American Philological Association

Of Gods, Philosophers, and Charioteers: Content and Form in Parmenides' Proem and Plato's "Phaedrus" Author(s): Svetla Slaveva-Griffin Source: Transactions of the American Philological Association (1974-), Vol. 133, No. 2 (Autumn, 2003), pp. 227-253 Published by: The Johns Hopkins University Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20054087 . Accessed: 01/04/2011 07:40
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Transactions

of the American

Philological

Association

133

(2003)

227-253

Of Gods, Philosophers,
Content and Form Phaedrus and Plato's

and Charioteers:
Proem

in Parmenides'

SVETLA The Florida

SLAVEVA-GRIFFIN State University

summary: This article examines the ways inwhich Parmenides and Plato avail themselves of the literary motif of the charioteer's journey for philosophical discourse. I argue that the Phaedrus' myth of the soul as a charioteer exemplifies Plato's literary and philosophic appropriation of the charioteer allegory in Parmenides' proem and of Parmenides' concept of being, showing how the lit erary study of intertexts can be applied to questions of both content and form in philosophy.

the

allegory

of

the

charioteer's

journey

in Parmenides'

proem

and

Plato's Phaedrus deserves

of both philosophers and literary crit ics. Regarding content, Plato bases his concept of the immortality of the soul upon Parmenides' concept of true being: the soul is a self-moving first prin the attention and is ciple that cannot be destroyed or come into being (Phdr. 245c5-el) to kindred therefore Parmenides' ungenerated, imperishable, whole, stead fast, and complete being (B8.3-4).1 Regarding form, Plato employs the alle gory of the charioteer's journey to illustrate the immortal nature of the soul

(Phdr. 246a6-b4), alluding thereby to Parmenides' account of the chariot jour ney of a young philosopher beyond sense-perceptible reality to the realm of I shall examine the close relationship between eternal existence (Bl.1-5). Plato's myth of the soul as a charioteer in the Phaedrus and the charioteer's I shall also draw attention to the literary tradition of journey in Parmenides. to the theme prior Parmenides, and particularly to its presence in Homer, in order to situate the interconnection texts in the con of the two philosophical text of their generic differences and similarities. The current examination entails the study o? (a) Parmenides' adoption and adaptation of the Homeric
1 Text

and

translations

of Parmenides

are Gallop's.

228

Svetla Slaveva-Griffin

search for journey in the allegory of a philosopher's true knowledge; and (h) Plato's literary and philosophical use of Parmenides' allegory in the account of the immortality of the soul (Phdr. 245c5-47a2). I. INTERTEXTUALITY AND INTERCONCEPTUALITY

theme of a charioteer's

In the past century the study of allusion and intertextuality has repeatedly borne fruit in the analysis of poetic texts both Greek and Latin, but prose, in particular, presents road blocks on these paths of literary and philosophy criticism. The study of philosophy focuses on the development and the con ideas are expressed. Moreover, the study of the connection of concepts over time is the purview of histori ans of philosophy rather than literary critics. But what does one do with the content exclusive of literary genre of Plato's dialogues? Is the philosophical or are a If connected? of the form, they necessarily complete understanding in is their of Plato's fact concepts philosophy contingent upon literary pre texts, then one re sentation, including allusions to previous philosophical a examines the that of form and content quires literary theory development over time.2 Intertextuality as it is understood not is sufficient to serve today as the critical tool for this study.What sizes content, as an object of historians that synthe of philosophy, and form, as an object of In criticism. the present paper I employ the term "interconceptuality" literary con to refer to the symbiosis between the development of a philosophical is needed is amechanism tent of ideas rather than on the form inwhich

cept and its literary forms. I examine the interdependence between philosophi cal concept and literary form in the theme of a charioteer's journey in the and literarily-informed Phaedrus, which constitutes a conceptuallyexample of Platonic II. THE interconceptuality.3 CHARIOTEER'S JOURNEY IN PARMENIDES

AND PLATO
The statement that Parmenides and Plato avail themselves journey present bold and even far-fetched, though less so for the former than for the latter. influence on Parmenides' poem with a Scholars have studied the Homeric tradition of a charioteer's of the rich literary in archaic and epic poetry may seem

2 are addressed in the works with and results of Nightingale These fruitful questions see 3-12. For an overview of Plato and intertextual Osborne. theory Nightingale 3 to the Platonic and rhetoric view of of concept Osborne likens the interdependence In this light, "interconceptuality" is the applica Form and Image. the relation between tion of a philosophical Platonic concept as Form form as Image. On the relation literary see Osborne in 179-84. the Timaeus thought onto

between

discourse

and Platonic

Content and Form in Parmenides' Proem and Plato's Phaedrus

229

however, does not ex significant degree of agreement.4 This homogeneity, tend to the traditional view of the literary qualities of Plato's dialogues.5 But the fact that both the father of the Eleatic school and the founder of the Acad here philosophi emy employ the charioteer allegory to introduce a new?and of journey deserves consideration. For Parmenides, cal?type freed of the chains the well-informed from mind, ney of beliefs this is the jour and

to the realm of reason and true existence (Bl and B8). For sense-perceptions, Plato, this is the journey of the souls of gods and men to the region above the sky, "occupied by being which really is" (Phdr. 247c7). In Parmenides' proem (Bl),6 a young man, drawn by swift horses and guided by divine assistants, journeys upwards to the gates of Night and Day. There he is greeted by an anonymous goddess who reveals to him, in a didac ticmanner, the path of persuasion, which learned men should take to acquire knowledge of what being is (B 1.1-5 ):
OOOV x' ?7C? 0UUO? IKOLVOl,

17C7COI TCC?U? (p?pOUOlV,

Tt?uTtov,ene? |i' ?? ?8ov ?fjoav

?aiuovo?, r\ Kocx? Tt?vx' ocoivf|7

7toA?(pr|uov ayouaai
cp?pei eiS?xa (parca

xfj (pep?unv xr\ y?p \xe 7coA,?(ppaaxoi cp?pov innoi apura xixa?vouaai, Koupai 8' ?86v fiyeuoveuov.
The mares that carry me as far as impulse might reach,8

Were takingme, when they brought and placed me upon themuch-speaking route Of the goddess, that carries everywhere unscathed the man who knows; Thereon was I carried, for thereon the much-guided mares were carrying me,
Straining to pull the chariot, and maidens were leading the way.

see Genres inDialogue: Plato Nightingale's with Bacon's "The "Socrates and Crowned," essays of Philosophy, along of and article Osborne's and Direction: Creative Phaedo," Time, Poetry "Space, Shape, Discourse in the Timaeus!' the Greek literary tradition and the Construct

Below n. 22. 5 For Plato and

6The title "OnNature" (IIEPIOYIEf?l)

perficial 4-5, and misrepresents 2: 1-79. the tenets Guthrie

often assigned to Parmenides' poem is su

subjectivism; see Coxon 156-57, Gallop

of Eleatic

7 Mourelatos
In agreement

with aaivfj, D-K with (1970:22 n. 31) and Gallop emend theMSS' ocxr|
with Stein 7711 x' em Gvuo? ?kcxvoi to refer to itctcoi xai U? as 10, "as far as ever interpreted by Taran as ever "as far reached." The syntax and 44, my spirit take ?aov himself

aaxr|. 8

(p?pouaiv... my heart may

rc?urcov desire,"

and not

to the poet

and Coxon

the presence not of the poet. Moreover lines highlight of the mares, imagery a scene the general a passive of the the makes receiver of the poet passenger, impression as 49 translates the with far "as reach." journey. Gallop phrase neutrally impulse might

of the first

230

Svetla Slaveva-Grif?n

In the Phaedrus, Plato compares the nature of the soul to the dynamic rela tion between a charioteer and his pair of horses, journeying to the realm of eternal existence (Phdr. 246a6-b4): eoiKexco 8f| Guuxpuxcp Suv?jiei UTcoTixepou ?euyou? xe Kai fjvioxou. Gecov xe Kai f|v?o%oi rcavxe? auxo? xe ?yaGoi Kai ?? aya?cov, x? 8? ji?v o?v ?717COI xcov a?Acov u?jieiKxai. Kai rcpcoxov jiev fijicov ? ap%cov auvcopiSo? rvvioxe?, eixa xcov ?Tcrccov 6 u?v auxco Ka?o? xe Kai ?yaGo? Kai ?K xoiouxcov, 6 8' ?c^ ?vavxicov xe Kai ?vavxio?* %a?,e7tr|8h. Kai S?oKotax; ?cj?vayicn? r\ 7iepi f||ia? f|vioxriai?. Let it then resemble the combined power of awinged team of horses and their charioteer. Now in the case of gods, horses and charioteers are all both good and of good stock; whereas in the case of the rest there is amixture. In the first place our driver has charge of a pair; secondly one of them he finds noble and good, and of similar stock, while the other is of the opposite stock, and oppo site in its nature; so that the driving in our case is necessarily difficult and
troublesome.9

of philosophical In the following pages I examine the interconnectedness content and literary form in these two works. Even the juxtaposition above reveals some distinctive parallels between the passages. First, in Parmenides, the charioteer is a young, inexperienced philosopher-passenger guided by divine maidens to the realm of a deity who proclaims to him the philosophi cal truth he is seeking. In Plato, too, the charioteer has a philosophic purpose, the literary personification being part of an extended image that conveys (in the control exercised by the rational part of the soul over the case of mortals) and (in the case of gods) the accord its spirited and appetitive counterparts

all parts of the soul. Second, in both authors the charioteer's journey in a search represents travel beyond the beaten paths of human perception for what true being is. Third, the destination of the two journeys is the realm of thought and eternal existence, which, in Parmenides, explicates the doc trine of being as the sole subject of thought and speech (B8.1-42),10 and, in among Plato, explains the distinction
9

between

the souls of gods and men

(Phdr. 246-47).

