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A SAILWING VERTICAL AXIS WIND TURBINE
FOR SMALL SCALE APPLICATIONS
Philip Scott Revell
A thesis submitted for the degree of Ph.D.
at the University of Warwick
Dept. of Engineering ScienceMarch 1983
CONTENTS
page no.
List of illustrations and tables
iv
Nomenclature
xii
SUMMARY .XY
INTRODUCTION 1
1 .PERFORMANCE THEORY FOR DARRIEUS TURBINES 1 0
1 .1 .Introduction 1 0
1 .2.Analysis 1 3
1 .2.1 .The Effect of Reynolds Number 1 5
1 .2.2.The Effect of Blade Aspect Ratio 1 6
1 .3.Discussion 1 7
2.THE PERFORMANCE OF SAILWINGS IN DARRIEUS TURBINES 1 9
2.1 .Introduction 1 9
2.2.Data 1 9
2.3.Results 22
2.3.1 .Low Speed Performance 23
2.3.2.High Speed Perftrmance 24
2.3.3.The Influence of Aspect Ratio 24
244.Discussion 26
2.5.Conclusions 28
3.WIND TUNNEL TESTS OF SAILWINGS 30
3.1 .Introduction 30
3.2.Experimental Apparatus
33
3.3.Test Details and Procedure 36
3.4.Results
39
-3.4.1 . Solid Aerofoil and Rigid Trailing
Trailing Edge Tests
39
3.4.2. Elastic Trailing Edge Tests41
3.4.3. The Induced Tension Coefficient43
page no.
3.5. Conclusions44
4. THE PERFORMANCE OF SAILWINGS IN DARRIEUS TURBINES
--A RE-ASSESSMENT45
4.1. Introduction45
4.2. Results and Discussion45
4.3. Conclusions50
5, A PROTOTYPE TURBINE51
5.1. Introduction51
5.2. Discussion51
5.3. Design Details
53
5.4. Prototype Theoretical Performance
57
5.5. Conclusions
59
6. PERFORMANCE TESTS ON THE PROTOTYPE TURBINE60
6.1. Introduction60
6.2. Test Equipment and Measurements 61
6.2.1. Measurement of the Turbine Inertia 61
6.2.2. Measurement of Turbine Speed62
6.2.3. Measurement of Windspeed62
6.2.4. Measurement of the Trailing Edge
Tension63
6.2.5. Test Method64
6.3. Data Processing and Analysis 64
6.4. Results and Discussion 66
6.5. Comparison with other Turbines 68
6.5.1. Flow Curvature and the Prototype
Turbine70
6.6. .Conclusions72
7. THE PROTOTYPE TURBINE AS A WINDPUMP
73
7.1. Introduction
73
7.2. Turbulence in the Wind and Windpump Output74
7.3. Inertia Flow in Reciprocating Pumps78
94
98
iii
page no.
7.4. Performance Tests on a Diaphragm Pump
79
7.4.1. Apparatus and Procedure 80
7.4.2. Results and Discussion81
7.5. Testing of the Prototype Turbine under Load83
7.5.1. Arrangement and Predicted Performance
83
7.5.2. Tests, Results and Discussion85
7.6. Conclusions
88
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
89
REFERENCES
APPENDICES -- numbered according to chapter
Appendix 1 Derivation of some Equations & 6421z
artal,bsis
Appendix 2
Some Sample Computer Programs
99
1. A single streamtube program
2. A single streamtube program
including allowance for varying Reynolds
Number and finite aspedt ratio

Appendix 3
100
1. Relationship between the tension
coefficients Corand C C ,
2. Calibration of the leading edge
strain gauges
3.
An additional test with a jib-sail

Appendix 5
103
1. Modified expressions for an
inclined blade
2. The power absorbed by a...rotating
strut

Appendix 6Prototype performance measurements106

page no.
Appendix 7 109
1. Turbulence in the wind
2. A simple theory for inertia flow
3. Pipe losses in the pump performance
tests
******************************
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND TABLESfollowing
page no.
Fig.0.1. Various types of windmill
9
Fig.1.1. Section through a Darrieus turbine showing a
blade element at various positions12
Fig.1.2. Actuator disc model of the turbine 12
Fig.1.3. Variation of the angle of incidence with
azimuthal angle at low tip speed ratios12
Fig.1.4. Rate of change of angle of incidence vs.
azimuthal angle12
Fig.1.5. Variation of angle of incidence along blade
chord12
Table 2.1. Details of sailwings20
Fig.2.1. Lift and drag coefficients used for the solid
aerofoil (NACA0012), taken from Shankar (1976) 21
Fig.2.2. Lift and drag coefficients for Sailwing 1
(from Robert and Newman, 1979) 21
Fig.2.3. Lift and drag coefficients for Sailwing 2
(from Robert and Newman, 1979) 21
Fig.2.4. Lift and drag coefficients for Sailwing 3
(from Robert,and Newman, 1979) 21
Fig.2.5. Angle of incidence vs. azimuthal angle at low
tip speed ratios
22
following
page no.
Fig.2.6. Ratio evs. azimuthal angle at low tip speed
ratios
22
Fig.2.7. Tangential force and torque coeffs. vs.
azimuthal angle, solid aerofoil25
Fig.2.8. Tangential force and torque coeffs. vs.
azimuthal angle, Sailwing 1 25
Fig.2.9. Tangential force and torque coeff. vs.
azimuthal angle, Sailwing 225
Fig.2.1 0. Mean torque coefficient vs. tip speed ratio25
Fig.2.1 1 . Mean torque coefficients vs. tip speed ratio
for sailwing 1 with varying scale25
Fig.2.1 2. Power coefficient vs tip speed ratio,
solid aerofoil25
Fig.2.1 3. Power coefficient vs. tip speed ratio,
Sailwing 1 25
Fig.2.1 44 Power coefficient vs. tip speed ratio,
Sailwing 225
Fig.2.1 5. Power coefficient vs. tip speed ratio,
Sailwing 325
Fig.2.1 6. Mean torque coefficient vs. tip speed ratio,
solid aerofoil, varying aspect ratio25
Fig.2.1 7. Power coefficient vs. tip speed ratio for
solid aerofoil with AZ=425
Fig.2.1 8. Power coefficient vs. tip speed ratio for
solid aerofoil with AZ =8
25
Fig.2.1 9. Mean torque coefficient vs. tip speed ratio,
Sailwing 1 , varying aspect ratio25
Fig.2.20. Power coefficient vs. tip speed ratio for
Sailwing 1 with
AZ. 8
25
Fig. 2.21 . Power coefficient vs. tip speed ratio for
Sailwing 1 with A .10 25
vi

following
page no.
Fig.2.22. Power coefficient vs. tip speed ratio for
Sailwing 3 with AZ = 4
25
Fig.2.23. Power coefficient vs. tip speed ratio for
Sailwing. :3 with A = 8 25
Fig.3.1. Experimental set-up
35
Table 3.1. Test details35
Fig.3.2. View of experimental set-up with the tunnel
wall removed35
Fig.3.3. Arrangement of the flexures and strain gauge
bridges
35
Fig.3.4. Rigid trailing edge 35
Fig.3.5. Blade geometry for elastic trailing edge tests 35
Fig.3.6. Comparison of lift and drag coefficient with
published data, NACA0012 35
Table 3.2. Fabric elasticity36
Fig.3.7. Tangential force coefficient vs. angle of
incidence for NACA0012 aerofoil 43
Fig.3.8. Radial force coefficient vs. angle of incidence
for NACA0012 aerofoil43
Fig.3.9. Tangential force coefficient vs. angle of
incidence for canvas sailwings 43
Fig.3.10. Tangential force coefficient vs. angle of
incidence for nylon sailwings43
Fig.3.11. Tangential force coefficient vs. angle of
incidence for 'Dacron' sailwings 43
Fig.3.12. Radial force coefficient vs. angle of
incidence for canvas sailwings43
Fig.3.13. Radial force coefficient vs. angle of
incidence for nylon sailwings43
Fig.3.14. Radial force coefficient vs. angle of
incidence for 'Dacron' sailwings 43
vii

following
page no.
Fig.3.15. Lift coefficients for canvas sailwings
43
Fig.3.16. Lift coefficients for nylon sailwings
43
Fig.3.17. Lift coefficients for 'Dacron' sailwings
43
Fig.3.18. Drag coefficients for canvas sailwings
43
Fig.3.19. Drag coefficients for nylon sailwings43
Fig.3.20. Drag coefficients for 'Dacron' sailwings
43
Fig.3.21. Lift and drag coefficients, canvas sailwings
43
Fig.3.22. Lift and drag coefficients, nylon sailwings
43
Fig.3.23. Lift and drag coefficients, 'Dacron' sailwings 43
Fig.3.24. Results from Buehring (1977)
43
Fig.3.25. Tangential force coefficient vs. angle of
incidence for sailwings with an elastic trailing
edge43
Fig.3.26. Radial force coefficient vs. angle of
incidence for sailwings with an elastic trailing
edge43
Fig.3.27. Lift coefficients -elastic trailing edge 43
Fig.3.28. Drag coefficients -elastic trailing edge43
Fig.3.29. Induced tension coefficient vs. angle of
incidence
43
Fig.3.30. Induced tension coefficient vs. angle of
incidence43
Fig.4.1. Tangential force and torque coeffs. vs.
azimuthal angle -Calp 49
Fig.4.2. Torque coefficient vs. tip speed ratio
-solid aerofoil49
Fig.4.3. Torque coefficient vs. tip speed ratio from
data for canvas sailwings49
Fig.4.4. Torque coefficient vs. tip speed ratio from
data for nylon sailwings49
viii
following
page no.
Fig.4.5. T orque coefficient vs. tip speed ratio from
data for 'Dacron' sailwings 49
Fig.4.6. Variation of the ratio y . with azimuthal angle 49
Fig.4.7. Power coefficient vs. tip speed ratio,
single streamtube program, data from test Nylw49
Fig.4.8. Power coefficient vs. tip speed ratio,
data from test Nyln49
Fig.5.1. Some possible arrangements for a sailwing
turbine56
Fig.5.2. View of the prototype turbine 56
Fig.5.3. Dimensions of a single sail 56
Fig.5.4. An inclined turbine blade 58
Fig.5.5. Torque coefficient vs. tip speed ratio -
prototype turbine, predicted58
Fig.5.6. Predicted torque and power coefficient curves
for the prototype turbine58
Fig.6.1. View of the wind turbine test site 71
Fig.6.2. Diagram of the tachometer arrangement71
Fig.6.3. Schematic plan of the prototype turbine test
arrangement71
Fig.6.4. Rotor and windspeed vs. time during a typical
test run
71
Fig.6.5. Torque and power coefficients vs. tip speed
ratio with a nylon trailing edge71
Fig.6.6. Torque and power coefficients vs. tip speed
ratio with a wire trailing edge 71
Fig.6.7. Power coefficient vs. tip speed ratio,
McGill sailwing turbine (Newman and Ngabo 1 1978)71
Fig.6.8. Power coefficient vs. tip speed ratio,
Hurley sail rotor (Hurley,1980) 71
ix


following
page no.
Fig.6.9. Power coefficient vs. tip speed ratio,
solid bladed, high solidity turbine
(Stacey and Musgrove11981) 71
Fig.6.10 An approximation to the virtual blade profile 71
Fig.6.11. The variation of virtual pitch angle and virtual
virtual camber ratio with azimuthal angle at low

tip speed ratios71

Fig.7.1. A spectrum of the horizontal windspeed
(van der Hoven 11957)
77
Fig.7.2. Some typical recordings of windspeed at the
test site
77
Fig.7.3. Turbine and load torque curves
77
Fig.7.4. Windspeed and rotor speed vs. time with various
load torques
77
Fig.7.5. Wind power and power absorbed by various loads
vs. time
77
Fig.7.6. Theoretical curve for dimensionless flow vs.
dimensionless speed80
Fig.7.7. Arrangement for pump performance tests80
Fig.7.8. Pump test rig and tensioner arrangement80
Fig.7.9. Overall efficiency, average torque and
volumetric efficienCy vs. speed for diaphragm
pump82
Fig.7.10. Overall efficiency, average torque and
volumetric efficiency vs. speed for diaphragm
pump82
Fig.7.11. Water mass flow rate vs. pump speed. 82
Fig.7.12: Dimensionless flow vs. dimensionless speed
comparison of measurements and theory 82
Fig.7.13. Assumed flow velocity curves for a diaphragm
pump82
following
page no.
Fig.7.14. Torque vs. speed curves for the turbine and a
pair of pumps82
Fig.7.15. Arrangement of the pump drive shaft87
Fig.7.16. Predictions for rotor speed and water flow
rate for the prototype windpump 87
Fig.7.17. A typical recording of ....turbulent wind87
Fig.7.18. Section through air snifter87
Fig.7.19. Rotor and windspeed vs. time -two pumps87
Fig.7.20. Rotor and windspeed vs. time -one pump87
Fig.A1.1. The relationship between the lift, drag and
tangential force coefficients

98
Fig.A1.2. The relationship between the lift l drag and
thrust coefficients

98
Fig.A3.1. Loads in the sailwing frame due to pre-
tension in the sail

100
Fig.A3.2. Calibration load

101
Fig.A3.3. Mounting arrangement for jib sails

102
Fig.A3.4. Tangential force coefficient vs. angle of
incidence for a canvas sailwing with and without
a jib sail

102
Fig.A5.1. To define the nomenclature used in deriving
expressions for an inclined blade

104
Fig.A5.2. Estimated change in the power coefficient due t
to the power absorbed by the three struts of the
prototype turbine105
Fig.A6.1. Calibration curve for the tachometer circuit 108
Fig.A6.2. Calibration curve for anemometers

108
Fig.A7.1. Auto-correlation function and power sDectral
density for a sample of windspeed

109
xi

following
page no.
Fig.A7.2. Theoretical flow velocity curves for full
and partial inertia flow

111
Fig.A7.3. Inlet and outlet valves to the pump

116
Fig.A7.4. Assumed flow velocity curve for the diaphragm
pump

116
Fig.A7.5. Half-sine curve with mean value giving the
measured mean flow rate

116
xii
NOMENCLATURE
G.
Slope Ci loco pri or to stall
M. Slope glee pri or to stall
4Turbi ne swept area
As Blade plan area
,
Ai , Cross-secti onal area of i nerti a pi pe
Af Pi ston area of reci procati ng pump
Aspect rati o of aerofoi l = 6, /c
i i Length of aerofoi l blade
C
Blade chord or strut chord
Ci ,
Drag coeffi ci ent = Drag force/Wi e, VR2
C;
Thrust coeffi ci ent = Retardi ng force on ai rstream/10v
C. Li ft coeffi ci ent = Li ft force/AV:
Clot Induced drag coeffi ci ent = C,11 /Tri ck
Cp Power coeffi ci ent = PiikANC3
CI;Power coeffi ci ent
= P/11Z A V
3
cp., . Membrane tensi ori coeffi ci ent = Pr / - 1? V ,: - c
CQ
Torque coeffi ci ent = Turhivle. - Forcpue P2-. A V, , , ,2" g
Cs2 Radi al force coeffi ci ent = C.i .c.osoc.4- Cz sz eloe
'LW
Cis Mean torque coeffi ci ent = lid CA, 2 "
0
Ci . Tangenti al force coeffi ci ent . Cist,,..c-C6c0s04-
(C1
4)Instantaneous torque coeffi ci ent for a blade = 1V-IRA8vIR.
CI
Trai li ng edge tensi on coeffi ci ent =
T.r/J-z-16vgt
C.
A
Induced tensi on coeffi ci ent
= chordwi se component of tensi on i nduced/1(c
ot Di ctmetP-r
oC teck.clie,g ectse...
ci D Elemental drag force
olL Elemental li ft farce
I
i . Di ameter of the i nerti a pi pe
e. Rati o: force per uni t wi dth/strai n, for membrane
or base of natural logs.
Ratio: force/strain, for trailing edge line
C Frequency
P. Retarding force on windstream
8Acceleration due to gravity
h, Head Loss
Head of water
3 Moment of inertia
k Constant = 04a.
k non-dimensional head loss coefficienth,43.
L Suspension length
L. Length of inertia pipe
mTurbine mass
Water mats flow rate
n Number of turbine blades
f Dynamic pressureor axis co-ordinate
P Power produced by turbine
P Membrane pre-tension per unit width
PwPower in the wind
Ratio: Ve/V
Q Volumetric water flow rate
ri Blockage ratio in wind tunnel
cscv, 04
s wieres
R Rotor radius
Re
Pump crank length
Ru Auto-correlation function
Rs Suspension radius
ke
Reynolds number=V/12.c4tair
or
"LLD. /
,i1 )
-r Torque
T. T. Pre-tension in trailing edge
u, Water flow velocity, or a length
v- Fluctuating component of windspeed
VInduced windspeed
Viz Relative windspeed
Vw Free windspeed
L A) A length
V/ Work done
x Maximum hollow in trailing edge curve
Ratio:
7./g0,11^ /
Z Vertical distance along turbine axis
doZ Angle of incidence of relative wind to blade chord
oe Effective angle of incidence, with finite apsect ratio
4 ff
A Virtual pitch angle
e Angle of inclination of turbine blade to the vertical,
or piston angular position
& Dimensionless speed
6 Blockage factor
7v o L Volumetric efficiency
El' Az imuthal angle (blade angular position)
X Piston angular postion
/A Tip speed ratio = RS1/Vw
,12 Tip speed ratio = Rn-lV
/Aar
Viscosity of airit-. 1 - e2 - 1 0 KA30AAS
1 ) Virtual camber ratio o r ieZne-ikka-t-c. vZscostk of watcr
1/4 . S Dimansionless flow = Y/vo i . CS.
IL Air densityA.:, 1 - 2 _ kg / 3 n An,
.1 Mass of membrane per unit area
Water density e.: 103
k./w,3
cr Turbine solidity -A/102A
le Time interval
05(4 Power spectral density
S/ Angular velocity
w Frequency
SUMMARY
The use of sailwing aerofoils in vertical axis wind
turbines has been investigated. It was anticipated that this
could make vertical axis turbines more suitable for water
pumping and that this might help to meet the need for a cheap
pump for irrigation existing in many parts of the world.
A numerical analysis of the theoretical performance of
such a turbine, using existing aerodynamic data for simply
constructed sailwings, has been made. This gave an improved
understanding of the operation of such turbines but showed a
need for further aerodynamic data. Some new wind tunnel tests
of sailwings are described in which the effect of pre-tension
was investigated and four different fabrics were tested.
The results are presented for angles of incidence up to 180
degrees and compared with previous data.
With the fresh data, new performance predictions were
made which led to the design of a two metre diameter prototype
turbine. This used an inclined blade configuration with a
guyed top bearing. Canvas was used for the sails. It was
predicted that the turbine performance would be significan-qy
affected by windspeed.
The turbine was built and later tested in the open air.
An acceleration test method was used and the tests generally
confirmed the predictions. The averaged starting torque
coefficient was about 0.07; the averaged peak power coefficient
was about 0.1 at a tip speed ratio of 1.4.
Consideration has been given to improving windpump system
efficiency by improving the gust energy utilisation. Some
tests of a diaphragm pump are described in which inertia flow
effects were used. A pair of such pumps were later connected
to the prototype turbine. A number of problems were encountered
and satisfactory operation was not achieved in the time
available. The main problem was the cyclic driving torque
produced by the three bladed turbine.
INTRODUCTION
This thesis is the result of some research into the
potential for using sailwing aerofoils in vertical axis
wind turbines. It was anticipated that such a turbine could
be suited to low lift water pumping, particularly for
irrigation, in Third World countries.
There would not seem to be any doubt about the
considerable potential of renewable energy technologies in
meeting the energy needs of development. The people of
the Third World, in fact, already meet the majority of their
energy needs from solar-energy and, when wood, food, crop
residues etc. are included, the energy use is much higher
than might be supposed. However, as shown by Makhijani (1976),
the efficiency of energy usage is generally very low and
it is probably by increasing the efficiency of energy use
that some of the most pressing energy needs of the poor
may best be met in a short time.
Basic in an increase in the energy use efficiency,
is an increase in the productivity of agriculture. Properly
managed, an increased energy input to agriculture, in the
form of fertiliser, irrigation and machinery, may increase
the net energy output per unit of land; i.e. crops may
capture more solar energy. Hence, subsistance agriculture
may be transformed into one producing surplus energy, in
the form of food and crop residues, to other parts of the
economy.
If irrigation is available then it may be possible
to harvest several crops a year where rainfall may be
largely confined to one season and crop failure due to
erratic rains may be avoided. For widespread irrigation
a source of energy other than that of human labour or
draught animals is necessary, particularly if the land is
to be productively cultivated in the dry season. The use
of windpumps seems an obvious solution in areas where a
suitable wind regime exists.
Makhijani suggests some criteria for windmill design
in the rural Third World:
"1. Low cost; the total cost should be less than POO
and preferably less than 100 so that small farmers and
others who may need a source of power for cottage industries
would be able to afford it, (1976 prices)
2. It should have sufficient power to enable irrigation
of a small plotto i a hectare) and a power take off
to enable it to perform other functions such as sugar cane
crushing. The size of the windmill therefore depends on
the source and quantity of water needed,
3. It should be made of loc. al materials as far as
possible and with local skills (i.e. those available in
a small village). Among the reasons for establishing this
criterion are:i. low capital input and high labour intensity,
accessibili .py of the technology to the
poor,
iii. ease and quickness of maintenance and
repair when required,
:kw. high job quality in terms of job
satisfaction in ones work and control
of it,
V. high labour productivity,
4. It should be stable under adverse weather conditions,
5. It should have a high starting torque so that
auxilary starting devices are not needed."
The quantity of water required for irrigation depends
on the climate, the crop and its stage of growth and the
efficiency of the water distribution system. Average
requirements seem to lie between 40 and 100 m
3 /ha per day
(Stern,1979; United Nations,1981). With a lift of 4m and
an average of six hours pumping per day, this would require
a power in the range 100 to 200 W/ha.
In recent years there have been a number of attempts
to produce cheap windpump designs suitable for irrigation.
In India, the Madurai Windmill Committee have produced a
Cretan design suitable for irrigation in low winds (Sherman,
1976) and work on a similar design has recently been done
at the National Aeronautical Laboratory at Bangalore
(Tewari,1978). Another irrigation project using a Cretan
windpump design, in Ethbpia, has been described by Fraenkel
(1976). The Dutch Steering Committee for Wind Energy for
Developing Countries(SWD) have some promising designs in
operation in Sri-Lanka and elsewhere of the multi-blade type.
(TOOL 1 1982). The Intermediate Technology Development Group
(ITDG) have designed a low maintenance multi-blade windpump
which is now in use in several countries (Fraenke1,1978).
Fraenkel (1982) has poitted out a tendency to underestimate
the technical requirements of windpumps, leading to the
failure of many wind power projects; he also mentions a
tendency for research to concentrate on the aerodynamics
at the expense of system optimisation. Dixon (1979) has
drawn attention to the low system efficiency of most windpumps.
Wind power is hardly a new technology; Golding(1976)
mentions a reference to a wind powered irrigation scheme in
Babylon in the 17
th
century BC, and certainly windmills were
in common use in Persia in the 4
th
century AD. These
windmills had a vertical axis of rotation and relied on
drag forces for their operation, shield walls protecting the
blades as they moved upwind. It may have been from these
designs that the Chinese windmill described by Needham (1965)
derives. This design, still in widespread use, removes the
need for shield walls, as the rectangular, 'junk' type sails
luff automatically when moving into the wind.
Wind power developed in Europe in the 12
th
century AD
and became an important source of power, particularly for
grain milling but also for water pumping. These machines
had an horizontal 'Axis of rotation, with blades formed by
spreading sails aver a light wooden lattice. In the
Mediterranean region, a design of mono-directional, stone
tower windmill developed, with triangular cloth sails. It
was from this design that the Cretan windmill was adapted
for irrigating small intensively cultivated plots, early in
the 20
th
century.
Multi-blade windpumps were originally developed in
France in the 19
th
century and played an important part in
developing parts of America and Australia. This is now the
most common and widely distributed type of windmill. Multi-
blade windpumps tend to be optimised for high lift applications
and their high cost, all metal construction has restricted
their use in the Third World. Their need for regular skilled
maintenance has meant that those machines which have been
,
installed have often fallen into dis-repair.
The Savonius type of vertical axis windmill was
developed in the 1920's (Savonius 1 1930) and has found widespread
application for ventilation. It has also been used for
water pumping but it has a high material requirement and
is vulnerable in storms.
Developments in aerodynamics have led to very efficient
designs of propellor turbines and there is now a sizeable
effort directed towards the large scale generation of
electricity by wind power. The Darrieus type of vertical
axis wind turbine has undergone rapid development since 1971.
It has a comparable efficiency to propellor type designs
and has the advantages of a vertical axis turbine of not
requiring orientation into the wind and of a smaller support
tower.
Darrieus, a French engineer, filed a patent application
for his turbine in 1925. The design utilised a number of
blades of aerofoil cross-section and was intended to operate
with " the peripheral speed of the blades much exceeding
the speed of the current". It was not until 1971 that Rangi
and South developed the design as_a vertical axis wind turbine
(Rangi and South 1 1971). They used a curved blade configuration
so as to minimise the blade stresses- ari g aing - from the rotation.
The desig n was found to combine the advantag es of a vertical
axis with the performance of propellor type turbines. For
small machines, for stand alone applications, the desig n
has the drawback of not being reliably self-starting .
It is not essential to use a curved blade arrang ement.
If the blades are set vertically and parallel to the axis
then more poweris produced near , the blade tips, althoug h
this is likely to be offset by induced drag losses and the
drag incurred by struts. Straig ht blades are easier to
manufacture and, by allowing the blades to incline at hig h
speeds it is possible to arrang e for self-reg ulation of the
power output in hig h winds. Straig ht blades also make
possible several methods of introducing a self starting
capability. One method is to arrang e for a cyclic pitch
variation, as described by Grylls et al (1978), another
method is the use of very low aspect ratio blades (Mays and
Musg rove 1 1978). Another possibility would be to use sailwing
rather than solid aerofoils; thecamber then chang es
automatically depending on the relative wind direction and it
may offer a cheap method of aerofoil construction.
The sailwing concept was developed at Princeton
University in 1948 (Ormiston,1971). A sailwing is constructed
from a leading edg e spar to which ribs are attached to form
a framework which supports a trailing edg e cable. A membrane
is wrapped around the leading edg e and attached to the trailing
edg e so as to form the upper and lower aerofoil surfaces.
The trailing edg e is tensioned and curved, imposing a
chordwise pre-tension in the membrane and so minimising
deflections due to aerodynamic loads. A horizontal axis
windmill using sailwings was developed at Princeton in 1960
(Sherman,1976) and has been adapted for water pumping in
India (Sherman,1973).
Attempts to use sailwing type aerofoils in vertical
axis wind turbines appear to date to have had only limited
success. Hurley (1979) has developed a vertical axis sail
rotor which appears to have a maximum tip speed ratio of less
than one but which he reports develops a high torque at slow
speeds. New Age Access (PO Box 4 1 Hexham, UK) have
experimented with a similar design intended for electricity
generation but abandoned development after mechanical problems.
Newman and Ngabo (1978) describe some wind tunnel tests on a
design using sailwings and report a peak power coefficient of
0.15 at a tip speed ratio of 1.5.
Initially, the present research sought to ascertain
whether the apparently rather poor performance of vertical
axis sailwing turbines was inherent in the use of sailwings
or could be improved by suitable design. A numerical analysis
of the theoretical performance has been made, using a single
streamtube model of the induced flow through the turbine.
Existing aerodynamic data for sailwing aerofoils from wind
tunnel tests by Roberts and Newman (1979) was used. A
description of the analysis and the results obtained are
given in the first two chapters.
It was apparent that there were a number of shortcomings
in the aerofoil data that was used and so it was decided to
undertake new wind tunnel tests of sailwings to collect further
aerodynamic data. In particular these tests sought to
investigate the effect of pre-tension in the fattric and the
performance with different fabrics. The design of suitable
measuring apparatus and the subsequent tests and results are
described in Chapter Three. The new data is compared with the
previous data and also with some limited data by Buehring (1977).
The fresh aerodynamic data allowed a freah assessment of
the performance to be expected from suet( a turbine. This
suggested that the performance would inevitably be quite low but
the suitability, for pumping applications, of the predicted
torque charaeteristicsencouraged the design and construction
of a 2m diameter turbine. This is described in Chapters
Four and Five.
To obtain data on the actual performance of the turbine
in a natural wind, a series of performance tests were made
with the turbine unloaded. Details of the tests and the
results obtained are in Chapter Six. The results gave
reasonable agreement with predictions. The average peak
power coefficient obtained was about 0.1 with a starting
torque coefficient of about 0.07.
The application of the prototype turbine as a windpump
was then considered with a view to low lift applications.
A large amount of energy was shown to be contained in the
gusts occurring in the wind. Consideration was given to
improving the utilisation of this energy by modifying the
pump torque characteristics; hence increasing the system
efficiency. Tests were made on a diaphragm pump in which
inertia flow effects were investigated. A pair of
diaphragm pumps were later connected to the turbine.
A number of problems were encountered and for various
reasons, satisfactory operation was not achieved in the time
available. Some possible modifications to the arrangement
are discussed. This is contained in Chapter Seven. Some
general conclusions concerning the future potential for such
turbines have been made.
1
1
mw....-ri -1 3LA
bC
-CI:1 VO r..1 1 0 s
wc" ck
i
Darrieus Rotor - curved blade arrangement,
i
1
,
Darrieus Rotor - straight blade arrangement.
CHAPTER ONE
PERFORMANCE THEORY FOR DARRIEUS TURBINES
1.1. Introduction
This chapter describes the method used to analyse the
performance of a sailwing vertical axis turbine. The 'single
streamtube' model is described together with the methods used
to allow for the variation of Reynolds number and the effect
of a finite aspect ratio. Some limitations of the method are
discussed and in particular, flow curvature and unsteady flow,
which are not accounted for in the theory, are mentioned.
' A qualitative understanding of the operation of a vertical
axis wind turbine may be gained from a study of Fig.1.1. This
shows a blade element at various azimuthal positions for a
particular windspeed and a given blade angular speed. If the
local azimuthal speed ea is large compared to the local windspeed
V(Fig.1.1b), the blade element remains unstalled for all
azimuthal positions; the lift force dL contributes a positive
driving torque while the drag force dD detracts from it. When
i2rx<V on the other hand (Fig.1.1c), the angle of
incidence
o( varies widely and the blade is in reversed flow
for part of the time. Then it is the drag force which provides
the driving torque.
It should be clear that the actual flow through the rotor
will be extremely complex. The earliest attempt at a
performance prediction model was made by Templin(1974) using
a 'single streamtube l approximation to the induced flow. This
combines one dimensional momentum theory with blade element
analysis. The turbine is modelled as an actuator disc
enclosed in a single streamtube and momentum theory is then
used to calculate the induced windspeed at the turbine. The
induced wind flow is thus modelled as being uniform at all
points in the rotor, wheraaa in reality, both the speed and
direction of the induced flow will vary throughout the rotor.
Using this approximation to the induced flow, integration of
the blade forces gives an estimate of the mean power output.
The blade forces are calculated as if the blades are always in
quasi-steady flow. Since the induced flow is assuted uniform,
the power output from the upwind pass of the blade (o>e> -rr )
is assumed to be the same as the power output from the downwind
pass ( 77->e>21r), so long as the blade chord is set on a tangent
to the circle which the blade describes. The angle of incidence
oc, at an azimuthal angle 0.2Tr-o, is the same magnitude,
though of different sign, as the angle of incidence at e=21740.
Considering Fig1.2., in which the turbine is replaced by
an actuator disc exerting a decelerating thrust F on the
windstream, and applying the continuity, momentum and energy
equations to a large control volume, gives the result:
V=
E3
where C. is a thrust coefficient based on the local velocity V :
C 1 =


