield, then perpendicular, then parallel a%ain, *hich accounts )or the double maBimum+ Whene&er you eBperience this in a real beacon search, youCll kno* that you need to turn your beacon 0 de%rees and it *ill %o a*ay, a)ter *hich you can simply )ollo* the si%nal directly to the buried beacon+ Simple+ (eBt, *alk a*ay )rom the transmittin% beacon+ Keep turnin% up the &olume control, i) it has one, and see ho* )ar a*ay you can tra&el be)ore you lose the si%nal+ ?Some di%ital:display beacons donCt ha&e a &olume control+@ The ran%e should be about >0 to !0 meters ?about hal) that )or some di%ital:display beacons@+ The ran%e )or all beacons *ill be less i) electrical si%nals are aroundE )or instance, i) you are doin% this inside a store or in a city+ See *hat happens *hen you orient your beacon parallel and perpendicular to the transmittin% beacon+ Practice orientin% your beacon to the stron%est si%nal and )ollo* that si%nal+ 1) your beacon has a &olume control, practice turnin% do*n your &olume as you %et closer+ This is &ery important+ Demember that it is impossible to )ind a &ictim i) you donCt turn do*n the &olume as you %et closer+ (eBt, letCs learn both o) the common methods )or )indin% buried beacons5 the induction method and the %rid method+ 4n'uction 3etho' Probably the easiest *ay to )ind a buried beacon is to use the so:called induction method, *hich is sometimes also called the tan%ent method ?'i%ure :2@+ 3sin% this method, you simply )ollo* the lines o) electroma%netic )orce as they lead you on a cur&in% path to the beacon ?or in a strai%ht line i) you are directly in line *ith the aBis o) the buried beacon@+ Fou do this by turnin% the beacon until you %et the stron%est si%nal and then march o)) in the direction o) that stron%est si%nal+ Keep reorientin% the beacon as you mo&e+ Some di%ital:display beacons ha&e li%hts or an /-. display across the )ront to sho* you *hich *ay to turn the beacon+ 1) the si%nal %ets *eaker ?or the distance %oes up in di%ital:display beacons@, youCre headin% the lon% *ay around the semicircle+ Turn around ?1!0 de%rees@ and march in the other direction+ Then you continuously reorient the beacon as you *alk to keep )ollo*in% the stron%est si%nal, *hich should take you on a cur&in% path to the transmittin% beacon+ 1) you ha&e a &olume control, turn it do*n as you %et closer+ 1) you )or%et to do this, it *ill be &irtually impossible to locate the transmittin% beacon+ Keep the &olume as lo* as possible+ Simple+ Ir at least itCs simple in a parkin% lot+ 1t %ets a lot more complicated on a slope, since a cur&in% path sometimes makes you *alk uphill ?more hu))in% and pu))in% 4ust *hen you need it the least@+ 1t can also be complicated on small a&alanche paths, *hen the cur&in% line takes you outside o) the a&alanche path ?possibly dan%erous territory@ or into a cli)) ?impenetrable territory@+ With practice, thou%h, you can )i%ure out *ays to %et around these problems+ 'i%ure :2+ The induction method A'vanta*es K 0asy to learn K 'aster on a )lat slope /isa'vanta*es A In steeper slopes, a cur&in% path may take you back uphill at some point or outside the a&alanche path or into a cli)) or trees+ K Ilder beacons donCt per)orm as *ell )or induction searches+ K Fou sometimes ha&e problems *ith deep burials or odd orientations o) the buried beacon, and this can lead to bi% mistakes+ 2ri' 3etho' The second method is the %rid method ?'i%ure :!@+ When you )ind a si%nal, tra&erse back and )orth across the slope+ Where you think the si%nal is stron%est ?or, better yet, mid*ay bet*een )ade

points@, you simply make a perpendicular turn ? 0 de%rees to the old direction@ and )ollo* this ne* line+ 1) the si%nal )ades, itCs the *ron% *ay, so turn around ?1!0 de%rees@ and march in the other direction until you hear the stron%est si%nal ?remember to keep turnin% do*n the &olume@+ Turn 0 de%rees a%ain and repeat the process o&er and o&er until you 8ero in on the buried beacon+ 1 think itCs easier to )ind the midpoint bet*een )ade points instead o) )indin% *here the si%nal is stron%est+ Be sure to *alk past the )ade point to make sure it is not a double maBimum+ 'i%ure :!+ The %rid method When comin% )rom the top, 1 like to use the )unnel method=a &ariant on the %rid method+ This method is &ery )ast and *orks *ell on skis or a sno*board that can tra&erse easily, and e&en on )oot+ Simply 8i%8a% do*n the a&alanche path+ When you )irst pick up the si%nal, )i%ure out *here the si%nal is stron%est and concentrate your do*n*ard 8i%8a%s in that area, makin% them smaller and smaller as you H)unnelH in on the transmittin% beacon+ 1tCs simple, easy, and Auick+ [i%8a%%in% do*n the slope is the easiest *ay to descend on skis or a board any*ay, since a&alanche debris is di))icult to ne%otiate and 8i%8a%%in% is a %ood *ay to e))iciently co&er the terrain in a pattern ti%ht enou%h to a&oid missin% a beacon si%nal+ 6istorically, the %rid method *as the only one that *orked *ith the ori%inal beacons, and all the old do%s like me had the %rid method indelibly drilled into our heads, once per *eek, year a)ter year, so that *e could do it in our sleep+ To this day, 1Cm still more com)ortable *ith the %rid method than *ith the induction method, but 1 re%ularly practice both+ -all me old:)ashioned, but 1 think the %rid method *orks better in realistic situations+ The induction method *orks %reat in a parkin% lot, but on a slope and especially in compleB terrain, it starts to sho* its disad&anta%es+ 1 ha&e seen se&eral eBamples in *hich a&alanche pro)essionals do their *eekly beacon practice on a )lat slope usin% the induction method and then they )lail *hen you thro* them into a realistic situation+ 1tCs a humblin% eBperience+ The bottom line is that you need to kno* both methods and practice in realistic situations so that you can learn all the idiosyncrasies o) ho* your eAuipment *orks usin% &arious methods in &arious situations+ Practice, practice, practice+ A'vanta*es K Delati&ely )oolproo) as lon% as you keep turnin% the &olume do*n as you %et closer K Works in all situations K 'aster on steep slopes and in most realistic situations ?in my opinion@ /isa'vanta*es A 6arder to learn=reAuires more practice A .oesnCt *ork &ery *ell *ith some di%ital:display beacons Practice *ith Beacons The %ood ne*s on beacons5 .espite a hu%e amount o) research and money thro*n at the problem, locatin% a &ictim throu%h the use o) electronic a&alanche rescue beacons remains the most *idely used *ay to )ind someone completely buried in a&alanche debris+ With re%ular practice in realistic situations, you should be able to )ind a buried beacon in under 10 minutes+ Beacons *ork and they *ork *ell+ The bad ne*s on beacons5 Decent research con)irms *hat most pros ha&e al*ays suspected, that beacons donCt *ork &ery *ell *ithout re%ular practice+ 1n studies by .ale Atkins, o) a&alanche accidents ha&e )ound that people *ho donCt practice re%ularly *ith their beacons take about "; minutes to )ind a &ictim *hile pro)essionals usually take under 1! minutes+ A hal):hour is *ay too lon%+ By that time, o&er hal) the &ictims *ill probably be dead or ha&e serious brain dama%e+ Most nonpro)essionals *ho carry beacons in the backcountry probably donCt practice enou%h to be able to )ind their partner in time to sa&e their li)e+ This is *hy most pro)essionals practice about once per *eek in realistic situations, and most aim to )ind a buried beacon in )i&e to ten minutes+ 1n other *ords, the money spent on beacons is lar%ely *asted i) you donCt practice re%ularly and make your )riends practice re%ularly+ Please practice, practice, practice+ Another reason to practice5 1 canCt count the number o) times 1 ha&e )orced one o) my )riends to practice *ith their beacon and put up *ith their *hinin% only to learn that their beacon didnCt e&en *ork+ 0ither it had a compromised transmit or recei&e ran%e or it *asnCt transmittin% or recei&in% at all+ ?1 usually carry a spare because it happens so o)ten+@ Also, 1 canCt count the number o) times that my supposedly competent )riends ha&e )or%otten ho* to turn their beacons to recei&e or ha&e )or%otten ho* to operate the &olume controls+ Some o) the ne* di%ital:display beacons ha&e e&en more compleB options, *hich reAuire e&en more practice+ 6o* are you %oin% to kno* thereCs a problem *ith your beacon unless you practiceG Practice may be a pain, but it sure beats )indin% out that your beacon doesnCt *ork durin% a real rescue and your *i)e or husband spends the rest o) their li)e in a coma because o) it+

How to 8ractice At home5 .o a shell %ame+ Take a bunch o) %rocery ba%s out o) the recycle bin and head out into the backyard+ Turn a beacon on, hide it in one o) the %rocery ba%s, and scatter the other empty %rocery ba%s on the la*n+ Put a rock in each one i) the *ind is blo*in%+ ?WindyJ 'irst clue+ Beacon practice mi%ht be a %ood idea today+@ Then tell your partner to )ind the beacon+ Then s*itch roles+ 1) you ha&e more than t*o beacons, HburyH t*o o) them to do a multiple beacon practice, *hich is much harder+ Also, i) you donCt ha&e enou%h time, hide a beacon in the house+ ?Demember that the electric currents in the house or around your yard can con)use di%ital:display beacons and make analo% beacons hard to hear+@ 1n the )ield5 While youCre *aitin% )or someone to run a car shuttle or unload sno*mobiles or perhaps durin% lunch, put a transmittin% beacon into your spare mitten ?to protect it )rom cold and sno*@+ 3ake sure itHs trans-ittin*> Stu)) the beacon into the sno*, the deeper the better+ Make some tracks around the area so your partners canCt use &isual clues, then ha&e them search )or the beacon+ As you %ain more skill, make your practice sessions harder *ith more realistic situations+ HOT T48B With a ski pole, itCs easy to bury a beacon+ Dam the basket end o) the pole into the sno* and pump it up and do*n to drill a deep hole, then put the beacon in the hole and sho&e it do*n *ith the ski pole+ -o&er up the hole+ 1) you donCt ha&e a ski pole, push the beacon in *ith your arm but donCt sho&e it strai%ht do*n, sho&e it side*ays or at a #;:de%ree an%le so that the beacon *ill be under undisturbed sno*+ ?This is to make sure that people are not 4ust lookin% *here the tracks are+ 'orce them to belie&e *hat the beacon is tellin% them+@ (o* that you can )ind beacons in the parkin% lot, mo&e up to multiple burials and then %raduate to )indin% multiple burials in realistic situations, namely on slopes and in 4umbled a&alanche debris+ Add se&eral rescuers lookin% at once so you ha&e the usual cluster o) communication and lo%istics problems+ Then, )inally, add a )rantic or uncooperati&e *itness or t*o, and do it durin% a bli88ard+ Fou *ill Auickly disco&er that your beacon skills are not nearly as %ood as you thou%ht+ Analo* versus /i*ital;/is#lay Beacons 0&en in this di%ital a%e, most people ha&e a hard time eBplainin% the di))er:ce bet*een di%ital and analo%+ Simply put, computers are di%italE e&erythin% else is analo%+ ?Which also means=a point easy to o&erlook these days=that e&erythin% in the uni&erse is analo% and only an in)initesimally tiny blip o) the uni&erse is di%ital+@ Back in the old days, all beacons *ere analo%, meanin% that they didnCt employ a computer chip to process the si%nal+ 1n the last )e* years, most manu)acturers no* use a computer chip to process the si%nal to make )indin% a buried beacon )aster and simpler+ Most manu)acturers use some miB bet*een an analo% and a di%ital display to utili8e the best )eatures o) each+ 'or instance, some use an analo% speaker combined *ith a di%ital &isual display, *hile other manu)acturers di%itally process both the &isual and audio displays+ -ontrary to popular belie), the so:called di%ital beacons still use an analo% si%nal like the other beacons, but they simply use a microprocessor to )ilter, compute, and display the si%nal+ Because o) this, 1 like to call the ne* %eneration o) beacons di%ital:display beacons+ Also contrary to popular belie), di%ital beacons do not point directly at the other beaconE they must )ollo* the la*s o) physics like e&eryone else, so they also point alon% a cur&in% line o) induction 4ust like analo% beacons+ And )inally, contrary to the hype, di%ital does not necessarily mean better in all cases+ .i%ital:display beacons ha&e both ad&anta%es and disad&anta%es+ The technolo%y o) beacons chan%es so )ast that by the time you read this it *ill most likely be out o) date, so itCs probably not *orth re&ie*in% the &arious beacons on the market ?&isit ***+a&alanche+or% )or the latest de&elopments and re&ie*s@+ 1t is *orth talkin% about the basic )eatures that are important in a beacon+ ,et ans*ers to these Auestions be)ore you buy+ .i%ital:display beacons ha&e a number o) distinct ad&anta%es+ Some models do not ha&e a &olume control, *hich makes them much simpler to use+ All o) them ha&e a display o) the approBimate distance to the transmittin% beacon, *hich is a %reat )eature+ Some ha&e a distinct audio si%nal that beeps )aster or at a hi%her pitch the closer you %et to the buried beacon, makin% them much more idiot: proo)+ Some ha&e li%hts alon% the )ront that tell you *hich *ay to turn the beacon to orient *ith the electroma%netic )ield, makin% them )aster and more idiot:proo)+ .eatures to look for in a beacon@ K )an*e> Most beacons ha&e a ran%e o) >0 to !0 meters, but some di%ital:display beacons ha&e a ran%e o) hal) that because the microprocessor )ilters the audio si%nal+ This isnCt necessarily a