that the charioteer's journey symbolizes or of and that it is an allegory, "in which the "genuine of way 'journey persuasion'" inquiry' are consciously indi chosen for aspects of the poet's the mares and the Heliades symbols men are the and the of darkness the between and obstacles truth, gates regions viduality, and light are the conditions of ignorance and knowledge" (Coxon 13). Commentators agree do not tions are. Among on what its sources solu the proposed of influence agree, however, are the Pythagorean and a journey of 14-17; Hesiod's katharsis, Coxon cosmology to the myth katabasis of Er, Morrison 205; 60-65; Orphic mysticism, relating Voegelin

Burnet's 10 Ancient

text

(1901);

Rowe's

translation

(1986a).

and modern

commentators

Content and Form in Parmenides' Proem and Plato's Phaedrus

231

Scholars have seen a relationship between Plato's view of the immortality of and view that being is eternal, self-moving, the soul and Parmenides' as a Plato's concept of the soul self-moving and thus eternal unoriginated.11 entity reinforces Parmenides' doctrine of true existence beyond sense-perceptible context, the fact that both authors reality.12 In this interrelated philosophical same is the the form of primary importance for understanding literary employ mechanism in Plato's dialogue. The charioteer's journey in of appropriation texts and Plato is an allegory that unites the two philosophical an an serves as It relation between thus of example interconceptual literarily. philosophical texts, representing a symbiosis of evolving content and literary form. Parmenides

III. THE CHARIOTEER^

PARMENIDES The charioteer's

JOURNEY IN HOMER AND

journey thematizes a large number of ideas in archaic lyric and epic poetry:13 the chariot-rides of gods and men in the Iliad,u the per sonal quest of Telemachus father and for so searching for his long-missing to restore wealth cial approval the of Odysseus' household,15 the aggressive

love depicted in Sappho's image of golden Aphrodite impetus of passionate while flying on awinged chariot across the heavens,16 the hearts of mortals ruling Pindar's chariot of the Muses celebrating Epharmostos' Olympic victory.17

shamanistic see Taran Parmenides though vinced

rapture, 17-31

Cornford

and more

is denied

the discussion

survey of interpretations of chariot on recently Empedocles' 29 and Taran 18 and ignored by Coxon and Gallop. Al by Allen on Parmenides con I am most of the influences is inconclusive, Curd 18-23. The influence

1952:118.

For a comprehensive

is an allegory of the transition from (chh. 5 and 7) that the journey by Voegelin or to to "from myth mythos logos metaphysics." 11 is discussed in every study of Plato's "psychology." A short list should This relationship at least Chaignet, and Hackforth include of Robinson, 1952; for the studies of the myth iv below. see section in general the soul-charioteer 12 as the founda Later Platonic and Neoplatonic refer to the Phaedrus interpretations tion of Plato's understanding of the soul. See below n. 67 and Bielmeier. 13 3-4 also lists many inMiddle Allen of a charioteer's and Eastern examples journey Eastern literature: in the Bhagavad the chariot of the god Krishna Gita; the fiery chariot in Kings 2.2.11-12; the chariot of the cherubim in Ezek. 1.15-25 Elias to heaven bringing and 10.8-22; that John sees in Rev. 6.2-8 the four-horse chariot and 19.11. Parmenides' attracts the attention journey most tor and translator of the Phaedrus 14 Those and Hera of Athena Poseidon 15 The (//. 13.23-38); mentioned of Marsilio (in Phdr. Ficino, 246AB). of Zeus (//. 8.41-50, 438-40), and of the fifteenth-century commenta

(II. 5.719-52),

Od. occupies 16Fr. 1.9 (LobelandPage). 17 Cf. I. 2.1-3 O.9.80-81. and 8.62

Telemachia

19 and Allen 29 n. 3. by Taran to Clarke's 1-4 and part of 15, according 60.

division.

(Race);

noted

by Morrison

232 These

Svetla Slaveva-Griffin

although not exhaustive, should suffice to demonstrate of the theme,18 which can denote both human and di vine experiences: it can represent the imaginary motion of the gods in the or their the divine with brush nature, sky, characterizing immortality of Olym at the athletes their celebration of chariot victories, or the coming of age pian a man of young gaining the respect and kleos of an adult.19 In short, the chari few examples, the semantic wealth oteer theme provides Parmenides of alle the con

(and later Plato) with a medium of ideas that stretch beyond gorical expression capable presenting ventional comprehension of sense-perceptible reality.20

The poetic tradition most important for Parmenides' (and later Plato's) as the is of soul charioteer of that Homer,21 allegory specifically Zeus' chariot ride at II. 8.41-52, the gates of heaven through which Hera's chariot passes at II. 5.748 52, and Telemachus' journey from Pylos to Sparta in Book 3 of the Odyssey.22 Zeus Achaeans narrative, introducing rides his chariot and Trojans concluding the mortal across the heavens to observe the battle between in the 8 and (Il 8.41-52).23 The episode provides a transition the divine assembly at the beginning of Book battles that occupy
%aA,K?7to8' Kouocovxe,

the rest of the book

17C7KD,

(II. 8.41-46):

CO???7tC0V \)7t' 0%?O(pl a)KU7i?ta, xpuo?rjGiv

Tlt?OKETO eBe?pnoiv

Xpuo?v ?' ccuto? e?uv? rcepi %po?, y?vxo 8' ijiaaO?Tiv

%pVCE?r\V uxxaiicjev |ii?Gor|y\)? EUTUKTOV, 8' ?Xaav ?O? 8' ?7te?r|G?TO too 8' ouk ??icovce oupavo? Si?pou. 7t?T?o?r|v24

yairj?

xe kcci

?oT?po?VTO?.

He spoke, and under the chariot harnessed his bronze-shod horses, flying-footed, with long manes streaming of gold; and he put on
18 Morrison

60 adds

the

chariot

appearances

in Alcaeus

(fr. lc, Lobel

and

Page),

Empedocles (D-K B3), and Bacchylides (5.176).

19 To this list one between should add the most famous literary journey The parallel Odysseus 20 Since the scope of the current in philosophic in Parmenides discourse, and and Parmenides' examination philosopher on the only nostos. of all, Odysseus' is examined Havelock. by

focuses

theme journey

the above the Phaedrus

list is intended within

of this literary appropriation to contextualize the charioteer's tradition, not to establish the

their poetic

the significance of the latter still awaits its enlightenment. theme as a literary motif, although 21 19. 1-10, Taran 7-11, Allen See, e.g., Brisson 22 in the proem has been widely The presence of epic style and vocabulary acknowledged see Mourelatos For discussion of Parmenides' and documented. debt to Homeric poetry 1970:1-46, esp. 8-10, Havelock lists about 200 133-43, epic Coxon 7-11, Gallop from Homer 4-5, and Floyd fewer 251-60, and Taran For 6-10.

ad loc. Coxon

allusions

from Hesiod.

see Morrison 60-65 and Pellikaan-Engel Parmenides' debt to Hesiod's Theogony 23 For the frequency and the pattern of gods' rides see Kirk 98-99. 24 in the description Line 45 is repeated of Telemachus' ride in Od. 3.494.