0-21
iqA0-
and A is the frontal area of the turbine.
The power output is then given by P=Vr and it is easy
to show, by the Betz analysis (Appendixl) ,that the maximum
fraction of the power in the wind that may be extracted is.
When the turbine is stationary, and at low tip speed ratios
this model of the induced flow may be simplified still further
by assuming that the induced wind velocity is actually equal
to the free wind velocity i.e.VIOV,v, the flow blockage is
assumed to be negligable.
Some improvement in the model of the induced flow may be
made by replacing the single streamtube enclosing the actuator
disc by a bundle of stream filaments. Such a multiple
streamtube model was originally proposed by Strickland(1976)
and has since been refined by Read and Sharpe(1980), amo4g others.
This small refinement does give some improvement in the flow
model but also adds greatly to the complexity of the performance
calculations.
Several attempts have been made to develop a vortex mode
of the flow. Duremberg(1979) appears to have had some success
in applying the method developed by Fanucci(1976) and improved
by Migliore(1978) but was only able to obtain convergent
solutions with low turbine solidities and over a limited range
of tip speed ratios. This method would seem to have
considerable possibilities but is unable to handle stalled
blades.
The crudeness of the approximations used in the single
streamtube model of the induced flow are obvious but use of
this model here is justified by its simplicity, and hence
economical use of computer time, and by the previous success
with which it has been used in predicting the overall
performance of Darrieus turbines (pee for example Shankar,1976).
Although it has been shown to produce slightly optimistic
predictions of the peak power"coefficient it seems quite
adequate for use here where, as will be seen, the main
uncertainties in the predictions arise from uncertainties in
the behaviour of the sailwings.
cl.13
Fig.1.1. Section through a Darrieus turbine showing a bl de
element at various positions.
_
..-Se.
.ff.......,40.
--'
\-;-----------"----------I v -...--.......' ""-n
.."^ --.......................... ................-........
........
"I
I
THETAg,
20 40606010I ?0140 fa) r`
AcTuAroA
bIsc.
Fig.1.2. Actuator disc model of the turbine.
ANGLE.OF INCIDENCEVS AZIMUTHAL ANGLE

I
I
Fig.1.3. Variation of angle of incidence with azimuthal
angle at low tip speed ratios.
1.2.Analysis
The basic method of analysis used in the next chapter
is outlined below, b orne more detail may be found in ppendix1.
The method follows that described by Shankar(1976).
T o avoid any need for iteration, the calculations are
performed at chosen values of the tip speed ratio pe, based
on the induced wind speed i.e. ". /As = -$1-
CI.33
coefficient c' :
f
9 igAv3
and the thrust coefficient Cs x defined above( eqn. [1.23)
Use of eqn. ci. 13 enables calculation of the true tip speed
ratio/A:
len.
V,A,
and the power coefficient C :
I '
As is described below, this allows calculation of a power
c n= Power

c. =
power,
[1.61
P-L AV
w
3
2...Q
as:
and:
,
AA.
(14-144
Ct. 73
C'
C
=
P
P
EI.83
04-1,74CF)3
At low tip speed ratios, when V, and hencep. =/t 1 this
problem is obviously avoided.
The analysis presented here is slightly simplified as it
is assumed that the blades are straight and parallelto the
axis of the turbine rotation.
The angle of incidence made by the relative wind to the
blade chord varies with azimuthal position and thetip speed
ratio:
Sevi
14_42 C.c.S
C
The way in which the angle of incidence varies with
azimuthal position at low tip speed ratios (i.e.pAlg iL is shown
in Fig.1.3.
The instantaneous contribution of the forces acting on
a blade to the driving torque, depends on the net force
component acting on the tangent to the circle described by the
blade. The tangential force coefficient C is related to
the lift and drag coefficients Cand C:

C =Cs o CD Cos oe.

El.so]
The instantaneous driving torque per blade 7i, is
therefore:
-res =Vof-..c
EiJtj
where is the blade length, c the blade chord and the turbine
radius.
Now, substituting ev. -K1 a? gives:" ra , ce,f rz. iR v2. k c z) .113
in which the term cce may be considered as an instantaneous
torque coefficient for the blade.
The ratiois given by:
SCAZ
Seri et-
E1.14]
Integrating for all azimuthal positions gives the mean
n
torque:
c617-. RVt izc. a ea
2vT2.*
EL'S)
0
where A is the total number of turbine blades.
2if
The term -1Ct
2.1rr
is a mean torque coefficient C;,
0
based on the total blade area A 3 (A il =n.ciO r rather than on the
turbine frontal area A :
Cs'
C1.163
WEIV2A
and as angular velocity
C.5 1 n i VaAbc
V___`
R.
E
IA93
- .: - .
sz. =V1 - - - 1

1 i.la3
12
eqn41 .1 5] becomes: Power.
Since : Power . Torque x Angular Velocity
CI.173
Now the power coefficient Cis: CI; = qIA'. g ria EI.1 03
A
The torque coefficient Ca is defined as: C = - 1 - r L- - V8- 4" Ct .2.1]
ct 1 0AV,A; A
2\
and from eqns. C1 .6 4 LL1 41C p .1 :- fr" C ex
a 1
s
A 6 therefore when
,A.,....i.A2:C e= C. 1 .
A
c1 .2.23
The coefficient of thrust C; is given by:
Zrr
f(
C,54: A(1 - - ex- ) 4- C.
)cos(0- c()) oti5 .Cie[1 .2,4]
0A
The ratio i A swill be defined as the turbine solidity a- .
2- A
A computer program has been written to perform the
calculations. Numerical integration using the trapezium rule
was used with an interval in e of r radians. At each blade
so
position, the angle of incidence is calculated (aqn.El.q0. The
relavant values of lift and drag coefficient are selected from
the aerofoil data, linear interpolation between data points
being used.
1 .2.1 . The Effect of Reynolds Number
Blade Reynolds number is defined as:
Re_ tr-

k

C.
AA .
/ our
The performance of aerofoils is strongly dependent
on the #eynolds number, particularly when the number is low
as is likely in a small turbine. When operating at low tip
speed ratios, the variation of the Illative windspeed Viz with
azimuthal angle is large. It is therefore preferable that,
if suitable data is available, the instantaneous blade
Reynolds number be calculated and then the relevant data
set used for each calculation position. Calculation of
the blade Reynolds number requires specification of a value
for the product of windspeed with blade chord (Vwxc).
At higher tip speed ratios the Reynolds number will be higher
and will vary less.
1.2.2. The Effect of Blade Aspect Ratio
When straight blades are used, the blade aspect ratio
may have an important influence on the aerodynamic properties.
The blade aspect ratio AZis defined as the ratio of the
blade length to the blade chord, 4 % . At high values of AZ
the flow over the aerofoil is essentially two dimensional
but as the ratio is reduced the effect of flow across the
blade tips becomes significant. The effect is to induce a
'downwash' velocity, reducing the effective angle of
incidence while additional drag arises from blade tip losses.
In the analysis of the next chapter, corrections
given by Glauert(1959) for rectangular aerofoils have been
used (Table 1.1.). The effective angle of incidence is
calculated from: 0- 4 ( = 04-k
where oktis given by eqn.E01. The value of k is taken from
the table, depending on the value of the ratio/R where cto is
a.
the slope of the curve of lift coefficient vs. angle of
incidence prior to stall. The lift and drag coefficients
corresponding to this angle of incidence have then been used
in the calculations,with the addition of an induced drag
-17-
coefficient, representing the tip losses, taken as:
-
C4=
T ir AR
AZ
a.
k
0.25
0.426
0.50 0.587
0.75 0.675
1.00 0.729
1.25 0.767
1.50
0.794
1.75 .0.815
Table 1.1.
The corrections have only been applied where the
aerofoil was unstalled. Above stall any small change in
the effective angle of incidence will have less effect as
the lift curve is then much less steep.
1.3. Discussion
The crude nature of the approximations used for the
induced flow through the turbine has already been mentioned.
Clearly there is no reason to assume that the Beta limit
should apply to a Darrieus turbine in which the energy is
extracted from the wind over a distance in the stream rather
than at a single position. Apart from this, two other factors
which affect the validity of the predictions will be mentioned
here. These are: the fact that the model assuljes quasi-steady
aerodynamic forces on the blades at each azimuthal position,
whereas the angle of incidence may infact be varying rather
rapidly; the possible flow curvature effect arising from the
variation of the angle of incidence along the blade chord.
Differentiating the expression for the 'angle of
dd_1
incidence (eqn.D.G0):
gi (
56,03 \
at1 + LS C Z:l o s T s ) 2 - at
, . . . . . , =, cos% )
T his reduces to : dot- =il
[ C L A . ' - i - c o s 0) c o Se' + SC " 45 c . o s' 133
2
a*(,. . e+c o SS)+Si A lt
V
Fo r s pecified values o f - - ik the variatio n, o f d c 4 with azimuthal
al.
angle may be plo tted fo r vario us tip s peed ratio s . T ypical
curves are s ho wn in Fig.1.4. Under certain co nditio ns the
variatio n may clearly be quite rapid; it is no t clear what
effect this may have. Further co mplicatio ns will aris e in a
real wind due to its varying s peed and directio n.
Miglio re and Wo lfe(1979) have drawn attentio n to the
po s s ible impo rtance o f flo w curvature. When the ratio o f the
blade cho rd to the turbine radius increas es ,then the change
in the angle o f incidence made by the relative wind, between
the leading and trailing edge,beco mes mo re s ignificant (Fig.1.5)
e.g. if -s =0. 2 .4the difference is abo ut
.150.
T he magnitude o f the
a
relative wind will als o vary but this effect is s mall. T he
aero fo il is then effectively in curvilinear rather than
rectilinear flo w. Miglio re and Wo lfe s ugges t us ing co nfo rmal
mapping techniques to trans fo rm the geo metric aero fo il in
curvilinear flo w to a virtual aero fo il in rectilinear flo w.
T he magnitudes o f the camber and pitch o f the virtual aero fo il
will depend o n the tip s peed ratio , the azimuthal angle and the
blade cho rd to turbiDe radius ratio . Fo r s ailwings lthe
pro blem is co mplicated by the varying natural pro file.
Any quantitative as s es s ment o f either o f thes e effects
is beyo nd the s co pe o f the pres ent analys is which merely
s o ught to as s es s , ina general way, the po tential perfo rmance
that co uld be expected fro m a Darrieus type turbine, emplo ying
s ailwings ins tead o f s o lid aero fo ils .
4
2
0
dc
a.t
- 2
rads/s
- 4
-6
VIR= a s '
-8
-10
20406080100120140 160
Fig.1.4. date of change of angle of incidence vs .
azimuthal angle.
Fig.1.5. Variation of angle of incidence along blade chord.
CHAPTER TWO
THE PERFORMANCE OF SAILWINGS IN DARRIEUS TURBINES
2.1. Introduction
A numerical analysis has been performed, using the
method described in the previous chapter, to examine the
performance of vertical axis, sailwing turbines at both high
and low tip speed ratios. The aerodynamic data for sailwings
has been taken from. Robert and Newman (1979).
To see how the aerofoil characteristics affect the torque
at low tip speed ratios, the variation of the coefficient C.r
(the tangential force coefficient) and of the product CI!"
(an instantaneous torque coefficient) with azimuthal position
is plotted. Also plotted is the variation of the mean torque
coefficient C.; with tip speed ratio. The effects of a change
of scale (and hence Reynolds number) and of low aspect ratio
are examined.
At high tip speed ratios, plots of power coefficient
vs. tip speed ratio have been derived for various scaidities
and the effect of low aspect ratio is again examined.
2.2. Data
In order to verify the analysis and to provide a
comparison, the analysis was first performed using data for
a standard solid aerofoil section. Data for the NACA0012
sectionf givenhyl_Shankar (1976) has been used. This was
taken from Critzos et al (1955) and Jacobs and Sherman (1939)
and is for a Reynolds number of the order of 300,000. This
aerofoil section has been used in Darrieus turbines. The lift
and drag coefficients are shown in Fig.2.1.
Aerodynamic data for sailwings has been taken from..
the results reported by Robert and Newman (1979) which appear
to provide the only existing data covering the full range of
angles of incidence. They used a simple sailwing construction
consisting of a circular rod over which was wrapped a membranes,
the two sides of which met at a sharp trailing edge. The
trailing edge was held fixed relative to the leading edge and
was of a wedge shape, pivoted about its vertex so as to allow
the sailwing to assume its natural camber. The sailwing had
a nominal chord of 100mm and was mounted between endplates.
lift and drag were measured with a nylon spinnaker fabric,
having a weight of 41 g/ml at Reynolds numbers from 9.104 to
30.104 . The data used here is for two different leading edge
rod diameters, 6.35mm and 9.53mme They also reported some
limited tests on a stiffer, polyester ('Dacron') fabric. The
data employed is shown in Figs.2.2. to .2.4, In all cases,
the fabric is described as being 'just taut' with the wind off.
Sailwing 1 : taut nylon, d= 6.35
mm , c=990mm
Sailwing 2 : taut nylon, d=9.53mm, c=98.4mm
Sailwing 3 : taut 'Dacron', d=9.53mm, c=97.7mm
Table 2.1.
It can be seen from the data that the natural camber of
of the sailwings causes high lift coefficients at low incidence
but also high drag coefficients. The very late stall apparent
with the 'Dacron' material is surprising and Robert and Newman
attribute this to the stiff nature of this fabric.
The purpose of using a wedge sha p ed trailing edge was
to provide rigidity and so avoid twisting along the span. In
a vertical axis turbine, such a trailing edge would not be
practical; twisting would occur because of tie centrifugal
loads and this would prevent pivoting, if not causing breakage.
In a practical turbine it would seem necessary to use a wire
or cord trailing edge, curved and under tension. Such a -
trailing edge may be effectively rigid. (de p ending on the
tension l curvature and relative windspeed) but it will impart
a chordwise pre-tension in the sail fabric. The pre-tension
in the tests of Robert and Newman appears to be very low.
It is not immediately clear how this may affect the validity
of the results of the following analysis.
Another uncertainty in the analysis arises in the
calculation of the tangential force coefficient from lift and
drag data. The value of the coefficient is given by :the
sometimes rather small difference between two relatively
large terms (ean.
[1-103):

c
= CL. 5 id%-od
Measurement errors on C
I i
C and
co4
are not given.
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000000000w
14is) ;-+0 0 0 0 5'
A04WM0.100lAWN4
Wk0,4DL1000AA04
it
I
Fig.2.2. Lift and Drag coefficients for Sailwing11,
(from Robert and Newman, 1979)
0 J%0 U' 0 U' 0 V.0
-

-9pppppo
00 W t4 i-4 0 0'
000 .O 0
oo-0po
(4 OS00- - - U' '0
'005 (4- b- 0500(405
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500000500 '.4-4 b.1
00
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000% (4(4 000
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00
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00
00
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0 50
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0' 000% 5900.4 - 000
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U' -59CS(1.
poppo
pp
o p
50 - -. 000' U'
-590% '-0-JOC 5959-1
00 QQ0 P000
oobb
000(40050 4U' U' U'
-405590% 0 000-
oop000pop
. 59(4 000 00
-.
4'.-400550
Fig.2.3 Lift and drag coefficients for Sailwirig2,
(from Roberts and Newman,
1979)
4,.1,0AMONMn 0.4
SA t-vJ int G3Tctot ' Io-.crtv
9. 53 m - w,
TI 97.7ww.; I
000
...
Ln0A05 05 00 00 to
^
)
Reynolds no.
o 9x104
013x10
. axi
. 24.1e
.30.1e
0000
.........
10
a
20
Degrees
000
WLACT.-. WNAWM W
.4LA5000040
000
1-.14tri0A00UI
NW0500.-.WW40
0.5
000p0000p
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wo.wwn m-am.o.w
Oopp00000
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0tA05u0000...0
, 000pop000
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000WW..4..A403
oopp00000
Lnoomw-400-
C
D
Reynolds no.
so
0.4
m 9x104
1313x104
18x104
24x10 4
-
0.3 a30%104
US
0.2
03
0.1
20
a Degrees
o-acitwo-4!An4p
bLniDZAbino;alo
10
oppp00000 w
p
Fig.2.4. Lift and drag coefficients for Sailwing31
(from Roberts and Newman, 1979)
2.3. Results
All these results assume a turbil_ie with straight bladesc
set parallel to the axis of rotation. Unless otherwise stated,
aspect ratio effects are not considered and, for the sailwings,
the product Vw xc has been taken as
3 ma
/s. his value was
chosen:_so as to give blade Reynolds numbers in the range 24.104
to 30.104 at low angles of incidence. No allowance has been
made for parasitic drag losses.
The variation in angle of incidence made by the relative
wind with azimuthal angle,is shown in Fig.2.5. for several,
low tip speed ratios. When the tip speed ratio is very low,
it can be seen that the angle of incidence reaches 180 degrees.
When the angle of incidence is greater than 90 degrees, and the
aerofoil is in reversed flow, it is the drag forces which
provide a driving torque. As the tip speed ratio increases
above unity, the maximum angle of incidence occurring is
reduced, until it is eventually below the stall angle of the
aerofoil.
It is of interest to see how the ratio / 7 . (4 ")
varies with azimuthal angle, since this has a strong influence
on the instantaneous torque coefficient g r e- From Fig.2.6.
it is evident that, at low tip speed ratios, the relative
contribution made tp dMving torque at higher azimuthal angles,
is increasingly reduced as the tip speed ratio increases.
160
140
120
100
s o
60
40
20
CO100120140160
6
4
3
2
THETA
100120140160
*zinuthal angle at lo w tip-s peed Fig.2.6, Ratio 0.2 vs .
80
20
Fig.2.5. AnKle o f incidence vs * azimuthal angle at lo w
tip-s peed ratio s .
ratio s .
-23-
2.3.1, Low Speed Performance
The variation of the tangential force coefficient Cand
the instantaneous torque coefficient C1-4:- with azimuthal angle Oy
has been plotted for the various aerofoils, at tip speed ratios
of 0.2, 0.8and 1.4 (Figs.2.7.The 'Dacron' aerofoil
is not included here because of the limited data available.
It is clear that at the lowest tip speed ratios, a large part
of the driving torque is contributed by drag forces. But as
the tip speed ratio increases to unity this contribution is
progressively reduced by the effect of the I!' term.
A significant difference between the solid aerofoil and
the sailwings can be seen to be the positive torque contribution
made by the sailwings when the angle of incidence_iszbetween
about 30 degrees and 70 degrees (e.g. fortvzier<C348ewhen
This difference is due to the higher lift coefficients of the
sailwings. As the tip speed ratio increases, this contribution
is also reduced by the effect of the term and at tip speed
ratios of above about 1.8 such high angles of incidence no
longer occur; driving torque then depending solely on azimuthal
positions where the blade is unstalled.
From the plots of the mean torque coefficient C; in
Fig.2010 1
it can be seen how the low speed performance compares
with the different aerofoils. With the solid aerofoil, the
decreasing contribution from drag forces causes a drop in the
mean torque until a minimum is reached at a tip speed ratio of
about unity. This explains the poor starting characteristics
of solid bladed vertical axis turbines. For the sailwings on
the other hand, the loss: in the drag contribution is more than
made up for in the lift contribution from angles of incidence
between about 30 and 70 degrees.
The effect of low Reynolds number on the starting -
performance may be seen in Fig.2.11. in which the torque
curves obtained with two different values of Vw xc are
compared. It is clear that a low wind speed or a smaller
blade chord may significantly affect the turbine starting
characteristics.
2 1 1.3.4 2 _ ! High Speed Performance
Theoretical turbine performance curves at higher tip
speed ratios and with several solidities are plotted in Figs.
2.12.to 2.15. The results for the solid aerofoil are as
expected, predicting an optimum solidity of 0.2 and a peak
power coefficient of 0.43, before allowing for parasitic drag
and other losses, at a tip speed ratio of abbut 4.5. The
predictions made using the data for Sailwing 1 and Sailwing 2
show maximum power coefficients of 0.24- and 0.28 respectively9-
an optimum tip speed ratio of between 4 and 5; and low optimum
solidities of 0.15 to 0.2. Sailwing 3, the 'Dacron' sail,
gives a rather higher peak power coefficient of about 0.34 at
a tip speed ratio of 2.8 and with an optimum solidity of 0.3.
The results show how an increased stall angle leads to a
reduction in the optimum tip speed ratio and an increase in the
optimum solidity.
Zatit_p_leIr_ inueliceoLlspect Ratio
The analysis was repeated with an allowance for low
aspect ratio (as described in section 1.2.2.). For the solid
aerofoil, at low tip speed ratios, the torque coefficient
appears to be little affected, provided that the aspect ratio
is above about 8..(Fig.2.16). However, at higher tip speed
ratios (Figs.2.17.and2.18.),,the peak power coefficient is
considerably reduced; down to about 0.35 (Ae= g ) from 0.43 01.
A lower aspedt ratio can be seen to cause an increase in
optimum solidity and reduction in optimum tip speed ratio, as
would be expected from the effective increase in the stall
angle.
With their higher lift coefficients, the sailwings
suffer severely from the effects of a low aspect ratio. This
is as the induced drag coefficient is assumed to be,proportional
to the square of the lift coefficient (Figs.2.19 to 2.23).
It should be noted that the reduction in the optimum
tip speed ratio will lead to a reduction in the parasitic
losses. Also, the increase in solidity will increase the
actual torque produced, which may improve starting.
-
NACA0012
p= a.a . .
THETA
NACA0012
p= 1.4
o.s
CT 1C q2
TO.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0
- 0. 2
THETA
' ;
2040
NACA0012
' J. 0.2
0.5
6 Cq2
IILI.
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
4A
4.2
0.5
4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0 0
-0.1
- 0.2
A
-

-
20 .%tr.4,2-,60
80100120140160
THETA
Fig02.7. Tangential force (solid line) and torque coeffs.
vs. azimuthal angle, solid aerofoil.
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0
-0.1
-0.2
0.5
argao.:
0.3
0.2
0.1
MO
0
-0.t
-0.2

0.2 N.

20
60 80 100120lAO160
THETA
0.3
SAILWING1
p= 1.4
Fig.2.8. Tangential force (solid line) and torque coeffs.
vs. azimuthal angle, Sailwingl.