disad&anta%e as lon% as you take this into account in your search tactics+ A Analo* au'io versus 'i*ital au'io> With analo% audio, the beep you hear in the speaker is the actual beep )rom the transmittin% beacon, not a processed si%nal+ The bi% ad&anta%e *ith an analo% speaker is that you can instantly tell that more than one beacon is transmittin%+ FouCll hear kind o) a sta%%ered si%nal5 beep:beep + + + beep:beep+ With practice, you can hear ho* many beacons are transmittin% and you can o)ten e&en kno* the brand o) the beacon )rom the sound o) the si%nal+ Also, and probably more important, durin% the search you *ill be able to instantly tell *hether your partner )or%ot to turn their beacon to recei&e or someone inad&ertently be%an transmittin%+ The trouble *ith a di%itally processed audio si%nal is that it )ilters out the *eaker si%nals and Hlocks onH to the stron%er si%nal, *hich means you may not reali8e that more than one person is buried+ Fou mi%ht spend "0 minutes di%%in% out a deeply buried &ictim be)ore you turn o)) their beacon and disco&er that another &ictim *as "0 )eet a*ay and buried much more shallo*ly+ Also, itCs hard to hear *hen someone in the rescue party inad&ertently returns to transmit=an all too common problem in most a&alanche rescues+ The bi% ad&anta%e o) di%ital audio is that it doesnCt ha&e a &olume control, *hich makes it simpler+ Some brands ha&e both analo% and di%ital audio and you can s*itch bet*een them+ Simplicity &ersus compleBity+ Some beacons ha&e so many sophisticated )eatures that )e* people *ill remember ho* to use them+ Most o) us %lance at the directions and ne&er consult them a%ain+ Also, *hen under stress, most people )or%et e&erythin% any*ay+ Sophisticated )eatures *ork %reat )or the pros *ho practice *ith them all the time, but i) youCre an a&era%e user *ho doesnCt practice much =keep it simple+ ?isual as well as an au'io 'is#lay> Some people are more attuned to chan%es in sound and some are better at *atchin% a &isual display+ The &isual displays *ork better in noisy en&ironments ?*ind, helicopters, other beacons@, plus they are usually much more sensiti&e than audio displays+ A beacon should ha&e both a &isual display and an audio display+ K Automatic return:to:transmit+ This )eature sounds %ood on paper but is usually a disaster in a real:li)e situation+ 1ma%ine the con)usion o) searchin% *hen e&eryoneCs beacon automatically returns to transmit e&ery ; minutes and no one can seem to remember ho* to o&erride the )eature+ 1 ha&e had a number o) practice searches delayed inde)initely by this+ Automatic return to transmit isnCt necessarily a bad )eature as lon% as you practice *ith it enou%h, *hich )e* people do+ Avalanche 8robes 1 carry a collapsible a&alanche probe in my pack all the time+ 0&en *hen 1 carry my probe ski poles, 1 still carry the collapsible probe pole in my pack+ WhyG Because out o) the hundreds o) students 1 ha&e tau%ht throu%h the years, 1 ha&e almost ne&er seen anyone *ho could assemble their ski pole probes in under 10 minutes+ 1t takes a *hile to remember ho* they *ork, then it takes a lon% time to %et the baskets o))+ By that time the )olks *ith the collapsible probes ha&e already been probin% )or se&eral minutes+ -ollapsible probes assemble Auickly, theyCre lon%er, and they slide throu%h the sno* much more easily than ski pole probes+ 'inally, they are &ery li%ht*ei%ht and 1 donCt e&en notice one in my pack+ Many pros strap a collapsible probe to their sho&el handle alon% *ith )la%%in% )or markin% the perimeter o) a&alanche debris, clues, and the route to the a&alanche accident+ Shovels Probably the only item more important than a beacon is a sho&el, because di%%in% someone out o) a&alanche debris *ithout one is nearly impossible+ 1 like the li%ht*ei%ht aluminum sho&els that break apart in t*o pieces )or easy stora%e in any pack+ Fou can buy them in most outdoor shops+ The some*hat li%hter *ei%ht leBan ones donCt seem to chop throu%h ice chunks and tree branches as *ell, and yes, many a&alanche debris piles are miBed *ith tree branches+ Sno*mobilers, be sure to *ear your sho&el and probe in a small pack on your back instead o) carryin% it on the machine+ 1) your sno*mobile %ets buried, you *onCt be able to di% anyone else out *ho mi%ht also be buried+ Avalanche Air Ba*s an' Avalanche Balls 1n 0urope, as o) this *ritin%, a&alanche air ba%s are bein% marketed and used by pro)essionals and the public+ They operate on the theory that lar%er ob4ects tend to rise in a&alanche debris and smaller ob4ects sink, similar to shakin% a ba% o) potato chips to make the lar%e pieces rise to the top+ Fou *ear an a&alanche air ba% attached to your pack, and *hen you are cau%ht in an a&alanche, 4ust pull the ripcord and=*hooshJ=the air ba% deploys+ By makin% your body e))ecti&ely t*o to three times as lar%e and t*o to three times less dense, the air ba% )loats you to the sur)ace+ 1n real:li)e a&alanche accidents, the &ast ma4ority o) &ictims *ith air ba%s ha&e ended up on the sur)ace+ There are problems, ho*e&er+ 'irst, itCs an added *ei%ht that you ha&e to carry all the time )or

the &ery in)reAuent times you *ill likely use it+ Second, *ill you be able to pull the ripcord in timeG There ha&e been some problems *ith this in real:li)e situations+ Third, air ba%s do little to protect you )rom trauma incurred on the *ay do*n, *hich kills o&er a Auarter o) a&alanche &ictims in the 3nited States ?less than that in 0urope *here more terrain is abo&e timberline@+ 'ourth, at least in the 3nited States *here la*yers are more common than sno*)lakes, there may be si%ni)icant liability issues+ 1ma%ine one accidentally %oin% o)) *hen ridin% a chairli)t or tram or ridin% in your car+ (ot %ood+ As o) this *ritin%, air ba%s are not sold in the 3nited States, partly because o) liability concerns but partly because the 0uropean %as cartrid%es ha&e not been appro&ed in the 3+S+ An a&alanche ball looks like a sprin%:loaded nylon accordion that, upon pullin% the ripcord, bursts out o) the pouch mounted on the back o) your pack and, 4ust like BatmanCs car, assembles itsel) into a nylon ball about #0 centimeters in diameter ?about a )oot@+ This ball, bein% si%ni)icantly li%hter than a&alanche debris, )loats to the top o) the debris+ When the rescuer )inds the ball, they simply )ollo* the #:meter cord to the &ictim+ 1tCs simple, li%ht*ei%ht, and unobtrusi&e+ At this *ritin%, a&alanche balls are be%innin% to be marketed in the 3nited States+ Avalun* A)ter nearly e&ery a&alanche talk 1 ha&e e&er %i&en, someone, usually an en%ineer or doctor, comes up a)ter*ard and says, H6ey, has anyone e&er thou%ht about+++H and they keep me pinned )or about 10 minutes *hile, *ild:eyed, they tell me about their brilliant contraption )or sa&in% the a&alanche *orld+ 3n)ortunately, 1 ha&e to eBplain that most o) them ha&e already been tried or theyCre too eBpensi&e or too hea&y or too somethin%+ The A&alun%Y is the only one that 1 said, H6mmm, thatCs not a bad idea=i) you can %et the mouthpiece into your mouth in time+H The A&alun%Y is a li%ht*ei%ht tube *orn o&er the outside o) your 4acket+ 1) you %et cau%ht in an a&alanche, you push the plastic mouthpiece to*ard your mouth=kept properly positioned in case o) such an occurrence=and start breathin% throu%h it+ The tube allo*s you to breathe in throu%h the intake near your chest ?thus )ilterin% out the sno* that normally plu%s up your throat@ and it breathes out throu%h the end o) the tube, *hich is near your side or back ?keepin% the carbon dioBide *ell a*ay )rom the intake@+ 1n tests *ith buried &olunteers, they ha&e been able to breathe under the sno* )or o&er an hour *ith no ill e))ects+ The ob&ious Auestion *ith the A&alun%Y is *hether you *ill be able to chomp do*n on the mouthpiece in time+ 3nless you %et it in your mouth in the )irst )e* seconds, you *onCt be able to do it *hile youCre %ettin% thrashed around durin% the ride+ 1tCs sti)) enou%h that you can position it near your mouth *hen you need it and you can )old it a*ay *hen you donCt+ Also, itCs tou%h enou%h to *ithstand the )orces inside most a&alanches+ As o) this *ritin%, the A&alun% has only recently entered the 3+S+ marketplace, but it is bein% used by some helicopter skiin% companies and ski patrols+ 1n a couple real: li)e burials, the &ictim *as able to bite do*n on the mouthpiece in time and breathe )ine durin% the ride and the burial+ 2oo' News=Ba' News The %ood ne*s is that these %i8mos can help to sa&e li&es+ The bad ne*s is that they probably *onCt+ 1tCs basic human nature to ad4ust our le&el o) acceptable risk up*ard *ith each Hre&olutionaryH sa)ety de&ice that *e use+ Seatbelts, airba%s, and sa)er hi%h*ays ha&e not decreased automobile deaths, because *e all 4ust dri&e that much )aster+ ?More on this in -hapter 10+@ 1 suspect that the latest a&alanche technolo%y *ill ha&e little e))ect on the a&alanche )atality rate+ Fes, some people *ill be sa&ed *ho *ould ha&e other*ise died, but probably more *ill die o&erall because the technolo%y %i&es them the con)idence to &enture into pro%ressi&ely more eBtreme acti&ities+ 1tCs no *onder that almost t*ice as many people *earin% beacons are reco&ered dead than ali&e+ As al*ays, an ounce o) pre&ention is *orth a pound o) cure+

CHA8TE) 1,> H53AN .ACTO)