Content and Form in Parmenides' Proem and Plato's Phaedrus clothing of gold about his own body, and took up the golden lash, carefully compacted, and climbed up into his chariot, and whipped them into a run, and they winged their way unreluctant through the space between the earth and the starry heaven.25

233

Zeus' royal status and the authority of his words are reflected symbolically in the glittering of the gold in the horses' manes, his clothes, and the lash: Xpua?naiv ?Oe?pnaiv, %pua?v 8' avxb? ?Suve, i?i?aQXr\v xpuae?nv.26 The larger sequence of events in this scene comprises Zeus' address to the assem bly of the gods, his threat to throw any deity who disobeys him through the gates of Tartarus, and his chariot trip toMt. Ida. in his proem follows the same sequence of events, but in re Parmenides verse order: the passenger's chariot-ride, his passage through the gates of Night and Day, and his arrival at the nameless goddess' house. While the Homeric scene concludes with a chariot-ride toMt. Ida from which Zeus watches the affairs of men, Parmenides'

scene begins with the impulse of the mares pull ing a chariot carrying a young man to a place beyond the gates of Night and Day where the goddess exposes the truth of being to him. As Zeus directs his chariot "through the space between the earth and the (77. 8.46), so Parmenides' philosopher journeys "upon the route carries Of the that much-speaking goddess, everywhere unscathed the man who knows" (B 1.2-3) and passes with the help of the Heliades through "the gates of the paths of Night and Day" to arrive at the home of the goddess starry heaven" (Bl.9-27). The realm to which Parmenides' charioteer is traveling is a realm beyond human perception and experience, a realm closer to the region in the sky governed by Zeus (B 1.11-20):
8V0CC nvXai Ndkt?c xe Kai "Huxxxo? e?ai KeXe?Ocov,

Kai acpa? ?Tt?pOupov ?uxpi? ?'%?i Kai ?xiivo? ou8o? auxai 8' aiO?piai 7t?\?jvxai \ieyaXoioi Bup?xpoi? xcov Se A?kt| noXvnoivo? ?%?iK?,rp8a? auoi?ouc. xhv 8f) 7tap(pajievai Ko?pai utjcAxxkchgiX?yoiaiv rce?aav ?TcuppaS?co?, co?acpiv ?ataxvcox?v ?%fja aTcxep?co? coaeie kvXe??v ?rco xai 8? Oup?xp v

25 Text Poseidon's

isMonro chariot

and Allen; scene

the translation On

is Lattimore's. the thematic

Verses

41-44

are repeated of this repetition

in

in II. 13.23-26.

importance

see Kirk 301-2. for the poem 26 The chariot rides of Athena, 8? xpua?oiGi makes Kai ?pyup?oiaiv chariot

Hera, iu?aiv

Aphrodite,

and Poseidon kclXjov

share details. II. 5.727

Cf. 8iq>po? and 730.

What

?uyov, ride particularly for our examination important Zeus is the king of gods and men: his chariot the separation ride symbolizes worlds of gods and mortals. Zeus'

and xp?Geiov

is the fact that between the

234

Svetla Slaveva-Grif?n

x?ojT ?^av?? rco?naav ava7tx?(ievai nok\)%akKox)? ac^ova? ?v a?piyc^iv auoi?a8?v eiX-?c^aaai youxpoi? Kai rcep?vniaiv ?pnp?xe There are the gates of the paths of Night and Day, And a lintel and a threshold of stone surround them, And the aetherial gates themselves are filled with great doors; holds the keys of retribution. And for these Justice, much-avenging, Coaxing her with gentle words, the maidens Did cunningly persuade her that she should push back the bolted bar for them Swiftly from the gates; and these made of the doors A gaping gap as they were open wide, Swinging in turn in their sockets the brazen posts Fitted with rivets and pins.27 Parmenides' which Zeus verses allude to the description of the gates of the heavens through Hera's chariot passes to reach the house of the gods, where she finds peak of rugged Olympus" (II. 5.748-52):

sitting "upon the highest

"Hpn 8e u?oxiyi Goco? eTteuxxiex' ap' uncou?/ ? a?x?uxxxai 8? 7t?A,ai ji?kov oupavou, a? ?%ov pai, xr\? emxexparcxai juiya? o?pavo? Ou?A)U7to? xe, fjji?v ?vaKA?vai ttukivov v?cpo? r)8' 87ui0e?vai.
xfj pa 81' auxa v KevxpnveK?a? e%ov itucou?

Hera laid the lash swiftly on the horses; and moving Of themselves groaned the gates of the sky that the Hours guarded, Those Hours to whose charge is given the huge sky and Olympus,
To open up the dense darkness or again to close it.

Through

the way between

they held the speed of their goaded horses.

are aetherial, that is, in Bl.11-13 gates (nviXax... a?G?piai) in to "the of the the heavens, gates recalling sky" (nvXai... oupavo?) belonging II 5.749. Next, in B 1.11, the gates are "of the paths of Night and Day" (nvXai N-?kx?c xe Kai "Hpax?c e?ai k???\)6c?v), alluding to gates that either open or Parmenides' of men close "the dense darkness" (II. 5.751 ttukivov v?cpo?) that separates the dark world from the lighted realm of Zeus.28 Both sets of gates have female guard ians, the Homeric gates being guarded by the Hours, who alone possess the

power to open or shut the entrance to the realm of light (//. 5.751 ), Parmenides'
27 On Homeric the statement

allusions

in this passage

see esp. Coxon

161-65.1

would

like to extend chosen and

he makes

(161) about

to the implied only attention 28 on the For the emphasis features of gates physical one the also tive) light compare may gates of Tartarus,

the language allusions will reveal

of line 11, that it "is deliberately the sense," to the entire passage that separate which mark darkness

here quoted. from (rela to the

the entrance

Content and Form in Parmenides' Proem and Plato's Phaedrus

235

gates by the Heliades, the guiding companions of Parmenides' charioteer, who and Aiicn koXvkoivo?) alone are able to charm "the much-avenging Justice" ( the bar them her bolted for from the "to back swiftly gates" push persuade (Bl.16-17 co?ocpiv ?aX,ava>x?v ?%fia / ?rcTep?coc oSoeie nvX?(ov ano).29 As Zeus regulates the relation between the worlds of mortals and immor that the nameless goddess bestows upon tals in //. 8.5-27, so the knowledge Parmenides' charioteer regulates the distinction between true knowledge and false opinion, and between a philosopher and a common man (B6.1-9):

Xpu. to Aiyeiv xe voe?v x' e?v ?ujievai- ?axi y?p e?vai, 8' ouk ?axiv x? a' ?yo) cpp??eaGai ?vcoya. jLinSev 7tpcoxr|? y?p o' ?cp' oSo? xauxn? Si?naio? (e'ipyco), aux?p 87C8ix'arco xfj?, r|v 8r] ?poxoi ei8oxe? o?Sev TtX?xxovxai, S?Kpavoi- ?jir|%avir| y?p ?v a?x v axr|0eaiv
Kco(poi oi? to Kou

v?ov iOuvei Tt?aKXOv

oi 8? cpopo?vxai

b\i(o?

xucpA^oi 7t??ieiv Te Kai 7t?vTcov

xe, TeoUTtOTe?, aKpua cp?^a, ouk e?vai TauTov vevojuiaTai 8? 7taA,ivTpo7to? ?oTi Ke?,eu9o?.

TauTov

must be thatwhat is there for speaking and thinking of is;for [it] is there to be, It Whereas nothing is not; that iswhat I bid you consider, For <I restrain> you from that first route of inquiry, And then also from this one, on which mortals knowing nothing Wander, two-headed; for helplessness in their Breasts guides their distracted mind; and they are carried Deaf and blind alike, dazed, uncritical tribes, By whom being and not-being have been thought both the same And not the same; and the path of all is backward-turning. The goddess who speaks here, although omitting to reveal her identity, does reveal the substantial differences between the kinds of knowledge thatmen obtain. Her instructions separate the world of mortals from the realm of true existence, and the distinction between true knowl the philosopher-charioteer, understanding edge and false beliefs, is prepared to take the route to the truth of being.

deep andmurkypit (?epeGpov) that liesbelow Hades: //. 8.15-16 ev?aoioripeiai

Kai %&Xkeo? o?S?c, of iron and a brazen 29 The terminal which lude represents to Homer's /x?aaov evepG' 'Ai?eco oaov o?pavo?

xenvXai

?ax' ?rco yairi?: "there are gates as from earth the the As house far beneath of Hades threshold, sky lies." a in 16 of line facilitate Parmenides' may pun: o^rja o%fja, position an obstacle to the charioteer's the gates in Bl, may al passage through

ally opens himself.

in II. 5.745, as if the bar of the gates visu 6%ea (pX?yea carrying Athena to let the chariot of the goddess followed charioteer through, by the Eleatic 160 erroneously the chariot not to Athena Coxon but to Hera. attributes