0.5
CT
C 2
f1.4

0.3
0.2
f's
0.5
CTgC192
.4
SAILWING2
p= 0.2
60WWO141401 60
THETA
-0.1
-0.2
0.3
0.2
0.1
00
60BO100120140160
THETA
0.3
0.2
0-1
0.0
BO.100120140160
THETA.
-0.1
-0.2
0.1
0 0
SAILWING2
p= 0.8
SAILWING2
p= 1.4
-0.1
0.5
C RC.-92
T10.4
- Fig.2.9. Tangential force (solid line) and torque coeffs.
vs. azimuthal angle, Sailwing2.
0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

12

1.4

1.6

1.8
-
F1g:2.10. Mean torque coefficient vs. tip speed ratio
-

0.10SAILWING1
C's
LL

0.08LL1
ca
L.)
Vxc=3.0m2/
0.04
0.02
0.00
S fg. g-i)
0.0 0.2 0.4 1.8 1.0 0.9 1.4 1.2 1.6 0.6
Vxc=1 .5m2/5
0.06
LU
- c3
CX
C:)
I-
0.45
0.40
Ce
0.35
0.30
0.2S
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
Fi .2.11.
Mean torque coefficients vs. tip-speed
-ratio for sailwingl with varying scale.
Fig.2.120 Power coeficient vs tip-sDeed ratio.
1
SAILWING1
u:
0.45
0.40
LL
LLI
0
0.35 C..)
0.30
3
0
cx,
0
cr.0-
-0.05
a 7.01
-ri p spact, aivrig.-;
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
- -0123456 ?
0.45
0.40
0.35
e030
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
SAILWING2
. .
U..
=
LLJ
3
C:3
a. =01 0.
a :005
-IiP sPegv, IZATzo.:
67
.
LL
LV1
0
,- L.)
0.00
01 3 4 2 s
cr1 -. 0. 1 5
Fig. 2. 1 3 . Power coefficient vs. tipspeed ratio. .
,
Fig:2.14. Power coefficient vs. tipspeed ratio.
0.45
0.40
0.35
Cp
0.30
0.2S
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
- NACA0012
0.04

A Rtact
0.02
;
0.00
0.00.20.40.60.01.01.2

1.4

1.6
0. 10
0. 06
0.06
Fig.2.15.Power coefficient vs. tipspeed ratio.
. o
(VARYINGASPECTRATIO)
Fig.2.16. Mean torque coefficient vs. tipspeed ratio.
(solid aerofoil, varyingaspect ratio)
N A C A 0 0 1
0.40
0.35
0.30
)
..44

=0%164 3
cr:0 2
56
TiP SPECD it t4D 0
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
N A C A 0 0 1 2
cr44
tfcr2(3.2
= 0 . 3
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0123456
'7"iP . 51 9 g eDRA.'Tpgi
0.40
0.35
0.30
0.25
a -
Fig :2. 1 7. Power coefficient vs. t ip- speed. ra t io for
solid a erofoil wit h - ,R= A
Fig . 2. 1 8. Power
,. :oefficient vs. t ip- speed. ra t io for
= rofoil wit h AZ=8
(VARYING ASPECT RATIO)
0.10

SAILWINGI
c.;
0.03
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00
0.0 1.0 0.2 0.8 0.4 0.6 1.6 1.2 1.8
Fig.2.190 Mean torque coefficient vs. tip speed ratio
6 ai1wing 1, varying aspect ratio.
0.40
0.35
Cp
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
6
0.35
C p 0.
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10 -
0.05
0.00
0
Fig.2.20. Power coefficient vs tip -speed ratio:
for scd1winz1 with AZ=S
SAILVING1
0.49
Fig.2.21. Power coefficient vs. ti
p -sp eed Patio
for sailwingl with 1114-11,
S A I L W I N G 3
0.40

0.35
Cp
0.30
0.25
.4111101111n
77P SPEED gAlio
0.00
056
7/A

o:07
cr20-3
0.20
0.15
0.1D
0.05
Fig.2.22.
Power coefficient vs. tipspeed ratio
for sai1wins5 with AT- It-
234567
/A
Power coefficient vs. tipsteed
for sailwin73 with AR=8
2.4. Discussion
From the results of this analysis, it would appear
possible to achieve high tip speed operation of a sailwing
vertical axis wind turbine. If this is the case then structural
design may be rather difficult. A large load must be carried
by the leading edge dowel of a sailwing in this application.
It must transmit most of the aerodynamic load as well as
resisting the membrane tension and centrifugal loads. If the
solidity required is low, as with the nylon sailwing, then
this problem is especially difficult and extensive bracing,
with associated parasitic drag, may be necessary. The
performance at the higher tip speed ratios does appear to be
slightly better with the larger diameter leading edge dowel,
but this improvement is unlikely to continue if the diameter
were increased further. The need to keep the aspect ratio
high adds to the problem. Clearly the design would be much
easier with the 'Dacron' sailwing, the characteristics of which
produce a lower optimum tip speed ratio, am increased optimum
solidity and a reduced sensitivity to aspect ratio.
However, the results of the analysis are in particular
doubt at the higher tip speed ratios. Then, the turbine
performance depends on the value of the tangential force
coefficient Cr prior to stall. The value of this coefficient
is in some doubt, both because of the uncertain error in its
calculation and because it is not known how sensitive it is
to the pre-tension in the membrane. For the trailing edge to
remain rigid at high tip speed ratios, when the relative
windspeed is likely to be high, would require a high pre-
tension. This is in contrast to the very low pre-tension
-27-
apparently used in arriving at the present data. It may be
that some deflection of the trailing edge would not be .
detrimental to the turbine performance but too slack a sail
could become unstable.
Before proceeding further, there would seem to be a
need to investigate the effect of pre-tension on the sailwing
performance, to investigate the effect of trailing edge
deflections and to try to ascertain what the important fabric
properties determining sailwing behaviour really are. It
seems strange that the stiffness of the 'Dacron' can make
such a difference to its aerodynamic performance.
It is clear that the low tip speed ratio performance
of vertical axis wind turbines should be much improved if
sailwings rather than solid aerofoils are used. The performance
seems likely to be adversely affected if the scale is too
small. For the small scale applications envisaged for such
a rotor the blade chord will inevitably be rather less than.
one metre and so the product Vw xC is unlikely to be above
about 1.5 rejs in low winds. The starting torque coefficients
will therefore be lowest in light winds, which is unfortunate
iiut'presuinabii, not unique to this type of,turbine. From this
analysis it also seems that too low an aspect ratio will
adversely affect the low tip speed ratio performance. Whether
this is actually the case will depend on how the aerofoil
performance after stall is changeeby a low aspect ratio. In
this analysis, no change has been assumed but from the
observations of Mays and Musgrove (1978) it seems possible
that there is actually some benificial effect on the
tangential force coefficient after stall. They reported
much improved starting with a Darrieus turbine when low aspect
ratio blades were used in a high solidity design. This would
not seem to be explained entirely by the increased solidity.
No clear optimum has emerged for the ratio of leading
edge diameter to blade chord. The smaller diameter appears
to give a marginal improvement at low tip speed ratios and
the larger diameter at higher tip speed ratios. However, the
differences hardly seem significant in view of the uncertainties
in the analysis.
, 2.1.5.4LJIMISDIIL111
It is clear that a theoretical analysis of the performance
of Darrieus type turbines becomes more difficult when sailwings
rather than solid aerofoils are employed. This is because of
the number of variables which could affect the sailwing'
behaviour.
Before constructing a sailwing turbine, it appears
desirable to have more extensive data on the aerodynamic
performance of sailwings in particular with concern to the
effect of pre-tension in the sail fabric and to the effect of
different fabric properties.
Some firm conclusions may be drawn from the analysis:
1. Sailwing vertical axis wind turbines should have much
better starting characteristics than solid bladed turbines,
due to the high lift coefficients of sailwings at angles of
incidence between about 30 and 70 degrees.
2. The starting performance will be adversely affected if the
product of windspeed with blade chord is too low (less than
about 3 mz/s).
3. If high tip speed ratio operation is reached, then a high
aspedt ratio will be necessary to obtain reasonable power
coefficients. Thisisdue to the high lift coefficients of
sailwings, and hence the high induced drag losses of a low
aspect ratio blade.
CHAPTER THREE
WIND TUNNEL TESTS OF SAILWINGS
3.1. Introduction
A series of wind tunnel tests on sailwings has been
made. The main purpose of these tests was to investigate the
effect of pre-tension in the fabric and the performance of
different sail fabrics. It was also hoped to investigate the
effect of trailing edge deflection on the aerodynamic
characteristics. The tests that were carried out are
detailed in Table 3.1. All the tests were made at a Reynolds
number of about 20.104.
The data] obtained in the tests has been compared with
that of Robert and Newman (1979), used in the analysis of the
previous chapter and also with data for a limited range of
angles of incidence by Buehring (1977).
To perform the tests, a measuring balance had to be
designed for the blowdown wind tunnel in the Dept. of
Engineering at the University of Warwick. The calibration
of this was checked by testing a standard aerofoil section
(NACA0012).
To make the data as useful as possible for predicting
the performancd of a vertical axis wind turbine, the
measuring balance was designed to give direct measurement of
the force acting along the aerofoil chord, to give values of
the tangential force coefficient C r. , and of the force normal
to this. However, the lift and drag coefficients have also
been derived, so that the data is also presented in standard
form. A few tests were made using a pre-tensioned and curved,
elastic trailing edge line, in place of the rigid trailing
edge otherwise used.
The application of the data obtained from tests an
sailwings . is not entirely straight-foward because of the large
number of variables which may be involved. Apart from the
Reynolds number; the elastic properties, stiffness, density,
porosity and pre-tension of the sail fabric may have to be
considered. If deflection of the trailing edge occurs, then
the elasticity, pre-tension and curvature of this, and also
the blade geometry, are further variables. In the following
tests, a number of dimensionless parameters have been used:
the non-dimensional density of the fabric, where
..1Zr is its mass per unit area, IZ the air density
and c, is the blade chord.
Pr
C
e-rY
a2 c
the tension coefficient for the membrane, where
4
is the pre-tension per unit length and Vi e i s
the relative windspeed.
the Reynolds number, based on blade chord.
PA"'
where E is the ratio of force/strain for the
trailing edge line and 7; is its pre-tension.
the tension coefficient for the trailing edge
C .
7
line, where A9 is the area of one blade (b).
fr

the blade length to chord ratio.
C
ts

the ratio of blade length to maximum hollow in
7c.

the trailing edge.
The membrane and trailing edge tension coefficients
are related by the blade geometry. When the trailing edge
hollow is small, the relationship is: Cer-= qr.r.2.8.(Appendix3)
Is
By performing a number of tests with various materials
and pre-tensions and with both a rigid and elastic trailing
edge, it was hoped that it would be possible to assess the
relative importance of the various factors involved.
Measurements were also made of the chordwise component
of the membrane tension; the value of this is required for the
structural design.
3.2. Experimental Apparatus
The blowdown wind tunnel used for the tests has a
working cross-section of about 1.3m x1.1m. The aerofoils
were mounted horizontally and supported in a bearing at each
end (Figs.3.1 and 3.2). A flexure element was conneeted
between the aerofoil and one of the bearings. This flexure
element was machined from an aluminium block and strain-
gauged to provide measurement of the chordwise and normal
force components on the aerofoil. The strain_gauges are
connected in such a way as to eliminate interference from
pitching moments_(Fig.3.3). The universal joints on each
side serve to accomodate slight misalignment between the
bearings, without the flexure element being stressed and also,
to ensure that the strains in the flexure are dependent solely
on the shear forces and so independent of the flexural
stiffness of the aerofoils. There was a small clearance
between the ends of the aerofoils and the tunnel walls of
about 3mm maximum.
The windspeed in the tunnel is about 25m/s and not
easily variable; all the tests were therefore made at a
Reynolds number of about 20.10s 1 , using a blade chord of 0.13m.
For the sailwing leading edge, an alumi4ium rod of 13 mm
diameter was used. For strength reasons, it was necessary
to have a rib at mid-span. This gave; 4
and 4=-1 . .
C.
C. /0
Most of the tests were made using a rigid trailing edge.
This was made of sheet metal, formed as in Fig.3.4. The pins
at either end allowed it to swivel and so not interfere with
the natural profile assumed by the sail. Tensioners on the
endplates allowed a crude adjustment of the pre-tension
-3k-
applied to the membrane. This tension was measured by the
strain-gauges on the leading edge rod.
For those tests in which a pre-tensioned, elastic trailing
edge was used, the trailing edge was given a curve in the form
of a circular arc, with the maximum hollow equal to 3% of the
blade length (Fig.3.5.). The tension in the trailing edge
was set using a torque wrench.
The apparatus was calibrated using weights. This showed
that there was negligable interference between the
measurements of the force components and no discernable
effect from pitching moments. To check the calibration and
the behaviour of the apparatus, measurements were made using
a NACA0012 aerofoil section. The lift and drag coefficients
have been calculated from the measurements and are plotted in
Fig.3.6. The results have been corrected for wake blockage
using Maskells correction (see below). The results are
compared with the data given by Shankar(1976) for this section
and with data reported by Pope (1949) for the slightly
thicker NACA0015 section. The lift curve slope prior to
stall was 0.093 per degree and stall occurred at an angle
of incidence of 7.5 degrees. The drag coefficient at zero
incidence was measured as 0.008. Above stall, agreement is
better with Pope than with the data given by Shankar. The
data given by Shankar was derived from results reported by
Critzos et al (1955), who seem to suggest that the disagreement
between their data and that of Pope,might be due to some
flow past . the blade tips in Pope's tests, at angles of incidence
around 90 degrees. This seems a possible explanation for the
rather low peak drag coefficient measured here; for a flat
plate of infinite aspect ratio, Massey (1970) gives a drag
coefficient of 2.01, but this is very sensitive to aspect
ratio, being reduced to e.g. 1.40 at an aspect ratio of 18.
This would actually make the data more valid for application
to a straight bladed, Darrieus type turbine.
Generally, the results give confidence in the
functioning and calibration of the balance. The calibration
was repeated at regular intervals during the tests and
showed no significant variation.
strain gauges
Iblade lengthI
view downwind
universal
joint
flexures midspon rib
v.
tunnel wall bearing
strain gages airflow
plan view
endplates
Fig.3.1. 3xperiment31 setup.
TestMembraneDensity
F3/4'
Proofing Pretension Trailing
rNhv i EdgeCr/Tr Crr
F
Cpr
CalCanvas 134 none 110 riigid 2. 20. 9
CalpCanvas 134 wax 110 Rigid 2.2 0. 9
Ca2pCanvas 134 wax 10 Rigid 0. 20. 9
Nyl Spinnaker Nylon 72 none 140 Rigid 3. 00. 5
Ny2 Spinnaker Nylon 72 none 20 Rigid 0. 40. 5
NylpNylon 67 Polyurethane 100 Rigid 2.0 0.4
Ny2pNylon 67 Polyurethane 30 Rigid 0. 6 0. 4
Dad lDacron 180 none 140 Rigid 3.0 1.2
Dac2Dacron 180 none 80 Rigid 1. 6 1.2
Dac3Dacron 180 none 30 Rigid 0. 6 1.2
Nylw Spinnaker Nylon 72 none 80 ' W ire320 6 , 5 1. 6 0. 5
Ny2w Spinnaker Nylon 72 none 50 W ire510 . 1 1.0 0.5
Nyln Spinnaker Nylon 72 none 80 Nylon 20 . 6 5 1. 6 0.5
Ny2n Spinnaker Nylon 72 none 50 Nylon 31 44 1.0 0. 5
Table 3.1.
Fig.3.2. View of experimental set-up with the
tunnel wall removed.
' S4-rai n
.savys
-re 6eo.rir,..5
ouf-
r
S4 racin
sct.u.ses
To cutrorot L
Fig.3.3. Arrangement of the flexures and strain gauge
bridges.
Fig.3.4. Rigid trailing edge.
Fig.5.5. Blade geometry for elastic trailing edge tests.
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Specimens 16mm wide x 150mm long
Canvas
0.3 mm/N
Spinnaker Nylon0.3 mm/N
Coated Nylon0.5 mm/N
'Dacron'0.08 mm/N
Table 3.2.
3.3. Test Details and Procedure
Four different sailwing fabrics were tested. These
were: canvas, spinnaker nylon, polyurethane coated nylon and.
'Dacron' - a polyester material. The choice of fabrics was
mainly determined by what it was possible to obtain. The
canvas was tested both unproofed and proofed with a wax solution
- 'Mesowax'-. The elasticity of the fabrics was measured
in a tensile test machine with specimens 16mm wide and 150mm
long. This gave the values given in Table 3.2. These values
should be regarded as approximate as the extension was slightly
non-linear at low loads, particularly with the canvas.
The fabrics were oriented with the thread directions
running chordwise and spanwise. No attempt was made to
measure the porosity or stiffness of the fabrics. The unproofed
canvas was quite porous, the spinnaker nylon slightly so
and the other fabrics effectively non-porous. The 'Dacron'
was very much stiffer than any of the other fabrics.
All the fabrics were tested with the rigid trailing
edge at both high and low pre-tensions. The possible error
in the measurement of pre-tension may be about 10% (Appendix 3).
For the tests with an elastic trailing edge, the spinnaker
nylon was used. Two different trailing edge lines were used:
lmm diameter stranded steel wire and 2mm diameter nylon cord
( 1 .1 .=50.7 kN/unit strain and E.
=3.1 kN/unit strain
respectively). These tests were only done for low angles of
incidence.
All the measurements were corrected for wake blockage
using Maskells correction for a closed tunnel (Maske1 1 ,1 963).
This gives a simple expression for the change in dynamic
pressure due to the flow blockage caused by the wake:
hp=pE c; re
The dynamic pressure p was measured by pitot-static tube
while there was no obstruction in the tunnel. The blockage
factor E was taken from Maskell as 0.96. The drag coefficient
C / was calculated from the measured drag force using the
uncorrected dynamic pressure. The blockage ratio re is
cs 04-
simply: rig_
, 1 .3m being the tunnel height.
1-3
The maximum blockage ratio was therefore equal to 0.1 and the
maximum blockage correction was nearly 1 5% at angles of
incidence near 90 degrees.
Other tunnel interference effects were assumed to be
negligable but corrections were applied for the tare drag
of the sailwing endplates. This drag was measured directly;
with just the endplate nearest the flexure in position, the
universal joint being replaced by a rigid connection. The
tare drag corrections to the radial force coefficient C ie were
negligable but reached 0.005 for the tangential force
coefficient C.7. at angles of incidence of 30 and 1 50 degrees.
The veltage outputs from the strain gauge bridgeslme-re
amplified and measured using a digital voltmeter. Readings
were taken at intervals of 2.5 degrees in the angle of incidence
up to 20 degrees and at 10 degree intervals thereafter.
Reading errors were minimised by doing repeat tests so that
at least three readings were taken at each position. The
accuracy of the coefficients gr
and Ca is thought to better
than 0.004 and 0.01 respectively, except for
angles of incidence between about 60 and 100 degrees where
vibration of the apparatus occurred and accurate measurement
was more difficult. Then the accuracy is thought to be
better than about 0.03 and _0.1 respectively.
Apart from measuring the pre-tension, the strain gauges
on the leading edge provided readings of the induced tension
in the membrane. The induced tension coefficient is
defined as:ckerot,...Aase_ 0cced mewl) rame- s C o rt
L. =
The accuracy of this measurement is probably only 20%.
34. Results
The vibration of the apparatus, found to occur with
angles of incidence between about 60 and 100 degrees, was
not caused by any flapping of the sail itself, which proved
to be stable at all angles of incidence when a rigid trailing
edge was used. With an elastic trailing edge, some flapping
of the sail did occur near zero incidence, particularly with
the nylon cord, which was unstable up to oc.5, with the
lower tension.
3.4.1. Solid Aerofoil and Rigid Trailing Edge Tests
The measured results are presented in terms of the
force coefficients C and C
R
The tangential force coeff.
Force acting along aerofoil
chord/ i- A 6 Vict2
The radial force coeff.

C . Force acting normal to

aerofoil chord/i- oA 2.
\8R
These results are plotted in Figs.3.7 to 3.14 It can
be seen that the pre-stall performance of the sailwings was
generally very poor compared to the solid aerofoil. Positive
values of I C4. were only obtained with low pre-tension and
strongly negative values occurred at and near zero incidence.
Stall occurred at an angle of incidence of about 8 degrees.
After stall, the values of
Cr
measured with the solid aerofoil
are higher than those previously calculated from the lift
and drag data (chapter 2).
The curves of C,values for the sailwings have a rather
different shape to that of the solid aerofoil. In particular,
the peak value occurs at a Tower angle of incidence, which may
be attributed to the induced camber of the sailwings. The
difference is most marked with the canvas sailwings; these gave
rather higher peak values than the other fabrics and,also appear
to be more sensitive to the pre-tension, particularly at around
120 degrees incidence.
Lift and drag coefficients have been calclulated from the
measurements and are plotted in Figs.3.15 to 3:23. Seperate
curves have been drawn for angles of incidence up to 20 degrees
(Fig.3.21 to 3.23). These curves allow a comparison with
previous data and also show why it was considered important to
measure the tangential force coefficient directly as significant
changes in the value of C.r with pre-tension are not readilY
apparent from the lift and drag coefficient curves. In Figs.3.16
3.19 and 3.22, the data from Robert and Newman (1979) for a
nylon sailwing (sailwing 2 in the previous chapter) is included
for comparison.' The lift . slope l the stall angle and the drag
coefficient at zero incidence, agree well' but otherwise the,
agreement is not good. At high angles . of incidence the
discrepancy may be due to some flow over the blade tips in the
present tests. In Fig.3.23 the results for the ')Dacron' sailwings
are compared. The high lift coefficients and very late stall
reported by Robert and Newman were not repeated in the present
'tests. It should be noted that at zero incidence the sailwings
were stable with either camber and that there was a small area
of hysteresis at very low incidence. Fig.3.24 shows the results
reported by Buehring (1977). The pre-tension was not measured
and nor is the sail material specified but the results seem to
support the present measurements.
It is difficult to assess the influence of the various
fabric properties on the sailwing performance. The 'Dacron'
sail was stiff and quite inelastic in comparison to the
coated nylon, yet the results for these two materials, with
similar pre-tensions, show no distinct differences. From the
results for the nylon and canvas sailwings, porosity seems to
have an effect on the tangential force coefficient prior to
stall. The reason for the different behaviour of the canvas
sails at high angles of incidence is not evident. It is
speculated that perhaps it is due to the rather non- linear
elasticity of the canvas.
Before stall the pre-tension is clearly a dominant
factor, with_reduced tension giving higher tangential force
and lift coefficients. Above stall, an increase in pre-tension
generally increases the tangential force coefficient, and
this is particularly so with the canvas. With a much higher
pre-tension coefficient, a sailwing would, presumably, tend to
behave more as a solid aerofoil.
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3.4.2. Elastic Trailing Edge Tests
Measured force coefficients for the tests with an elastic
trailing edge are shown in Figs.3.25 and 3.26. Lift and
drag coefficients have also been calculated (Fig.3.27 & 3.28).
The results for the rigid trailing edge test Ny2 are included
for comparison.
When deflection of the trailing edge occurs, the aerofoi]
camber will increase and twisting of the sail will increase
the mean pitch. The two effects are not separable but depend
on the pre-tension and elasticity of both the sail fabric
and the trailing edge lind.
The effect of trailing edge deflection on the tangential
force coefficient, in particular, is clearly considerable.
Above about 7.5 degrees incidencebecomes positive and
remains so. However, at low incidence, when instability
occurs, the magnitude of the negative values becomes greater.
The increase in drag coefficient at very low incidence is
clear in tests Nyln and Ny2n in Fig.3 -28. From the lift curve,
it can be seen how the change in pitch reduces the slope of the
curve and how a later and more gradual stall occurs. With
a wire trailing edge, it can be seen that a small reduction
in tension gives a small increase in the maximum lift
coefficient, due to an increase in camber, but also causes
an increase in the drag coefficient, so the net effect is to
reduce the value of C.1 . . With the much more elastic, nylon
trailing edge, the effect of reducing the tension is to allow
a change of pitch, increasing the sail twist, so that stall
becomes even more gradual; the maximum lift coefficient is
reduced and the drag appears unchanged. The net effect is
again to reduce the value of (r.
With the blade geometry used here f and over the small
range of tensions tested, it seems that a higher tension
in the trailing edge leads to a general improvement in the
tangential force coefficient. However, a much larger increase
in the pre-tension would presumably give an opposite effect;
the trailing edge tending to become rigid.
3.4.3. The Induced Tension Coefficient
The measurements of the induced tension coefficient
CA,
are plotted in Fig.3.29 & 3.30. It can be seen that an increase
in the pre-tension reduces the maximum coefficient value. The
maximum value measured for the nylon sailwings agrees well with
the value of 'between 3 and 4' reported by Robert and Newman
(1979)
for a nylon sailwing (Sailwing 2).
0. 35
O. 30
0. 25
0. 20
0.15
O. 10
0.05
0.00
-0.05
2.0
0012
2. a
2.2
NACA
ALPHA
' 160
so 140 60 20 100 120 0
1.6
11,4
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I.0
0.5
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
020

40

60

90

100

120

140

160

eo"
Fig.3.-7.
Tangential force coefficient vs.
a
angle Of incidence . for NACA0012 aerofoil.
Fig.3. 8. Radial force coefficient vs.
angle of incidence for NACA0012 aerofoil.
l
x Cal
Calp
Ca2p
I
CT
.
/
I
I I
r
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.
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:A
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0. 35
0. 30
0. 25
O. 20
0. 15
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0. 00
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xN0
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0. 35
0. 30
0. 25
0. 20
0. 15
0. 10
0. OS
0. 00
,,
4060

60100120140160
Fig.3. 9. Tangential force 'coefficient vs.
angl e of incidence for canvas sail wincs.
020406080

too120mo160woe
Fig.3.10
Tangential force coefficient vs.
angl e of incidence for nyl on sail wings.
I
i 1
cDad
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0.8
0.6
0.4
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02040

so. so

100120140160
Fig. 3. 11. Tangential force coefficient vs.
angle of incidence for 'Dacron' sailwings.
a a
so

100

120

140
leo:pi-PHA 180.
Fig. 3. 12. Radial force coefficient vs.
angle of incidence for canvas sai1,7in-s.
xNyl
*Ny2
KNylp
EPNy2p
1 6
4
moimmummliowiti
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0.4
.o204060.00
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2.4
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Is
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2.4
2.2
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
12
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
Fig.3. 4 0,
Radial force coefficient vs. angle
of incidence for nylon sailwings.
0204060so

1m1m1401m.
Fig.3.14.
Radial force coefficient vs. angle
of incidence for 'Dacron' sailwinf-s.