We are imper)ect bein%s+ (o matter *hat you kno* or ho* you operate ; percent o) your li)e, youCre not a per)ect person+ Sometimes those imper)ections ha&e bi% conseAuences+ = Mary Fates, *ido* o) a pro)essional a&alanche )orecaster *ho, alon% *ith three others, *as killed in an a&alanche they tri%%ered in the /a Sal Mountains o) southern 3tah Tradin% is a brutal pro)ession because you ha&e to control your emotions+ As humans, *e %enerally stink at that+ There)ore, most people make lousy traders+ = ,ary Smith, success)ul stock trader A tellin% eBample o) the *estern mind is that *hat *e call Hhuman )actorsH occupies its o*n chapter=separated )rom e&erythin% else=instead o) bein% *o&en into the )abric o) a&alanche decisions as they really are+ Kind o) like the *ay *e use the *ord HnatureH or Hen&ironment,H as i) *eCre separate someho*+ WeCre humans, so ob&iously human )actors canCt help but color e&ery one o) our decisions+ .ealin% *ith our humanness is the central problem o) li)e, isnCt itG Pick up a book on stock tradin% and you o)ten )ind chapters=sometimes hal) the book= dedicated to psycholo%ical traps that %et in the *ay o) makin% lo%ical decisions under pressure+ The airline industry has spent many millions o) dollars researchin% human )actors in a&iation accidents because, like a&alanche accidents, most a&iation accidents are caused by pilot error+ /ook throu%h the popular books on business and you )ind the same thin%+ We all are, a)ter all, humans and thereCs 4ust no escape )rom bein% *hat *e are+ 1Cm one o) those *ho belie&e that, )or the most part, human bein%s are a damned mess and 1 canCt Auite )i%ure out ho* *eC&e %otten as )ar as *e ha&e+ We are astoundin%ly social and emotional creatures and *e make most o) our decisions based on emotion, )eelin%, and belie)s that, more o)ten than not, ha&e no basis in )act+ 9ust look at -on%ress or the stock market or the plots o) made:)or: tele&ision mo&ies and you can see this is true+ .onCt )or%et that *e share +" percent o) our %enetic code *ith py%my chimpan8ees, our closest relati&e+ /o%ic clearly does not come naturally to our species+ P020 6abituation is al*ays a problem+ 1n this ob&ious a&alanche path neBt to Anchora%e, Alaska, 1 couldnCt )i%ure out *hy e&eryone al*ays inarched ri%ht across the steepest part o) this path+++ until 1 disco&ered that the summer trail crosses here+ ?-hu%ach Dan%e, Alaska@ $ Bruce Tremper 1Cm terri)ied by all o) this+ Anyone *ho kno*s me *ill tell you than 1Cm all too human+ 1 make mistakes all the time+ 1 am re%ularly stubborn, proud, and o&ercon)ident+ 1Cm terri)ied because 1 kno* that i) 1 e&er %et killed in an a&alanche it *ill probably be because 1 *as not practicin% proper humbleness and 1 allo*ed my human )oibles to control my perceptions and decisions+ 1 kno* that like most people, 1 need to be )orced to make %ood decisions+ ThatCs *hy 1 belie&e in science+ Science *orks+ Without it *e *ouldnCt ha&e cars or computers or airplanes, and none o) these machines *ere built *ithout repeatedly challen%in% our assumptions=eBposin% the deep:rooted, preeBistin% belie)s that ne&er ha&e been true, ne&er *ill be true+ Fes, *e need cold, hard )acts to make decisions, but )acts alone donCt do the trick+ Analysis o) the )acts is *hat *orks=in other *ords, science+ ThatCs *hy 1 ha&e so many checklists, al%orithms, and procedures in this book because *e need to be )orced and bro*beaten into makin% rational decisions+ -hecklists, al%orithms, and procedures are the reason *hy )lyin% on commercial airlines is so sa)e and the lack o) them is *hy dri&in% a car is so dan%erous+ 1n in&esti%atin% a&alanche accidents, *e in&ariably )ind that the &ictim either didnCt notice the dan%er or they o&erestimated their ability to deal *ith it+ 1n other *ords, the human )actor comes up a%ain and a%ain as a ma4or contributor+ 6uman )actors can include either lack o) kno*led%e or lack o) 4ud%ment+ 1n a&alanche:una*are people, lack o) kno*led%e probably accounts )or most a&alanche accidents, but at least i%norance is easy enou%h to cure=hence this book+ The other side o) the coin, ho*e&er, is much more disturbin%+ 1n a recent study by .ale Atkins o) the -olorado A&alanche 1n)ormation -enter, o) &ictims *ho had at least some le&el o) a&alanche education, human )actors accounted )or !2 percent o) accidents and lack o) 4ud%ment accounted )or three times the number o) accidents than lack o) kno*led%e+ These numbers parallel those )ound in the airline industry ?'i%ure 10:1@+ The human )actors that repeatedly %et people into trouble in a&alanche terrain include

o&ercon)idence, attitude, e%o, incorrect assumptions, peer pressure, denial, tunnel &ision, complacency, euphoria, money considerations, poor plannin%, poor communication, and as 'redston and 'esler call it, the Hsheep syndromeH ?blindly )ollo*in% *hoe&er is leadin%@, the Hhorse syndromeH ?a rush to %et back to the barn@, and the Hlion syndromeH ?a rush )or )irst tracks or summit )e&er@+ 1n most a&alanche accidents, there is usually not 4ust one ob&ious si%n o) instability but se&eral+ The Auestion is *hy do some a&alanche &ictims sometimes see clear e&idence o) dan%er but donCt HseeH itG And *hy do other &ictims sometimes see and understand the si%ns but i%nore them any*ayG 1t seems that *e are both blessed and cursed by our humanness+ The same species that has probed the depths o) astrophysics and Auantum mechanics also re%ularly practices acts o) unspeakable stupidity and e&en cruelty+ We seem cursed to )ore&er *alk the ti%htrope balanced some*here bet*een the %ods and the animals, and it certainly makes li)e as a human bein% an interestin% *ay to pass the time+ Ine lesson 1 continually ha&e to relearn=the lesson that a&alanches teach so *ell=is that in order to sur&i&e in the mountains, *e must learn to lea&e some o) our indi&idual and collecti&e human )oibles behind+ Around humans, be human+ 1n the mountains, think like a mountain+ As -anadian helicopter skiin% %uide Do%er Atkins al*ays reminds me, HStayin% ali&e in a&alanche terrain probably has more to do *ith masterin% yoursel) than masterin% any kno*led%e o) a&alanches+H 'i%ure 10:1+ Primary )actors in )atal a&alanches in&ol&in% people *ith at least some a&alanche trainin%, 1 0:2000, human )actors in )atal accidents, 1 0:2000 ?both )rom Atkins, 1nternational Sno* Science Workshop 2000@ The Stu#i' 1ine The t*o bi%%est problems are the ne* %uys *ho donCt kno* anythin% and the old %uys like me *ho think they kno* e&erythin% but donCt+ = Inno Wierin%a, lon%time sno* sa)ety director at Alta Ski Area ?no* %eneral mana%er@ Many risk researchers talk about crossin% *hat has been called the Hstupid lineH= the in&isible line that separates acceptable risk )rom unacceptable risk ?'i%ure 10:2@+ 0ach one o) us dra*s the stupid line in a di))erent place, dependin% on ?1@ our penchant )or risk, ?2@ our kno*led%e o) the ha8ards, and ?"@ our perceptions o) the ha8ards+ People not only ha&e a certain tolerance )or risk but also most ha&e a pre)erence )or it+ Disk, a)ter all, makes li)e more interestin%+ This penchant )or risk as a))ected by other )actors has been described as Hrisk homeostasis+H 'or instance, tra))ic studies ha&e sho*n that *hen *e added seatbelts and airba%s to cars and made hi%h*ays sa)er, the automobile accident rate did not drop+ We 4ust dro&e )aster+ This result has been con)irmed )or a number o) other beha&iors, includin% risky seBual beha&ior+ We tend to ad4ust our risk thermostat to that le&el in all aspects o) our li&es, in sports, business, money, our lo&e li)e+ 1) *e drop belo* that le&el, *e )eel boredE abo&e that le&el, *e )eel )ear+ Moreo&er, our placement o) the stupid line o)ten chan%es dramatically throu%hout our li)etime+ When 1 *as 1>,1 *ould 4ump o)) tall cornices and 4ump into steep couloirs *ith hardly a thou%ht+ (o* you canCt %et me to e&en approach the ed%e o) a cornice unless 1Cm *earin% a rope+ -ertainly, 1C&e become more cautious *ith a%e and responsibility, but itCs also because as Barry /ePatner says, H,ood 4ud%ment comes )rom eBperience, and eBperience comes )rom bad 4ud%ment+H 'i%ure 10:2+ Disk homeostasis ?adapted )rom Wilde, 1 #@ 'i%ure 10:"+ The con)idence in a&alanche skills o) a&alanche pro)essionals )ollo*s a cyclical pattern throu%hout their li&es+ Se&eral lon%time a&alanche pro)essionals ha&e noticed that our placement o) the stupid line also )ollo*s a cyclical pattern throu%hout our li&es+ 'or instance, -lair 1srealson, a prominent -anadian a&alanche specialist, notices that i) *e %raphed our con)idence in a&alanche skills on the &ertical aBis and time on the hori8ontal aBis, that con)idence amon% a&alanche *orkers slo*ly climbs and reaches a peak at about three years, *hereupon they usually ha&e a close call or a )riend dies and their con)idence suddenly drops+ Then it slo*ly starts to rise a%ain, reachin% a second peak around 10 years and another close call or a death o) another )riend and another sudden drop and so on ?'i%ure 10:"@+ 'rom my eBperience, *e can modi)y -lairCs %raph to be%in se&eral years be)ore someone becomes a pro)essional, in *hich case, con)idence starts out at a li)etime hi%h=the i%norance:is:bliss sta%e+ Then *e learn a )e* thin%s and %et scared, or *e ha&e a close call, and con)idence plummets to a li)etime lo*+ Then *e take a )e* a&alanche classes and con)idence slo*ly rises to 4oin -lairCs %raph *hen *e become pro)essionals+ Past 10 years, 1Cm still not sure *hether con)idence slo*ly rises