236

Svetla Slaveva-Grifftn

parallel between II. 8.41-46 and Parmenides' proem is the em the shining of gold in Zeus' phasis on authority. While Homer describes clothes, lash, and the manes of his horses in order to accentuate his divine mares and "the much superiority, Parmenides writes of "much-discerning" Another superiority of his doctrine and speaking" road to establish the philosophical Both the legitimacy of the philosopher's journey. epithets have Homeric over tones, noXxxppaaxoi being a pun on Achilles' address to his horses (II. 19.401 (ppa?eo0? Ga o?jiev fivioxfja, "take care to bring your charioteer back"), rco?ucprjuov recalling the name of Phemius, the famous rhapsode who enter tains the crowd of the suitors in Book 1 of the Odyssey. for Parmenides' adaptation of Homer's depictions of divine chariot-rides charioteer represents the subject of the poem and Eleatic his own philosophic as to the realm of eternal existence. But mortal itself pertinent philosophy have exam chariot rides, too, underlie the proem. Havelock and Mourelatos ined the relation between Parmenides' charioteer a less visible the relationship between Telemachus, and Parmenides' charioteer.32 and Odysseus;31 I consider character in the Odyssey,

The journeys of Telemachus and Parmenides' charioteer share much: the role of the accompanying characters, the passivity of the charioteer, the speed of the horses pulling their chariots, and the notion of Night and Day. The Telemachia offers an epic portrayal of a story of a coming of age.33 Telemachus about his own status, his fate, and his is in need of knowledge?knowledge this need propels him beyond his father's household and beyond Ithaca itself.34 After his stay in Pylos, Odysseus' son is accompanied solely by Nestor's son, Peisistratus, who, having already learned from his own father future?and the road to kleos, takes up the role as an experienced charioteer directing the (Od. 3.473-85). Peisistratus' constant epithet "a path of Telemachus'journey leader of men" (Od. 3.482 6p%a\io? ocvSpcov) reveals his heroic reputation, and also emphasizes the particular role he performs in the scene: to be a leader of Telemachus himself. Peisistratus has already found out and achieved his

30 159. Noted by Coxon 31 1970. Mourelatos Havelock, 32 II. 16.148-54,19.392-417. the Achilles: chariot of Also 33 has received numerous role in the Odyssey Telemachus' persuasive sentation Telemachus and Felson, 34 Clarke than others. of the Convincing of are Martin, who considers

interpretations, the Telemachia envisions

some more as a repre the story of

twilight as a paradigm

the heroic

age; Thalmann,

who

of a tale of coming plays 37-40,

argues 131-42,

that Telemachus Thalmann

of age; Murnaghan, who, the role of the internal audience 143-47.

after Peradotto in the Odyssey.

Murnaghan

Content and Form in Parmenides' Proem and Plato's Phaedrus status as Nestor's

237

successful heir, while Telemachus has yet to make his kleos journey.35 Peisistratus provides Telemachus with the knowledge and personal experience to complete his trip. Parmenides a young man and the Heliades, to the relations between the charioteer gives similar meaning and the charioteer and the nameless goddess. The image of on a quest to discover his own self creates a personal dimension

in the proem.36 The charioteer himself first-person narrative. Like Telemachus,

gives his account of the journey in a is young the philosopher-charioteer as co and the (the goddess holds (addressed by Koup') inexperienced goddess In the frenetic setting of her manifesto).37 his hand while delivering is the only passive participant Parmenides' journey, the young philosopher38 in the scene: he is "carried" by the mares (five times in the first four lines),39 lead the way, and the goddess holds his hand. in the back What are Parmenides' motives in placing the young philosopher of the action? Is this poem not an explication of Parmenides' own philoso the Heliades

phy and, if so, should it not be presented actively? To answer these questions, one has to consider the setting of the proem within the conventions of its Homeric framework. In the scene of the inception of Telemachus' journey,
35

If Platonized, acquires

the participation paradigmatic

of Athena,

Nestor,

and Peisistratus

in Telemachus'

journey ing divine upon his

The disguised Athena, possess symbolism. to embark upon the journey and ultimately inspires Telemachus knowledge, and Peisistratus him with fate as an adult, while Nestor provide knowledge, philosophical (Phdr. 246a5), ramifications "Under Hellas these could to complete his journey. from myth to philosophy, of the transition the transi circumstances unique historically

"within human capacities" 36 the political Exploring 166-68 concludes: Voegelin tion from archaic to classic

assume adventures the form of intellectual by to of hierarchies which tend the traditions." pressure preserve unhampered by fourth falls in Voegelin's adventure?the found type of intellectual Parmenides'journey a "school" marks). ing of philosophical (Voegelin's quotation 37 See B 1.24-26. Murnaghan and Martin, 133-42, Felson, upon Peradotto, drawing individuals, entertains nal reader 38 With the thought and spectator. Parmenides perhaps, of the young passenger identifies in the chariot himself?in the strict sense that the that the Odyssey ismeant for Telemachus as the internal or exter

whom,

literary author.

persona For

is philosophically own

inclined, intellectual

as is his quest

to discover interpretation conversion

as a of the proem the reading symbol see Taran the essence of true existence (1908: from some 171) form that the poem

of Parmenides' 25. Also worth

mentioning

is Burnet's

of error

[deriving

is an allegorical description from an Orphic practice]

of "Parmenides' to what he held

to be the truth." 39 Bl.l: u? (p?pouciv; B1.2: \l' ?? ??ov ?fJGOiv noXv(pr\\iov ccyouaai; (parca; B1.4: xfj (p?p?|irjv; B1.4: ue 7toA/?(ppacrcoi (p?pov untoi.

B1.3:

(p?pei ei?oxa

238

Svetla Slaveva-Griffin

son of Odysseus and inexperienced cannot complete his journey without the successfully knowledgeable guidance of Peisistratus.40 And the of Telemachus' primary instigator journey is the goddess of wisdom herself, the owl-eyed Athena. Following the pattern of the Homeric scene, Parmenides the young creates a similar setting, juxtaposing a young man's kleos to an intellectual the maiden charioteers, daughters of Helios, guide the inquiry41 to the nameless ignorant philosopher goddess, the light, and eternal exist ence.42 lust as Athena inspires and directs Telemachus' actions so that he "may in which

hear of his father" ( Od. 3.15 ocppa nvQr\ai I naxp?c), so Parmenides' goddess the charioteer's guides journey "to learn all things" (B1.28 n?vxa 7C\)0?o6ai) so that he may know the correct route while judging "by reasoning" (B7.5 receives instruction from the Kp?voti... Xoyco).43 The young seeker of wisdom ce B 1.28-30 ?? n?vxa 7ru0?o6ai %pe /fjji?v ??rjGeiri? ?\mei0?o? goddess: ?xpeji?? frrop / f]?? ?poxcov ?oc^a? "And it is right that you should learn all things, Both the steadfast heart of persuasive truth, And the beliefs of mor tals." It is not Parmenides who explicates the tenets of his philosophy. The on his quest to acquire the truth of exis passivity of the young philosopher tential knowledge conveys, in an epic way, Parmenides' claim to philosophi cal authority, justified by the epistemological authority of his omniscient herself down the she passes knowledge of true existence in B2.1-8. goddess; has no predecessors, and his Since, as was noted by Voegelin,"Parmenides no of has the Eleatic had to embed his new ideas concept prehistory," Being a in persuasive form. This form is the literary tradition of Homer. Parmenides' is a new kind of epic hero who, having embarked upon young philosopher the road towards knowledge of true existence, completes his intellectual ana basis to the realm of thought. This road is bright, straight, and uplifting, as

40 Telemachus' packing 41 This

a version

philosopher 42 As was merous

137: "Homer in is discussed has succeeded passive "activity" by Clarke into a little more than two books, all in the passive voice." of the Odyssey if one takes into account that Parmenides is the first heavily point weighs more to invent the concept of Being; Voegelin 208. noted above, remains the identity of Parmenides' goddess are offered commentators: and modern by ancient unknown. Proclus Nu names

identifications

her Hypsipyle since she is the keeper of the lofty gates of night and day (in Prm. 640.39);
Voegelin, in the footsteps and Popper, of Hesiod, refer to her as Dike; asMnemosyne; her calls her the Goddess of Truth, Heidegger Pugliese a in I most the her role that, think, depicts poem; Hirsch 'A^rjOeia, closely personification " on the charioteer in his study of the Phaedrus entitles his chapter 'A^n?eia." myth 43 to Gallop will offer him 6: "the guidance that she [the nameless According goddess] to the supernatural in directives mortal adventurers is clearly to be patterned upon given Morrison, Mansfeld, Caratelli identifies to the directions referring Ino to Odysseus in Od. 5. given by Athena to Telemachus in Od. 1, and

the Odyssey? and Hermes

Content and Form inParmenides' Proem and Plato's Phaedrus are the paths of the rosy-fingered elements employs these Homeric eter in order to communicate Dawn and Zeus'