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n
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amomMommmo Mom
:n00-I li-Mil
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
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MO MO MMI mmmMinillM
MEMI I MMmMM
ma.. nnnno. mosomn =
MEM
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a Mom MI Mmm mommmomI D O MMI NI O M
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n ==
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M EM
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MOI. MMIMMIWAMM mmmMMI MnM

1==MO MMO I MMil
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MI MMO O mmO MMmil Malnamman n
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mmummammmamma mamma cm- 1:1= iramamammarmama
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mom maol= MM. erimmmonmoomm
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n......==...... Z Erg
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lMn.
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MO MMI MMEMMO MMMMalnn

mom noMmoMmiimmommO MO MO MMO O MMO M
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I MMO MMI MMO M O NNA M M IIIM EM EI M IM IIM M IM M O IN M il aSIM M II

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maMmoommimsMO
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with an elastic trailing edge.
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1. 0
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05105202530354045505560
Fig. 3. 25. Tangential force coefficient vs.
angle of incidence for sailwings
05052025Nm
40
4650 55 . 60
Fig. 3. 26. Radial force coefficient vs. arT-le -
of incidence for sailwings with an
trAling edoe.
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we. nMaine.==40 1EF1. n=

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SIEZZasmumso maso meSidmann

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.......malmaamnnnn=1nn
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MOMMS. 111Ms.... nnn=Ma....

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mo nswwsem....mo m...mmwo mmaar
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seamNo mmo o mmo ==

==.1nr..=mwasexaso =
MMI MMI WO NO n1n
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n
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M.1=411 n==

1n
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nn

MIIMn MOMMI=MINIMWOMMOMIInMINVMnOWNIMMOMMOORnIMERIIMI=11n n0 1.==NINIMMENENN..10

=111111.0 11111110 11NOM11.110 1 1 0 .4 .01.11MM.M111 n 1171-=2Tale

NIN n=lumae nffl...11.0 .. mm..IrM0 .11
IMIM.1111NN

n = n n n n No wa.
rE "=======TE..=ME::::::===

Iiiin=....ala1WellallMap.nnme
wwmo mmo m=amo mm=lo smme, n n=mwsw.
o w n n n MINIM! n=nMA MY M1 nMMIMI
n nn0 4.1.10
IIMMI0 1 n nnnMIMMIMN,=nM= nn=1.11.1...
1 ==.1
fe am
n n n .0 W...wo ws
INFMNSIM

MIIM=MINEWOOWHOM.
==
n 1 1110 1111M111111M
n
===pIMI
IIMO.NIMMn ...mag ma
=1 2 .
.........all
M=0 .15......=mmaaan n10 .1
nnn..
.."".M"' nn ==2:======MEW.'"
aw1nnftelMaIt11.

110 /11 nnn11.0 n

MEETE=.HmE:::MNO1. ...=OSIMMINN0 1Mli
1:2:4=mm ..93=11
n n

amels GOB=
feWas nn

Mal..le==ltrylr:no mes..==
Mum.
n1
II=................_............=1.1IMMI.leMNIMIWN W I M M I N Or. no . a11.1einem. =......as pro w.
au.1n
n nnn.=
n10 1.n.....wwkw wo o fs....
ON I M ON I I I N I I I I 1masamsn MIN-..n .-y lnliffie NOON IIOINIMM.11.1== M0 1 Wall.W.E=.n.nn

1....nnNY WOMEN.=111M.0 .1 ! BOOMn nn .11.10 11nmialn .......=

seam. inas0 11

annimmumm nn=611u. nnn nmimeP MEOUVIMM.P IVIMMA RO//aVOnnn=0 1VONO A MMINIONIMErOP EN1.M.UNO
0 ... .......ra.1==in=11 ..==1...
11==:e2.=.v.:....,..m......_....
_
IIMtrae ....s. ..................ms./.
====n=====! 61Nag =
Wo mb. ===.nn=:=
...L
":6131.1.111=
r..=InaOlimamwMa=MM=IIES1c: T:M
I
a
1
=IIMMIMM =..E...... rn...... .....
=1 ...3..... WML. =11
mf Ino wI:=
=LIrO=====...
c mg ........z.c==iman110 1==:=IVEMNIMUsina INI
0 .0 ................mirwMM...1.0 n=====
r... --a==
m
... .. ..=,...:wwmo nmuno wlmo re
MUMSnwf
Mpo im.:11n
n==11Mafe ''''.
0
EOMma:Vga
==
=ruMMINEMEU
ME=
=1=i2M=M
1=1:1MII=smm=
own= . 1 0 - l iNf inEIV II -
=====. "
fIM
==, . 1 7 1 n n
=NO
' " " " ' " = = . = iES
. E.M=.MEMO@
N i n
,1 :=
n n n Womil = MINIM
n -n
n n
=MINMMIE7Npre
IF EENN
memonum. ams
MMIMMONM
n Nummin
= 1 = " = " 4:1
INNMMENINEMIM.
=l miMaMew. mt../ MUMMA ,
n
V I MI N I N N N MP EMEMOMMNI
mmoNf oaf n 11n MUNI!
immMOMMOM n
=n n
n =1 . 0
N U MN ImMOMMN
n

n n 0n ma
=
NmENMEMamm
N.1ImwrinNiONENNON MMOOMEV M.
4111n 11=
INLYn n MN. amn

5:WarafflEreaRESMIZEMEEMEWEIMI-
MajEDZEMEMMEEMEMEEMEAME
.MMCA ra-MEISEM=M " . . MME MMEW MW:MilMEN
. = W1 = 1 = = = = =
Wr. c. a= = = = = = = ========:
. . . s. = . 2= = = m= = = = . -m= :IMMEW
n n EE

linr maws mum. n n n n n MMIMIMMMOIIMMENn MINNImn Ol al a

=. MONA MM111=MONYTW.
MNIMMSNOMIMOMINIMn n n 1MM n n n " n /''''. =. =.= . "MEMIE
tn WIMMIIMn IMMINn n n
n===g11
t="=
&MEMO MIMMI MIIMMMNn n -1:=
ME= = '
=LA MM
K M.0 11
Mr=
..' .' .MMIn MaNal .l A I RC= ..' M.M= 11=== =

MEMOil mM=NOMMINEMMN
an =MMNNMEO
=n n

n =ran= a= "....
MOON
= NN "memmmEMOMM "."
=Mm....1, =n 11===.1mmE ' ' ' ' ' 11=7= ' ' ' ' .
MIMI= MOMME
:=:n n =1
In ms

A . ". n n n 1 =
n IIIMENMIMIMM
Eaammm=
= n =a
=emaam I=
Mmno

M
n R EN EE
NOMil
n
MMEIMINEMOak
INNUIn 0 1
=. . =2.==,
ONINO
s 1 ,, 'W=E1
E
=1 :===. 1 . =MuL,I M
n
n n n n n
Mimn n mn n _ airomme
EM:==rSlrj=:=Wi ltrF:::
0 111 n 11, 11110 n !
EMMEN
n n n n
''.===== n "1"46 "=...
=MC:: =1 =
Em...
=:==:MrMN=
J OI1M
NMENImmEm
MNImmm=11==l l
ININYE0 n n mn
MMIMEMMn NmumEsMMMIOMNEMMEEN
n n =5
az......... n n n =momm
M=Mmn n n WEN15WON
mom=ammo
n n n mM= n
mMNI=NsNmsamaNNA mil =
n
Imams
EmoMM
=
MEmMismn n mwmNirMMN
=NmINOmmmmn n as:
Nam
MIME
IMINNOMMMIMINOMIMMORMM n n
... =.1= ..
. =.....n n 111Mal MMIMMIMIL=1. "=M=1:21= .....K
n n MI
WOMEN

OMINMENNIME==.. MMIIMwan A
IIIIMME
ael ===MEEL...:
=
WOW
MaNIMG Nal n
l immEmommom
=1
n n n & N
Mnrn
n

MIMA NONOM ImEmNiMi

n n n =1
=mimmom
.....m
Nol imm
INNEm
MOn . . .
=n n ao
NamMA NONmin.

MINNn n
mmn n n n n n
:=
=111sNEamm
01,==
1 ==. n

ONA IM
MI.=
n Niml n .n =l in n n ......

N I I I MI N I n 1 0--m n n MMIO.
SMMINIIMME0 OV MOSIMINI.NOIM
MIIMIIIMIMOIIMINMn MI1A SSINIIMMMMEMO INNOMEMMO NM
n INIMONn IIMEMOMM
MEMMIIMSYMIMMEM
Nws
n n n n n MMNOMn =r n n
NON n
n =0n n
Mil l .=10 DOMIIONONIMMOOMMEMEMINNEMba . a n
li alre=1 1 1 1 1 1
Mo m
n n n
mrn
waavEmw, , El omi ==n =111 n n n m, h.
NIENNOn =n n
W.. MIR.WOON n IMIMMI
I lk . 1 1 . . 6 1 1 1 M
===INammr=1M M=ITS=11NMMEREl mpme
ra=
=11:EMINNEN 1=En:=1m

=2 , ==:=::
n n
=EMI SEA M1 . 1 n
E:za NNNm.ENMMMI
IMMEWE
. . =5 aMIM == =
=n =
nr
N M N =I M N N I M
MMn Mf OSMOMO
n MMMNMENMI
MMENI=MMNOMNMEMNOWINMIN /, NM, /
mmigrEn 11 unman= NINMNOMNEMIN
sMENO===
Mf f l rana n IMMONO
n MIIM=:NrM.
MONMat.% n n =0 M,=.w. .....11 .....=a
NSS=1== WM n =Mif f l . .' . ====Man
mn mrasaommumn
IMEMNMEMENf OMNIINN
=mn nmmoMNEMml a
Nmn n n
n =,
. MOM
MMO N Y M1 1 0 .
OMMOIMOMM=M10 0 1.
/WM=
n n n n n =n
MI' ' ' ' " =rMIMMIIIMMWE
=lg.
=
.....n ...
MMMIMIIMMIN
Mn===rag=
M1111.11n M1n 11
=?.. .
.11n, Irw mIMMEMEM. MEMMOM
oNsil l uNOMMEMNIMmm
.A MOMI, IMM n
IIIMMIN N O MME N IMIIMMIII
n
amMEMMIM:=1n =147=
EWEN...OMEN =
MOr
MLWIE
MMLENOMNOrnMIM= WM
mommomNa
1 n 4n
MoscW. n
MINIM n =====. . . . .
...........morn Minas=
iA N11:=NMENMINrn N M
. . . . . . . . . . mirmiNN n maNNNn
1 = ....aar=1n Mn N
NNE:n n n
MIZ===== a 11=
n
E.
===o n n n =maso marn
NewMW
=1 ,1 1 .=00 ===,:=
OM . 2=n =p,==n n
=:n =.Mf n ==n
=OWN
MN= aral ==...... ===:IMmM
MMIMNEM n n MMEM El=
HIMP O In MIMINM
=
MaNsImmi
ammo @
MIME n n
MMENNIMINIIM= Nlmn Y INa. 1 1 . 1 n 00
MMMUIIIrMli n MINI= 1 = =
. 1 001 1 n n n n n = 1 . 1 . n
MINIMONIMMINNIIn n _ Mn Mr n n n
:= 1 :7 1 7 : lMmm n = MEM Immmw
min yla MEM p MmaMEMMIMmE . MOON
Mr= "0= " " . . =
1 n
n n n n n n
= Nf:= = = :
n n n n n = = = .
= 1 milmm=
=r14.Mms
1 1
= NM.
n Imimm
MMEms
n n n
n n n n = 1 1 MmEMn

n MMO-- MB MN
= amMM= 1 . . .
mEmmo mo mmo lU N E
f
n n
MN/ MM n =
n =MO M
= n
e= = = -. = e--
Imm
r
1=IMMEN
n Mn
.
INE
--'1 =01 1 1 5
E. .. M. . . . v. --. . . W- 1 . 1 I N I A MMI N MOI MM
.WMIMMMOMM.
, L IIIMME N IWN M.11=11M
NINNEmamMMINMIMISMIN n
amEMEMMMmaaamMoimm

MEMO.
M
M
MENn 1! n n 1
mom=

..n NooN n ton ....

n n n n 1 1 mo o nM=n =
n n mam
MNIMn
11111NMEEMI=
nmmoomm
IMENNOMMl n n ===
Momma n MONNIN

NONENEM

i n m
=
IIIME ZN E =ME

yam
:=INNErm, 1 , NomMMINNEN..... NOMM MEMNON 1 n n ==MOE
M.11n
VE MO MIIMMO N DIMIMMMa=1M=MIMI................M...
=MO E --=r..:...:.. ..=====.

I MmEmmEME
EIMM n
IIINMNINEM
n mma
IIINOMn N
n n n =1MINM I
mom=
n
n ImNom.1=MM
n
n n
NMI= NwmUmmME
n n n n
ME=Mmml
aNsEamammms
MN IMMM

MMUMM/MM.Maal MMOONV OMMV IIIIMPN=

WOH NEMA ./MONMOININf ONOMMMMIONMOMMMMOMIINNIn n 111
MO.MIMn I
WORIOM EMPIRE 8 1, 1.1MIN
MMMEM.MIM
OMMIMIIMMEMEMNIMINIIIMIN1 n n n n n n n n 110 1MME ZIn

MIMIMn Max eMM

MUMIMMIIII1 =
OMMM. Y MIN
Orml
M= = NMIMMOMilIMI1 = = = = 1 :
=Mlle
1
n n n n
Mamma
. . . 7 . 1 1 = n IN
1 1 n EN. . . . =
mi. . . WElrOLIMMNI . . .
n n n :NOM M. Y =
Mmn n n n n
EN; 1 Em
. n n
i n N ummsom
maws=
n n n VIIn J INNME ION. M
in IMMOIMOMMINIIMM
Mn n = = 1
NOMIMIMOMENOOMMOMI= X{
aliMemn n o w . 7 0 n =
O IMMIN
NIMMOMONIDN=
1 n n
04=immn
il m n
NM:=n =1=1

....n n n
NIN MMOIMW.
. . onow. . . . . .
memma n n
MINONmmmINMIm n MMIMMIMIN IN IO N Y I WIN S O ME .. n n
=NOMEn x n n n n n n n
ManiIMA MNimm10
==""" EINIMEME=1 n
Maw..
...n =...=n 1111=A rnamOrnaM...mson MMOLIYWNMNIMMn 11n MMEam.,
ENEMOMMIMMONEMEME1111 n n =! MINIMIZEI DMYMMA MIn n n =.
n n n n =mnal

amil ann IMONIM.MMOISIMI n 1=1MIM

MOORE MONI=MINN1.1MMYn IIMEMB REINNIIIMMIA MMIK INYIN
. . . . . Mn EMINswmn
Mmummman = .
i maeEN I N EMMMEMIN
. . n e. m. m. . . . . . .
NOMMENMEM. ...No
1 1 n n n n n n n
,. m. ,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
n n n
IMENMMIN= M= MMINOMMEDONMMINNIMMIiM. . . . . . 4:" . . . . . =
mmo n a
NmmmmENN
n n n n n =s1 1 n o No mINMN. ma rsM ' ' = F. ' ' ' . . . " T N n" E. mE. , , . M, ' ' ' " ' " n 7 MMm. ' " " ' " ' . . . n .
n n n n n n = mamm
n n
MOENn n
=1 1 =0n
. MINIM
NEN
=' ' ' ' ' ' .
mmNNOmmf worm
MMIN1111111IMMON10 1n n =10 d ENM
MO IN E IIIMMIMN .........0 MMOMIK EE./....
Eammemmn n
=1 1 n
Fi g. 3. 28. Drag c

n n MINIMINIV IIMM11
=Mina=
. 1 41 1 07 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 . 1 1
Mrn 1
i nn n n
11PONNI=1Inni.
INN O..:.1.mNm=:
Mn
mommemoom
NammMONEEPEM
n , NasE
n n n n
n MNINEmmil aNMEOEMEN
=mos.
NmINEf n n n . . .
n n n 11
n n n n Mr=
=. 1 N , 1 1 :n =Nowa
NMIEN

IMEmEmom
ON==N O M E
MN I N V O=N umwMan MENV NE.MMaa
mamammix n n mmms

n OMMINE n
n n n n
n Namm0 Moor IINNM.M.0 .1...M.= n ...Inn
1 1 1 1 1 n n 1 n
n n n n
NMEN
oef f i ci etts -
eladti c trai li n ed e.
1 1 n n
M.
1 1 =

n n n IONMNEMOMMml n mm=
n n wMNNENMNO ,n .
MOV IMONEMEMINDMEMymmi
n mEmman MmmoISMn
1.1.11111MmaNOV IN n n 4111
n n MN 111.WIIIIMME . n IMI.
10 n SNIM NEmm
Mom
===.1111n IMMEO1111/11=1.=NMOM=
NUMMI
InNOMIn 1111111
Nms
MMusmMr
=..... INMEMEN.
n n n ma
NuNONMImw
n n mmeNummme=111
n n n n
mEN1mNn n n
MomMommONMmmanmEmimml n
mN I:==;:=1151
ro w

mo mmu mmro mm
r. . 6 0 .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . =..
EMMY
m=
" T" I s
:f = n
OWNIM= =
lin amimN
MEMIMimmmM
.................. 17... ..... n
n = o rmmo NMENmEm

. . . MEVilmim, aIsmM. . ' . . = = =
www====.=
....ma=
MEMMONVOMMft Mll
WWWW0 WI
INNIME n n ' ' ' % 11==. ' ' ' .. ......... .".' % .... ""' ' .
n " . . . . IMMINIIMMIN= . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 . . . . . = = . .. . . . . . . . . . . ' ' ' ' . . . = . . . arn " . . . C MM . . . = E,
NEMEmmlam
mn mmo o mo m
. " ' ' ' ' ' . . . = 7 . . ' . . . ' ' ' ' ' ' em:. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = " 7 . n ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' % ' ' ' ' . ' " ' ' ' ' ' ' ' . =
. . mmE::. := . . . . . :
mm n n n n n MMM " ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' " :" . " ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . ". " . 1 = 7 = ' ' ' ' . " ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' . ' " ' " " ' . . . " . . . . . " = " L= . . ' . . " = 1
malmn n , = 1 Em
mmo mi
n n
Mm n n . n n n n n n n , . . WM
IMMS n n fmEMENMINNEMMMEN . . . MM. . . . .
so mmlo mm. . . . m. n mmmmMENMIMmENla n n . = :=
Mu mo MMNININmsammaNNEmmMm n
mo rmsa. . . . . . . . . . . . mo sy. . n n o n m01 1 immm n = m= 1 1 := M=
1 1 1 1 51 ry n n n n
= :
n . MM. .
n = , = m n . . . . . = 2
1 1 0mNammENENfmmENIMM
1 n n n
.....=al OWN.ONIOn
n =
IDMIMI
MOM
=MMNIIMIMIMEMNINNNMEOMMEMINIMMEXIMO
MEM.IMMM11110 10 1MILMEMIIMMIIMONIM
ff. . . . = =
=1 . n 1 1 1 "="' M:=
1 01 . n n 41 . = n = 1 1 =
. . . N . 4, . . . . . = . 1 Mt p l a01 n n n n u n NM
1 1 01 1 1 01 1 1 1 NOMMO1 1 1 n = 1 1 1 1 1 1
mENNn n n 1 1 , 41 00. 1 1 1 1 1 1 = n n n n
DIMMOMMOM MOIMMANME
n
= 1
1 1 . 1 INOw 0. 1 1
IIIMMLaNOXIIMP IM IMP=
1 1 1 1 1 n 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 n 1 1 n ==.
1 1 1 n 1 ATTIN= = = . . . .
n 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 n n n n 1 1 1 M
n n mMIINN n = mm n n n n
ONSNIIIIMMEMINIMEMINOOMINIMIMl na=
MIMO. n IUM. I. 0 n
n = = =
la=
meirmNymu mm n

owe
INn mmmo mm EMEIMIN MOM=
Nw

NOM
mn
mago aNNm n n n n n n n
= MO=
= = 1 = Mt aMMEmEE n
INENMOmo mEmmm Ommm n
n mmEl n n = 1
1 n = m
= = = -.
OMEMMiem=
= NEM= aNmMo MMIL n n n M
rIaMMNo mmamm. = : n n
. . . 4= Ms= 1 1 =
= Mo m= Immeas MMo mma m:=
n imma
= 1 Emm
w mm n n = mmOM md mME
MINMM= M. .
n n =
memn
NIMMamf. M
mmn amlimimad ma
n . = ImmmaNMNNON
.. . . ' . ==
= = =
MISE= = = = =
DENNEMN n n n = n n n n .
VmMi n = . . . n MMWMINMeMMONNOn 1 , n n n n

n n = MismEm

N ana
MMMNINIM liaMMONIrOMP OIMMI:=
1 1 1 1 01 1 1 4. . .
IIMMOMMOMMaION. OMM ONn IrSMINNOMM n la= 1 1 01 n n
= = = = = = ONOMINOIMMIIIMS= 0. =
Im. n
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . n n 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 . 1 01 1 1 7 1 0. 1
IMMO
smaimln imm ImmmEmamm n . mm0

: NIY12
a NyYlp
Ail
6 NY2P MEM Ny-EMI
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
N a ll
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 . 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ES
I I I ' 1 1
ill
1
,
ALP HA
4. 0
3.
3. 0
c, .5
2.0
'.5
10
0.5
0.0
I
XCalp
Ca2p
Dad
MM.
0 Doc2
Doc3
EMI
lia
o
. _
---4 0t i) 0 - n - - 0
Po-
-. . 9
Al -x
. ElinnilliliO
i0
CI--ma n
/
Gil
,
-
/
-
ft
. . _
m ALP HA
3. 5
3.0
ax 2.5
5
2.0
1.5
I.0
0.5
0.0
0 20

4060

so

ea

120140

t ee
Fig. 3. 29. Inducad -tension coefficient
(chordwise component of induced tension/kqc )
vs. angle of incidence.
20406060100120140160Me
Fig. 3. 30.
rnolvet a
tension coefficient vs. .ngle
of incidence.
3.5. Conclusions
A measuring balance has been designed and used in a
series of wind tunnel tests to produce some new data on the
aerodynamic performance of sailwings at all angles of
incidence. Direct measurement of the chordwise component of
force, to give values of the tangential force coefficient,
has shown significant differences from values previously
calculated from lift and drag data.
Sailwing performance was very poor prior to stall.
The dominant influence was found to be the pre-tension applied
to the fabric; a low pre-tension giving a better performance.
The elasticity and stiffness of the fabric were not found to
have any clear effect, while porosity appeared detrimental.
After stall, canvas sailwings were found to give rather
higher tangential force coefficients than other fabrics.
Increased pre-tension gave a general increase in tangential
force coefficient with the canvas being the most sensitive.
The measurements do not give very good agreement with
the results reported by Robert and Newman (1979) and the late
stall they observed with a ' Dacron' fabric was not repeated.
The present measurements are supported, at low angles of
incidence, by the data of Buehring (1977). ( F 1 S9
.24)
If deflection of the trailing edge is allowed to occur,
then there is a significant effect on the force coefficients.
A more elastic trailing edge gave a greater improvement in
tangential force coefficients but became unstable easily at
low angles of incidence, causing high drag.
CHAPTER FOUR
THE PERFORMANCE OF SAILWINGS IN DARRIEUS TURBINES
A RE-ASSESSMENT
4.1. Introduction
The performance to be expected from a vertical axis,
sailwing turbine,has been re-assessed, in light of the fresh
aerodynamic data reported in the previous chapter.
The analysis follows that used in Chapter Two for low
speed performance. The influence of pre-tension and sail
fabric is discussed. Starting torque coefficients are
predicted but it was not found possible to produce
meaningful power coefficient predictions because of the lack
of a flow model for the induced flow through a low tip speed
ratio, high solidity turbine and the limited range of
pre-tension coefficients covered by the data.
4.2. Results and Discussion
The variation of the tangential force coefficient Cl. 1
and of the instantaneous torque coefficient Cr e t,?-, with
azimuthal angle, has been calculated at several tip speed
ratios, using the data from test Calp.(Fig.4.1). Curves of
the mean torque coefficient CI , have been computed for all
the aerofoils tested (Figs.4.2 to 4.5). For the solid (NACA0012
aerofoil, it is seen that the starting torque coefficient
and
PT- r
C-r-r
" 1 - 1 ' ,
-2- - fZ VA "S
is is higher than pr eviously pr edicted and also, that the
'deadband' is wider . This latter dif f er ence is not signif icant
as it is caused by the low Reynolds number , and consequent
low stall angle of the data; in pr actice the Reynolds number
would incr ease with tip speed r atio. For the sailwings,
higher star ting tor que coef f icients ar e also pr edicted.
However , it is clear that tur bine oper ation is limited by
the poor sailwing per f or mance at low angles of incidence and
that only low tip speed r atio oper ation can be expected;
except per haps, f r om the coated nylon and 'Dacr on' sails
with low pr e- tension(tests Ny2p and Dac3) or if tr ailing edge
def lections occur .
Now, in a tur bine, the values of the tension coef f icients
f or the- sailwings ar e not constant. The coef f icients wer e
def ined as f ollows:
The r elative windspeed is r elated to the induced
windspeed by equation LL123:
V
At low tip speed r atios it has been assumed that the
induced windspeed may be appr oximated by the f r ee windspeed.
In this case, the tension coef f icients ar e pr opor tional
to z. If the tur bine oper ates in windspeeds of between,
GIaVw
say, 3 m/s and 10 m/s, then the coef f icients will change by
a f actor of about eleven. The var iation of et, with azimuthal
angle has alr eady been plotted (Fig.2.6) and the var iation of
is plotted her e.(Fig.4.6). The tension coef f icients
clear ly have a lar ge r ange of var iation dur ing each tur bine
revolution, quite apart from the effect of windspeed
fluctuations. In fact, the range over which the tension
coefficients may vary, makes it obvious that the data is not
adequate for an accurate performance prediction. Considering
Fig.4.6, the performance is likely to be rather more affected
by the reduction in coefficient that occurs at lower azimuthal
angles, than by the increase that occurs at high azimuthal
angles. This is as the contribution made to driving torque
at azimuthal angles above about 130 degrees is relatively
small (Fig.4.1). The effect of a reduction in pre-tension
coefficient may be seen from the curves of torque coefficient
(Figs.4.3 to 4.5) and it varies for each fabric. The
starting torque coefficient is little affected, except in the
case of the canvas sailwings.
When the turbine is stationary in a low wind, the
trailing edge tension coefficient C.r,, must be high if sail
instability when operating, perhaps in a higher wind, is to
be avoided. Instability would detract from the turbine
performance and, perhaps more importantly, reduce sail life.
Since in high winds there is an excess of energy
available, it seems necessary that a turbine be optimised
for operation in low winds. Then the tension coefficients
will be high and the trailing edge effectively rigid. The
curves of the torque coefficient C;, show that only low tip
speed ratio operation can then be expected, and so a high
solidity 01-(cr.) will be required. Thus, even if the effect
ZA
of trailing edge deflections in high winds was to allow
higher tip speed ratio operation, this would not occur because
of the high solidity. In fact, use of the data from tests
Nylw and Nyln, in the single streamtube program ( assuming
a constant value of the trailing edge tension coefficient),
shows that high power coefficients would not be obtained
(Figs.4.7 and 4.8). This does not say that some trailing edge
deflection may not give some benefit at lower tip speed ratios.
If a high solidity is used, then it is not,possible
to use the single streamtube program as the assumiptions
concerning the induced flow, break down at low tip speed
ratios. Similarly, the approximation used befohe, that at
low tip speed ratios, the induced windspeed was almost equal
to the free windspeed, is of limited use. It does therefore
not seem to be possible to produce meaningful curves of
predicted power coefficients.
What may be predicted is the starting torque produced,
as the induced windspeed is then equal to the free windspeed.
From equation CIA.] :
Starting torque . CI iiRa
From Figs. 4.3 to 4.5
3
Starting torqueiRe P. V.,
lieAVZ P .
it is predicted that, on starting :0g-A13
while for the canvas sailwing, this may reach, C a v. o15
A
In terms of the torque coefficient C-0.:
'To try ., e
C=
Canvas would seem to have several advantages over the
other fabrics tested as a material for sailwings for this
application. It seems that the starting torque coefficient
will be higher and will be at its highest in low winds, when
the pre-tension coefficient Cris high. Also it is a fabric
which is likely to be readily obtainable in most places and,
if proofed, should be reasonably durable. Nylon and 'Dacron'
are less likely to be easily available, nylon may be affected
by sunlight and !Dacron' is difficult to stitch.
Although it has not been found possible to make accurate
theoretical performanae predictions for vertical axis sailwing
turbines, it is clear that the rather poor performance obtaited
by previous workers is inherent in the use of simple sailwing
aerofoils. However, if such a turbi#e can achieve power
coefficients of 0-5, as reported by Newman and Ngabo (1978)9
and high starting torque coefficients, as predicted here,
then it could have some advantages over other designs because
of its vertical axis of rotation and low cost construction.
It may be that higher power coefficients could be
obtained by the use of more sophisticated sailwing aerofoils,
with a D-shaped leading edge spar and ribs to maintain a
better aerofoil shape. But structural design would be difficult,
parasitic losses might be high due to the bracing required
and the simplicity of the design could be lost.
c-)
-ix.,
(--)
00
F ' . . P
5:10