throu%h time or sinks, but 1 ha&e optimistically dra*n it slo*ly risin%+ At least )or me, thatCs the case, but then a%ain, it may be risin% up to yet another do*n)all+ 8erce#tion Tra#s All there is to thinkin% is seein% somethin% noticeable, *hich makes you see somethin% that you *erenCt noticin%, *hich makes you see somethin% that isnCt e&en &isible+ =(orman Maclean, A Di&er Duns Throu%h 1t, 1 2> Perhaps no creature on this earth, certainly not humans, e&er eBperiences their en&ironment directly+ All the in)ormation )rom our senses must )irst pass throu%h the )ilter o) perception, and the dilemma that comes *ith li)e as a human bein% is that perception can play tricks on us+ 'or instance, many photo%raphers kno* that you can e))ecti&ely approach animals like deer, caribou, and elk by holdin% the le%s o) your cameraCs tripod o&er your head+ When the caribou sees the Hantlers,H it assumes the approachin% animal is sa)e, despite the con)lictin% parts o) the picture+ As *e %ain a&alanche kno*led%e, *e also %ain metaphors, cubbyholes in our brain in *hich to put the in)ormation, and in this *ay someone *ith *ell:de&eloped a&alanche skills, like the pro&erbial 0skimo, can make hundreds o) distinctions about sno*, as *ell as terrain and *eather+ 9ust de&elopin% the cubbyholes doesnCt al*ays *ork, thou%h+ All too o)ten *e either )ail to reco%ni8e ob&ious in)ormation, *e put the in)ormation into the cubbyhole yet )ail to act on it, or act on it but o&erestimate our ability to deal *ith the problem+ 1 like to call these Hperception traps,H and here is a short list o) some o) the common ones other a&alanche pro)essionals and 1 ha&e noticed+ Belief .onCt con)use me *ith the )acts+ = /ate Senator Doman 6ruska, durin% the Water%ate hearin%s 1t isnCt *hat *e kno* that %ets us into trouble, itCs *hat *e kno* that ainCt so+ =Will Do%ers When the )acts chan%e, itCs time to chan%e your mind+ =9ohn Maynard Keynes We o)ten hear people say, H1Cll belie&e that *hen 1 see it+H But really, itCs the other *ay around+ When *e belie&e the sno*pack is stable, all *e see are si%ns o) stability, because *e canCt see somethin% until *e )irst belie&e it+ 'or instance, sur&i&ors o) a&alanche accidents o)ten say, HThe a&alanche bulletin said that the ha8ard *as Cmoderate,C so *e didnCt eBpect to %et cau%ht,H or HThere *ere tracks on the slope, so *e assumed that it *as sa)eH or H1 sno*mobile here all the time, and 1C&e ne&er had any trouble+H We donCt ha&e to look &ery )ar throu%h history books to see ho* po*er)ul belie) can be e&en in the )ace o) contrary e&idence+ Belie) is such a po*er)ul )orce that in the %eolo%y summer )ield camp 1 attended in under%raduate studies, the pro)essors reAuired that *e keep our )ield notebooks separated into t*o sections+ In the le)t:)acin% pa%es, *e *rote only )acts and on the ri%ht:)acin% pa%es *e *rote only opinions, speculation, or anythin% else that *as not a concrete )act+ 1tCs like the old story o) three blind men tryin% to describe an elephant+ The person )eelin% the le% says, HAn elephant is like the trunk o) a tree+H The person )eelin% the tail says, H(o, youCre *ron%, an elephant is like a rope+H The person )eelin% the ear says, H(o, youCre both *ron%, an elephant is thin and *ide and mo&es like a )an+H The %ood ne*s is that each one o) us is simultaneously ri%ht, but the bad ne*s is that each one o) us is also simultaneously *ron%+ 1tCs a hard truth, but *hene&er *e take the time to look deeply into any sub4ect, *e in&ariably disco&er that most o) our pre:eBistin% belie)s *ere either partly *ron% or completely *ron%+ The key to the a&alanche business is to reali8e that most o) *hat *e belie&e is probably not true+ Try this eBperiment+ The neBt time you %o to *ork or do somethin% &ery )amiliar, try to see e&erythin% *ith the inAuirin% mind o) a child+ FouCll be surprised ho* much you learn about the thin%s you thou%ht you kne*+ All scientists are systematically schooled, )rom early years, to identi)y their assumptions and check them out+ Scientists are a notoriously cynical and suspicious lot, and success)ul a&alanche

)orecasters, because their li&es intimately depend on it, are doubly so+ 'or years 1 thou%ht that somethin% *as *ron% *ith me because in the outdoors 1 *as al*ays lookin% )or *hat could %o *ron%+ But 1 ha&e read that success)ul stock traders are similarly skeptical=al*ays lookin% )or the do*nside+ The ones *ho see only sunny days *ill Auickly %et *ashed a*ay in the neBt storm+ 1ncorrect assumptions, erroneous belie)s, mistakin% opinions )or )acts, and mistakin% one perspecti&e )or the *hole truth ha&e caused uncountable death, in4ury, and heartache in a&alanche terrain+ Be skeptical+ Belief 4nertia (ot kno*in% is true kno*led%e+ Presumin% to kno* is a disease+ =/ao:tsu In one hand, in&estors eBa%%erate their stock:pickin% abilities+ In the other, they )orm initial impressions that persist and are hard to chan%e, e&en i) they are based on random or irrele&ant in)ormation+ As a result, in&estors are slo* to chan%e+ =/ouise Witt, I&ercon)idence and the 1llusion o) 7alidity A time delay al*ays eBists bet*een *hen *e learn the )acts and *hen the )acts )inally sink in and *e )inally %et it+ This is a common problem e&en amon% pro)essional a&alanche )orecasters= either a rapidly buildin% a&alanche ha8ard catches someone or the slope or road remains closed too lon% a)ter conditions stabili8e+ A %ood a&alanche )orecaster *ho is payin% attention *ill ha&e a close match bet*een the actual and the percei&ed ha8ard ?'i%ure 10:#@+ Someone *ith poor a&alanche skills usually doesnCt belie&e thereCs dan%er until someone tri%%ers an a&alanche+ Then they spend the neBt se&eral days, or sometimes *eeks, tiptoein% around lon% a)ter the instability has abated+ The truly clueless not only ha&e a lar%e time delay but their belie) cur&e hardly e&en bud%es in the )ace o) ob&ious )acts+ Habituation 1) you make decisions based on eBperience alone, the )inal eBam sometimes comes be)ore the lesson+ = .a&e Mc-lun%, prominent a&alanche researcher and co:author o) The A&alanche 6andbook A bi% problem in the a&alanche %ame is *hat *e call Hpositi&e rein)orcement+H Someone crosses a particular slope many times *ith no problems and they e&entually assume that the slope is sa)e+ 1tCs a natural assumption, since the sno*pack is stable about ; percent o) the time+ 6o*e&er, i) the terrain is capable o) producin% an a&alanche, then sooner or later it *ill and someone *ill %et a bi% surprise+ 'i%ure 10:#+ There is al*ays some time mismatch bet*een actual and percei&ed instability+ 'or instance, 1 ha&e *itnessed perhaps a do8en eBamples, some in&ol&in% mysel), in *hich pro)essional ski patrollers ha&e close calls or %et cau%ht in the early season be)ore their ski area opens+ When they do a&alanche control on a steep, lo*:ele&ation slope usually co&ered *ith mo%uls, the habituated part o) their brain tells them that this slope ne&er slides e&en thou%h their eyes see the epitome o) dan%erous a&alanche conditions+ 1ronically, the same patroller *ould instinctually tremble in )ear i) they encountered an identical:lookin% slope in un)amiliar backcountry terrain+ 1n another eBample, 1 li&ed )or se&eral years across the street )rom Alta Ski Area in 3tah+ In most mornin%s 1 *ould *ake up early, %rab my skis, and skin up the slopes abo&e my house to the rid%e )or a Auick backcountry run be)ore headin% to *ork+ When 1 )irst started doin% this, 1 noticed that people o)ten broke a trail that crossed one or t*o steep slopes on the *ay to the top and 1 could ne&er )i%ure out *hy+ The )ollo*in% summer 1 noticed that the summer trail *ent in the eBact same place+ Ah haJ 6abituation 4ust carried o&er into the *inter+ 1 ne&er )ollo*ed that trail in the *inter+ 1 al*ays broke a ne* trail that )ollo*ed a more sensible route alon% a series o) %entle spur rid%es+ Ince people %ot used to )ollo*in% the ne* trail, e&en a)ter 1 mo&ed into to*n and stopped usin% that trail, they still kept breakin% the trail in the sa)er area+ Fou ne&er see a trail broken *here the summer trail %oes anymore+

The Her'in* 4nstinct When people are )ree to do as they please, they usually imitate each other+ =0ric 6ol))er 1 think the herdin% instinct is one o) the ma4or causes o) a&alanche accidents+ 6umans are clearly one o) the most social creatures on 0arth+ Sa)ety in numbers is hard:*ired into the brains o) most animals, includin% humans, and it has certainly ser&ed us *ell throu%h the eons *hen lions, ti%ers, and bears *ere our %reatest )ear+ Iur herdin% instinct has 4ust the opposite e))ect in a&alanche terrain+ More people standin% in the same area means not only more *ei%ht and more tri%%ers but also more people to be buried *ith no one le)t to di% the others out+ Most people *ill admit that they are bolder in a %roup than *hen alone, a phenomenon called Hrisky shi)tH by beha&ioral scientists+ 1t *as )irst noticed in the business community in *hich people in lar%er committees tend to make riskier decisions than in smaller committees+ 1n a&alanche terrain, it doesnCt matter i) youCre alone or in a lar%e %roup=the instability remains the same+ Since ha8ard doesnCt eBist until *e add people to the eAuation, the more people *e add the %reater the ha8ard, not only because o) the increased numbers but because o) the shi)t in percei&ed sa)ety+ 1n other *ords as %roup si8e ?and ha8ard@ increases, our perception o) ha8ard decreases+ Bad combination+ 1Cm al*ays suspicious o) lar%e %roups+ T*o people is the per)ect number+ ThereCs one person to di% the other out i) somethin% %oes *ron%, but there arenCt too many people to start biasin% decisions to*ard risk+ ,roups o) three and )our are still okay, but 1 ha&e noticed on the many outdoor trips and eBpeditions 1C&e done throu%h the years that communication and lo%istical problems start skyrocketin% in %roups lar%er than )our+ Ince you 4ump abo&e the ma%ic number )our, thereCs al*ays someone *ho doesnCt hear the discussion and doesnCt kno* the plan+ 1tCs harder to )orm a consensus and tra&el slo*s by an hour per day *ith each additional person you add to the %roup+ ThatCs *hy 1 almost al*ays keep my %roups at )our or less unless itCs 4ust a social outin% in sa)e terrain+ Bi% %roups usually mean bi% )rustration and bi% dan%er+ 3aleK.e-ale Kno* the male yet keep to the )emale+ =/ao:tsu 1n 3tah *here 1 li&e, e&en thou%h )emales comprise o&er a third o) the backcountry recreationists, since 1 !0, only )our )atalities out o) >> ?> percent@ in&ol&ed a )emale and all *ere relati&e no&ices accompanyin% other males at the time+ (ationally, 2 percent o) )atalities are )emale+ Almost all a&alanche &ictims in (orth America are male and bet*een 1> and #0 years old+ Males, especially youn% males, al*ays ha&e, and most likely al*ays *ill ha&e, the ineBorable need to %o out into the *orld and slay dra%ons+ When *e %o out to slay the a&alanche dra%on, there *ill al*ays be a certain percenta%e *ho donCt come back ali&e+ Testosterone makes the &oice deep, the chest hairy, the muscles stron%, the e%o hu%eJ But the a&alanche doesnCt care about these thin%s+ A&alanches he* do*n the stron% and *eak alike, but a&alanches do not he* do*n the a*are and the una*are alike+ 1 like to %o into the mountains *ith *omen+ 1 )eel like 1Cm sa)er *hen 1 do+ When 1Cm out *ith my male )riends, 1 kno* that 1 ha&e to keep a sharp eye out )or competition, pride, and all the other traits that tend to %o alon% *ith %roups o) men, because 1Cm o)ten the *orst o) the bunch+ Weather an' 8erce#tion We kno* that most a&alanches occur durin% or immediately a)ter storms, but a&alanche accidents tend to occur durin% blue:sky days )ollo*in% storms+ 1t\s true that more people are out durin% sunny days, but 1 think that sunny days ha&e a more important e))ect, namely, sunny days make us )eel %ood, but the sno*pack doesnCt necessarily share our opinion+ Most o) our non:a&alanche:related eBperience teaches us that the dan%er is o&er *hen the storm is o&er+ A&alanche ha8ard notoriously lin%ers a)ter storms, especially *ith persistent *eak layers such as )aceted sno* and sur)ace hoar+ Ince a%ain, our perception o) the ha8ard is out o) sync *ith the actual ha8ard+ Al*ays be suspicious o) the )irst sunny day a)ter a storm and be especially suspicious o) sunny Saturdays a)ter a storm+ In the other side o) the coin, tra&el durin% )oul *eather can also be 4ust as dan%erous but )or the opposite reason+ Bein% cold and *et %i&es us *hat 'redston and 'esler call the Hhorse syndrome,H the rush to %et back to the barn+ We tend to cut corners and rush decisions+ 9ust *hen *e need to pay