239

chariot.44 Parmenides

He composes his philosophic means of literary expression available to the creative mind in the century not of the The before Plato.46 only provides the first repertoire epic genre Eleatic philosopher with the literary merits of meter and vocabulary, it also equips him with ready-made array of symbols and allegories old conventions of form to express new content.47 IV. THE ALLEGORY OF THE CHARIOTEER that enable the

form of epic hexam conceptually with his Presocratic audience.45 exegesis in verse because this is the common

in the conventional

IN PLATO

in the The allegory of the soul as a charioteer has a specific exemplary meaning the best kind of speech about love, that inspired by Phaedrus. It demonstrates theMuses, in response to the polished, yet uninspired speeches by Lysias and Socrates himself. The introduction thatmake of the speech in the dialogue lists the two of speech and literature in general: the first the best kind components is inspiration that is "akind of madness," which comes from theMuses; the other is "a delicate, pure soul, arousing into a Bacchic dance regarding lyric and other

kinds of poetry" (Phdr. 245a 1-3). The purpose of this best kind of discourse is "to educate posterity while adorning the countless deeds of their predeces context sors" (Phdr. 245a4-5).48 We should keep inmind this propaideutic the goal of Plato's appropriation of the charioteer theme. Let us begin our investigation of Plato's use of the theme with Nussbaum's assertion of the inseparability of concept and form. "Literary form is not sepa since it determines
44 The the darkness other road, against which the nameless goddess to the realm warns him, descends from which towards he has

reality and leads back the gates of Night just arrived, passing through to the world of false beliefs "in which katabasis of physical here see Cornford 45 Parmenides 1991: 214-16). is criticized

of darkness

and Day. This road is the non-philosophical there is no true trust" (B1.30; on katabasis

8.44-45) in order Rh.

for writing "more like prose than poetry" (in Prm. by Proclus for "borrowing from poetic art itsmetre and by Plutarch and lofty style, as a vehicle to avoid the prosaic" 4 and 109. Plato at Arist. is praised (Mor. 16C): see Gallop

121-22 for writing Inst 10.1.81, and Cic.Brut. 1408b 17-20, Quint. prose. poetry-like 46 con verse "as an integration wrote 263 that Parmenides in of argues apparent Floyd as Dio 53.5 suggests traries into his argument, Homer." concerning Chrysostom 47 as "in one sense form and content Mourelatos 1970:39 describes the relation between and incidental is our but in another here. He internal and too, essential." The "internal uses and essen old

external

tial" relation motifs, them." 48

interest and old

concludes,

that "Parmenides to think new

old words, in and

old themes, For For

the opposite

images precisely view see Wilamowitz

in order

62 and Reinhardt

thoughts 64-88.

through

interpretation

of the Phaedrus Heath

Ferrari,

Helmbold

and Holther,

as a see of writing defense philosophical Burger, 1989a and 1989b, Rowe 1986b and 1989.

240

Svetla Slaveva-Grif?n

rabie from philosophical content, but is, itself, a part of content?an integral part, then, of the search for and the statement of truth."49 The charioteer allegory is a clear example of the interaction between philosophical content and literary form. content underlying the allegory is presented in the ana The philosophical that the soul is immortal at Phdr. 245c5-9 lytical proof of the proposition (referred to hereinafter H'uxt] Ttaooc?Q?vaxo?.
Kai i)7t' aXXox> Kivoujievov,

as Passage A):50 to y?p aeiK?vrjTov aG?vaxov

navXav e%ov Kivnoecoc,

to ?' ?XXo kivo?v

navXav ?%ei ??cofj?.

u?vov ?fj to ai)TO kivo?v, axe ouk dcTtoAeircov?auTo, oimoTe ?riyei

Kivo?jievov ...

All soul is immortal.51 For that which is always inmovement is immortal; that which moves something else and ismoved by something else, in ceasing from ceases from living. Only that which moves itself, because it does movement,
not abandon itself, never stops moving.

This analysis takes the primary form of philosophical exegesis.52 The proof of the immortality of the soul follows a progression of statements, A to B to C:53 A. IfX is ever-moving (?eiK?vr|Tov), then X is immortal (?G?vocTov). B. IfX is self-moving (to abxb kivo?v), then X is ever-moving (o?rcoTe Jiriyei
Kivouuevov). C. Soul is self-moving (tov i)(p' eauTou Kivounevov), so soul is immortal

(?oavocTO?). The logical sequence of the argument proves the superiority of the soul over in a the body and yet connects \|n)%f| 7taooc and 7iav acojua as counterparts universal relation (Phdr. 245e2-46a2):54
49 Nussbaum the appropriate 50 According on 4, the words is amatter of finding and shaping 3; similarly, "Finding so to speak, the honorable, fit between and expression." conception to Nussbaum is done "in the language of conven 3, this kind of analysis

and,

a in wonder." tional philosophical flat and lacking prose, style remarkably 51 rcaaa as "all" seems to be preferable in while the Tt?tooc seems here, exegesis following as well as distributive. rcocoa is collective De comments to denote 121 Vries that "every." Rowe druff 1986a: 29 with 52 Referred 59 and Hackforth 1955:492 translate it here with "all," Nehamas and Woo

to philosophy" conventional by Nussbaum of Ricoeur and Derrida, below. 3; cf. Tanner quoted 53 Per the of of the discussion of the any steps proof precedes usually myth. Analysis and the form of the myth "are bound of the fact that the content haps this is evidence see even in their interpretation. For analysis 1952:64 Taylor 306-7, Hackforth together" 68, Robinson 54 Plato's X, Timaeus, 112-15, Guthrie 2: 419-21, Hirsch 263, Heitsch is related 105-9. notably in Phaedo, Republic of the immortality concept and Laws. of the soul

"every." structure to as "the expositional 458-66. See also the formulations

Content and Form in Parmenides' Proem and Plato's Phaedrus

241

ouo?av Te a?avaTou 8? Ttecpaauevou tou ixp' ?amo? Kivoujaivoi), \|n)%fj? ouk toutov n?v auT?v ti? ^?ycov Kai taSyov aia^uveuai. y?p ocojia, (bu?v (b 8? ?vSoOev a?Tco ??;auTo?, ?uAjn)%ov,oo? e^co?ev t? Kive?aSai, ?\j/u%ov, tccutu? ouan? (puaeco? xj/uxt??/ei 8' ?oTiv touto outco? ?%ov, ut] ixXhd x\ e?vai t? auT? ?auTO kivo?v r\ \j/u%f|v, ?cj?v?yKnc ?y?vnT?v Te Kai
?OavaTov \|/u%ti ?v ein.

And since that which ismoved by itself has been shown to be immortal, itwill incur no shame to say that this is the essence and the definition of soul. For all body which has its source of motion outside itself is soulless, whereas thatwhich has itwithin itself and from itself is ensouled, this being the nature of soul; and if this is so?that that which moves itself is nothing other than soul, soul will be necessarily something which neither comes into being nor dies. The proof of the soul's immortality is concerned exclusively with is the ability of a thing to move itself within motion: immortality the idea of itself.

essence of the soul is illustrated with the allegory of the The self-moving charioteer (Phdr. 246a3-4): Flepi U?v ouv ?Gavaoia? a\)Tf|? iKavco?- rcepi ?? xr\? i?ea? aUTfjc ?>8e ?eKTeov "About its immortality, then, enough has been said; about its form we must say the following." The meaning of i8?a as a "form" or "semblance" or "the look of a thing" points out the relation be tween the concept of the immortality of the soul and the following allegory of the charioteer: allegory, as an image, offers a different, visu ally-enriched explanation of the subject of Passage A, as is clear from Phdr. it iswould require a long exposition and 246a4-6. "To say what kind ofthing the charioteer

one calling for utterly superhuman powers (o?ov uiv ?cm, 7c?vTp, Tt?vTCoc to say what it resembles requires a Oeia? e?vai Kai paKpa? 8irjyf|oeu)?); shorter one, and one within human capacities. So let us speak in the latter way" ((b 8? ?oiKev, av0pc?7t?vrjc Te Kai ?taxTTOvo?* Ta?Tn ouv ?i?ycojLiev.55 as "within human capacities" captures the Rowe's translation of ?v6pamivr| essence of Plato's theory of forms, expressed literarily: the concept in its in telligible form can be understood divinely; mere mortals must make do with an image of this concept that is both divinely inspired and based on the liter ary tradition (Phdr. 246a6-b4, which is quoted in section n above and referred to hereinafter as Passage B). The allegory of the soul as "the combined power of awinged team of horses and their charioteer" (Phdr. 246a6-7 auuxpUTcp Suv?pe? UTiOTiTepou?euyou?
55

Formulated

admission about precision

466 who, draws upon Plato's also by Tanner perhaps unintentionally, of the necessity the truth of 7c?vxr| n?vxco? Beia? e?vai to convey thoroughly of rigor and is a recognition that there are other modes the soul: "What is needed than quasi-formal ones, and ways of being 20 n. 33. See also Nussbaum profound that do not require near

unintelligibility."