N1 , 4 - F- Ul
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F ig. 4. 1 . Tangential force (solid line) and torque coeffs.
vs. azimuthal angle_ - Ca1 p
0
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Fig.4.1. cont.
1 1
0 0
n n
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,
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Fig. 4. 1 . concluded
F 03
Tr-
TORQUE COEFF.
0
0
03
0
40.
4
Fig.4.20 Torque coefficient vs. tip speed ratio
--solid aerofoil'.
0.18
0.16
0.14
Cci
"' 0.12
alp
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00
0.0 C.20.4 0.6 0.81.01.21.41.6 1.82.0
.
2.2 2.4
Toroue coefficient vs. tip-speed ratio
4.$
from data for canvas sailwings.
0.11
0.16
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00
0.00.2 2.4 1.0 0.4 1.21.4 1.61 82.02.2 0.60.8
F ig.41 0 L .h t
-tt
Torque cceffiient vs. tip-speed ratio
from datF for nylon sail,Ancs.
Fig.4.5. Tor
q ue coefficient vs. tip-speed ratio
from data for 'Dacron' sailwinFs.
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0
0
bJ
v
In
r \
1)
) 000000(.?00
p
0000
t'D 0 0 0 njf
..
\.)t'.)I')CA J N
rs., J.0MI'.);
......
CInJ.t.O.CO0
POWER CbEFF.
Fig.4.7. Power coefficient vs tip speed ratio
sIngleatraamtube programT_data_from_taat_5ilw
PPPPPP
ooooo-a
0ro..L. cr.ix,0 li
PP
...) .
.P.-
rl
15
PP9' PP
- %- - N .rv 1 ..) , N I
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NAt4Lt4
0%CO0
.......... 1
0
Fig. 4- .8. Pol, er coefficient v s. tiospeed ratio
from data from test N yln.
4.3. Conclusions
The new data for sailwings, obtained in the wind tunnel
tests, has been used in the same low speed performance
analysis as was performed in Chapter Two. It is clear that
high tip speed ratio operation of a vertical axis turbine
will not occur with these sailwings and so the maximum power
coefficient will be quite low and a high solidity will be
required.
It is not possible to make accurate theoretical
predictions of turbine performance, for two reasons: firstly,
the large range of variation in the pre-tension coefficients,
shown to occur over the operating range, makes the data
inadequate; secondly, with a high solidity turbine, yperating
at a low tip speed ratio, the single streamtube model of the
flow cannot be applied and approximating the induced windspeed
by the free windspeed is only valid at the lowest tip speed
ratios.
It is however possible to predict the starting torque
coefficient. In all cases, the torque coefficient C.ton
starting should be greater than o . o , $ _ A g and for canvas
A
sailwings it may reach
o . t s idle.
1 4
Canvas appears to be the most suitable fabric of those
tested. The starting torque coefficient may be higher than
with the other materials and performance will be highest in
low winds, when least energy is available.
CHAPTER FIVE
A PROTOTYPE TURBINE
5.1. Introduction
From the re-appraisal of the performance that could be
expected from a vertical axis sailwing turbine, it was clear
that a low speed, high solidity design was necessary. Such
a design will inevitably have a quite low performance but
its possible advantages over other designs, due to its
vertical axis of rotation and low cost construction, seemed
to make further investigation worthwile, especially since
the torque characteristics appeared to be well suited to
pumping applications. It was therefore decided to build a
prototype and to undertake performance measurements on an
open air test site, so as to provide reliable performance
data.
Some of the factors arising in the design of such a
turbine, and the design choices to be made, are discussed.
Details of the two metre diameter prototype design are given
and some predictions for the turbine performance are presented.
5.2. Discussion
The use of sailwings in a vertical axis wind turbine
introduces structural problems when compared to solid bladed
designs. The leading edge member must carry most of the
aerodynamic load, must resist the loading applied by the
-52-
tension in the sail membrane and is also subject to
centrifugal loads due to the rotation. All these loads
increase with windspeed and tip speed ratio. The stresses
arising in the leading edge member limit the length of blade
which may be used without some form of bracing. Bracing
inevitably incurs drag which, although not important at the
lowest tip speed ratios, increases rapidly at tip speed ratios
above one.
Several configurations for a vertical axis turbine may
be considered (Fig.5.1). With arrangements a) and b), the
leading edge member is additionally stressed by having to
react all or part of the trailing edge tension. The struts
must be large enough to support the weight of the blades,
they must also transmit the driving torque to the axis and
have to restrain the blade in position. It should be realized
,
that the struts ma y come under a substantial compressive
load. In arrangement c), the leading edge member is not so
highly loaded but a longer blade length is required for a
given swept area. The struts must still be large enough to
withstand the compressive load now applied by the trailing
edge tension. The central shaft also comes under a compressive
load, applied by the cables supporting the top bearing; which
also means that the bearings must both withstand an axial
thrust.
Eventually the choice of design configuration should
come down to the cost for a given useful output. However,
the cost will depend on the local availability of materials
and the useful output is difficult to predict as it will
depend on the load matching and the performance of each
turbine configuration. With vertical blades, flexing of the
leading edge member will allow increased deflection of the
trailing edge; this may limit the tip speed ratio. The use
of inclined blades will reduce the starting torque coefficient
but may increase the peak power coefficient as the optimum
tip speed ratio is increased; this may also allow improved
load matching. Less deflection of the trailing edge will
occur and deflections will have less effect as most of the
power is then produced near the outer ends of the blades.
In the event, the inclined blade configuration was
chosen for the prototype turbine and the design was very
similar to that tested in a wind tunnel by Newman and Ngabo
(1978).
The main differences in the present design were the
use of canvas sails rather than 'Dacron' and the use of
individual blade struts instead of a central supporting disc.
5.3. Design Details
A diameter of two metres was chosen for the turbine.
The size was determined mainly by cost restrictions and
practical considerations of ease of construction and
installation. It was decided to use three sets of blades
so as to give strucural stability and as this should be
sufficient to ensure self-starting. The blades were two
metres long and were inclined at an angle of 30 degrees to the
vertical. This gave a swept area of 3.5 m t . The design is
shown in Fig.5.2.
- 5 4 - -
The choice of sail dimensions was faitly arbitrary as
no clear guidelines had emerged from the theoretical work.
However, the peak power coefficient of a low tip speed ratio
turbine is unlikely to be very sensitive to small changes
in the solidity. The sail dimensions are shown in Fig.5 .3
and gave a ratio of total sail area to swept area of 1.1.
Canvas was chosen for the sails for the reasons discussed
in section 4 - .- 2; i.e. because it seemed that the starting
torque was likely to be higher and that the performance
should be best in low winds. Tent fabric, with a density of
25 0 g/m2 was used and was treated with 'Mesowax' waterproofer
and preserver.
The trailing edge was curved in a circular arc with a
maximum hollow equal to 3% of the blade length. Two different
materials were used for the trailing edge line; 3mm stranded
steel rope83 kN/unit strain) and 3mm nylon cord
(E.,.= 0.82 kN/unit strain). The lines were secured at the
bottom endplate to tensioners which allowed setting of the
pre- tension by means of a torque wrench. The leading edge
was a 4 0mm diameter wooden dowel (mopstick), painted for
weather protection. Wood was chosen for its high strength
to weight ratio. The central struts and leading edge mounts
were made from 20mm and 25 mm conduit respectively. At their
inner end, the struts were bolted to a plywood triangle which
was connected to the central shaft by aluminium flanges.
Although the struts were probably stronger than necessary
a significant reduction in the parasitic drag would require
a streamlined section. A solid supporting disc would result
in less drag but seems very wasteful of material.
The central shaft was in two sections of 1" galvanised
steel pipe, secured at each end by aluminium flanges. This
shaft was stiffened by wires, as can be seen in Fig.5.2.
These served to both stiffen the shaft and to assist in alignment
during construction. Between each endplate and bearing, the
pipe was replaced by 25mm solid steel shaft. This was necessary
to withstand the bending stresses in the top shaft. This
shaft must be quite long, since the bearing needs to be mounted
such that the lines of action of the guy wires pass through
its centre. This avoids the bearing swiveling in its housing
due to uneven guy wire tension arising from wind loads.
The bearings used were 25mm internal diameter deep groove
ball bearings with sealed races and spherically machined outer
surfaces. These are able to swivel in their housings and so
could accomodate small shaft deflections.
For the guys, 3mm stranded steel cable was used, attached
by barrel strainers to 1.5m long angle iron stakes. Five
guy wires were used do as to provide redundangy. The support
tower was fabricated from 1" square section steel tubing.
It was clamped to a foundation block, sunk into the ground.
This was a 0.6m sided concrete cube,_which happened to be
available and which provided ample ballast.
The turbine was constructed by the author. The main
difficulty was found to be in accurately aligning the top
and bottom shafts. Otherwise the individual components were
quite easy to manufacture and no particular skill was required.
The turbine was balanced statically.
It was found that three people could install the turbine
without difficulty. The tower was clamped to the foundation,
the turbine was then lifted, with its axis horizontal, and
pins on the bottom bearing plate located into slots on the
top of the tower. Using a rope and gin pole arrangement,
the turbine was simply pulled Upright. A back rope maintained
the turbine vertical while the guy wires were attached to
their stakes and tensioned.
1
(c)
Fig.5.1 . Some possible arrangements for a sailwing
turbine.
Fig.5.2. View of the prototype turbine.
Fig.5.3, Dimensions of a
single sail
Fig.5.
4
. An inclined
turbineblade.
7z.. ......
il 'ituri '''
0

-4 - 1-
r .
_ -_
00
7 47

" -
j
-!--.2
4-
..
-1
--. --17 1
-
-7 27 1r.
rt) .
,
,.--__ __.
".:-..
-:."--=.4
- ---- ---,--:, : ....- I , ..--r- ---_-i---.:
-
..-.....--:.t-.7 .-__Itl, , _ .
-I---' .
. _
_ _L "' __
4.-.--ar-7 -:.
-`' ..."-----' -' --------T"---t"----..----":1"---=-n _-7 :17 .- . --= 7 -- .---.F--,4--L -- -
.:_:_.;

' '
.....,.
-.
_____ ._,.._ -

--
. _
.., ._.-....-. -,_ .,., -....-----,-.-*..-.--

1
..- --
--......,-....-

;17. -
_

j
Fig.5.5. Torque coefficient vs. tip speed ratio
-prototype turbine- Frtcetaion
?2--
,
. .j
_
--7 _ -
_
- - ,

4
_
_
_

---__.:-.,:-_._.: _________,, __-__.-- -t- ,- --- - -- .1

.
_ ..........-.1....L ..,----------..-

,.."------"ti--- -. . . ---7 t.-- --::--1
:_. -,.... -
_
_-......--
... -. -.._
."1..."--"---
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-
----4:::-----::.i . - -"---- . ...............-_-
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.

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a-.i1-.:: ..... ...-,...
_
.- + ":7 ,_-::-.--

J.-,
... t r.. ;.:Ir_..z.t. ..... .....,..._. .4... ....,
...---"' """-1--: ....1
I
1.t- -.:.. - . _: . E--- _ : ..-:---_...I .
t
z-
,
4 , 9.4 4
ka(4 )':kNv
.
I .
1

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1
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s)
n4
00
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o
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II D
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00
a
-6
i v o .,c
G,
ca
Fir.5.6. P
redicterl torve -tnip0 , -ercoeffic)
curves fortte r)rotot-le tuezine.
.6-
n.,
.... . . ....
5.4. Prototype Theoretical Performance
To allow for the inclined blades of the prototype, it
is necessary to slightly modify the theory presented in
Chapter One and used to produce the torque curves of the
previous chapter.
The expression for angle of incidence
04 (eqn.E1.91 )
becomes:
c54Ct.tce.vCit .2 1 " eef
/-e6+cose
where

R b : L e a r

Cs.23
(Fig.5.4)
and the expression for the ratio(eqn.DAL6) becomes:
Cie ----
WA44' CoSe 4- (SLIIT/SI:ete)a
The derivation of these equations may be found in
Appendix 5.
Now, it is possible to repeat the analysis, except
that it is necessary to integrate along the z-a xis at each
azimuthal blade poskion. Doing this analysis using ttte data
from tests Calp and Ca2p for the canvas sailwings, produces
the curves of torque coefficient C;vs.tA shown in Fig.5.5.
Lacking a better alternative, these curves have been converted
to curves of true torque coefficient C power coefficient
Cp vs. true tip speed ratio, by assuming that the solidity
is still small enough for the approximation for the induced
flow, V\44
to be reasonably valid. Hence, it is assumed
that:
CctAs
A
C C
ck frkI
1 1 .
t
Obviously, these approximations become less valid as
tip speed ratio increases. This gives the curves, shown
by solid lines, in Fig.5.6. The parasitic drag caused by
the struts has been estimated, as shown in Appendix 5.
Allowance for this drag gives the modified predictions for
the torque and power coefficients shown by the dashed curves.
Since the tension coefficient is generally lower at the
higher tip speed ratios, it is possible to draw in the dotted
curve as a speculative prediction of the probable average
performance. This assumes that, in the average windspeed,
the value of the pre-tension coefficient ce, when the turbine
is stationary, is as it was in the wind tunnel test Calp
(i.e. Cpl . =2.2).
It is clear from these predictions that the effect of
using inclined blades has been to significantly affect the
starting torque coefficient expected. Surprisingly, the
predicted starting torque coefficient is now little affected
by the pre-tension coefficient.
5.5 Conclusions
A prototype vertical axis sailwing turbine has been
designed and constructed. The diameter was two metres and
three sets of blades were used inclined at an angle of 30
degrees to the vertical, the top bearing being held by guy
wires. The swept area was 3.5 m
z
and the ratio of total
blade area to swept area was 1.1. Canvas tent fabric was
used for the sails.
The turbine was quite easy to construct except for some
difficulty experienced in aligning the top and bottom shafts
accurately. Some theoretical predictions for the performance
indicate a torque coefficient Cm of about 0.06 on starting. .
The predictions are less reliable at higher tip speed ratios
but indicate a maximum power coefficient of between about
0.1 and 0.15 at a tip speed ratio of 1.6 to 1.8. The torque
and power coefficients are expected to be significantly
affected by the windspeed at higher tip speed ratios.
CHAPTER SIX
PERFORMANCE TESTS ON THE PROTOTYPE TURBINE
6.1. Introduction
Having built a prototype turbine, it was tested in the
open air, to obtain data on its actual performance
characteristics in a natural wind and so allow assessment
of its suitability as a source of power.
Because of the variable nature of the natural wind,
measurement of the performance characteristics of a turbine
is not easy. There are basically two possible approaches.
Either the turbine may be loaded by some form of dynamometer
and run at constant speed, a series of tests at different
speeds providing a complete picture of the performance. Or,
the turbine may be left unloaded and be allowed to accelerate
to its free wheeling speed, continuous measurement of its
acceleration enabling calculation of the power output
throughout the speed range. The first method has been used
in open air testing of small turbines; as described, for
example, by Herepath and Woollard (1980); but with a small
turbine, it would seem difficult to maintain constant speed
operation. Herepath and Woollard in fact found it necessary,
to allow for the power absorbed by fluctuations in the turbine
speed. The second method has the advantage of simplicity,
no sophisticated loading device being required. This method
was originally used by Sharpe (1977) in wind tunnel tests
and its use in open air testing has been described by, for
example, Stacey and Musgrove (1981).
In both methods considerable scatter in the results
is inevitable and it is usual to sort the results into
intervals of tip speed ratio and to average the data collected
in each 'bin I . The main cause of scatter is the uncertainty
with which the free windspeed experienced by the turbine
may be estimated. Because of turbulence, this windspeed may
be quite different to that measured by anemometers which
must inevitably be some distance away.
Work was delayed several months by difficulty in
obtaining permission to install the turbine on a test site
on the university campus. The site eventually obtained was
situated near the top of a slight hill with farmland to the
south and south-west; the prevailing wind direction. The
north-easterly direction was blocked by a single storey barn
about ten metres distant (Fig. 6. 1).
6. 2. Test Equipment and Measurements
6. 2. 1. Measurement of the Turbine Inertia
The acceleration test method relies on a knowledge of
the moment of inertia of the turbine in order to calculate
the power absorbed in accelerating. The turbine inertia
was measured by arranging for it to be suspended as a torsional
pendulum; allowing calculation of the inertia from
= vv-28S1-
(2TrOz L
where S is the moment of inertia of the turbine about the
axis of rotation,m is the turbine mass, Rs is the radius at
which the suspension ropes were attached, 1 , is the length
of the suspension ropes and f is the frequency of oscillation.
The turbine was assembled in the laboratory and suspended
by ropes attached to each of the blade struts so that its axis
was vertical. Values were recorded as follows: nil =38 kg
0.2,=0.56 m 0.005, f =0.318 Hz 0.002 1 L =2.00 m 0.01.
These give a value of
I =14.4 kg.111
6.2.2. Measurement of Turbine Speed
The turbine speed must be measured to allow calculation
of the instantaneous tip speed ratio and acceleration. The
speed was measured using a tachometer, consisting of a disc
with slots cut in the periphery and running through a slotted
opto-isolator connected in an electronic circuit. The circuit
contained a tachometer chip and produces a d.c. voltage output
proportional to input pulse frequency (Fig.6.2). Details of
the circuit are contained in Appendix 6. Calibration of the
circuit showed a linear output up to about 300 Hz,
corresponding to more than twice the maximum operating frequency.
6.2.3. Measurement of Windspeed
Measurement of windspeed enables values of instantaneous
turbine speed and power to be converted to values of tip speed
ratio, torque and power coefficient. The windspeed was
measured using two anemometers, positioned slightly upstream
of the turbine, at the turbine mid-height (Fig.6.3). It was
considered that this positioning allowed the anemometers to
be as close as possible to the turbine while still measuring
the free windspeed, undisturbed by the presence of the turbine.
The free windspeed experienced by the turbine was estimated
as the mean of the values recorded by the two anemometers.
While this estimates the free windspeed a short time before
the turbine speed was measured, the time difference was
normally rather less than the time interval used in sampling
the continuous recordings of wind and turbine speed that
were made. Also, it should be realized that the wind direction
may vary markedly during a short period and that the
anemometers had a finite response time.
The anemometers and masts were constructed in the
engineering workshops and calibrated in the wind tunnel.
The anemometers used slotted discs and identical electronic
circuits as the tachometer, producing a d.c. output proportional
to windspeed (Appendix 6).
6.2.4. Measurement of the Trailing Edge Tension
The pre-tension in the trailing edge line was set using
a torque wrench on the tensioning bolts. Because of friction
in the bolts and the large rangecovered by the wrench,
measurement was not very accurate. The accuracy was probably
no better than 50 N. The tensions set were: wire trailing
edge, 130 N and 250 N; nylon trailing edge, 400 N. In a 5m/s
wind the pre-tension coefficientsCoy, based on mean chord,
were thus: 3, 6 and 9 respectively with the turbine stationary.
6.2.5. Test Method
The voltage signals from the tachometer and the two
anemometers were recorded on three channels of a multi-channel
analogue cassette recorder in FM mode. The turbine was
allowed to accelerate from rest to free wheeling speed before
being braked and the cycle repeated. Recordings made
during a typical test run are shown in Fig.6.4. It can be
seen that the correlation between the windspeed readings
was not particularly good. This method gave recordings
covering the full range of tip speed ratio. A total of 180
minutes of recordings were made with the wire trailing edge
and 130 minutes with the nylon cord.
6.3. Data Processing and Analysis
The recorded cassettes were played back through
digitising equipment and the resulting data transferred to
the PRIME computer in the department. A sampling interval
of one second was chosen.
To reduce the scatter in the values of torque and power
coefficients, calculated from the measurements, data for
which the windspeed estimate was too uncertain was eliminated.
The windspeed measurements from the two anemometers were
considered at the beginning and end of each sampling interval.
The mean and standard deviation of the four values were
calculated and if the coefficient of variation (standard
deviation / mean) was greater than 0.08, then the data was
rejected. A total of 88% of the data was eliminated in this
way.
With the remaining data, instantaneous values were
estimated as follows: Considering the time interval (t) to
(t+1);
free windspeed=
= ( Vw, ( t) Vw 2 (t) +V (t I ) 4 Vvj L ( t+ I))
turbine speed=( t)( s-L( t)+..atE4-1))
turbine acceleration= =(t -0
) - L t)
torque=1- it) =ct)
power=

P tt ) = -
-r
(t)
tip speed ratio=
frat.)= eq",
(t)
torque coefficient. C(t)
.=
714)/
A(t)2 .
power coefficient=Ca) 1rMC6). ( t) /LA. Ct
The sampling interval used and the coefficient of
variation selected, were found to be acceptable compromises.
A more rigorous rej ection criterion could have increased the
certainty of the wiiidspeed estimate but would have reduced
the amount of usable data. A shorter sampling interval
would have increased the amount of data but, in fact, this
was found to increase the scatter in the results, even when
the windspeed data was given a time delay.
Considerable scatter was still present in the results
and to produce performance curves the values were sorted
into 'bins', 0.2 wide intervals in tip speed ratio. From
the values collected in each bin, the mean and standard
deviation were calculated and are plotted in Figs. 6.5 and 6.6.
The number of values collected in each bin is also shown.
All the values for the tests with the wire trailing edge
were binned together in view of the uncertainty in the
measurement of the trailing edge tension and the large
range of windspeed during each test run.
The main cause of scatter in the results, apart from
the remaining uncertainty in the windspeed estimate,_is
probably the effect of windspeed on the turbine performance.
At very low turbine speeds, the effect of ripple- in the
tachometer voltage output may also have been significant.
A small systematic error in the results is mainly introduced
by the possible error in the measurement of the turbine
inertia. Maximum errors have been estimated as follows:
Cal 6.5%; Cp, 8 96 (Appendix 6).
6.4. Results and Discussion
The turbine was found to self-start readily and
accelerated to a free-wheeling tip speed ratio of about 1.6.
The torque and power coefficient curves obtained with the
wire and nylon trailing edge lines are shown in Figs.6.5 and
6.6 respectively. The error bars represent plus and minus
one standard deviation of the data in each bin. The scatter
is explained partly by the uncertainty in the estimate of the
free windspeed experienced by the turbine and partly by the
expected variation in the turbine performance due to changes
in windspeed. The windspeed during the tests ranged between
2 m/s and 12 m/s.
It can be seen that the average values produce
reasonably smooth curves. The theoretical predictions (see
section 5.4) are included in the figures. The agreement with
the prediction of the probable average performance is quite
good and the agreement in the measured and predicted starting
torque coefficient in particular, gives encouraging support
to the wind tunnel test data of canvas sailwings.
The differences observed between the results for the
wire and, the much more elastic, nylon ttailing edge lines
are small and hardly significant but are consistent with the
expected effect of trailing edge deflections, namely, an
improvement in performance at low tip speed ratios and a
detrimental effect at higher tip speed ratios. A problem
with the nylon trailing edge line was the flapping of the
sails which occurred when the turbine was parked.
No particular shortcomings in the mechanical design
were apparent, except that the tower should have been stiffer.
The turbine survived storm force winds ()25m/s) when pamed,
with only minor damage to one of the sails.
Fig.6.1. View of the wind turbine test site.
o
-A
o
h
0
-o
11\
\ C : 1 1
r
0
a..41.-er""-
A 1 0",
or
.b
_
1
ir.,6:2.
Diagram of the tachometer arranr.ement.
PRE.%) At z.4 az C . 4 wt r-s t>Ie-c-n
ix) et -s4
0

2
Aloe. mfsi SrF AoE1-4 054 eTta
Fig.6.3. Schematic plan of the prototype turbine test
arrangement
;I)
rn
oto.Atoelrt'r'E.'P
L A
)
LA XI,
-mi
'00
p
'A.
Il l 0.13
(5....vaWAN4icts4c*.o.43
'Cr'
1 o91
om
r . ,
7-3
MM
OW
MO
ri) co
az)
0
-4
kr>
tf
(t) 4.1
n
a
LI-
SA
Fig.6.4a Rotor and windspeed vs. time during a
typical test run
9
0
0
P.....^

pa
.."

n1 4 , ./..