attention the most, the *eather pushes us to do the opposite+ Cultural Arro*ance Any astronomer can predict *here a star *ill be at hal) past ele&en+ 6e can make no such prediction about his dau%hter+ =9ames Thurlo* Adams Another common perception trap is to brin% our human culture into a non:human settin%+ -ity thinkin% and mountain thinkin% are &ery di))erent thin%s+ The a&alanche doesnCt care i) *eCre rich or handsome or stron% or *ell lo&ed+ 1t doesnCt care i) *e ha&e a meetin% on Monday or that *e paid O>00 to )ly to a particular spot+ The a&alanche doesnCt care i) *e are lost in con&ersation, tired, ha&e run out o) eBplosi&es *hile doin% an a&alanche control route, or *eCre too la8y to drop ;0 meters in ele&ation only to ha&e to climb back up a%ain+ The a&alanche doesnCt care about anythin%, least o) all, about us+ 1n the city *e ha&e to think like a human+ When *e %o into the mountains, those skills, more o)ten than not, are liabilities+ /ike tra&elin% to a )orei%n country, itCs our 4ob to be culturally sensiti&e *hen *e %o into a&alanche country+ We need to learn the *ays o) the a&alanche, speak its lan%ua%e and be acceptin% o) its culture or be *illin% to su))er the conseAuences i) *e donCt+ The a&alanche books tell us to ne&er %o into a&alanche terrain alone, and 1 a%ree, but o)ten 1 )eel like 1 make sa)er decisions by mysel) because 1Cm )reer to think like a mountain instead o) like a personE 1 ha&e no distractions, no one to impress+ Iur *estern culture has tau%ht us that, %i&en enou%h time and money, science and technolo%y can pre&ail o&er absolutely anythin%+ 9ud%in% by recent mo&ies that )urther eBtend some o) these delusions, this includes earthAuakes, &olcanoes, meteor impacts, in&asions )rom eBtraterrestrials, in&asions o) the dead, brin%in% people back )rom the dead, eternal li)e, and a *orld *ithout taBes+ We are tau%ht )rom a youn% a%e that kno*led%e is po*er, *hich is true, but can *e e&er kno* it allG -an *e e&er kno* e&en hal) o) it, a tenth o) itG 1 %uess that 1 subscribe to the .ilbert Principle, the central tenant bein% that *eCre all idiots+ We can only hope to be eBperts about only a tiny )raction o) *hat there is to kno*, *hich means that *eCre all idiots *hen it comes to at least percent o) e&erythin% else+ ThatCs not necessarily a problem eBcept )or the *ell:pro&en )act that *e tend to consistently o&erestimate our abilities and consistently clin% to the illusion o) &alidity, e&en thou%h our belie)s are based on random or irrele&ant in)ormation+ Thank ,od there *ill al*ays be mystery, and let us hope that *e can be humble enou%h to reco%ni8e it and accept it+ Avalanche Skills versus Travel Skills We ha&e noticed )or years that most people %ettin% cau%ht in a&alanches are &ery skilled at their sport+ (e*spaper accounts o)ten report that they *ere &ery HeBperienced+H But eBperienced at *hatG True, they may ha&e years o) eBperience as a sno*mobiler or climber but almost in&ariably their sport skills outpace their a&alanche skills by a si%ni)icant mar%in+ 6o* many years ha&e you spent learnin% ho* to be a %ood skier, sno*mobiler, climber, sno*boarder ?pick your sport@G 6o* many years ha&e you spent studyin% a&alanchesG See *hat 1 meanG We ha&e also )ound that people hi%hly skilled in their sport tend to consistently o&erestimate their a&alanche skills, o)ten they &astly o&erestimate them+ This situation is true in almost all endea&ors+ A recent study )ound that most dri&ers rate themsel&es in the top ;0 percent o) sa)e dri&ers+ Stock traders consistently mistake )a&orable market conditions )or personal stock:pickin% skill+ ?Inly a tiny minority o) stock pickers ha&e been able to consistently beat the market year a)ter year+@ Eu#horia an' Su--it .ever 3n)ortunately, the sort o) indi&idual *ho is pro%rammed to i%nore personal distress and keep pushin% )or the top is )reAuently pro%rammed to disre%ard si%ns o) %ra&e and imminent dan%er as *ell+ This )orms the nub o) a dilemma that e&ery 0&erest climber e&entually comes up a%ainst5 in order to succeed you must be eBceedin%ly dri&en, but i) youCre too dri&en youCre likely to die+ Abo&e 2>,000 )eet, moreo&er, the line bet*een appropriate 8eal and reckless

summit )e&er becomes %rie&ously thin+ Thus the slopes o) 0&erest are littered *ith corpses+ =9on Krakauer, 1nto Thin Air, 1 2 0uphoria amon% clients is a ma4or concern to helicopter skiin% %uides+ A client skiin% or sno*boardin% untracked po*der )or the )irst time can be so deep in the throes o) ecstasy they o)ten )ail to listen to the %uideCs directions+ /ike*ise a sno*mobiler )eelin% the eBhilaratin% po*er and speed o) a ne* machine can easily i%nore ob&ious si%ns o) dan%er+ Sometimes itCs so %ood that you 4ust donCt care i) you die, and 1 lo&e it *hen itCs that %ood+ 0uphoria runs rampant on sunny days *ith )resh po*der in a lar%e %roup o) )riends+ Al*ays be suspicious o) this combination+ Co--unication P021 -ommunication is al*ays a problem, and the lar%er the %roup, the lar%er the problem+ ?Talkeetna Mountains, Alaska@ $ Bruce Tremper 6ere in the Hin)ormation a%eH communication is, more than e&er, the central problem o) the human race+ 6a&e you e&er noticed that i) people *ould 4ust talk to each other, that 0 percent o) the plots on tele&ision dramas and sitcoms *ould be eliminatedG 1n a *orld *here communication is a commodity, pro)its as *ell as marital bliss depend on itE *ithout communication, there is chaos+ Poor communication is a common denominator in almost all a&alanche accidents+ As 'redston and 'esler ha&e noted, poor communication typically takes se&eral )orms5 K Ine or more people )ail to speak up )or )ear o) bein% the HnerdH+ K 1ncomplete communication leads to incorrect assumptions or limited sharin% o) important in)ormation+ K Misunderstandin% o) the %roupCs plan or the %roupCs opinion o) the potential ha8ard+ K (o communication at all+ Any mountaineerin% party can accomplish only *hat its *eakest member can accomplish+ I)ten the *eakest member doesnCt speak up or the decision:makers )ail to adeAuately consult e&eryone in the %roup+ .i))erent members o) the party may also ha&e di))erent le&els o) acceptable risk, eBpectation, tra&el skills, and a&alanche skills and thereCs in&ariably too little communication about it+ As *e kno*, in any %roup, a natural leader almost al*ays rises to the occasion=usually because o) a stron% personality, or%ani8ational skills, )amiliarity *ith the terrain or route, or a number o) other reasons+ 3sually, %roup leaders donCt rise to the top 4ust because o) their a&alanche skills+ So it o)ten takes coura%e )or a shy person *ith %ood a&alanche skills to speak up and attempt to s*ay the momentum o) their peers+ And it also takes uncommon %ood 4ud%ment )or a %roup leader to )erret out opinions )rom so)t:spoken members *ho mi%ht kno* somethin% but donCt *ant to say+ Ince a%ain, a&alanche pro)essionals are certainly not immune+ Some o) the most dan%erous %roup dynamics situations in *hich 1 ha&e participated in&ol&ed lar%er %roups o) helicopter %uides, a&alanche )orecasters, or ski patrollers in their early season trainin%+ 1n such a hi%h:le&el %roup, no one *ants to speak up and risk o))endin% their peers+ Fet *e *ill all *illin%ly di&e into a dan%erous situation that a)ter*ard *e all a%ree *as )oolhardy+ 1 belie&e in democratic decision:makin% amon% a %roup o) peers+ An important 4ob o) the %roup leader is to re%ularly consult all the members+ Are they tired, ha&in% eAuipment problems, does e&eryone understand the plan, is anyone uncom)ortable *ith the plan, *hat are peopleCs eBpectations, %oals, le&el o) riskG All these concerns ha&e to be on the table )or discussion+ Fes, this process certainly takes more time, but you almost al*ays make better decisions because o) it+ As the &enerable a&alanche specialist Doland 0meta8 has said, HA brain:stormin% %roup o) ordinary people is almost al*ays smarter than one 0instein+H 2i&-o 3a'ness I)ten our eAuipment %i&es us a )alse sense o) security+ Because e&eryone in the party has beacons, sho&els, probes, a&alanche air ba%s, and A&alun%s, *e tend to cross slopes that *e *ould a&oid other*ise+ Althou%h impossible to pro&e, 1 think you could make the ar%ument that beacons ha&e caused more a&alanche deaths than they ha&e sa&ed+ (ot that 1 su%%est lea&in% beacons behind, but *e need to al*ays ask oursel&es i) *eCre *illin% to cross the slope *ithout them+ 1) not, maybe *e shouldnCt be there+ P022 ,i8mos can %i&e us a )alse sense o) security+ ?Wasatch Dan%e, 3tah@ $ Bruce Tremper All too o)ten, the mirror on the compass indicates eBactly *ho is lost, the ,PS indicates eBactly *here you are lost, the microscope indicates eBactly the kind o) *eak layer that is about to kill you, the inclinometer indicates the steepness o) the slope thatCs about to kill you, the radio is used to call your )riend at the top o) the slope thatCs about to kill you to say, H-ome on do*n, e&erythin%Cs