242

Svetla Slaveva-Griffin

xe Kai rrvi?xou) conveys figuratively the idea, explained at R. 439d4-41a3, that the soul consists of three parts. The charioteer (frvio%o?) personifies the reasoning part (R. 439d5 to XoyiOTiK?v), the good horse (Phdr. 246b2-3 tcov 1717CCOV ? p?v amco Ka?xS? Te Kai ?ya0?c) represents the spirited part (R. 441a2 to 0i)uoei8??), and the bad horse (Phdr. 246b3 ? 8' ?? ?vavT?cov Te Kai embodies the appetitive part (R. 440el0 to ?7iu%ur|TiK?v).56 ?vavT?o?) The fact that both Parmenides' a charioteer and his horses proem journeying cannot be ignored or dismissed as literary coincidence: sense-perceptual reality both allegories function in a strictly theoretical context, explaining concepts related to the realm of true existence by means of the same literary device. But even if the metaphor is a vehicle of literary expression suitable for ren and Plato's myth involve the idea of to a realm of true existence beyond

nature of the soul into an av0pco7civr| form, dering the abstract, metaphysical so does Plato select traditionally poetic a trope as the metaphor of a chari why are oteer? There three parts to the reason for this seemingly un-Platonic de as an explanatory method, the first, concerning the use of metaphor scholars of by philosophy, language, and semiotics; the second, use the in of Platonic metaphor concerning myth, is employed by scholars of concerns Plato and classical philology; the third Parmenides' influence on cision: is employed of the soul's journey. as "the application of a Aristotle defines metaphor word (?rcupop?) that belongs to another thing: either from genus to species, or by analogy."57 to species, The new-born of species discipline At Poetics 1457b6-9 "metaphorology,"58 promoted trinsic semantic and semiotic ence of meanings phor as an enrichment by Ricoeur, Eco, and Derrida, exposes the in relations that are brought up by the transfer from one thing to another.59 While Eco understands meta to of Plato's account

of literary discourse, Derrida subsumes metaphor In Derrida's is "a process discourse. terms, philosophy philosophical a to view relevant especially metaphorization,"60 metaphysics.

To readwithin a concept the hidden history of metaphor is to privilege diachrony at the expense of system, and is also to invest in the symbolist conception of language that we have pointed out in passing: no matter how deeply buried,

56 This has

the allegory and the tripartite of the soul relation between division conceptual 13-17 refers to the soul-charioteer of Parmenides: influenced Coxon the interpretation to give a possible of the journey of Parmenides' interpretation see also Rh. 1405a3. charioteer.

in the Phaedrus

On metaphor 57Halliwell's translation. 58 Eco's coinage. 59 on the transition Snell in his chapter nature of comparison 60 211-15. Derrida as a foundation

to logos, 190-226, from myth examines the texts. for the use of metaphor in philosophical

Content and Form in Parmenides' Proem and Plato's Phaedrus

243

the link of the signifier to the signified has had both to be and to remain a link
of natural necessity, of analogical participation, of resemblance.61

In an attempt to reconcile62 "the ancient quarrel" between philosophy and and Edmundson Nussbaum, poetry and its modern permutations, Rorty, propose of the necessary connectedness between understanding are and form and bound poetry: "conception philosophy together."63 These theories illuminate Plato's undertaking in Passage A and Passage B. If, according to Derrida, metaphor is "a link of natural necessity," inherent to philosophical then when discourse, Passage B creates an image (Phdr. 246a3 ?8?a) of the account in Passage A with the use of the charioteer allegory, it offers a differ ent explanation of the immortality of the soul and unites itself with Passage A to become tion of motion "an integral part" of this concept.64 The metaphoric presenta in the allegory in Passage B (Phdr. 246a6-7 "Let it resemble the combined power of awinged team of horses and their charioteer") is based a dialectical

on the view of the immortality of the soul in Passage A, that is, "all soul is is immortal" (Phdr. 245c5-9). immortal; for that which is ever-moving The analytical proof of the immortality of the soul (Phdr. 245c5-9) requires an illustration of its argument. This illustration is presented in the allegory of the soul (Phdr. 246a6-48a), which provides a suitable example of Nussbaum's "fit between content and form." The charioteer myth has received awide range of interpretations and is included in every study of Platonic myth from Deuschle toMorgan.65 Scholars acknowledge the conceptual relation between the charioteer myth and the proof of the soul's immortality: the charioteer's journey is a different, literarily-informed explanation of the exegesis in Pas a A. of his The and charioteer sage image pair of horses crossing the heavens is self-moving and above sense-percep tible reality. The details of this image explicate the immortal nature of the soul in gods and men. In the case of gods, the charioteer and his horses "are all
61 215. Derrida 62 Edmundson makes poetry 63 This begins, with his Literature

embodies

in a visual form that which

a successful against

attempt

very broadly and of content connection the and form that between inclusively deep animated the ancient quarrel and that has usually been present in the greatest thinkers, whether or not and whether or not friends of literature in a 'literary' way." they were they wrote 1973:70 is on the same track suggesting 64Mourelatos that the "speculative metaphor" creates a new, philosophically in Parmenides. bound, meaning 65 That 1854 with the publication of Die platonischen insbesondere is, from Mythen, construed, the sense the Presocratics to Plato. For a diachronic see Moors 1-24.

dismisses approach to Nussbaum according

Philosophy, the antagonism

Plato

at revitalizing the theoretical evaluation to Derrida: A Defense of Poetry. between the two modes of discourse of the ethical,

of

and

22, "to recover,

in the domain

der Mythen imPiatos Ph?drus to 2000 with the publication ofMyth and Philosophy from
analysis

244 both

Svetla Slaveva-Griffin

good and of good stock" (Phdr. 246a7-8 0ecov p?v ovv uutoi Te Kai f|v?o%oi n?vxec amo? Te ?ya0oi Kai et, ?ya0a>v). They constitute awinged team that "travels above the earth and governs the whole cosmos" (Phdr. 246cl-2 example is Zeus' journey: "First in the heavens travels Zeus, the great leader, driving a winged chariot, putting all things in order and caring for all" (Phdr. 246e4-6 ? p?v 8fi p?ya? fiyepoov ?v oupavco Ze?c, ?Axxwcov tcthvov appa, rcpc?Toc In the case of men, the Tiope?eTai, 8iaKoopa>v Tt?vTa Kai ?rcipetarupevo?). quality of the horses ismixed: the charioteer guides a pair, but "he finds one of them both noble and good, and of similar stock, while the other is of op posite stock and opposite in its nature" (Phdr. 246b 1-3 6 ap%cov Gt>vcopi8o? fjvioxe?, e?xa toov itctccov ? p?v amcp Ka?,o? Te Kai ?ya0o? Kai eK toioutcov, ? 8' ??, ?vavT?cov Te Kai ?vavT?o?). Thus driving a chariot in the case of mor tals is difficult and troublesome (Phdr. 246b4 %aXen?\ 8r\ Kai Stlxjko?o? ?c^ ?vayKn? f| Tiepi fjpa? Tiviox^oi?). These details in Passage B explicate the com plexities of the self-moving V. PLATO Scholars AND nature of the soul in gods and men. eKTep p?vri peTecopoTcope? tc Kai rc?vTa tov k?ouov 8ioiKe?). The that Plato gives for the accord between the charioteer and his horses

PARMENIDES preeminent of Plato's role in the development of a historical fact. A point of conten

treat Parmenides'

almost with the certainty philosophy ideas.66 tion, however, is the extent to which Plato appropriates Parmenides' Similar uncertainty covers the details of Plato's use of Parmenides' proem in have the Phaedrus' myth. It is ironic, I think, that scholars and commentators used Plato's allegory to clarify the symbolism of Parmenides' journey but not vice versa.67 In the following pages I examine the textual and conceptual re lations between the proem and the Platonic myth of the charioteer in the hope of of Plato's awareness and appropriation of broadening our understanding the literary tradition and in order to open up a new area for studies of Parmenides' proem, one that would engage Parmenides in explicating Plato.68 The first point of our comparative analysis concerns the nature of the re and Plato. In lationship between a charioteer and his horses in Parmenides

66

Palmer's

study

of Plato's

reception of Parmenides

of Parmenides with originality in Prm.

addresses and keen

this and insights.

other

prob

understanding see esp. 1-16. relations of Plato-Parmenides 67 to Proclus 13-14 Coxon Except referring 556.12. 68 Coxon account

lems of Plato's

For studies

703

and

Simplicius

in de Gael.

16 notices

the close

connection

between 64a-69e.