..

...

.
9
001
00
9
t3 cl Fr, 74
:-.An0
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ki-
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o'
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Fig..6.5.Torquenn power coefficientsv s.tip-speed
ratiowitha nylontrailing'edge
--n n
11,?
00
9
gr re ?z,
6 6 6 6
c ) ,
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vi f)
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i i i
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i
b, 0. . . 1. . . . . . --. . . . ,. . 4
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\

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n
Fi g.6 .6 . Torque and power coeffi ci ent s vs. t i p-speed
-Pat i owi t h a wi re t rri li nr edge
6.5

Comparison with other Turbines

The present prototype was of very similar design to
the turbine tested in a wind tunnel by Newman and Ngabo (1978).
The main differences were that they used 'Dacron' sails and
a central supporting disc rather than individual blade struts.
The ratio of blade area to swept area was 1.24, compared to
1.1 for the prototype. They found that the peak power
coefficient varied slightly with trailing edge tension and
elasticity. The test result shown (Fig.6.7), the best
obtained, gave a power coefficient of 0.15 at a tip speed
ratio of 1.3. They report a maximum starting torque
coefficient C Q , of 0.03.
The sail rotor described by Burley (1979) bas five
blades, set vertically. The sails were of canvas and no
trailing edge line was used, the trailing edge merely being
cut in a V-shape. The ratio of blade area to swept area
was 1.13. This rotor has been tested in the open air using
a constant speed method (Hurley, 1980) and the results shown
in Fig.6.8 were obtained. With the small number of measurements
and the large scatter, the claimed peak power coefficient
of 0.13 seems slightly optimistic. He does not report any
measurements of starting torque. The low maximum tip speed
ratio may be due to the lack of pre-tension in the trailing
edge.
Stacey and Musgrove (1981) describe field tests of a
high solidity, low aspect ratio, solid bladed Darrieus turbine.
They obtained the results shown in Fig.6.9. As in the present
measurements, the marked points are averages of a large
number of values and the error bars represent plus and minus
one standard deviation. With the aerofoils set with their
chord perpendicular to the cross-arm, the maximum power
coefficient obtained was 0.09 at a tip speed ratio of 1.9.
However, when they gave the blades an initial pitch offset
of 3.5 degrees, nose out, they obtained a maximum power
coefficient of 0.17. They attributed this to the effects of
flourcurvature.
NEWMAN AND NGABO: VERTICAL-AXIS WIND TURBINE USING SAILS
Side view of the wind turbine with the principal dimensions in inches.

Fig .6..

Power coefficient vs. tip -speed ratio
McGill smilwing turbine.
(Newman and Ngabo,1978)
0-2.o
PoWER
CoEP'F.
0-1.5
0-10
005
OG
0
rt)
9 0
0
8
00 0
QD
0 %0
00
0
000
0
0
o
0
0
Tio
1-0
Fig.6.8.Power coefficient vs.tip speed ratio
Hurley sail rotor (Hurley,1980)
02
PovJE CZ
CoEFF.
C p
exto r bac s reft12,5e...At-
Olele. S4--anclarct deo:after%
X 3 . 1 rur
o zero offset
0 1 -
turbine.

^-146,0. 5-6 /R.,- 3.125

6
( S t acey and Musgrove 0981)
)
0

1.0

3.0
s
Fig. 6.9.
Power coefficient vs. tip-speed ratio
( N al co: tool s)
sol id-bl aded, high sol idity
6.5. 1
. Flow Curvature and the Prototype Turbine
Flow curvature, and its effect on the / virtual blade
profile and pitch, is explained in section 1 .3. Its influence
depends on the value of the blade chord to turbine radius
ratio. For the prototype, this ratio was large; equal to
0.4 at the maximum radius position, comparing to the value
of 0.27 in the solid bladed turbine of Stacey and Musgrove.
For a sailwing,,it seems rather difficult to predict
the virtual blade profile because of the continuously
varying natural profile. However, to give an idea of the
magnitude of the effect at
low tip speed ratios, a simplified,
approximate analysis has been performed to show the variation
of virtual camber and pitch, assuming a non-varying natural
profile. The method is explained in Fig.6.1 0. The angle of
incidence is calculated at four positions along the blade
chord; the following expressions for the virtual camber ratio
V and pitch 4 than give an approximation to the virtual
blade profile:
t" 1 - 4 1 '41 1 (2. 4 1 4 +4 4 _rt A
Aatael (- Lad, ( ot. 2.oe 1 ) 4-
2-Earl
(c.(1 .- 0e- 3)++1 74 "
(e4 . 27Q
6
The results are plotted for several low tip speed ratios
in Fig.6.1 1 ,f or the maximum radius position.
Now, the operation of a solid bladed turbine is rather
different to that of the sailwing prototype. At its optimum
tip speed ratio, the solid bladed turbine derives all its
driving torque from blade positions where the blade is unstalled.
The tangential force coefficient is very sensitive to small
changes in angle of incidence in this, pre-stall region and
so the effect of a change in incidence caused by flow
curvature may be large. The sailwing turbine though, derives
its driving torque from blade positions with a large range
of incidence and so a small change in the effective incidence
is less likely to have much effect. The effect of virtual
pitch with the sailwing will be to generally give a slight
increase in the camber on the upstream blade pass and a slight
decrease on the downstream pass. This is the same effect as
a small reduction in the pre-tension and a small increase
respectively; this will not be affected by an initial pitch
offset. It seems unlikely that an initial pitch offset will
have any significant effect on the performance of the prototype
turbine.
1
Vtr4Ue-3
3- I,.
e%. C., CLvt3
1
.43.. =. /6=1 2.4-0"ti>
C
\
VI r+u al Co.v.".17e.r. ro--1. 0
C
oe\l : \\ _
I
Fige6,1 0, An
apPrb-
xihiciLiunto the virtual blade profile.
<
0
C
Ill 35
Xf
LAII 'et-A

nn
Fig.6.11.
The variation of virtual pitch angle and
virtual camber ratio with azimuthal angle
at low tip-speed ratios.
6.6. Conclusions
The prototype vertical axis sailwing turbine has been
tested in the open air using an acceleration test method
to produce performance curves. Considerable scatter was
present in the results but this was not significantly greater
than obtained in field testing by other workers despite
additional scatter probably introduced by variations in turbine
performance with windspeed. The averaged values produced
quite smooth curves for the torque and power coefficients
which are in reasonable agreement with predictions, particularly
at low tip speed ratios. Peak power coefficients of 0.11
and 0.095 ( 0.009) were obtained with the wire and nylon
trailing edge lines respectively and in both cases the
starting torque coefficient was about 0.07 ( 0.0045). The
optimum tip speed ratio was about 1.4 and the free-wheeling
tip speed ratio about 1.6.
CHAPTER SEVEN
THE PROTOTYPE TURBINE AS A WINDPUMP
7.1. Introduction
Although the performance of the prototype turbine is
quite poor beside that of a good multi-blade design, which
should produce power coefficients two or three times as
high (Dunn, Eisa et al, 1979), it is probably quite similar
to that of a Cretan windmill. From the tests, the torque
characteristics appear to be well suited to pumping
applications and it may be that, with its vertical axis and
cheap construction, such a design could have advantages in
some applications, particularly if good pump matching can
be achieved.
The power in the wind depends on the cube of the
windspeed. Most windpumps however, use a reciprocating pump
with a constant torque requirement, the power absorbed
therefore only rises in direct proportion to the windspeed
and so , except in the lowest winds, most of the wind energy
is wasted. The importance of improving the pump matching
however, probably does not lie in increasing the output in
high winds so much as in allowing better use of the energy
in the gusts occurring in low winds. A windpump must
generally be designed to produce suffiOient output in the
lowest wind likely to occur and so, increased output in high
winds cannot be used, unless storage is available. But,
increasing the system efficiency in low winds would enable
the use of a smaller and hence cheaper windpump.
In this chapter, the amount of energy contained in gusts
is demonstrated using the measurements of windspeed made
during the performance tests and the factors limiting how
much of this energy a wind turbine can use are discussed.
A simple analysis has been used to show how the torque
characteristics of the pump can affect the output.
The torque characteristics of reciprocating pumps may
be altered by the effects of the inertia of the water in the
pipes. Some tests have been made in which this effect was
investigated, using a diaphragm pump. These tests were not
very successful in obtaining high volumetric efficiencies
but it did seem that a pair of such pumps would provide a
suitable load for testing the prototype turbine. Subsequent
tests of the prototype under load revealed a number of
problems. Some possible modifications to the arrangement
are discussed.
7.2. Turbulence in the Wind and Windpump Output
Van der Hoven (1957) has shown there to be two major
peaks in the spectrum of horizontal windspeed (Fig.7.1).
The peak occurring at a period of ahout 100 hours, corresponds
with the passage of atmospheric pressure systems. The peak
occurring at a period of about one minute (0.02 hrs.)
with the gusts which are of interest here.
Because of the low viscosity of air, the wind near the
ground is almost always turbulent. It may be visualized as
a steady flow in which a random series of eddies are
embedded. At a particular point, a series of gusts and lulls
occur as the eddy direction coincides with or goes against
the general flow. The turbulence is of mechanical and
convective origin and, close to the ground is dependent on:
altitude, ground roughness, windspeed and temperature lapse
rate (Lumley and Panofsky, 1964). It is assumed here that
the turbulence experienced at the test site was typical.
At any instant, the windspeed can be considered as
having steady and varying components;
V). N.7w -i- v(t). The
instantaneous power in the wind per unit area is thus:
1:liv(Vw 4 . v(t))3
, - 3-
7. -2'
i.e.Pw = 1 o ( Vw + 3 Vw v-(t) 4 - 3 v,r(t) + v- ton
2x
The average power is therefore:
ew = I2. .. (Vw + 3V,, v.2 - + v.")
per unit area
(noting that 7 . 1- =O), and as in practice the last term is
small, the power in the wind may be determined from the mean
_
-1.
windspeed Vw and its variance v .
The mean and variance of the windspeed were calculated
for each recording made in a low wind. The variance was
NW'
found to lie between 1.0 and 1.6hand calculation of the
average power showed it to lie between 1.2 and 1.3 times
, -3
the value of - gy. acme typical traces or wihdspeed
recorded at the test site are shown in Fig.7.2 . This
..
_
additional 20 to - 30% energy is only 'available to small turbineE
as it-
s contained in small eddies; the turbine diameter must be
rather less than the eddy diameter for a net energy gain.
Another factor limiting the availability of this energy is
the speed response of the turbine. This response will depend
on the turbine inertia and the power/speed characteristics
of the turbine and its load. The inertia of a vertical
axis turbine is generally greater than that of a horizontal
axis machine as the blades are on the circumference of the
swept area. But this is a minor factor beside the energy
that a horizontal axis turbine may lose in yawing. Gusts
usually come from a different direction to the general flow
and der Kinderen et al(1977) have estimated that at least
20% of the total energy is thereby lost to horizontal axis
turbines.
This suggests that small, vertical axis wind turbines
have perhaps 20% more energy available to them than other
turbines. However, gust energy will bewasted unless it
can be absorbed by the load. To demonstrate how the torque/
speed characteristic of the load can affect the energy
absorbed, a simple mumerical analysis has been used.
A typical ten minute recording of windspeed has been
used in a computer progrilm with performance data from the
prototype tubine and idealised pump torque characteristics.
The program calculated the rotor speed and the power absorbed
by the pump at one second intervals, assuming quasi- steady
operation at each point. Only positive displacement pumps
were considered and idealised characteristics with no
cyclic torque variations were assumed. Starting problems,
due to the difference between starting and mean running torques
were not considered as the time interval was too short for
meaningful consideration of this. The assumed torque
characteristics, and those of the prototype turbine are shown
in Fig.7.3. The results of the analysis are given in Figs.7.4
and 7.5. These show the variation of turbine speed and
power absorption by the load with time, together with the
windspeed and wind power traces. It can be seen that the
best matched constant torque pump absorbs only
70% of the
energy absorbed by the variable torque pump.
Clearly, a better matched pump can significantly increase
the system efficiency of a windpump and hence, development
of such a pump would seem a promising way of reducing the
capital cost of a windpump installation.
-
Fig7.1. A Spectrum of the Horizontal Windspeed
(van der. Hoven, 195?)
n : / 7. . ,=7 , . . A4
300400
_Soo600
Wimp
sPEcD
m/s
8
6-
4
2-
o
o
200
Sec.o n ds
thc260. 3)0 46066o
Seconds
fOi
sPreD 8
tAng. . b
4i
rnis
61
2
0

tho

3C-70

4b0

5b0 66,0
Sex-0 eiciS
!elkWa: , 'TSV
um' wm, Si. . 1"D2
. ezyMX:

l`rtr. 'lg. '? Irt

Fig.7.2. Some typical recordings of windspeed at the test'
site..
ShowS
F oslkon n n wt vo
a. -Erui
pumAi, charactert'sfic.
..FDLlotA
p on 14.4-s
t.s+pu
14
-7-01Zot.)E
tVw1
18
VI0=-7mis
Ftoity
- KimA
77.,0410.-z2J00A
n n n
fv,i 5,,tis
n n mm.mmi Nam. 111n
.3m/s
----.-
.0"
0

5.2.

rad s s -1
So

)cor: poneN
Fig.7.3.
Turbine and load torcue curves.
oIA& I s
1 , 3
1 n n n
ett*t4I, C.0 00 ettn IU* 4 20e0 CrtshbaNO343 1 Ofn 34InCola. CrIsalp-VmsCh 010,4 11-00a0
n
Fig, 7.4. Wind speed and rotor speed vs. time
with various load torques.
1
1 :
cmmwmom oo
I\L4ONCIDOoroo oto c . oraxgramoo
JellItill4,
-il
1)1
-t. 1
U
11
It
-000
(*0
Z
Z
e
.
tA)
Fig. = ;Z. 5. Wind power and power absorbed by various
loads vs. time.
-78
7.3. Inertia Flow in Reciprocating Pumps
One approach to improving the torque characteristics
of reciprocating pumps is to use the inertia of the water
being pumped to increase the volumetric efficiency of the
pump with speed. Dixon (1979) has suggested this and some
efforts to use this approach are described by Burton (1979)
and Burton and Ewens (1980).
Burton and Ewens show two non-dimensional relationships
to be of particular interest; A non-dimensional speed Sr
a non-dimensional flow
77- QA1
ReAptcli
=g [4.2]
where Re is half the stroke length of the pump,
1
is the
piston area, LL is the length of the inertia pipe, ALis the
cross-sectional area of the pipe, 1-k is the total head,
S1 is the pump angular velocity, Q. is the volumetric flow
rate and 1 7isthe volumetric efficiency.
As is shown in Appendix 7, a theoretical curve of
dimensionless flow against dimensionless speed may be drawn
(Fig.7.6). It can be seen that, at high dimensionless speeds,
the volumetric efficiency may exceed two.
Reciprocating pumps are normally operated at low
dimensionless speeds but suitable choices of the parameters
allows inertia flow to occur and higher volumetric efficiencies.
For, a windpump, the choice of pump size (epAp) is fixed by
the operating head 1-1
and the starting torque provided by the
wind turbine in the chosen starting windspeed. The relationship
between the angular speed and the dimensionless speed is then
determined by the length and cross-sectional area of the
inertia pipe.
The most promising area for application of inertia
flow effects seems likely to be in low lift situations, where
sufficient torque can be provided by a relatively fast running
rotor, allowing high dimensionless speeds to be obtained.
without excessive lengths of inertia pipe.
7.4. Performance Tests on a Diaphragm Pump
To investigate inertia flow in practice and to measure
the performance of a particular pump, some tests on a
reciprocating pump were carried out. A diaphragm bilge pump
was chosen for the tests as this was readily available in
a suitable size, was self priming and could handle dirty
water without any problem. The pump used (Henderson, Chimp)
is moulded in plastic and uses a neoprene diaphragm. It was
mounted so that it could be driven through a crank mechanism
with a stroke of 30mm.
The tests were carried out with a 3m suction lift and
minimal pressure head. This is a suitable configuration
for a low lift application, with a self-priming pump, and
minimises the length of the transmission required between
the wind turbine and the pump.
7.4.1. Apparatus and Procedure
The test arrangement is illustrated in Fig.7.7. 22mm
bore, armoured pvc tubing was used for the inertia pipe, and
lengths of 3.9m and 5.9m were tested. A simple test ri,g
was designed and built.(Fig.7.8). This was driven by hand
and torque measurement was provided by a tensioner on the
drive chain. A continuous recording of torque was made using
a chart recorder and average torque was obtained using a
time domain analyser with an averaging time of 10s. A static
calibration of the torque reading was made; weights being
suspended from the drive handle with the crank wheel locked in
position. This calibration was then corrected for any
dynamic effects and for friction losses in the drive chain,
by recording the torque reading obtained s with the crank rod
disconnected, over the full speed range. This reading was
subtracted from the torque readings subsequently obtained;
The test results therefore still include losses occurring in
the crank mechanism. The calibration error is thought to
be less than 2%.
The average flow rate was determined by weighing the
volume of water pumped in a measured time. The error in the
flow rate may be 4%. The speed was simply calculated by
counting the number of cycles completed in the measured time.
A recording run was rejected if the speed varied by more
than 5% over the interval.
-
0 4
1
Fig.7.6. Theoretical curve for dimensionless
pow vs.
dimensionless speed
3m
Put-4 P A i 4
_
-
/
Fig.7.7. Arrangement for pump performance tests
Fig.7.8.
1-imp test riF -Ind tensioner arrangement.
7.4.2. Results and Discussion
The results are shown in Figs.7.9 to 7.11. To compare
the measurements with the theoretical predictions, the
dimensionless flow and speed have also been calculated, using
eqns.D.C1 and C4. 23 (Fig.7.12). With a diaphragm pump, it is
not possible to define the piston area Ap except by calculating
it from the measured swept volume and the stroke. The
effective 'piston' area will be a maximum near the maximum
velocity position, causing a higher peak flow velocity than
a rigid piston pump with the same swept volume and stroke
(Fig.7.13a). This would explain the higher than expected
inertia effect at low speeds. It can be seen that the volumetric
efficiency did not continue to rise at high dimensionless
speeds. This is thought to have been due to the pipe losses
which occurred. The torque input rose much faster than would
be expected from the rise in the volumetric efficiency. The
view that this was due to high pipe losses is supported by
the estimate of the losses in Appendix 7 and by the increase
in torque which occurred with the increase in pipe length.
High pipe losses would of had the effect of retarding the
inertia flow (Fig.7.13b), Another factor may have been the
reduction in the swept volume occurring at high speeds, due
to the distortion of the diaphragm arising under the low pressure
in the pump during the suction stroke.
The pipe losses would be reduced by increasing the
pipe diameter. However the losses in the pump valves and
the pump itself would remain unchanged and these losses
appear to have been significant. The present pump was clearly
not designed for efficient operation with high fluid velocities.
It should be remembered that, to maintain the same inertia
effects, the pipe length must be increased in proportion with
the pipe cross-sectional area. This means that increasing
the pipe diameter may be expensive.
The peak overall efficiency of 70% seems low, but
actually this compares well with the efficiency of "70%
reducing to less than 50% at high speeds" reported by
Beurskens et al (1980) for a membrane pump. Burton and Ewens
give a value of 50% as an average efficiency for short stroke
reciprocating pumps.
The starting torque was measured as 2.6Nm, slightly
higher than the starting torque predicted from the 3m head
-3 a
and the average piston area of 5.2.10 m , with the 15mm crank.
Although the volumetric efficiencies obtained were not
as high as had been hoped, it appears that this was largely
due to pipe losses;thes-ecould be grettl-y reduced by increasing
the pipe diameter and re-designing the pump inlet and outlet.
It may be that at very high dimensionless speeds, the volumetric
efficiency would still be limited by the distortion of the
diaphragm reducing.the swept volume. As they stand, a pair
of such pumps would appear to provide a good load match for
the prototype turbi4e, as can be seen from the torque curves
(Fig.7.14). This would seem to provide a suitable load with
which to test the prototype turbi4e in operation as a windpump.
-o
eFriciEwcy
I
o
..
I g
oz
n
I
Kr,
43 -ToR Q 0 J
6is4A
Vot-uET/21C_
EPPtcteNicif
0
Fig.7.9.
Overall efficiency, averaFe torque -nd
volumetric efficiency vs. speed for
diaphragm pum-o.
O -6
tvto
o 9
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i
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and volumetric efficiency vs. speed
for diaphragm pumpb
Fig.7.11. Water mass flow rate vs. pump speed.
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of pumps.
7.5. Testing of the Prototype Turbine under Load
By setting up the prototype turbine to drive a pair
of the diaphragm pumps operating on a 3m lift, it was hoped
to demonstrate its potential as a power source and to test
its behaviour when loaded. The wire trailing edge was fitted.
7.5.1. Arrangement and Predicted Performance
The two pumps were mounted opposite each other on plates
attached near the top of the tower. Connecting rods were
pivoted on a crank-pin mounted at a 15mm radius on the
driveshaft. The driveshaft was coupled directly to the
bottom shaft of the turbine, running through another self-
aligning bearing (Fig.7.15).
A flexible coupling between the two shafts was originally
used, so as to accomodate the inevitable mis-alignment
between the three bearings. However, it was found that this
allowed excessive deflection of the driveshaft to occur,
due to the shock loads in the con-rods at the start of each
stroke. The flexible coupling was therefore replaced by a
simple rigid connection on the assumption that enough
flexibibity existed in the shafts and in the restraint of
the top bearing. This arrangement seemed quite satisfactory.
A hole was dug adjacent to the tower, lined with
polythene and partly filled with water to give a
3m suction
lift. 3.9m of 22mm bore, armoured pvc pipe were used as the
inertia pipe for each pump. Pumped water drained back into
the hole.
Using the torque curves of Fig.7.14 1 and the flow
measurements of Fig.7.11 1 the simple numerical analysis used in
section 7.2 has been repeated so as to predict the system
performance in a typical wind. The assumptions made in the
analysis may be repeated: rotor speed and power absorbed by
the pump are calculated at one second intervals, assuming
quasi-steady operation at each point, cyclic torque variations
are ignored, i.e. mean torque values are always used.
The predicted rotor speed and water flow rate are shown
in Fig.7.16. The results predict that a total of 210kg of
water would have been pumped over the eleven minute period,
giving a useful power output of 2.5 W/mlin this 4.1m/s
mean windspeed. This can be compared with useful power outputs
of between 0.6 WAIL and 1.8 W/mL obtained in this windspeed
by Cretan windmills driving ordinary reciprocating pumps,
as._described by Fraenkel (1976), and with a useful power
output of about 4 W/ML measured by Beurskens et al (1980) with
CAlg.4.16
their THE-I horizontal axis windmill driving a membrane pump.
This suggestSthat the prototype turbine could be competitive
for low lift pumping, especially if the pumps were run more
efficiently.
By using a pair of pumps, half a cycle out of phase,
the starting torque remains the same as with a single pump
and the difference between the starting and mean running .
torque is minimised. From the torque curves (Fig.7.14) it
appears that starting should occur in winds slightly above
4m/s, gusts of which magnitude occur frequently, even in low
winds.
7.5.2. Tests; Results and Discussion
It was unfortunate that since the previous tests, an
oil seed rape crop had been planted in the fields surrounding
the test site. This grew to a height of about 1-3-m, effectively
reducing the tower height to just 0.5m and providing a very
rough ground surface. These two factors made the wind
at the site extremely turbulent during most of the time
available for testing. Fig.7.17 shows a typical wind recording
made at this time. This turbulence made it difficult to
identify the causes of the problems which were encountered
and, in fact, aggravated the problems.
Problems occurred with starting and with running in
low winds. It was found that self-starting under load did
not occur in gusts of less than about 8m/s. In weaker gusts ,
the turbine was unable to gain enough momentum to keep going.
Once the rotor did get going its response appeared to be very
slow and it stalled easily when the wind dropped below about
4m/s.
Since the wind frequently did fall below 4m/s, if only
for short periods, it was difficult to do any measurements of
the actual performance. A few short duration tests were
made in which the time taken to collect 13kg (1 bucket) of
water was measured. In winds averaging between 4m/s and 5m/s
the time taken ranged from 30s to 45s, giving useful power
outputs of between 2W/m2 and 3W/M:
It was clear that, if any useful test running was going
to be obtained, the low speed performance needed to be improved.
Some experiments were therefore made with an air snifting
device to be attached to the pump body. An air snifter allows
the pump to draw in air from the atmosphere when operating
at slow speeds, so reducing the torque requirement. At
operating speeds no leakage occurs and the pump operates
normally. Such a device has been used with a windpump by
the Dutch group SWD.
A design of air snifter was developed (Fig.7.18) and
it operated satisfactorily. A thin rubber diaphragm was
clamped between two, machined brass washers and this formed
an insert into a brass fitting which screwed into a mounting
made on the pump body. Above a certain speed, the diaphragm
sealed alternately against the inlet and outlet to the snifter.
One pump was modified in this way and the behaviour
observed. Little leakage occurred at speeds above about
30 rpm. With just this pump connected to the turbine
however, the low speed performance still did not appear as
good as should have been expected. Unfortunately it was not
possible to obtain any recordings of the turbine operating
in low winds with this modified pump. Some very short
recordings which were made in a strong wind (Fig.7.19 and 7.20)
indicate that the performance then fell far short of
expectations.
It is suggested that the reason for the poor
performance relative to the prediction is the cyclic nature
of the torques involved and the consequent non-linear effects.
-87-
Since the turbine only had three sets of blades, it was
inevitable that the driving torque which it produced should
be strongly cyclic. This is clear from the variation of the
instantaneous torque coefficient CT 1, with azimuthal angle
for test Calp (Fig.4.1). Thus, both the driving torque and
the load torque were cyclic, with periods of c" lir and
7YL
respectively. Combining this with the rapidly varying
windspeed, it is perhaps not surprising that the performance
in practice fell below that predicted by the simple analysis
with its assumptions of quasi-steady operation and no cyclic
torque variations. When stationary, the turbine tended to
become locked in a position where it could produce little
torque. At higher speeds, the turbine had insufficient inertia
for there to be a significant flywheel effect; this may be
a general problem with small turbines coupled directly to
reciprocating pumps. There would presumably be some improvement
with a larger turbine. For a reasonably smooth driving torque
to be produced, six sets of turbine blades would be necessary.
Another factor in the poor performance may be the loss in
performance expected in high winds; this mould tend to reduce
the effect of gusts.
The running of the turbine would seem likely to be
improved if a rotary positive displacement pump or a
centrifugal pump were used in plate of a reciprocating pump.
This would not allow the use of inertia flow effects but a
centrifugal pump could provide a good load match and there
is no eason why an air snifter could not be used with a
rotary pump, to reduce the starting torque. Unfortunately,
lack of time did not allow any modifications to the windpump
to be tried.
Drive. shaft
4ectrie.ss
"f2----CovpLin5
Fig. 7 .
15. Arrangement of the pump drive shaft.
"r achomeiter gro-ke-
00
0
4P4-41t 0100C; ) 73 Se
01"4
1. 71
01
"
. . . -
. c . . .
Ti
I T1
x m
V
07 4
v,
r . . . , e..0
-11
f i l
'0
b E
I llM
A E 1 . - . . . . .
in
0
0'
E 0
.
. z. :
0
0
CAJ-
0

0
0
19 Tn 4Ch5:11"041003Z9N)
0
0
0
0
Ui
0
0
Fi g. 5,06 4 Predi cti ons for rotor sp eed and water flow
rate for the Prototype wi nd pump.
Al6
00
'1
500
')(16
-N.16
0'14metal
.#14metal
ping
with
are
gs
ic e
ling
le
ft
later
o r -
s e
I i
lr
be
but
grs
o nd
the
bed
Ile
..,
He
1, '
1200
1100
1000
00
- 8 00
(I mp.galls /hr)
Test restilts on windmills
(Cret.c ?- ^)
WATER LI FTED
16 (2 pumps )

X16 (2 pumps)
+
*14
/14metal
If
A14 A
Xi 1
)01 A14
11

A.16
SUMNARISED TEST RESULTS
(Heads all abo ut 9ft)
The number o f bars repres ents
the number o f s ails deplo yed
.The s uffix gives wheel diameter
in feet. Metal blades indic ated.
*14
700
*144K14
400*itt.14
14
414
)(16
4
300
*14
*
*16 Alk
16
X1 6 X
14
14
14
100
WI ND SPEED
(tiles /hr)
12

73
9lc
1112 13 1415 16
A16 triple
ap savonius
double
fl)savonius
200
triple
ps avo nius
do uble
Ts amo nius
Fi 4.1 6 9, .es- fro w, ( I 3 - 7 - 6)
0
o
tit
1.1
W4.n
tem*,
1.1
.c t 0La o
CJ)
1.1 4.4
000.
.6 1 1 - 1
Ul
.00)
0.
w >
0)4
LS')
o.oco0
.13, .1 4 .r4 u u
0.0
.- I Cl
C : 1
03
00Ct1 $4 OD
O
0.1 4. n Ti rl p.`: 6 4 2 1 " 4
.4a)
4- 1 a
4944 )4 0)
4.4 p,,
re"
44 a 0) 0.1

(1114c
a)4.)
A I, 0
4.1 n 11 Aa) ( 01 . j ai
44 CO E4 1-1
00 '0I
"
4.' I
044
0)
iri 0
1 . 4 EI C't U30
cd0
#4a)
C d
.00S
c
iooEU
044 C 01 4
a 00)01 4.1 .1 - 1
A&a a)
00b30
C I al 00
raIC 4.1 0.0
ka tC )
C D

A
I

.
t,
\
\
0
dr.. 6
.