)ine,H and the beacon *ill tell the rescuers eBactly *here to )ind your body+ /ike*ise, ne*, po*er)ul sno*mobiles and *ide, hi%h:per)ormance po*der skis make us )eel like *e can outrun any a&alanche but instead, i) thereCs any instability out there, they almost %uarantee that *e *ill )ind it+ State:o):the:art ice:climbin% tools allo* us to easily ascend &ertical ice, but the tools can ne&er pre&ent a&alanches )rom crashin% do*n on us *hen temperatures rapidly *arm the han%in% sno* abo&e+ 2ree' Fes, *e can e&en blame %reed+ The outdoor eAuipment manu)acturers and )ilmmakers constitute a multi:billion dollar industry, and they unabashedly capitali8e on the eBtreme end o) their sports+ 1t seems like you canCt buy any outdoor clothin% *ithout the *ord eBtreme *ritten on it, or buy a sno*mobile not named a)ter a predatory animal+ 1n pa%in% throu%h a )e* o) the popular outdoor ma%a8ines on my desk, 1 see that the ad&ertisements tell me H9ust do it,H HWhy ask *hyGH HBreak your limits,H HThe ultimate adrenaline rush,H HSnatched )rom the 4a*s o) death,H and so on+ These ad&ertisements are sand*iched bet*een articles about shark attacks, alli%ator *restlin%, dan%erous bears, )irst ski descents, )irst ri&er descents, )irst mountaineerin% ascents, and other cool people doin% cool thin%s+ As eBtreme skier .ou% -oombs told me, HThe C0C *ord TeBtremeU has de)initely %otten out o) hand+ 1 think the ski mo&ies ha&e put this )allacy that you can 4ust ra%e, 4ust %o )or it++++ They donCt talk about all the people *ho %et hurt makin% the mo&ies+ 1 donCt think people reali8e the dan%er theyCre %ettin% themsel&es into because o) the Kodak -oura%e+ Fou donCt see a *hole lot o) ski mo&ies *ith people *ith sho&els and probe poles++++ 1 think the ski mo&ies should ha&e that incorporated into them, because itCs an education, itCs 4ust common sense that you ha&e to ha&e these certain tools *ith you+H 8ri'e When people think that they kno* the ans*ers, people are di))icult to %uide+ When they kno* that they donCt kno*, people can )ind their o*n *ay+ =/ao:tsu 1 personally ha&e a tou%h time *ith this one+ Bein% a )ourth:%eneration Montanan, 1 come to stubbornness and pride honestly enou%h, and 1 ha&e )ou%ht a losin% battle *ith it )or most o) my li)e+ /ike*ise, a co*orker o) mine *as killed in an a&alanche he tri%%ered partly because o) pride+ Apparently, he had been in&ol&ed in a daylon% ar%ument about the stability o) the sno*pack+ 6e insisted that it *asnCt &ery dan%erous *hile his )riend insisted that it *as+ 1ronically, by the time the a&alanche settled their ar%ument and killed )our people, the person *ho thou%ht the sno* *as dan%erous *as in the lead, breakin% trail at the bottom o) a hu%e, open bo*l+ P02" Most a&alanches happen durin% storms but most a&alanche accidents occur on the sunny days )ollo*in% storms+ Sunny *eather makes us )eel %reat, but the sno*pack does not al*ays share our opinion+ ?Fello*stone (ational Park, Wyomin%@ $ Bruce Tremper 1tCs hard to admit *eCre *ron% or that *e donCt kno* the ans*er or that *e may ne&er kno* the ans*er+ Also, our *estern culture teaches us to belie&e that *e can al*ays )ind the ans*er i) *e look lon% enou%h in the proper places *ith the proper tools+ We seem to ha&e a hard time *ith concepts like mystery or humbleness in the )ace o) the unkno*able+ 1tCs not that a&alanches are unpredictable or mysterious, it 4ust seems that *ay because theyCre in&isible+ By the nature o) the beast, *e can ne&er %ather enou%h in)ormation to make the ri%ht decision 100 percent o) the time+ Thus, most eBperienced a&alanche pro)essionals take a healthy a%nostic attitude=that not e&erythin% about a&alanches is kno*able+ As .ou% 'esler once *rote in a letter to me, HIur *estern mind *ants to )i%ure e&erythin% out+ We *ant to balance the spreadsheets out to the last penny+ But in nature, there is al*ays some de%ree o) uncertainty+ Take t*o more steps back )rom the t*o you ha&e already taken+H This is only a short list o) the human )actors that can cause a&alanche accidents+ We can all come up *ith our o*n additions+ The moral o) the story is that *e need to make our decisions based on the )acts and not on emotions+ The a&alanche doesnCt care ho* *e make decisionsE it doesnCt e&en care *hat the decision is+ 1tCs 4ust bein% an a&alanche+ The bottom line is that lon%:term sur&i&al in a&alanche terrain depends on the )ollo*in% skills5 K 6a&in% enou%h kno*led%e and eBperience to 4ud%e the dan%er+ K 6a&in% the discipline to repeatedly challen%e assumptions and make decisions based on the )acts+ K 6a&in% the discipline to al*ays )ollo* sa)e tra&el ritual )or the ine&itable times *e are

*ron%+ )a# on )es#onsibility Iur culture re4oices in the concept o) indi&iduality, that *e ha&e the ri%ht to do as *e please, e&en to the point that i) *e kill oursel&es throu%h risky endea&ors, *ell, then itCs nobodyCs business but our o*n+ 1 ha&e, un)ortunately, participated in se&eral do8en missions o) either rescue, body reco&ery, or accident in&esti%ation and ha&e attended the )unerals o) a hal) do8en )riends and co*orkers *ho ha&e died in the mountains+ With e&ery one o) them there *ere the tears o) spouses, children, parents, siblin%s, and )riends *hose li&es *ill ne&er be the same+ There *ere also the in&isible strin%s attached to the rescuers *ho risked their li&es, the innocent people belo* on the trail or road *ho *ere nearly buried by the a&alanche they tri%%ered, and the la*makers *ho passed restricti&e rules )or others in the *ake o) an accident or la*suit+ -atastrophe and sorro*, it seems, al*ays make ripples that tra&el to the ed%es o) e&ery pond+ So *here is the indi&idualG 1 donCt think 1 ha&e e&er seen one+ 0&erythin% *e do a))ects others+ When *e break a trail throu%h the sno*, others *ill )ollo*+ When *e decide not to cross a slope, others *ill listen+ When *e check e&eryoneCs beacon at the be%innin% o) an outin%, e&eryone *ill think about a&alanches+ When *e see youn% people doin% stupid thin%s in the mountains and *e teach them a better *ay *ith patience and compassion, e&eryone *ill be sa)er+ There are no unconnected dots+ Con*ratulationsB Fou ha&e started your 4ourney do*n the road to becomin% an a&alanche *arrior+ Poor *arriors char%e into battle *ithout enou%h preparation+ ,ood *arriors not only kno* *here the battle)ield is but they also choose *hen to sho* up, they kno* ho* to )i%ht the battle, they kno* *hat to do i) somethin% %oes *ron%, and most important, they ha&e mastered themsel&es+ Deadin% this book, ho*e&er, doesnCt make you an a&alanche master+ This is 4ust the )irst step in a lon% 4ourney+ The 4ourney takes time and *ork, but luckily, the *ork is pleasant, the *orkplace is stunnin%ly beauti)ul, and the co*orkers are some o) the )inest people in the *orld+ 1 )eel &ery blessed to ha&e li&ed the li)e 1 ha&e and 1 hope to someday become an a&alanche master mysel)+ 1 hope to see you alon% the *ay+

A88EN/4L /an*er Avalanche 1evel 9an' 8robability an' Color: Avalanche Tri**er What Why 1ow ?%reen@ (atural a&alanches &ery unlikely+ 6uman: tri%%ered a&alanches unlikely+ 3o'erate (atural a&alanches ?yello*@ unlikely+ 6uman: tri%%ered a&alanches possible+ Consi'erabl (atural a&alanches e possible+ 6uman: ?oran%e@ tri%%ered a&alanches probable+ Hi*h 9re': (atural and human: tri%%ered a&alanches likely+ E<tre-e ?black@ /e*ree an' /istribution of )eco--en'e' Action in the Avalanche /an*er Backcountry Where ,enerally stable sno*+ 1solated areas o) instability+ 3nstable slabs possible on steep terrain+ 3nstable slabs probable on steep terrain+ 3nstable slabs likely on a &ariety o) aspects and slope an%les+ What to /o Tra&el is %enerally sa)e+ (ormal caution is ad&ised+ 3se caution in steeper terrain on certain aspects ?de)ined in accompanyin% statement@+ Be increasin%ly cautious in steeper terrain+ Tra&el in a&alanche terrain is not recommended+ Sa)est tra&el on *ind*ard rid%es o) lo*er: an%le slopes *ithout steeper terrain abo&e+ Tra&el in a&alanche terrain should be a&oided and tra&el con)ined to lo*:an%le terrain *ell a*ay )rom a&alanche path runouts+

Widespread natural or 0Btremely unstable slabs human:tri%%ered certain on most aspects and a&alanches certain+ slope an%les+ /ar%e, destructi&e a&alanches possible+

Avalanche Safety Basics A&alanches donCt happen by accident, and most human in&ol&ement is a matter o) choice, not chance+ Most a&alanche accidents are caused by slab a&alanches, *hich are tri%%ered by the &ictim or a member o) the &ictimCs party+ 6o*e&er, any a&alanche may cause in4ury or death and e&en small slides may be dan%erous+ 6ence, al*ays practice sa)e route)indin% skills, be a*are o) chan%in% conditions, and carry a&alanche rescue %ear+ /earn and apply a&alanche terrain analysis and sno* stability e&aluation techniAues to help minimi8e your risk+ Demember that a&alanche dan%er ratin% le&els are only %eneral %uidelines+ .istinctions bet*een %eo%raphic areas, ele&ations, slope aspects, and slope an%les are approBimate and transition 8ones bet*een dan%ers eBist+ (o matter *hat the current a&alanche dan%er, there are a&alanche:sa)e areas in the mountains+

21OSSA)6
anchors Trees, rocks, or bushes that help to hold the sno*pack in place+ as#ect The direction a slope )aces *ith respect to sun and *ind+ 'or instance, a slope may be north: )acin%, or it may be a lee*ard slope+ avalanche air ba* 7ictims cau%ht in an a&alanche pull a rip cord to deploy this air ba% mounted on their packs to help the &ictims )loat to the sur)ace o) a&alanche debris+ avalanche ball A sprin%:loaded nylon ball that is deployed by an a&alanche &ictim+ The ball tends to )loat to the sur)ace o) the debris, and rescuers can )ollo* a cord attached to the &ictim+ Avalun*Y A de&ice that delays the dan%erous buildup o) carbon dioBide )or a buried a&alanche &ictim+ Buried &ictims breathe throu%h a tube that eBhausts carbon dioBide on the back side o) their bodies and allo*s them to breathe in air )rom the )ront side+ beacon An electronic de&ice used to locate buried a&alanche &ictims+ Also called transcei&ers or locators+ be' surface The sno* sur)ace on *hich an a&alanche slides+ bri'*in* The ability o) a relati&ely sti)) slab to spread a personCs *ei%ht o&er a *ider area, makin% that person less likely to tri%%er an a&alanche+ cirCue A lar%e bo*l:shaped conca&ity )ormed by %laciers in mountainous terrain+ climaB slab a&alanche An a&alanche that in&ol&es the entire seasonCs sno*pack and slides either on a weak layer near the *roun' ?usually depth hoar@ or on )irn or a %lacier+ clustered sno* /ar%e:%rained, rounded, and clustered crystals )ormed by the repeated meltin% and free&in* of the snow+ 1t typically )orms in sprin% conditions near the sno* sur)ace+ Also called melt: )ree8e sno* or corn sno*+ colla#sin* A sno*pack collapsin% onto a buried *eak layer, *hich is an ob&ious si%n o) instability+ conca&e slope A slope that becomes less steep as you descend+ A double conca&e slope is shaped like the inside o) a bo*l+ conve< slo#e A slope that becomes steeper as you descend+ A double con&eB slope is shaped like the outside o) a basketball+ corn snow See clustered sno* cornice An o&erhan%in% mass o) sno* created by the *ind, usually near a sharp terrain break such as a rid%e+ continental cli-ate The sno* climate )ound in mountains )ar )rom the in)luence o) the oceanCs *eather+ -haracteri8ed by thin sno*packs, cold temperatures, and more persistently unstable sno*pack+ couloir A &ery steep %ully in alpine terrain+ 1n *inter, a couloir is usually )illed *ith sno* bound by rocks on either side+ cross;loa'e' Sno* blo*n by the *ind across a slope, depositin% dri)ts on the sides o) %ullies or other terrain )eatures+ 'ee# slab avalanches A&alanches that break deeply into old *eak layers o) sno* that )ormed some time a%o+ I)ten persistent *eak layers such as )acets or sur)ace hoar are the culprit *eak layer+ 'elaye' action avalanches A&alanches that occur a day or more a)ter a storm, usually *ith persistent *eak layers such as )aceted sno* or sur)ace hoar as the culprit+ 'e#th hoar /ar%e:%rained, )aceted, cup:shaped crystals near the %round+ .epth hoar is caused by lar%e temperature %radients *ithin the sno*pack, usually in the early *inter, by lar%e temperature di))erences bet*een the *arm %round and the cold sno* sur)ace+ 'irect action avalanches A&alanches caused directly by storms, usually )rom loadin% o) ne*, *ind: blo*n sno* or rain+ 'iurnal recrystalli&ation 'aceted sno* created by lar%e temperature %radients in the sur)ace o) the sno* )rom stron% heatin% and coolin% o) the sno* sur)ace bet*een day and ni%ht+ 'ry avalanche An a&alanche that occurs in sno* o) belo* )ree8in% temperature+ facete' snow An%ular, lar%er:%rained sno* *ith poor bondin% created by lar%e temperature %radients *ithin the sno*pack+ .i))erent kinds o) )aceted crystals include depth hoar, diurnal recrystalli8ation, melt layer recrystalli8ation, and radiation recrystalli8ation+ firn Sno* that did not melt in the pre&ious summer+ A)ter one or more seasons, )irn can become %lacial ice+ fla**e' trees Trees *ith the branches ripped o)) on the uphill side, indicatin% that they ha&e been hit by an a&alanche in the past+ *li'e The entire sno*pack slo*ly mo&in% as a unit on the %round, similar to a %lacier+ This is usually caused by melt*ater lubricatin% the sno*:%round inter)ace+ Slabs o) sno* can release catastrophically