Parmenides'

journey

and

Plato's

of the philosophic

life in the Phaedo

Content and Form in Parmenides' Proem and Plato's Phaedrus the mares enter the first verse of the poem Parmenides, of pable taking their passenger as far as impulse might e;ci 0uuo? characterized

245 as ca

iK?voi). They are the active participants (Tvrai (cpepoucnv), send (7t?u7cov), lead (ocyouaai), and exert themselves in their toward the house of the nameless vouaai) passenger taking goddess. The horses are present in the proem with their 0i)uo?, which is the source of the charioteer's motion. (noXvippacxox), "Much-discerning" they lead the chariot (cpepov ...appa) in accord. Their passenger is introduced in the third verse of the proem as "a knowing man" (e?S?Ta (parca), although he himself does not direct the path of the chariot.69 It is later in the proem that we are informed of what constitutes this man's knowledge: he has learned the route of persuasion leading him to the truth of what being is. The third set of par in the "immortal charioteers" proem are the Heliades, (B1.24 ticipants mares of the a0av(XTOioi... (B1.5 Koupai 8' f|vi?%oiaiv) guiding the path and coaxing the "much-avenging Justice" (Bl.15-16 xr\v to /rceioav 8f| 7tap(p?pevai Koupai pataxKOioi A?yoiaiv open eTcuppaS?c??) the gates of Night and Day. The team?horses, passenger, Heliades?works ?8ov f|yep?vei)ov) together to reach its destination. All of them possess characteristics of intel lectual power (the horses are "much-discerning," noXxxppaoxox, the passen is and the immortal charioteers e?8?Ta, ger "knowing," "persuade cunningly," kexgov ?7iuppa8?a>?). This enables them to complete the journey beyond the darkness of common men's beliefs and to reach the realm of the gods. let us consider Plato's team. It ismade from "the combined power of a team of horses and their charioteer" (Phdr. 246a6-7 Guuxpmu) Swapei winged i)7t07iTepoD ?euyou? Te Kai f]vi?%ou). In the case of the gods, the horses and the charioteer are noble, good, and of similar nature (Phdr. 246a7-8 0ecov p?v ouv i7C7coi Te Kai f]v?o%oi rcavTe? amo? Te ?ya0oi Kai ?i; ?ya0a>v ) ;their journey is Now in accord (Phdr. 247b 1-2 toc p?v 0ecov 6%f|paTa easy and accomplished ?vTa ?Gopporcoa? euf|via paSico? rcopeueTai). In the case of men, the horses are the and charioteer opposite and of opposite nature (Phdr. 246b3 ? 8' ?c^ ?vavT?cov Te Kai ?vavTio?); their journey is therefore difficult and trouble some (Phdr. 246b4 %a?e7tf| 8f| Kai Suoko?o? ?c^?v?yKrjc r\ nepl f|pa? Tivi?xnaic). There are some striking similarities in the language and style of the two authors. As Plato introduces his team by mentioning the horses first and then the charioteer, so Parmenides begins his poem with a reference to the horses first and then their passenger. The reason for such a peculiar arrangement lies in the emphasis
69 Coxon 158.

reach (Bl.l ?aov t' in the journey as they carry

on the horses' 0i)po?.

In Parmenides,

the horses

follow their

246

Svetla Slaveva-Griffin

0\)poc as far as its impulse might reach (Bl.l). In Plato, the good and the bad to their charioteer that is a charac horse are distinguished by the obedience teristic of their 0-opoc: the good horse makes the chariots of the gods "well and easily controlled" balanced (Phdr. 247b2 iooppcmco? e\)T|via ?vTa while the bad horse pa8icoc), weighs the chariots of men down, pulling them 5 ?pi0ei toward the earth, if he has not been well trained by his charioteer (Phdr. 247b3 y?p 6 ttj? Kmcri? ut7to? peT?%a>v, ?m tt|v ynv p?rccov Te Kai ?apwcov copr| kqlX&? f]v Te0papp?vo? tcov f|vi?%cov). The allusiveness of the distinc tion between is clarified by the terminology of the three parts (discussed in part iv above), to 0i)poeiS?? (R. is the second part, which is in charge of elevated emotions and a natural the two horses

of the soul at R. 439d5-41a2

441a2) ally of the first, reasoning, part (R. 439d5 to ?Loyiotik?v); to ?7ci0-?pr|TiK?v to appetitive desires is the third part, which gives expression (R. 440el0) the charioteer Plato's represents the reason against reasoning part. Finally,

ing part of the soul, which is able to guide the path of the chariot toward the realm of true existence. He has charge of the pair of horses: in the case of gods, the charioteer performs his task easily, supported by the agreement of his pair (Phdr. 247a4-6) while, in the case of men, the charioteer "has charge of the pair" (Phdr. 246b 1-2 Kai rcpcoTov p?v fjpcov ? ?pxcov cruvcopi8o? frvio%e?) and yet steers itwith difficulty onto the right path (Phdr. 246b4). In guiding his team Plato's charioteer and the reasoning part of the soul perform the same role as the immortal companions of Parmenides' charioteer, i.e., to direct the path of the chariot and the horses. In the case of the gods, Plato's charioteer acts like the Heliades who lead the chariot with ease and cunningly persuade Justice to let them through the gates of Night and Day. In the case of men, Plato's charioteer resembles the "knowing" passenger in Parmenides' team, for he has to train the bad horse to obey his direction ( Phdr. 247b4-5 \xr\ kolX&c tcov r|vic>%cov). f|v Te0papp?vo? The culminating point in this comparative analysis is Plato's description of Zeus' chariot-ride as a leading example for the gods' happy movement in the sky (Phdr. 246e4-47a5): ? p?v Su, p?ya? fjyepcbv ?v o?pavco Zeu?, ?tax?vcov tituvov appa,
rcope?eTai, SiaKoapcov rc?vTa Kai ?7upeAo?pevoc/ tco 8' ?'rceTai

Ttparto?
oTpaTia

0ecov Te Kai Saip?vcov, KaTa evSeKa p?pn KeKoopupevrj. p?vei y?p 'Ecrc?a ?v 0ecov oiKco p?vn tcov Se ???cov ?ooi ?v tco tcov 8c?)8eKa ?pi0pco TeTayp?voi 0eoi ?p%ovTe? hjouvTai KaT? Tac^iv f^v eKacrco? ?Tax0ri. noXXai p?v ouv Kai paKapiai 0?ai Te Kai Si?c^oSoi ?vTo? oupavou, ??
0ecov y?vo? euSaipovcov eTtiaTp?tpeTai...

First in the heavens travels Zeus, the great leader, driving a winged chariot, putting all things in order and caring for all; after him there follows an army of

Content and Form in Parmenides' Proem and Plato's Phaedrus

247

gods and divinities, ordered in eleven companies. For Hestia remains in the house of the gods alone; of the rest, all those who have their place among the
number of the twelve take the lead as commanders in the station given to each.

Many,
gods

then, and blessed are the paths to be seen along which

turn within the heavens ...

the happy race of

The passage describes the harmony of the rides of the gods' souls, referring specifically to the ride of Zeus, who is the only deity (besides Hestia, who does not travel on a chariot) named in the text. Plato's choice here is appropriate: Zeus is "the great leader" (? p?ya? fjyepc?v) of gods and men, and in this con text his chariot ride ismost important and representative for all chariot rides of the gods. Plato's choice, however, Iwould argue, is not simply appropriate. If one relates the overall positive description and language of this passage to Parmenides' portrayal of the gods (especially the Heliades, who also "lead," the way in B1.5) and his adaptation of the Homeric theme of fiyepoveuov, divine chariot rides (especially passage's sophisticated and Parmenides. in Bl), one perceives the and it in the tradition of Homer literary identity places the one of Zeus

Is it possible that Plato selects Zeus as an example for his chariot ride as a reference to Parmenides' use of Zeus' episode in Book 8 of the Iliad?.Although this claim validity Parmenides between is and always will be speculative, even to conceive of its possible to the relationship the episodes in draws attention between

and Plato and yields some fruitful discoveries. The resemblance the two divine charioteers and their pairs of horses lies in the knowl edgeable leading of the charioteer and the good spirit of his horses in both journeys: in Plato, the gods lead the chariots (Phdr. 247a3 0eoi ?p%ovTe?

fryouvTai), while in Parmenides, the Heliades lead the way of the chariot (B1.5 Zeus rides on his chariot (Phdr. Koupai 8' ?8?v fiyepoveuov). Moreoever, 246e4-5 ?tax?vcov nxr\vbv ?ppa), while the Heliades "drive the chariot and mares along the broad way" (B1.21 i0\)? ?'%ovKoupai KaT' ?pac^iTov ?ppa Kai ?nnov?). But there are also differences. Plato uses the criterion of accord between the charioteer and his pair to distinguish the different conditions of "chariot driving" in the souls of gods and men. For Parmenides this distinc tion is unnecessary: in his divine equipage there is accord between the chari oteers and the mares, while the young philosopher whom the team carries to the nameless to wisdom that is, he understands the right way goddess is knowledgeable, (B1.3). In the Phaedrus, Plato overrides the personal dimension

and extends the allegory to include philosopher-charioteer men in order and but gods not-so-knowledgeable philosophically-inclined to present the universal meaning of the soul's immortality. In other words, Plato's topic, the concept of the soul, universal and individual, incorporates Parmenides' literary allegory.

of Parmenides'

248

Svetla Slaveva-Griffin in ):

The philosophical of Parmenides' component allegory is represented Plato's description of the realm towhich the charioteer travels (Phdr. 247c6-dl f] y?p ?%pc?paT?c Te Kai ?a^up?TiaTo? Kai ?vacprj? ouo?a ovtco? ouaa, \\f\>%r\? Ku?epvriTp, p?vco ?earn, veo, Ttepinv t? Tfj??tai0o?? ?TCiOTripri?
y?vo?, TOUTOV e%ei tov tottov.