.
_

...m ...........
[

. I.....

.
n n ........ .......

...
s4.1 tskesuIts {rows 1 3- e.u- r- cke" s e: E" ( I S 0)
520
0
0
'
:1-
Fig.7.17. A tFrjcal recording of turbulent
win-I.
Fig. 7.18. Section through air snifter.
Nor-ro scALE
r A
A
r="fir
AMA
Ruetsee
DiAPNRA1
tiN

( . , 6
r. ) 0
t A V it.
0

0
Fig. 7. 19, Rot or and wind speed vs. t ime
14
JI
t fri
1
-two pumps.
Let 744*,;*
ITN0
17, -

^1
*
g
%
r
cr,
ri
Jr'
Fig.7.20. Rotorand wind speed vs. time
-one pump.
7.6. Conclusions
Measurements at the test site showed that, due to gusts,
the energy in the wind was about 20 to 30% greater than
would be calculated from the mean windspeed. Small windmills
should be able to use a large part of this additional energy
and vertical axis turbines would seem to be at an advantage
because of the avoidance of yawing losses.
Modifying the torque characteristics of a pump to improve
the load matching should allow a significant increase in the
system efficiency of a windpump, through improving the
utilisation of this'gust-energy: The use of inertia effects
as a means of improving the torque characteristics of
reciprocating pumps seems quite feasible but care will be
required in the design so as to minimise the pipe losses that
occur. It appears that a diaphragm pump may cause inertia
effects at slower speeds than expected, due to the varying
'piston' area.
The potential of the prototype design as a windpump
has not been demonstrated. The cyclic driving torque it
produced caused problems in driving reciprocating pumps.
To operate such pumps, probably six sets of blades would be
required, so as to provide a more even driving torque. It is
not clear if this would then allow efficient use of 'gust-energY
It is likely that the prototype would operate better with a
rotary positive displacement pimp ot a centrifugal pump.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
-
The research work described sought to investigate the
possible use of sailwing aerofoils in vertical axis wind
turbines. It was anticipated that such a turbine could be
suitable as a power source for water pumping in low lift
irrigation. Previous attempts to use sailwings in such
a turbine appeared to have had limited success, or at least
not to have been developed, or demonstrated, as a windpump.
An initial analysis was made to attempt to ascertain
the potential theoretical performance of such a turbine.
A single streamtube model of the flow was used with existing
published aerodynamic data for sailwings. This analysis
suggested that high tip speed ratio operation might be possible
but that more extensive aerodynamic data was required. It
was clear that such a turbine should have much better starting
characteristics than solid bladed turbines and that a
significant scale effect was likely with small turbines; i.e.
increasing the scale would give a significant benefit due to
increasing Reynolds number. It was clear that if high tip
speed ratio operation did occur then induced drag losses
would be a problem and high aspect ratio blades would be
essential.
To obtain more aerodynamic data on sailwings, a series
of wind tunnel tests were made. A measuring balance was
designed which provided readings of the chordwise and normal
force components on the aerofoils. The tests investigated
the effect of the pre- tension in the sail and the performance
of several different fabrics. It was found that performance
was very poor prior to stall, when the pre-tension was a
dominant influence; lower pre-tension giving better performance.
The elasticity and stiffness of the fabric had no clear
influence but porosity appeared detrimental. After stall, it
was found that canvas gave higher chordwise force components
than other fabrics but no explanation of this was clear.
Increased pre-tension gave a general increase in this force
component with the canvas being the most sensitive.
The fresh data showed that, with a si,mple sailwing, such
a turbine would be restricted to low tip speed ratios but that
the starting torque coefficient would be high. The data showed
that the pre-tension coefficient Cpr would be a significant factor
in the turbine performance. However, the coefficient is affected
more by the tip speed ratio and windspeed than by the pre-tension.
be
A quite high pre-tension would seem toA required if sail
instability at high tip speed ratios in higher winds is to
be avoided. The canvas sailwings appeared superior to other
fabrics as they seemed likely to produce higher starting torque
coefficients and performance was predicted to be best in low
winds, when least energy is available in the wind.
Atwo metre diameter prototype turbine was designed and
constructed. Three sets of blades were used, with canvas sails,
in an inclined blade configuration with a guyed top bearing.
This was tested in the open air using an acceleration test
method. Quite smooth curves for the averaged torque and power
coefficients were obtained and these were in quite good agreement
with predictions. The torque coefficient Cehad a value of about
0.07 on starting and the average value of the peak power
coefficient was about 0.1 at a tip speed ratio of 1.4.
It has been argued that a small vertical axis wind
turbine should be at an advantage in utilising the 20% to 30%
of the energy in the wind which is contained in short gusts.
This would require a pump with suitable, speed dependent,
torque characteristics. The use of inertia flow effects seams
a feasible way of improving the load matching provided by
reciprocating pumps but care in the design is necessary to
avoid large losses occurring at high flow velocities.
The prototype turbine was not successfully demonstrated
as a windpump.. Problems were encountered in driving
reciprocating pumps, due it appeared to the cyclic driving
torque provided by the turbine. Probably six sets of blades
would be required in order to drive directly coupled
reciprocating pumps successfully. It may be that a pump with
a non-cyclic torque requirement would provide a more suitable
load for the turbine.
The prototype design may be discussed in comparison
with the criteria suggested by Makhijani (1976) for windmill
design in the rural Third World (see page two).
1. The material cost of the prototype design was about 200.
The material cost of a production design would obviously
depend very much on the local cost of materials but the cost
seems quite high in view of the low power output. It may
be noted that the materials used to construct the prototype
would be almost gufficient to construct a_six bladed
horizontal axis
sai/wing turbine of twice the diameter.
-92-
2. Assuming a power requirement of perhaps 50W to irrigate
a small plot (see page 3), and assuming the prototype windpump
to be capable of producing the predicted useful power output
of 2.5W/min a 4.1m/s wind, then a sWept area of 20ml would
be necessary. This compares with the prototype which had a
swept area of 3.5m
2
.
However, the power take off from the prototype turbine
was quite straight-foward and the rotary drive would lend
itself to driving other equipment.
3. The design is such that use could probably be made of
alternative local materials, e.g. bamboo for the leading edge,
struts etc.. Fairly sophisticated bearings would always be
required. Construction required no particular skill.
4. The design survived some very high winds with only minor
damage, which was easily repaired. For unattended operation
a production turbine would needsome form of speed
limiting device. This could be a centrifugally activated
brake on the drive shaft.
5. Although the starting torque was quite high on average,
its cyclic variation caused starting problems when trying to
drive reciprocating pumps. These problems should be overcome
by the use of more turbine blades or a rotary or centrifugal
pump.
The cost of a vertical axis sailwing turbine would be
reduced if a vertical rather than an inclined blade configuration'
were adopted. This is because the starting torque would be
higher and so a lower solidity could be used. Even then, an
horizontal axis sailwing turbine seems likely to use less material
per unit swept area and would certainly be at least as efficient.
The advantages of a vertical axis design are: the simple
construction, largely because there is no need for a yawing
arrangement; the increased effective swept area, due to the
avoidance of yawing losses; and the rotary drive which lends
itself to multiple uses.
It is suggested that any future work with vertical axis
sailwini turbines should investigate a vertical blade arrangement;
structural design may be more difficult and trailing edge
deflections will have more influence. Secondly, such a turbine
should be demonstrated as a windpump and data on its performance
and reliability obtained. A comparison may then be made with
alternative designs.
REFERENCES
Beurskens,H. et al,. Low Speed Water Pumping Windmills:Rotor
Tests and Overall Performance.Proc.3.Int.Symp. on
Wind Energy Conversion Systems,Copenhagen11980.
Burton,J.,The Matching of Water Pumps to Windminsfor use in
Developing Countries,ODA Research Scheme Report R3496,
1 979.
Burton,J.,& Ewens I
M.,Assembly and Testing of a New Water Pump
and Windmill Combination I ODA Research Scheme Report
R3601,1980.
Critzos I C. et al.,Aerodynamic Characteristcs of NACA0012
Airfoil Section at Angles of Attack from 0 to 180,
NACA Tech. Note 3361,1955.
Darrieus,G. I
US Patent No. 1,835,018, Dec.,1931.
Dixon,J.,Improving the Mechanical Load Matching of Wind Energy
,Convertors,Proc.l.BWEA Workshop l April 197g.
,.
F
.., - ,
Duremberg I
C.,Unsteady Aerodynamics of Vertical Axis Wind
Turbines,Proc.l.BWEA Workshop,April 1979.
Fanucci,J. & Walters,R.,The Theoretical Performance of a
Vertical Axis Wind Turbine,Proc.VAWT Technology Workshop,
Sandia Labs.,Albuquerque11976.
Fraenkel,P.,An International Development Program to Develop
a Wind Powered Water Pumping System Suitable for Small
Scale, Local Manufacture,Proc.2.International Symposium
on Wind Energy SystemslAmsterdam,BHRA,1978.
Fraenkel,P.,Food from Windmills l Intermediate Technology
Development Group,London$1976.
tDunn,P. & Eisa l T. et
al.,Performance Measurements on the Six
Metre Diameter Horizontal Axis Windmill,Proc.2.BWEA
Korkshop l April 1980.
Glauert,H.,The Elements of Aerofoil and Airscrew Theory,
Cambridge University Press,1959.
Golding,E.,The Generation of Electricity by Wind Power,Spon,
London, 1976.
Grylls,W., et al.,A theoretical and Experimental Investigation
into the Variable Pitch Vertical Axis Wind Turbine,
Proc.2.Int.Symp.WECS,Amsterdam,1978.
Herepath,R..& Woollard,M.,Initial Test Results on the 5m
Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine at Swansea$Proc.2.BWEA
Workshop11980.
van der Hoven,I.,Power Sp ectrum of Horizontal Wind Speed in
the Frequency Range from 0.0007 to 900 Cycles per hour,
Journal of MeterologylVol.141pp16-164,1957.
Hurley,B.,The Vertical Axis Sail Rotor,MSc Thesis,Trinity
CollegelDublin,1979
Hurley,B.,Report on Meausrements on Five Sail Vertical Axis
Rotor,Low Energy Systems,3 Larkfield Gardens,Dublin,1980,
der Kinderen,W. et al.,Effects of Wind Fluctuations on
Windmill Behaviour, Wind Engineering,Vol.1,N0.211977.
Lumley,J. & Panofsky,H.,The Structure of Atmospheric Turbulences,
Wiley,New York,1964.
Makhijani,A.,Energy Policy for the Rural Third WorldIIIED,
London, 1976.
Maskell,ETheory of Blockage Effects on Bluff Bodies and
Stalled Wings in a Closed Wind TunnellAeronautical
Research Council,R M No.3400,London11963.
Massey,B.,Mechanics of Fluids l
van Nostrand Reinhold,London,1970.
Mays,I. & Musgrove $ P.,Performance of the Variable Geometry
Vertical Axis Wind Turbine at High and Low Solidities,
Proc12.Int.Symp.WECS,Amsterdam,1978.
-96-
Migliore,P.,A Free Vortex Model With Numerical Solution for
the Unsteady Lifting Characteristics of Straight
Bladed Darrieus Wind Turbines,West Viginia University,
1978.
Migliore,P. & Wolfe,W.,Some Effects of Flow Curvature on the
Performance of Darrieus Wind TurbineslAAIA,17.Aerospace
Meeting,New 0rleans11979.
Miller,D.,Internal Flow, A Guide to Losses in Pipe and Duct
Systems,BHRA,1971.
Musgrove,P. & MaysI.,Development of the Variable Geometry
Vertical Axis Windmill,Proc.2.Int.Symp.WECS,Amsterdam,
1978.
Needham,J.,Science and Civilisation in China,Vol.4,II,
Cambridge University Press,1965.
Newman,B. & Ngabo,T.,The Design and Testing of a Vertical
Axis Wind Turbine Using Sails,Energy ConversionlVol,18,
1978.
Ormiston,R.,Theoretical and Experimental Aerodynamics of the
Sailwing,Journal of Aircraft,Vol.8,2,1971.
Read,S. & Sharpe,D.,An Extended Multiple Streamtube Theory
for Vertical Axis Wind Turbines,Proc.2.BWEA Workshop,
1980.
Robert,J. & Newman,B.,Lift and Drag of a Sail Aerofoil,Wind
Engineering,Vol.3,No.1,1979.
Savonius I
S.,The S-Rotor and its Applications,Mechanical
Engineering,Vol.53,5,1930.
Shankar,P.,On the Aerodynamic Performance of a Class of
Vertical Shaft Windmills,Proc.R.Soc.London A1349,1976.
Sharpe,D.,A Theoretical and Experimental Study of the Darrieus
Vertical Wind Turbine,Kingston Polytechnic Research
. Report,1977.
-97-
Sherman 1 M.,Development of Wind. Energy Utilisation in Asia
and thBPacific,Proc.Expert Working Group on the Use of
s .14 %
-
Solar and Wind Energy,Energy Resou rces
and. ,DeVelopment
Series No.1 6,United Nations1 1 9760
Sherman,M.,The Design and Construction of Low Cost Wind
Powered Water Pumping Systems,ibid.
Sherman i NA Water Pumping Windmill that Works,Journal of the
New Alchemists 1 1 ,1 973.
South,P. & Rangi,RPreliminary Tests of a High Speed Windmill,
NAE Report LTR/LA74,0ttowa,1 971 .
Stern I P. I Small Scale I rrigationvI TDG/I I I C,1 979.
Stacey,G.& Musgrove,P.,The Effect of a Fixed Pitch Offset
on a High Solidity Vertical Axis Windmill,Proc.3.BWEA
Workshop ,1 981 .
Strickland,J.,A Performance Prediction Model for the Darrieus
TurbinelProc.1 .I nt.Symp.WECS,Cambridge1 1 976.
Templin,R.,Aerodynamic Performance Theory for the NRC Vertical
Axis Wind Turbine,NRC Report LTR-LA-1 60,1 974.
Tewari,S.,Economics of Wind Energy Use for I rrigation in I ndia,
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Systems ,Phase I Project Report,UNDP GLO/78/004,1 981 .
Watson,GThe Self-starting Capabilities of Low Solidity
Fixed Pitch Darrieus Rotors,Proc.l.BWEA Workshop,1 979.
APPENDIX 1
berivation of some equations.
Considering Fig.A1.1, and applying the sine rule to the
velocity triangle:

V
itA.' V

N.ife
scelst:A (o-.=<)
hence:

it.A. 1 51 :" otSin(6ca... cos s4;v1

i.e.s Cy, coi-cos 43
itAt 4 cose
5 LI"S
oCce."

SCr%

[1 .61 ]
"A. + Co S
and: .

Viz51:n0Se-43)

St'n
c:,4

str cg.
Also from Fig.A1.1:
C.T CT , -C
04. - Cbs
Considering Fig.A1.2:
Instantaneous retarding force on airstream
=(C,Sern CO-oc.) Cbceea (0_6,4))
Mean retarding force on airstream, per blade
21 1 "
IA v2
=
4 C b Os ( z -ca4 )de,
0
Hence, coefficient of thrust ep
ilea V2-
27r
itZA V2. 21 r
i(C1 -$1 :v/CC25-c'4

CDC"Cq$ -04 ))d

C
i.e.
2rr
5. AR,
(c,sz,n(56-04)Cbc,e6 (0--c.e))c(z
A zir
0
[1 .21 43
Fig.A,111 The relationship
between the lift, drag
and tangential force
eoefficients.
t.--
Fig. M.1
The relationship
bettreen the lift, dram and
thrust coefficients.
6. .e.,42 A Ata.liS
Rate of change of momentum = RAV(VV. )
Power absorbed =

Av (
vw-)
V

0
Rate of change of KE in wind. =
j?A V ( Vt,j - v,2 )0
since
c 0
hence (vw_vj( V ; 1 - v,'
and

\// 1 ,v4 Vt =V
Power extracted by rotor
=P
V4 V (
v
2 /
p, A ( V, 44 V)) (
v, )
;c oe=
,
P
v

=Joy: [(14-.
4.)(i_.2-)1
dP

3 f_30.03
C)
"
hence
i.e.
pb ,4iz A v , , 2 ( 4+g
rti
3
p_p V,,, 1 6
Z A
27
APPENDIX 2
Some Sample Computer Programs Used in the Numerical Analysis
of Chapter Two:
1. A single streamtube program.
2. A single streamtube program including allowance for
varying Reynolds number and a finite aspect ratio.
.TNOs6/27/8011.
Asingle streamtube program.
100
200
305
30i
400
500
600
700
1000
1110
1/20
112:0
1140
1-)00
/300
1400
1500
1550
1600
/700
1800
1900
2000
2100
2200
2300
3100
3200
3400
3500
3600
3700
3800
3900
4000
4100
4200
4300
4400
4500
4600
4700
4800
4900
5000
5/00
520(2
5300
5400
5506
5600
5700
5800
5900
6000
6100
6200
6500
6600
tREST FREE
DIMENSIONCR(27),C1 (27)5ALPHA(15;50);ANO(27);CP1X(50);
1THIIC30),CP(1.5,I5),TH1(715);THC15,15),VR(15,15)5
CP1(3505);VRI(15)
.INTEGE R R,TpA
REAL NU
READ IN AEROFOEL DATA (CE) ANO (CR)
'READ(2560)((CT(K)yeR(K)rANP(K))PK:TIF27)
60 FORMATC3F8,.3)
C SE1 AND INCREMENT 8(11.3DITY (SOLID)
SOLID=0.0
D045Nr.ls5
SOLID=S0LID+0.1
C SET AND INCREMENT VEL,R(110 (MU)
MU=1.0
D040Mrr1si5
MU=MU+04.6
VR1(M)=-MO
C SET AND INCREMENT AUMUTHAL ANGLE ( THETA)
THEIA"0.0
0041Tv1,54
THETA=-THETA+0,0628
C CALCULATE EXPECTED ANOLE OF ATrACK (ALPHA)
ALPHA(MsT)=ATAN(SIff(THETA)/(KU4COS(TKETA)))
C CONVERY A MESATIVE ALPHA YO rosy rEVE FROM 90-/80 DEGREES
/FCALPHA(KsT),LT,0,0)ALFHA(MsT)=ALPHA(MO)+3,142
C FIND FORCE COFFFS> (CT) AND (CR)
23 3F((LPHA(MsT).CE10t0)K=71
/FCALPHACM7Y)3E01.035)K=2-
1F(ALPHA(14;T)vCE.0407)1<:3
IF(ALPHA(T),(iE.0,105)K=4
IF(ALPHA(Ha),CE10,140)K:r5
IF(ALPHA(M,T).(E.0.165)K=6
/F(ALPHA(MsT),GE,04209)17"
IFCALPHA(M,T),0E1.0.244)K=8
1F(ALPHA(M,T)ICE,012)Kn..?
IF(ALPHA(M,T),E,0314)K=10
/F(ALPHA(M0)1.6E10.349)1@11
IF (ALPHA(M,T)6E,0.524)K=12
IF (ALFHA(M57),CE.0.69))K::.13
IF(ALPHA(M,V)>OE:0*813)K=14
IF(ALPHA(4;T).DE,1,047)K:r15
/F(ALPHA(M7T)>(E.1.222)K=16
IF(ALPHA(MsT),CE.1.396)K:=17
IF(ALPHA(MiT),GE,1,570)K=18
1F(ALPHA(MsT),CE421745)Kni?
TF(ALPHA(M,T),BE.1,920)K=20
IF(ALPHA(HsT).CF.2.094)K:=23
XF(ALPHA(MIE).GEs.2.269)11:=22
IF(ALPHA(NsT).6E,2t443)Kr-:23
XF(ALPHA(1,T)E2,618)K=24
1F(aPHA(MsT)XE.2.793)K:rn
IF(ALPHA(N;T))8E,2'967)K=26
C'IMPROVE VALUES DV INTERF(LAIION
XT0.035
IFM,61.10)X::0,3745
CrACT(K).1.(CF(K4.1)-CT(K))*(ALPHA(M,T)-AN13(K))/X
CRA.CR(K)-1-((;R(K-1-2)-C1:(K))*(ALPHA(11a)-ANG(K))/X
02::t8IN(YHETA)/SINCALPHA(M'T)))**2
CTO2=CTA*02
6610CP1I1T)-4.80LID*CTO2i:MU/2
4624:?
TM11(1)=-SOLID*D2*(CR4*81NCINETA)CIA*COS(IHETA))/2
4640t INTEORATE NUMERICALLY
C,r04.0
6660
661:0C=C+CP1I(L)
668010 CONTENUE
CP1(N;M)=.(C+CFM1)./2+CPIX(49)/2)/50
6682
6683
6684E-nE+TH11CL)
668511 CONTINUE
6686
C USE ACTUATOR DISK APPROXIMATION TO CONVERT VALUES
6607C TO TRUE WiNDSPEED
6688
.TH1.017N)=1E+THLI(1)/2-1-rHII(4? )/2)/50
6689cp(N5M)=CP1(N;M)/(1+THi(N01)/4)**3
6690
TH(N,M)=211-11(NxN)/(1-1-TH1(M,M)/4)**2
6691'VR14F1.1)::MO/(1.1-THI(Ns1.1)/4)
670041 CONTINUE
680040 CONY/NUE
8000D043MT:1,15
evJo
wRITE(6t68)taa(m);cpl(m;m);TH1(w.rwrvRalgt1)ccp(mFm),IHmtm)
$400
68 FORMAT(IX,F4172XpF63;3X,F44.3;5X,F51.3,2X7F6,3,2X7F6.3)
860043 CONTINUE
86504$ comrINLIE
. 8100
END
-144
EA:;Hi (01/21/80)2.-
if single :rel triamtube
pr ogr am incl uding al l owance for
var ying
Reynolds number aatidnaf finite aspedt r atio.

100$RIESE r FREE

200
DiMENECSONCL(27;5)rCD(27s5);CT02(15r50;10)ALPHA(15;50);

300
1 ANG(27)7CPII(50)..IML1(50).,CP(15,15),

3011 TH1 ( 1 5 s 1 5 1 s TH(15s15)vVR(15;15)sCP1 (15r 15)sVR1(151s

302
1 ALPHA1(15,50710),SLORAT(7))8(10)

400/M1ECIFR RsTPA

500'REAL 'MU

600C READ TN
AEROFWIL D(1A (CIL) AND (CD)
700
READ(1,60)((CLMR);Rt:1,5),K=1,27)

750RFAD(2;61)(ANG(K);Kv,1p27)

800
READ(2-760)((CD(K7R),R.::1,5),K=1,27)

85060 FORMAT(5F8.3)

900St FORMAT(8X7F8.3)

1101C READ 1N ASPECT RATIO CORRECTION FACIORS(SLORAT),

1102READ(4,63)(SLORAr (i);i111,7)

110363 FORMAT(F8..3)
/109CsEr ANDINCREMENT ASPECT RATIO(AR)

1111 AR=6

1113D046A.x1P2

1115AR:rAR-1.2

11/7CSETANDINCREMENT SOLIDITY (SOLID).