at random inter&als+ (ot to be con)used *ith climaB slab a&alanche+ *rau#el (e* sno* that looks like little Styro)oam balls+ Mechanically, it beha&es like ball bearin%s but it can also )orm slabs+ *ri' search A rescue techniAue *ith beacons in *hich the rescuer uses a series o) perpendicular %rids to )ind the transmittin% beacon+ hu-i'ity The amount o) *ater contained in air+ See also relati&e humidity+ icefall The %lacial eAui&alent o) a *ater)all+ A %lacier slo*ly mo&es o&er a dropo)), such as a cli)) or bul%e, creatin% 4umbled ice that can cal&e o)) ice blocks+ icefall avalanche An a&alanche created )rom ice )allin% )rom an ice)all+ in'uction line search A rescue techniAue *ith beacons in *hich the rescuer )ollo*s the cur&in% electroma%netic lines that emanate )rom a transmittin% beacon+ Also called tan%ent search+ inter-ountain cli-ate The sno* climate commonly )ound in intermountain areas mid*ay bet*een maritime and continental climates+ -haracteri8ed by intermediate sno* depths and intermediate temperatures+ leewar' The do*n*ind side o) an obstacle such as a rid%e+ Wind can deposit sno* onto lee*ard terrain creatin% *ind slabs or *ind pillo*s, *hich are o)ten dan%erous+ loa'in* The addition o) *ei%ht on top o) a sno*pack, usually )rom *ind loadin%, ne* sno*, or rain+ loose snow avalanche An a&alanche o) loose sno*=not a slab a&alanche+ Small loose sno* a&alanches are called slu))s+ They o)ten start )rom a point and )an out+ Also called point releases+ -ariti-e cli-ate The sno* climate near the oceans, characteri8ed by deep sno* and *arm temperatures+ Also called coastal climate+ -elt;free&e snow See clustered sno* -elt layer recrystalli&ation 'aceted sno* created by lar%e temperature %radients bet*een a *et, *arm sno* layer and the o&erlyin% colder ne* sno*+ This typically occurs *hen a cold storm deposits sno* on top o) a *et, *arm rain crust+ #ersistent weak layers Weak layers *ithin the sno*pack that continue to produce a&alanches se&eral days a)ter they *ere sub4ected to a rapid chan%e such as loadin% o) ne* or *ind:blo*n sno* or a rapid temperature rise+ Persistent *eak layers include )aceted sno* and sur)ace hoar+ These layers account )or about !0 percent o) a&alanche )atalities in (orth America and 0urope+ #robe A rod used to probe a&alanche debris )or buried &ictims+ #ro#a*ation The spreadin% o) a )racture or crack *ithin the sno*pack+ .urin% &ery unstable conditions, )ractures can propa%ate )or lon% distances+ ra'iation recrystalli&ation A thin layer o) )aceted sno* created in the top centimeter or t*o o) the sno* sur)ace by stron% heatin% by the sun combined *ith stron% sur)ace coolin% )rom out%oin% ra'iation+ This is usually a hi%h ele&ation phenomenon+ rain crust A clear layer o) ice )ormed )rom rain on the sno* sur)ace, *hich later )ree8es+ (ot to be con)used *ith sun crust or melt:)ree8e crust+ relative hu-i'ity The amount o) *ater air holds compared *ith the amount o) *ater it can hold at a certain temperature+ re-ote tri**er When a person tri%%ers an a&alanche some distance a*ay+ Sometimes also called sy-#athetic tri**er ?sympathetic tri%%er is *hen one a&alanche tri%%ers another a&alanche some distance a*ay@+ ri-e A Styro)oam:teBtured sno* that )orms on the sur)ace durin% storms+ Dime )orms *hen supercooled *ater droplets in the clouds )ree8e upon contact *ith a sur)ace+ Dime can )orm on the sno* sur)ace, trees, and other sno*:)lakes as they )all+ runout The 8one *here an a&alanche loses speed and deposits debris+ runout an*le The an%le, measured )rom hori8ontal, bet*een the toe o) the a&alanche and the cro*n+ Also called the HalphaH an%le+ sastru*i Wind:eroded sno*, *hich o)ten looks rou%h as i) it *ere sandblasted+ settlin*D settle-ent The slo* de)ormation and densi)ication o) sno* under the in)luence o) %ra&ity+ Sometimes settlement is incorrectly used to describe collapsin% or *hoomphin% sno*+ slab A relati&ely more cohesi&e layer o) sno* o&erlyin% a relati&ely less cohesi&e layer o) sno*+ Fou can also think o) a slab as stron% sno* sittin% on top o) *eak sno*+ A slab a&alanche is similar to a ma%a8ine slidin% o)) an inclined table+ sluff A small, loose sno* a&alanche=not a slab+ Sometimes called Hpoint releases+H slush flow a&alanche An a&alanche composed o) slush=&ery saturated sno*+ They usually occur in arctic climates on perma)rost soil *hen dry cold sno* becomes rapidly saturated *ith *ater in sprin%+ Slush avalanches can run lon% distances on &ery %entle slopes+ slo#e cut Mo&in% rapidly across an a&alanche startin% 8one, aimin% at sa)e terrain on the side, so that i) an a&alanche breaks, your momentum *ill carry you o)) the mo&in% slab onto sa)e terrain+ Skiers call

them ski cuts+ ste##in* 'own A slab a&alanche slidin% a short distance and breakin% do*n into deeper *eak layers, )ormin% a stair:step pattern on the bed sur)ace+ sun crust A thin, clear layer o) ice )ormed by radiation )rom the sun+ (ot to be con)used *ith melt: )ree8e crust or rain crust+ surface hoar 'rost that )orms on the sno* sur)ace durin% calm, clear, humid conditions+ When buried, sur)ace hoar )orms a thin, persistent *eak layer *ithin the sno*pack=a &ery dan%erous *eak layer+ Also called )rost, hoar )rost, or )eathers+ sy-#athetic tri**er Ine a&alanche tri%%erin% another a&alanche some distance a*ay+ Sometimes also called remote tri%%er ?remote tri%%er is *hen a person tri%%ers another a&alanche some distance a*ay@+ tan*ent line search See induction line search te-#erature *ra'ient The chan%e o) temperature o&er a certain distance *ithin the sno*pack+ /ar%e temperature %radients ?%enerally more than 1 N- per 10 cm@ metamorphose crystals into *eak, an%ular, )aceted sno*+ Small temperature %radients ?%enerally less than 1 N- per 10 cm@ metamorphose the sno* into more *ell:bonded, rounded crystals+ terrain tra# Terrain in *hich the conseAuences o) an a&alanche are especially ha8ardous+ -ommon terrain traps include %ullies, an abrupt transition, or an a&alanche path that terminates in trees, a cre&asse )ield, or a cli))+ tri**er A disturbance that initiates )ractures *ithin the *eak layer, allo*in% the slab to slide o)) a slope+ 1n 0 percent o) a&alanche accidents, the &ictim or someone in the &ictimCs party tri%%ers the a&alanche+ Ither tri%%ers include ne* sno*, cornice )alls, *ind, rapid *armin%, or percolated *ater+ -ontrary to popular myth, a&alanches are not tri%%ered by noise+ tri**er #oint A place *here a person can tri%%er an a&alanche, usually in an area *here the slab is thinner or is poorly bonded to the underlyin% sno*+ Sometimes called Hs*eet spotsH or Hde)icit areasH or Hsuper *eak 8ones+H u#si'e;'own snow (e* sno* *ith relati&ely stron%er sno* on top o) relati&ely *eaker sno*+ weak interface A poor bond bet*een t*o layers o) sno*+ weak layer A relati&ely less cohesi&e layer o) sno* underlyin% a relati&ely more cohesi&e layer o) sno*+ 1n a slab a&alanche, the *eak layer )ractures, allo*in% the o&erlyin% slab to slide o)) the slope+ wet avalanche An a&alanche caused by sno* losin% its stren%th a)ter becomin% moist or saturated *ith *ater+ whoo-#f Sno*pack collapsin% on a buried *eak layer=an ob&ious si%n o) instability+ win' loa'in* /oadin% o) *ei%ht on top o) a sno*pack *hen *ind dri)ts sno* onto lee terrain+ Wind can deposit sno* 10 times more rapidly than sno* )allin% )rom clouds+ Wind loadin% is a common denominator in most a&alanche accidents+ win' slab A slab o) sno* )ormed *hen *ind deposits sno* onto lee ?or do*n*ind@ terrain+ Wind slabs are o)ten smooth and rounded and sometimes sound hollo*+ win'war' The up*ind side o) an obstacle such as a rid%e+ 3sually sno* is eroded )rom *ind*ard slopes makin% them relati&ely sa)er+ B4O2)A8H6 Avalanche Books an' 8ublications The A&alanche De&ie*+ Monthly publication o) the American A&alanche Association, P+I+ BoB #2!, Moab, 3tah !#;"2+ Phone ?#";@ 2>0:11 2+ 7isit ***+a&alanche+or%+ -olbeck, S+, 0+ Akitaya, D+ Armstron%, 6+ ,ubler, 9+ /a)euille, K+ /ied, .+ Mc-lun%, and 0+ Morris+ H1nternational -lassi)ication )or Seasonal Sno* on the ,round+H Boulder, -olo+5 1nternational -ommission o) Sno* and 1ce, World .ata -enter:A )or ,laciolo%y, 1 0+ .a))ern, Tony+ A&alanche Sa)ety )or Skiers and -limbers+ Seattle5 The Mountaineers Books, 2000+ 'redston, 9ill, and .ou% 'esler+ Sno* Sense5 A ,uide to 0&aluatin% Sno* A&alanche 6a8ard+ Anchora%e, Ala+5 Alaska Mountain Sa)ety -enter, 1nc+, 1 #+ H1nternational Sno* Science Workshop 2000 Proceedin%s+H Bi% Sky, Mont+5 American A&alanche Association, 2000+ 9amieson, Bruce+ Backcountry A&alanche A*areness+ De&elstoke, British -olumbia, -anada5 -anadian A&alanche Association, 2000+ 9amieson, Bruce, and Torsten ,eldsetter+ A&alanche Accidents in -anada, 7olume # E 1 !#: 1 >+ De&elstoke, British -olumbia, -anada5 -anadian A&alanche Association, 1 >+ 9amieson, Bruce, and 9ennie Mc.onald+ 'ree Didin% in A&alanche Terrain5 A Sno*boarderCs