This region is occupied by being which really is,which iswithout colour or shape, intangible, observable by the steersman of the soul alone, by intellect, and to which the class of true knowledge relates. The destination of the chariot-rides of gods and men contains true being or eternal existence. Gods, owing to their unanimous and his horses, are able to reach the outer part of the they are able to gaze on the region outside the heavens

(ouoia ovtco? ouaa) team of a charioteer heavens, from which

This region recalls the realm of true being, which (Phdr. 247b7-c2). Parmenides' goddess describes in her instructions to the charioteer (B4.1-4): Xevggz 8' opco? arce?vTa v?cp rcapeovTa ?e?aicoc o? y?p a7tOTpr|^ei to ?ov tou ?ovTo? ?%ea0ai KaT? K?apov oi)Te OKiSv?pevov 7t?vTri Tt?vTco?
ouvicrc?pevov.

orne

Look upon things which, though far off, are yet firmly present to the mind; For you shall not cut off what-is from holding fast to what-is, For it neither disperses itself in every way everywhere in order, Nor gathers itself together. The between the two regions were discussed by the relationship between Parmenides' account of being and Plato's description of the form of beauty in the Symposium, that is, true being is ungenerated, steadfast, and complete imperishable, whole, true existence in the connection between Plato's realm of The (B8.1-6).70 similarities conceptual Solmsen in connection with and Parmenides' presentation relationship strengthens the philosophical the realm is above the region that is inhabited by the gods and Parmenides, and far distant from "the beaten tracks of common men." Plato follows the in in Book 8 of the Iliad and Parmenides established by Homer distinction, B1, between the dark world of mortals and the bright realm of the gods. The epic poet makes
70 istics. Solmsen 64-70.

Phaedrus

of the route of persuasion only between the two concepts. In Plato

this distinction
Curd 75-94,

apparent
especially 1955: 84-86, elements 84-86.

in the concluding
examines in Plato's each one

scene of Zeus'
of the character of the im

For a discussion of the soul

of the Parmenidean see Hackforth

understanding

mortality

Content and Form in Parmenides' Proem and Plato's Phaedrus

249

chariot ride, inwhich the king of gods and mortals observes the battle of men reverse the direction from which the charioteers below him. The philosophers observe the goal of their journeys: Parmenides' charioteer reaches the god dess' house, where he learns the path of persuasion: "For it lies far indeed from the beaten track of men" (B1.27 r\ y?p an' ?vGpc?mcov ?KT?c n?xov ?crc?v); the souls of Plato's divine charioteers reach the top of the heavens, from which they gaze (0ecopouai) ?)7iepoup?viov Parmenides of Zeus dwelling at the region above the heavens (Phdr. 247cl-3 tov 8? Tcmov). and Plato associate

in order to establish

through sion and knowledge: in Parmenides, the charioteer looks "upon things which, are far off, firmly present to the mind" (B4.1 v?co TcapeovTa ?e?aicoc) though and in Plato, the divine charioteer gazes at true being "observable by the steers man

their charioteers' journeys with the ride that true being belongs to a region closer to the place of the gods than to that of men. This region is accessible only the power of intellect in its role as the guiding principle of persua

of the soul alone, by intellect, and to which the class of true knowledge relates" (Phdr. 247c7-9 \[n)%fj?Ku?epvr|TT| p?vcp Oearn veo, jcepi r\v to Tfj? ??nOo?? ?7tiGTT|pr|? y?vo?, to?tov ?'%eitov x?nov). The journey of the di vine charioteer in the broader context in the Phaedrus places the journey of Parmenides' charioteer of the soul. Plato's allegory of Plato's understanding

not only presents a different interpretation of the proof of the immortality the literary tradition it con of the soul but also creates an image embodying
tinues.

VI.

CONCLUSION

In the Phaedrus, Plato interweaves Parmenides' untraditional epic with the a that conveys his own origi concept of eternal being, thus creating metaphor nal view of the soul's immortality in a traditionally poetic form. The power ful image of Plato's allegory of the soul as a charioteer springs from the in nate relation of metaphor with philosophical discourse, from the capacity of as an serve to myth explanatory vehicle, and from Plato's literary awareness. The allegory conveys a philosophically-informed image71 of the nature and so to self-discovery, As of the soul. Telemachus experiences journeys Parmenides' charioteer "opinions of mortals" reconcile its opposite the realm of the intelligible above the false (B1.30), and the mortal soul in the Phaedrus struggles to natures in order to realize its true, immortal, existence. reaches

71 a the myth of the charioteer 215-16, Morgan "presents philosophically-informed nature of is the and Soul. It characterized of the experiences image by nascent philosophical and by the reasoned creation of method likenesses." (non-arbitrary)

250 While

Svetla Slaveva-Griffin Telemachus is guided

to learn the path toward kleos, by Peisistratus true what existence learns is, and the young Phaedrus philosopher is enchanted by Socrates' palinode to love to recognize the divine essence of his soul. The allegory creates ametaphorical reality inwhich form and con tent merge to express a philosophically unified meaning. Parmenides' The charioteers'journeys presented three different levels of connectedness inHomer, Parmenides, and Plato mark between content and form. The first is

the epic journeys of the gods and Telemachus, respectively the symbolizing divine supreme power and the personal growth of Odysseus' son from a help of less youth to a respectable heir. The second is Parmenides' appropriation the Homeric journey in order to portray the existence of everlasting reality the authority of a philosopher's quest to uncover the truth of also existence; Parmenides' represents the ideological journey common man's belief in sense growth of the Eleatic philosopher beyond the charioteer of Parmenides' reality. Third is Plato's appropriation perceptible and to establish this eternal in the soul's immor to develop his understanding of existence, exemplified to unveil account of almost The Parmenides'journey autobiographical tality. and the doctrine of true being beyond sensual reality sets the philosophical to with of the his soul associate that Plato enables concept literary background true existence. The poetic idea of the transition from to idea of the tran immortality is transformed into the philosophic mortality to sition from physical existence, thus crossing the literary genres metaphysical the realm of Parmenides' from poetry to prose to unite them in one tradition. The conceptual maturation of the allegory symbolizing as a hero and the soul's immortality philosopher's growth through different from Parmenides both the charioteer

progresses not only ideas also through evolving philosophic literary genres but to Plato. The allegory of the charioteer conducts an "iconic

discourse,"72 exemplifying thought effectively the dialectic of philosophical and literary form. The journey of a charioteer in Parmenides and Plato rep resents a new kind of a heroic quest: the quest of the philosopher's mind to separate itself from the popular beliefs of sensible reality and, through con to enter the realm of metaphysical existence. templative introspection, true the of existence Parmenides' knowledge jour philosopher's completes ney to the realm of the intelligible; the soul of Plato's philosopher, being closer to the divine charioteer, reaches the heights of its immortal nature. Plato appropriates the charioteer theme with awareness of its philosophi tradition. This in Parmenides' cal implications allegory and of its Homeric kind of awareness creates a new form of interaction between texts. The philo
72 Using Barthes' terminology from 1985:192-93 and 201-4.

Content and Form in Parmenides' Proem and Plato's Phaedrus sophical milieu of the allegory of a charioteer requires a new form of relationship between in Parmenides

251

and the Phaedrus

the allegory, the concept that it new and its tradition. This kind of explains, relationship becomes amatter of it when involves representation of an evolving concept particular importance a in literary form that is already established. Such dual interaction between content a higher order of connectedness and form represents than discourse and intertextuality. And since it refers to matters of philosophical it is determined by the development of philosophic ideas, it should, I argue, be called "interconceptuality."73 WORKS CITED
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