1120501.rn-0.0
1130.0045N=1J5

1140501I1':rSOLID+0.1

1200CSETANDINCREMENT(JEL.RATIO(MU)
1300

140000408..T1,15

1500MU=MU-1-0.6

/550VR1(M),.,MU

1600C5E1 AMP INCREMENTAZIMUTHALANGLE (THETA)

1700THEEA-::0,0

1800D041Tr450

1801THEIAw:YHEYA+00628

1803CCALCULATE EXPECTEDANGLE OF AT1ACK

(ALPHA)

1805
ALPHA(M;F)::AIAN(S)N(THErA)/(MU+COS(THETA)))'

1807CCONVERTA MEGAT/VE
ALPHA' TOPOSITIVE FROM90-180-DEGREE

1809
IF(ALPHA(M,T)>LT,0,0)ALPHA(M,T)=ALPHA(M,T)+3./42

1811CCALCULATE REYNOLDS NUMBER

1813 U= 10*S/N(TH
ETA)/SIN(ALPHA(M;T)) -

/815IF(U;CT112'6)Rz.5

1817IF(U>LE,12,6)R,4-4
1819/F(U,LE,9,8)Rm,3

1821IF(U.LE.7.2)R=2

1823IF(U,LE.5,1)R=2

19003TANG-40.157

1902IF(R,GT.3)SIANc=0,275

1904.IF(ALPHAMO.LT.STANG)A0=3.4
1906/F(ALPHAMT)4T40,0873)A0r48,2

2316CFENDCORRECTIONFACTOR (SLORAT)
231811(A)=.AR/A0
2320IF(B(A),GT.1625)/=7
2322IE(B(A)#1.E.1 625)

2324ti--(1/(A)*LE.1.3/5)I=5
2326
2328EF(B(A)
>LE. =.87Zi)I=3
2330IF(B(A) LE.62n)1:v2

2
77
2

IF(8(A)*LEasZ7!5)I=1

2334CCALCULATE EF
FECTIVE ANGLE OF ATTACK(ALPHA1)

2336ALPHA1
(M,1,A)1:ALPHA(N,T)*SLORA/(I)
2
V7
38

C
3GNORE EFFECT OF (AR)
ABOVE sULL ANGLE
. . 1 ! ; 5
234(t
EF(ALPHAI(M,T,A). 81 STAN0)00
RI 23
C
FIWP LIF1 AND DRAB 'CUFFS. (OL)
AND (CD)
2244
IF(ALPHA1 (N,T,A):UE,0. 0)K=. . /
23V.
IF:ALPHAl(MpT,A),CE,0,035 )K::2
2348
IF(ALPHAI(1 YT7A)6E>007)K=3
235 0
IF(ALPH(. I(Nr71 ,A)4CE,041 05 )K:r4
235 2
IF(ALPHAl<M; T,A),GE,041 40)K=5
235 4
/F(ALPHAI(M$T,A)4CE. 041 65 )K:r6
27=6

IT:. (ALPHAL(M,T; A). 604209)K=7

2358C IMPROVF . VALUES BY INTERPOLATION
2360X=0,035
2362
CLA=CL(K; R)-1 -(CL(K+IrR) CL(KsR))*(ALPHAl(KsTs() ANG(K))/X
2364
CDAv:CO(K; R)-1 . (CO(K+1 . ,R) O0(KJR))*(ALPHAt(MiT,A) ANS(K))/X
2366C CALCULATE NEW CDr
2368
CDA=CDA. f(CLA**2/(AR*3. 1 42))
'1 370
3005 00 TO 99
3/00
C FIND LIFE AND _DRAG COEFFS
* (CL) AND (CI)
3200
23 IF(ALPHA(M,T),0E,04.0)K=1
3300
IF(ALPMA(MrT)4CE4.04035)K::-2
3400
IF(ALPHA(MYT),0E,0,07)K=3
3500
IF(ALPHAMT).6E404305)K=4
3600
/F(ALPHA(M7T)4SE.O>140)K=5
3700IF(ALPHA(MsT).0E404365)1<=:6
3800
XF(ALPHA(M; T),0E. 0. 209)1 <=7
7900
IF(ALPHA(M0)1 . CE1 . 0,244)K:r8 .
4000
EF(ALPHA(M,T)4. 0E4. 0. 279)K=9
41 00
1 F(ALPHA(1 40)4CE. 0431 4)K:r1 0
4200
IF(ALPNA(M7T)60E)0349)1 1 :=1 1
4300
IF (ALPN4(N$T)4CE4045 24)Kz,1 2
4400
IF (ALPHA(M,T)40E4. 01 . 698)K=1 3
45 00IF(ALPHA(M. IT)46F40. 873)KnA4
4600
IF(ALPHA(M,T)46E>1 ,047)K=1 5
4700IF(ALPHAM1 ). CE41 . 222)K::-1 6
4800
IF(ALPHA(M,T)4. 0E,1 4396)K=1 7

4900IF(ALPHA(M; ))4,CE4. 1 ,5 70)8

5 000TF(ALPHA(M,T). GE:1 ,745 )/(=1 9
5 1 00IF(ALPHA4tisT). CE41 4920)1 0r20
5 200XF(ALPHA(1 sT). 0E)24094)K21
5 300/F(ALPHA(NsT),61 :424269)K=22
5 400IF(ALPHA(MPT). 0E42. 443)1 <=23
5 5 00IF(ALPHA(M; T). 0E42. 61 8)K24
5 600TF(ALPHAMT),0E42,793)K=25
5 700IF(MPHA(MIT)4CEp21 967)K::. 26
5 800C IMPROVE-VALUES ' eY INTERPOLATION
5 900X=04035
IF(K(31 4. 1 0)X4:04. 1 745
61 00CLA=CL(K5 R)-1 . (CL(K+1 FR) CL(KsR))*(ALP-HAIMO) AN0(1 0)/X
6200CDA=CO(K,R)+(CD(K4A IR) CD((,R))*(ALPNA(MYT) ANG(K))/X
6300C CALCULATE (CT)
640099 CT-=CLA*SIN(ALPHA(M; T)) CDA*COSCALPHA(M,T))
65 0002=(SIN(1 HETA)/S1 N(ALPHA(KsT) ))*t2.
6600CT02(M7r,A)%tCT*02
6620TH1 /(T)=-SOLIXt$0. 2*(CLA*(SIN(THEI()*COS(ALPNA(Kr7)) COS(TNETA)*
6630
1 8TN(ALPHATM2T)))+CDAYA(C08(THETA)*O08(ALPHA(M,T))+SIN(THETA)*
6631 1 SIN(ACPHA(Ms7))))/240
6635 42 CPII(T)=SOLID*CT02(M)DA)*MU/2
6640C INTE6RAIE NUMER1 cALLY
665 0C=04. 0
66601 1 01 0L=2s48
6670CvC+CP1 1 (L)
66801 0 CONTJNUE
4681 CP. L(NYM)=:(C+CP1 /(1 )/2-1 -CP1 1 :(49)/2)/5 0
66tc2 E=0.0
6683
00/1L;:2,48
E=E+1H130)
c
11 COI:I.:NUE
668:1 C USE AC1U...:TOR DISK APPROX1NAT3ON TOCONVER1VALUES
668:' C FU FRUEIAINDSPEED
66E:S THICH,M)(E+TH1](1)/2+1H1X(49)/2)/50
ctc:o
Cr(M,M).--CPI(N,M)/(114H1(N7M)/4)**3
66'10 TH(NsM):AHIMM)/(1-1.1HIENsM)//0**2
6691
VR(N,M)MU/(1.1-THr;N:M)/4)
6700 41 CONTINUE
6800 40 CONTINUE
8000 B043K::1;15
8300 WRITE(6,68)VRI(M),CPI(N,M);TH1(M,M),VR(NsM)7CP(N7M);TH(M,M)
68 FORMATC1X;F4,1s2X;F6t:(s3X:46,3;15X;F5.3r2XsF6g3s2Xs1=613)
8600 43 CONTINUE
8650 45 CONTINUE
8660 46 CONTINUE
8700 END
APPENDIX 3
1. Relationship between the tension coefficients Cer and C.
2. Calibration of the leading edge strain gauges.
3. An additional test with a jib-sail.
1. Relationship between the tension coefficients GgrandCTT
For a rectangular sail,. length ; , with a trailing edge
curved in a circular arc with radius S and having a maximum
trailing edge hollow 2:
(Fig.3.5); Newman and Ngabo (1978)
give: X= t/for small
8s
The chordwise tension in the sail per unit length f. 1
is related to the tension in the trailing edge by: P 71 - T-
"r/s
=
2. Calibratioli of the leading edge strain gauges
1
Hence: pgx i.e. C =
T- T --- ,
61 -
V 1 1 c1 /2Vit2As is
44
Fig.A3.1. Loads in the sailwing frame due to pre-tension
in the sail.
Fig.A3.2
-Calibration load.
A standard computer program package (Linear Elastic
Analysis of Plane Frames) was used to calculate the relative
strain in the leading edge, at the strain gauge position, with
the load applied by the tension in the sail and with the
calibration loading used.
The uncertainty in the pre-tension values is largely due
to the difficulty of applying a perfectly even pre-tension to
the fabric.
3.
An additional test with a jib-sail
After the tests described in Chapter Three, a test
was made in which the effect of a jib-sail in front of the
existing sail was observed. It was anticipated that this
might give the effect of a slotted wing and improve the
aerodynamic performance at low angles of incidence.
The sailwing frame was modified to enable jib-sails to
be fitted (Fig.A3.3). The jib chord tapered from 70mm at
mid-span to 30mm at the endplates. The jib leading edge was
a taut lmm stranded steel wire and the trailing edge was the
same but slightly slack and with some curvature. Wax proofed
canvas was used for the sails.
It was found that the jibs became unstable very easily
at angles of incidence below 5 degrees and above 140 degrees.
This would obviously not be satisfactory for a turbine.
Surprisingly, it was found that the aerodynamic performance
was only improved at angles of incidence between atput 15
to 30 degrees (Fig.A3.4).
Endp10.4-e
Sait
ki5za
ed3e.
Mounting arrangement for jib sails. Fig.A33
0.36
Cr
o.30
0
i .,t4rl 3i45 .- sp a L
x no3n 41- sait
>iglo
3i45 urts+P-4.1.e-
cc 6
0
0.2.0
0.15
o 1
0.05.
0
2ig-A3.4.
Tangential force coefficient vs. angle of
incidence for a canvas sailwing with and
1 .*ithout a jib sail.
APPENDIX 5
1. Modified Expressions for an Inclined Blade.
2. The Power Absorbed by a Rotating Strut.
-10k-
1. Modified Expressions for an Inclined Blade
Consider an inclined blade at angular position Er
and consider an element at radius r.
r z
. Define 11--VRTV:for
(Fig.A5.1)
where X is the angle to the vertical made by the unit
normal to the blde axis an:
A
= -Cos ir.4 2 .%. 2s;rar (ce s es.Z.
r
-f-er.2 )
The unit vector along the c l :ord is a c
A
ec =-s;silt. gp 4- cos ei.e.
The true relative wind velocity at the blade section
is Vies
\,(1 = -
( s z Y N T5 a pCoS
However the windspeed contributing to driving torque
is given only by the components in the plane of the
blade section:
t'S
V I tk Y R'
)7:4 " (ac)2. =VS ^r5i vve( r.12. V cos '5 )2"
Now 1?-=
(

)2 .= (sz y,/s-szrn TI(+COS ta ) 2

V i
where
rS1
The effective angle of attack at the blade section
is
ex_
(
Va. . e--.1= (sl." ^r si \
Vet '
rizmco5 /
Fig.A5.1. To define the nomenclature used
in deriving expressions for an inclined blade.
-105-
APPENDIX 5
2- The Power Absorbed by a Rotating Strut
Consider a single strut, length R , chord c Assume
that drag depends solely on the relative flow normal
to it and that the drag coefficient Cis constant and
independent of the direction of relative flow.
The work done against drpg in one revolution is
r ge r ir /2-
W
D
=IRcC 2)Vcos f!) +d+( rsz -
VcoS )2ci 0' r clr
Z
where the +sign applies when r-SL Vcos er
i.e.
r > Vcose
-I2-
Integratin:2 with respect to r in two parts .
0r
< Vcosei
ir/2
W=ocC
D L2
Vcos < r <
r2_ 12.1+ 2 r_p_. 3 Vcos)pj
3

0
4
IT
-nyz
a
4_ V2-co 52VGe S e$vc.ess003 y
q %22.
3
sel
Z r3Vc0515.1
4z
0
W
c
Cx.i (AZ60 57 - 4. 12. 44.n.24. 2 (0A V cosi!" )
o a
4
3
i2
vq.c..s.es.t.
T r

5
se jai
kta.2"4. vtiz co sz _ 2. oz3J
r/cost]
af53
4 1

3
W i
ccD
ks_s-2.v
t 2 . 4J2 .2 "ir +
_ I
th ,r
7
7 .143 2
J2.z
Putting
Rs]. -.7Av
1 .41 CPi it &rA 2 ' 4-7 -?
34 3 2/.42"
The power absorbed
q t,,t is :Pstrui =
2 1 1
Gtrot .r.
A, c Cioz vl i
3
LA-4- b. n _3 -i- t A - --I- i
.6"
1313.64frA
and so the change in -Dower coefficient due to drsg
from the strut A C is:
a c =
cc DR i 4,Ai. 4. 1 ,..ts +. " .A. .... a
7
f
A
---11

44 3 ZIA 1
o.I 0. 8 1.2.
Fig,A5 .2.
Estimated change in the -pove-r coefficivat d_ueto
the 'power absorbed by the three struts of the
prototype turbine. (C1. . 1 . 2,12-=1. . . \, A= 3
. S v. 4: 2-)
APPENDIX 6
Prototype Performance Measurements
1. Tachometer circuit
This circuit (Fig.6.2) is based on a 76810 tachometer
chip. This chip contains a Shmitt trigger circuit and produces
constant amplitude, constant width pulses at the same frequency
as the input signal. A simple filter network on the output
was used to produce a voltage proportional to input frequency.
The saturation voltage is determined by the timing components
(R) and (C) which control the pulse width. Calibration of
the circuit showed a linear output up to about 300Hz (Fig.A6.1).
At very low frequencies there was a slight ripple in the output.
At 5Hz this amounted to 3% of the output voltage, reducing to
0.7% at 10Hz. The slotted disc contained 65 slots; the input
frequency was therefore 65 times the turbine frequency.
The slotted opto-isolator was an RS-306-061 with an
infra-red light emitting diode. It was found necessary to
provide extra shielding from sunlight for the photo-transistor.
The circuit was calibrated using a frequency counter
and signal source and is thought to be within 0.5% accuracy.
The slot spacing at the circumference of the disc was
5mm. If the possible random error in theslot spacing was
-10%, then in a 5m/s wind, five slots would pass per second
at a tip speed ratio of 0.1. This would cause a random error
in the output voltage of 2% and this would reduce to 0.2% at
-107-
a tip speed ratio of 1.0.
2. Anemometers
The anemometers were connected to identical circuits
as used for the tachometer. They were calibrated in the wind
tunnel (Fig.A6.2). To obtain low windspeeds the tunnel was run
in its starting mode. The calibration is thought to be within
1% accuracy. Random errors due to ripple should be negligable
as the circuit input frequency was always quite high.
3. Accuracy of the Performance Measurements
Apart from the uncertainty in the estimate of the
windspeed experienced by the turbine, and scatter introduced
by changes in the turbine performance with windspeed, random
errors were introduced by the slight ripple in the tachometer
circuit output at very low frequencies and by imperfect spacing
of the slots in the slotted discs.
In a 5m/s wind, these errors could combine to give a
5% random error in the voltage output at a tip speed ratio
of 0.1, reducing to 0.9% at a tip speed ratio of 1.0. A 5%
random error in the speed measurement could cause a 10% error
in the acceleration estimate and hence, a 10% error in the
values of torque and power coefficients. At a tip speed ratio
of 1.0, the random error in the coefficients from this cause
will be less than 1.8%.
Systematic errors were introduced by the possible error
in measurement of turbine inertia, 4% (see section 6.2.1) and
by calibration errors. If the errors in the tachometer and
anemometer calibrations were 0.5%and 1% respectively, then
possible systematic errors were as follows: (referring to page
65)Vuj
( t
) t
(t) -L 0-5%
a
0( +) Lt cD.57
TL) 245%
p(k) .c%
i''
t 1-52
Ca(t) t 6
. 5 Z
Ce (-t) -g 7!
. ::.::::.

. , ,''1-
-: --: . t."
''. _. - 7 :-t;.). : -
7 : . 7. 7::. . 7
..-.1.-, ;,... -,--
-7 .7 .:7 :t. -%II: .:_. ii.:- - - t"..:-.4-:::
...
<,--
-7 ... ...:t:-
.....
-..:::
- -:: ----
..... .
----

.. ---
7 -._....
=
. W . , , M
i : : :.:. -
i
-: H i n ::: -0
. . -
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
. : 4 : - . . . .
- =
IN
Eli
.
- - - . . - - ......
...-- _.
,
I . --- ----- -1----
-_=-:--:
_:_-_, _=z t .:7 1=-_
-'1..7 =MEI
M
.. . . j
-
. ._.--
-.
..---
t
i::::: L i . :.:, - - ......
_-. -.. ...... ..
_..... ____
"--......, - ......
..._._.......
p ...: -- __.
I ..............
,
I ng===.

.t..........
-:::-:-:.
.
......
......
::::.:-:.:. r
..._.
.......
-----:: :.-:7 ;::::.:
:-_--_-_:_-.------:::::
-1-7 .::::::>::---
.....;;._._. ,
t...,..-_===
-:::-:::P.:-z -7 7-::.MI NE
:7 7 7 :7 7 7 - ,:7 4 :7 :7 ::
11111111
.......=
_
,_......
n
==
-:::-..... :
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F
ig.A6.2. Calibration curve for anemometers.
APPENDIX 7
1. Turbulence in the Wind
2. A q4p1e Theory for Inertia Flow
3. Pipe Losses in the Pump Performance Tests
1.Turbulence in the Wind
As a random phenomenom, turbulence in the wind may
be analysed using the statistical methods of random signal
analysis. As was shown in section 7 .2, the power in the
wind is approximately equal to: ik(Ce4.3"Vwv ": 5-) per unit area,
where V., is the mean windspeed and Nr'is its variance.
The autocorrelation function is defined as:
QLL (rt) = v' 4 1 1 v et2)
where t. . . . . t,A; Whenol it is equal to the variance. This
function shows how the windspeed at time 2 correlateswith
its value at time i,.
A power spectral density can be obtained from the
autocorrelation function by Fourier analysis:
gkw) = i.n. C7. 2. . "4 ' 12. L L (t)
whereis L . ) is the frequency. This shows the relative
contribution made by fluctuations of each frequency to the
power content of the fluctuations. The frequency of the
fluctuations is characteristic of the eddy size. der Kinderen
et al (197 7 ) suggest that a 3.7 m diameter turbine is unable
to use gust energy in eddies with frequencies above about
0.05 Hz.
2e)e)3o040c7
.Soo
60o4
SeCo n ds 3c
40
68it,e/00
ENrER v LS.
2 .
a
'do
7= 3 . 7 "is Wuv.D
SPEC,'
rAlS

m2-5
Fig. A7. 1.
6
oq02o3
rieroveNcv 42
Auto-correlation function and Dower spectral
density for a samtle of wind srer. d.
6*60
seconds
tho630
-7;N1cNTERva

S.
o4
c). 21
0.3CA-)0,4
QE,a0E,0cV #^
Fig.A7.1. cont.
/00
03 o-z4
rgrc_ZOCAJC gz
Fig.A7.1. concluded.
n t
Fig.A7.1 shows a number of traces of windspeed,
recorded at the test site, together with their autocorrelation
functions and power spectral densities.
2. A Simple Theory for Inertia Flow
Burton and Ewens (1980) give the velocity time curve
shown in Fig.A7.2.a for full inertia flow. Their description
is concerned with a rigid piston pump with the inertia pipe
on the discharge side. Here, it is assumed that the inertia
pipe is entirely on the suction side but there would not
seem to be any reason for the flow to be affected for being
pulled of pushed,and so the same curve will be used.
When full inertia flow occurs, the inertia of the
water keeps itflowing faster than the piston as the piston
slows towards top dead centre at time&. Flow continues
even on the delivery stroke of the pump(Tati. 21) as the
water pressure in the inertia pipe remains higher than that in
the pimp, which hardly rises above atmospheric as there is
assumed to be no pressure head.
When partial inertia flow occurs it will be assumed
that the velocity time curve is as in Fig.A7.2.b. The
difference from the full inertia flow case being that the
momentum of the water in the inertia pipe is dissipated
some time before the delivery stroke is complete. It is
assumed that non-return valves are fitted.
Referring to Fig.A7.2.a, it can be seen that at point a.
the slope of the curve is:

H.
^.2.

Cos \
a l L.
and that the difference in flow velocity between point b
and point a' is:
These give:
- 91 - 1 ( 21r _
LL
sir%
cos>,
X
=
kpAp
(sn^
r-si4x)
Si)
Ai
2- rr - ( X- 2)
Now the volumetric efficiency Yiis the ratio of the
area under the curve aba' to the area under the sine curve
for o < t IT : .
Area under curve aba':
Area under sine curve :
X/s1.
^)--1 P- P1fsin SltC.V.IX +sinV )(2Ir +a* - X
) }
=
A.
ria
R_Lee
- cosx)
+ sv4)(2-rix)I
AL
i. e.
i(tesa- cos>,)- 1- 3/4csivo..4- scrt- ocait+x)3
for full inertia flow.
A similar analysis for partial inertia flow gives:
f( -cos>, )-s:ei X (z+2r->,) s`n
Now since dimensionless speed Sand floware
related by eqn. [7.0 :

, solution of the above

equations allows a curve of dimensionless flow to be plotted
against dimensionless speed ( Fig. 7. 6) .
PA tt ZTI A /... I Ni ef2.-n A 10i-c4NI
rl.otA3
Vei-oCtrY
i N 11,3eg-n A
PiPE
Fig.A7.2. Theoretical flow velocity curves for full
and partial inertia flow.
1
-112-
3. Pipe Losses in the Pump Performance Tests
An accurate calculation of the pipe losses occurring
in the pump performance teats seems prohibitively difficult
in view of the unsteady flowand the uncertain nature of
flow velocity variation with the diaphragm pump.
An estimate of the magnitude of the losses has been
made as follows:
The estimate will be made for when: Li. = 3. 9 Inn
SI -. -- 10ro-CISIS
''?Voe_= 1 . 6
An =. 0. 4 )2Bis
Frpm the volumetric efficiency and average torque
(Fi3./.9)
input at slow speeds/, the average torque input expected
when Sl.torads/s would be about 1.8 Nm if there were no
losses, The actual torque input measured was 2.5 Nm, giving
an average loss torque of 0.7 Nm.
Di. = 22
wtw1
AL= 0-ss.1.63,,,2-
124, = 1 s- v w, . ,
RAr""
.
48. 10
- 3 ,v,3
f
The mean flow velocity at this speed was therefore:
Other relevant values were as follows:
v;- t
a.- - =
0.4.
O.3,
LT . - I . ( byt/s
Defining the Reynolds number for the flow as:
tee. -. -- ti Dz
2)
where the kinematic viscosity of water 1) , is about 1O gives
a mean Reynolds number of: g NL= 24. to
Assuming pre-dominantly turbulent flow, a non-
dimensional head loss coefficient may be defined as:
h,.
LA11/28
where Il L is the head lost in the component and IAis the
flow velocity.
The following components to the losses are assumed:
1. Inlet to the inertia pipe
2. Pipe friction
3. Right angle bend at inlet to the pump
4. Inlet valve to pump
5. L osses inside the pump
6. Outlet valve from pump
7. Exit kinetic energy of the pumped water
Head loss coefficient values have been taken from
Miller (1971).
1. For the inlet:K
I
=0.5
2. The coefficient value for the pipe friction depends on
the instantaneous Reynolds number. At the mean Reynolds
number and assuming a smooth pipe, the friction factor f is
given as 0.025. The head loss coefficient is then: Kefik
3. Assuming a bend radius equal to twice the pipe diameter:
K
3
= 0.25
4. The inlet valve was a rubber flap type (Fig.A7.3).
For check valves, Miller gives, K 0.3 to 1.0 or more for
when the valve is open or partially closed. Here, an
average value will be assumed as: Kg = 0.5
5. L osses inside the pump are due to the sudden enlargement
into the pump, losses in eddies generated by the diaphragm
(some cavitation may also have occurred at high speeds) and
losses in the sudden contraction into the oulet valve. For
the enlargment, K =0.7, for the contraction, K . 0.4. The
total loss coefficient for the pump will be taken as: Ks = 1.5
6.
The outlet valve was of a 'heart-valve' type (Fig.A7.3).
No loss coefficient data for such avalve is known but it is
thought that the losses may have been rather high. An average
value will be taken as: K6 = 2.0
2.
7. Since the dynamic head is (-4 and no diffuser was fitted,
15
the loss coefficient for the exit is: K 1. = 1.0
The total average head loss coefficient is therefore
estimated as: 1,K . 10.2
The total instantaneous head loss will be taken as:
ih, cr 10
. 2 . kx.,2B
giving an instantaneous head loss pressure on the diaphragm
of:e,..,
A_t(io.2..u.lyza).
The force on the diaphragm due to this pressure is:
P.= L(10. 2 Q :2-/ 44..R .s.-1 . elp
and the instantaneous head loss torque is:
I L - 4-- 1_00. 2 alzs)Rs-liq p . P.ps.,-,..sLt
The average head loss torque is therefore:
2Arkm
__
sl
1-L - " :" ." air alo. 2. u--% , ^)kcsAeep st:rilLt cLt
0
Evaluation of this integral is difficult for two
reasons: Firstly, the 'piston' area Aloisnot constant, but
will be a maximum when s cnSlt is a maximum; use of the average
value of R f Af in the calculation will therefore under-estimate
the average torque. Secondly, and because of the above factor,
the flow velocity u- does not follow a simple
sine curve but, presumably, follows the form shown in
Fig.A7.4.
As a lower bound estimate of the losses, the flow
velocity may be taken as: Lk-, 1 4 ( 1.11esint oster/s1
AL
i.e.
u, = 2. I st:n SIt wqs

0 4 t 4 I r/j 2
1r/sI
Average head loss torque =-11-- p.e... q- ( 2. 1 szils1.02:. Reftpsnzt d.t.
Zr . 2
-(7.17s2.
r--- 2- g I sLnIsl:t at
N I im
7--- 2. g C. 1-16.5 11 =O. nlvvt
As an upper bound estimate of the losses, the flow
velocity may be taken as the half-sine curve whose mean value
would give the measured mean flow rate.
i.e. Us= 3'S S i ! f i i " ) - t "I fs( Fig.A7.5 )
Then, the average head loss torque is : 0. 37. (3_ :^. ) =r 0 N yvj
Z. I
These estimates support the assertion that the loss
torque was due to pipe losses.
******###********#
If the pipe diameter were doubled, the
head loss in the valves and the pump would remain unchanged
and, in fact, some extra losses would occur due to the change
in diameter between the pipes and the pump inlet and outlet.
The pipe friction head loss would be reduced to about 1/8
of its previous value (noting that the pipe length must be
NvA
increased four times to maintain the same inertia effect)
and other losses would become insignificant. The loss torque
would therefore be approximately halved. A further reduction
in the losses would require the pump to be re-designed.
The present pump was clearly not designed for efficient
operation with high fluid velocities.
."
Fig.47.3. Inlet and outlet valves
to the pump
3-5
2 - 2 .
a 7 . . . 1. 1
FLOW
c crif
Fig. A7. 4. Assumed flow velocity curve for the diaphragm
pump
F -L. c:A4 v cLoc. tT
wn. s
.211.)
isI
Fig. A7. 5. Half- sine curve with mean value giving the
measured mean flow rate.