6andbook+ De&elstoke, British -olumbia, -anada5 -anadian A&alanche Association, 1 + 9amieson, Bruce, and .arcy S&ederus+ Sleddin% in A&alanche Terrain5 Deducin% the Disk+ De&elstoke, British -olumbia, -anada5 -anadian A&alanche Association, 1 !+ /a-hapelle, 0d+ 'ield ,uide to Sno* -rystals+ 1nternational ,laciolo%ical Society, 2001+ /a-hapelle, 0d+ Secrets o) the Sno*5 7isual -lues to A&alanches and Ski -onditions+ Seattle5 3ni&ersity o) Washin%ton Press, 2001+ /o%an, (ick, and .ale Atkins+ The Sno*y Torrents5 A&alanche Accidents in the 3nited States 1 !0:!>+ -olorado ,eolo%ical Sur&ey, Special Publication " , 1 >+ Mc-ammon, 1an+ Sno* and A&alanche 'ield (otebook+ A&ailable )rom Sno*pit Technolo%ies, BoB 0"!, Salt /ake -ity, 3T !#10 + Mc-lun%, .a&id, and Peter Schaerer+ The A&alanche 6andbook+ Seattle5 The Mountaineers Books, 1 "+ Selters, Andy+ ,lacier Tra&el and -re&asse Descue+ Seattle5 The Mountaineers Books, 1 + Weather Books Whiteman, -+ .a&id+ Mountain Meteorolo%y5 'undamentals and Applications+ (e* Fork5 IB)ord 3ni&ersity Press, 2000+ Williams, 9ack, and 3SA Today+ The Weather Book, second edition (e* Fork 7inta%e Books, 1 2+ Woodmencey, 9im+ Deadin% Weather5 Where Will Fou Be When the Storm 6itsG 6elena, Mont+5 'alcon Publishin%, 1 !+ 'irst:Aid Books Auerbach, Paul S+ Medicine )or the Iutdoors5 The 0ssential ,uide to 0mer%ency Medical Procedures and 'irst Aid+ (e* Fork5 The /yons Press, 1 1saac, 9e))ery+ The Iut*ard Bound Wilderness 'irst:Aid 6andbook+ (e* Fork5 The /yons Press, 1 !+ Schimelp)eni%, Todd, and /inda /indsey+ (I/S Wilderness 'irst Aid+ Mechanicsbur%, Pa+5 Stackpole Books, 2000+ Weiss, 0ric+ Wilderness 11+ Seattle5 The Mountaineers Books, 1 !+ Wilkerson, 9ames A+ Medicine )or Mountaineerin% ] Ither Wilderness Acti&ities, )i)th edition+ Seattle5 The Mountaineers Books, 2001+ Avalanche ?i'eos HA&alancheJH (o&a, ^21#!, (o&ember 2;, 1 2+ Produced and directed by Beth 6oppe+ >0 min+ W,B6 Boston, 1 2+ -all ?!00@ # :!>20 eBt+ # ! to order+ More in)ormation about this episode is a&ailable at ***+pbs+or%< *%bh<no&a<a&alanche+ A&alanche Descue Beacons5 A Dace A%ainst Time+ Written by .ale Atkins+ "! min+ People Productions, Boulder, -olo+, 1 ;+ -all ?"0"@ !>>:2>11 or &isit ***+caic+state+co+us to order+ Beatin% the Idds+ De&elstoke, British -olumbia, -anada5 -anadian A&alanche Association+ -all ?2;0@ !"2:2#"; or &isit ***+a&alanche+ca to order+ The .isco&ery -hannel+ Da%in% Planet5 A&alanche+ 1 2+ -all ?!00@ !! : ;0 or &isit http5<<shoppin%+disco&ery+com to order+ Didin% Sa)ely in A&alanche -ountry+ "0 min+ 'orest Ser&ice (ational A&alanche -enter and 1daho .epartment o) Parks and Decreation, 1 !+ This &ideo is speci)ically )or sno*mobilers+ To order, call the 'riends o) Sun 7alley A&alanche -enter, c<o the 0n&ironmental Desource -enter, ?20!@ 22>:#"""+ 7iolent Planet+ 2; min+ (ational ,eo%raphic 0Bplorer Series, 1 ;+ -all ?!00@ >#2:;#>" to order+ Dules o) the Sno*+ Written and directed by 7alerie Schramm+ ;0 min+ Sa&a'ilm, 1 2+ A sa)ety &ideo )or sno*mobilers+ -all ?"02@ 2" :22;> or &isit ***+sa&a)ilm+com to order+ Winnin% the A&alanche ,ame+ Written, )ilmed, and directed by Bruce Tremper+ ;! min+ 'orest Ser&ice (ational A&alanche -enter, 1 ! + Websites ***+a&alanche+or% I))icial *ebsite o) the American A&alanche Association+ Supported and run by a&alanche pro)essionals, it o))ers one:stop shoppin% )or a *ealth o) a&alanche in)ormation and links to a multitude o) other a&alanche sites+ ***+a&alanche+ca

Website o) the -anadian A&alanche Association+ 1t o))ers one:stop shoppin% )or a&alanche in)ormation in -anada+ ***+la*ine+or% /inks to a&alanche in)ormation in 0urope+ A&alanche Ir%ani8ations American A&alanche Association 7isit ***+a&alanche+or% )or the latest in)ormation+ -anadian A&alanche Association 7isit ***+a&alanche+ca )or the latest in)ormation+ (ational Ski Patrol 7isit ***+nsp+or% )or the latest in)ormation+ A&alanche -lasses 7isit ***+a&alanche+or% )or a current list o) classes tau%ht in each area+ )ecor'e' Tele#hone Avalanche 4nfor-ation ?7isit ***+a&alanche+or% )or the most current list+@ -anada T++U ABO5T THE A5THO) Bruce Tremper %re* up skiin% in the mountains o) *estern Montana, *here his )ather tau%ht him the basics o) a&alanches at the a%e o) ten+ A)ter bein% sidetracked by a success)ul ski racin% career )or 1; years, he be%an doin% a&alanche control at Brid%er Bo*l Ski Area in Bo8eman, Montana, and earned a masterCs de%ree in %eolo%y )rom Montana State 3ni&ersity, studyin% under the *ell:kno*n a&alanche researchers .r+ 9ohn Monta%ne and .r+ Bob Bro*n+ 6e *as hired as the director o) a&alanche control at Bi% Sky Ski Area, then *orked as a backcountry a&alanche )orecaster )or the Alaska A&alanche -enter+ Tremper has been the director o) the 'orest Ser&ice 3tah A&alanche -enter since 1 !> and coordinated backcountry a&alanche sa)ety preparations )or the 2002 Ilympic Winter ,ames in Salt /ake -ity+ 6e has been )eatured on nearly a do8en national and international tele&ision documentaries about a&alanches, includin% those produced by (ational ,eo%raphic, PBS, and .isco&ery -hannel, as *ell as se&eral national ne*s pro%rams+ T60 MI3(TA1(00DS, )ounded in 1 0>, is a nonpro)it outdoor acti&ity and conser&ation club, *hose mission is Hto eBplore, study, preser&e, and en4oy the natural beauty o) the outdoors++++H Based in Seattle, Washin%ton, the club is no* the third:lar%est such or%ani8ation in the 3nited States, *ith 1;,000 members and )i&e branches throu%hout Washin%ton State+ The Mountaineers sponsors both classes and year:round outdoor acti&ities in the Paci)ic (orth*est, *hich include hikin%, mountain climbin%, ski:tourin%, sno*shoein%, bicyclin%, campin%, kayakin% and canoein%, nature study, sailin%, and ad&enture tra&el+ The clubCs conser&ation di&ision supports en&ironmental causes throu%h educational acti&ities, sponsorin% le%islation, and presentin% in)ormational pro%rams+ All club acti&ities are led by skilled, eBperienced &olunteers, *ho are dedicated to promotin% sa)e and responsible en4oyment and preser&ation o) the outdoors+ 1) you *ould like to participate in these or%ani8ed outdoor acti&ities or the clubCs pro%rams, consider a membership in The Mountaineers+ 'or in)ormation and an application, *rite or call The Mountaineers, -lub 6eadAuarters, "00 Third A&enue West, Seattle, WA !11 E 20>:2!#:>"10+ The Mountaineers Books, an acti&e, nonpro)it publishin% pro%ram o) the club, produces %uidebooks, instructional teBts, historical *orks, natural history %uides, and *orks on en&ironmental conser&ation+ All books produced by The Mountaineers )ul)ill the clubCs mission+ Send or call )or our catalo% o) more than #;0 outdoor titles5 The Mountaineers Books 1001 SW Klickitat Way, Suite 201 Seattle, WA !1"# !00:;;":##;" mbooks_mountaineersbooks+or% ***+mountaineersbooks+or% The Mountaineers Books is proud to be a corporate sponsor o) /ea&e (o Trace, *hose mission is to promote and inspire responsible outdoor recreation throu%h education, research, and partnerships+ The /ea&e (o Trace pro%ram is )ocused speci)ically on human:po*ered ?nonmotori8ed@ recreation+ /ea&e (o Trace stri&es to educate &isitors about the nature o) their rec:tional impacts, as *ell as o))er techniAues to pre&ent and minimi8e such impacts+ /ea&e (o Trace is best understood as an educational and ethical pro%ram, not as a set o) rules and re%ulations+

Ither titles you mi%ht en4oy )rom The Mountaineers Books 3O5NTA4NEE)4N2@ .ree'o- of the HillsD Si<th E'itionD The Mountaineers The completely re&ised and eBpanded edition o) the best:sellin% mountaineerin% ho*:to book o) all time= reAuired readin% )or all climbers+ 4CE WO)1/@ TechniCues an' E<#eriences of 3o'ern 4ce Cli-bin*, 9e)) /o*e An accomplished mountaineer shares personal stories and pro)essional insi%ht and introduces a selection o) the best ice climbs in the *orld+ 21AC4E) T)A?E1 M C)E?ASSE )ESC5ED Secon' E'itionD Andy Setters A comprehensi&e course )or climbers, skiers, sno*shoers, and sno*boarders+ 6o* to tra&el sa)ely on %laciers, and *hat to do i) an accident occurs+ 1ncludes lessons on readin% %laciers, team tra&el, cre&asse rescue techniAues, route)indin%, and eBpedition skills+ .)EE;HEE1 S044N2@ Tele-ark an' 8arallel TechniCues for All Con'itionsD Thir' 0dition, Paul Parker A &eteran instructor o))ers pro)essional tips and tricks )or all le&els o) eBpertise and )or all sno* conditions+ 1ncludes tips on buyin% eAuipment and physical trainin%+ W41/ SNOW@ A Historical 2ui'e to North A-erican Ski Mountaineerin%, /ou .a*son Meticulously researched history o) ski mountaineerin% combined *ith )i)ty:)our Hmust doH ski descents+ BAC0CO5NT)6 SNOWBOA)/4N2D -hristopher 7an Tilbur% 1ntroduces the techniAues and eBperiences o) backcountry sno*boardin%+ 'ully illustrated *ith color photos throu%hout, this book co&ers e&erythin% the ad&anced )reerider needs )or sa)e ascent and descent+ 28S 3A/E EAS6@ 5sin* 2lobal 8ositionin* Syste-s in the Out'oorsD Thir' 0dition, /a*rence /etham The popular handbook )or understandin% common )eatures o) ,PS recei&ers and ho* they *orkE updated to take ad&anta%e o) todayCs more accurate recei&ers ?HSelecti&e A&ailabilityH remo&ed@+ W41/E)NESS NA?42AT4ON@ .in'in* 6our Way 5sin* 3a#D Co-#assD Alti-eterD an' 28SD Bob Burns ] Mike Burns ,uide to na&i%atin% on: and o)):trail in the backcountry, by the authors o) the na&i%ation chapter )rom the classic teBtbook, Mountaineerin%5 'reedom o) the 6ills+ 3E/4C4NE .O) 3O5NTA4NEE)4N2 M OTHE) W41/E)NESS ACT4?4T4ESD .ifth E'itionD )ames A+ Wilkerson, M+.+, editor Thorou%hly re&ised and updated medical HbibleH *ritten by climbers<physicians )or tra&elers more than 2# hours a*ay )rom medical aidE speciali8in% in the issues and incidents )aced by climbers+ CON/4T4ON4N2 .O) O5T/OO) .4TNESS@ A Co-#rehensive Trainin* ,uide, .a&id Musnick, M+.+ and Mark Pierce, A+T+-+ Written by a team o) medical and sports trainin% eBperts, this comprehensi&e %uide o))ers H*hole bodyH conditionin% pro%rams )or hikin%, bikin%, skiin%, climbin%, paddlin%, and more+

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