DTMF Based Wireless Mobile Robot

DTMF BASED WIRELESS MOBILE ROBOT
CHAPTER 1 1.1 INTRODUCTION:

Conventionally, Wireless-controlled robots use DTMF circuits, which have the drawbacks of limited working range, limited frequency range and the limited control. Use of a mobile phone for robotic control can overcome these limitations. It provides the advantage of robust control, working range as large as the coverage area of the service provider, no interference with other controllers. Although the appearance and the capabilities of robots vary vastly, all robots share the feature of a mechanical, movable structure under some form of control. The Control of robot involves three distinct phases: perception, processing and action. Generally, the preceptors are sensors mounted on the robot processing is done by the on- board microcontroller or processor, and the task is performed using motors or with some other actuators. In privies day it is very difficult to move the wired robot in different places for the work due to wired they caused many problems at the time of operation .so to overcome this problem we use wireless mobile operated robot. Adding different application with robot we will use it like fire fighting, lpg & smoke alarm web cam etc which is very helpful for us to reduced the time and increasing in processing time.
AIM To construct a DC motor based Robot that can be controlled from any distance just by pressing some buttons on a cell phone. 1 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS MITS, LUCKNOW DTMF BASED WIRELESS MOBILE ROBOT
1.2Project Overview:
In this project, the robot is controlled by a mobile phone that makes a call to the mobile phone attached to the robot. In the course of a call, if any button is pressed, a tone corresponding to the button pressed is heard at the other end of the call. This tone is called dual-tonemultiple-frequency (DTMF) tone. The robot perceives this DTMF tone with the help of the phone stacked in the robot. The received tone is processed by the ATmega16 microcontroller with the help of DTMF decoder MT8870. The decoder decodes the DTMF tone into its equivalent binary digit and this binary number is sent to the microcontroller. The microcontroller is preprogrammed to take a decision for any given input and outputs its decision to motor drivers in order to drive the motors for forward or backward motion or a turn. The mobile that makes a call to the mobile phone stacked in the robot acts as a remote. So this simple robotic project does not require the construction of receiver and transmitter units. DTMF signaling is used for telephone signaling over the line in the voice-frequency band to the call switching centre. The version of DTMF used for telephone tone dialing is known as TouchTone DTMF assigns a specific frequency (consisting of two separate tones) to each key so that it can easily be identified by the electronic circuit. The signal generated by the DTMF encoder is a direct algebraic summation, in real time, of the amplitudes of two sine (cosine)waves of different frequencies, i.e., pressing 5 will send a tone made by adding 1336 Hz and
770 Hz to the other end of the line. The tones and assignments in a DTMF system are shown in Table I & there is a wireless camera is attached to this electronic car. This camera is used to see the vision of external environment. This camera work to see the outside. When this complete car is moving in a room it show the picture of this room. 2 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS MITS, LUCKNOW
Block Diagram:
Fig No 1.1 connection 3 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS MITS,

LUCKNOW DTMF BASED WIRELESS MOBILE ROBOT
1.3 Schematic of cell phone operated robot:

Fig shows the block diagram of the microcontroller-based mobile phoneoperated land rover. The important components of this rover are a DTMF decoder, microcontroller and motor driver. An MT8870 series DTMF decoder is used here. All types of the MT8870 series use digital counting techniques to detect and decode all the 16 DTMF tone pairs into a 4-bit code output. The built-in dial tone rejection circuit eliminates the need for pre-filtering.
When the input signal given at pin 2 (IN-) in single-ended input configuration is recognized to be effective, the correct 4-bit decode signal of the DTMF tone is transferred to Q1 (pin 11) through Q4 (pin 14) outputs. Table II shows the DTMF data output table of MT8870. Q1 through Q4 outputs of the DTMF decoder (IC1) are connected to port pins PA0 through PA3 of ATmega16 microcontroller (IC2) after inversion by N1 through N4, respectively. The ATmega16 is a low-power, 8bit, CMOS microcontroller based on the AVR enhanced RISC architecture. It provides the following features: 16 kB of in-system programmable Flash program memory with read-while-write capabilities, 512 bytes of EEPROM, 1kB SRAM, 32general-purpose input/output (I/O) lines and 32 general-purpose working registers. All the 32 registers re directly connected to the arithmetic logic unit, allowing two independent registers to be accessed in one single instruction executed in one clock cycle.
The resulting architecture is more code-efficient. Outputs from port pins PD0 through PD3 and PD7 of the microcontroller are fed to inputs IN1 through IN4 and enable pins (EN1 and EN2) of motor driver L293D, respectively, to drive two geared DC motors. Switch S1 is used for manual reset. The microcontroller output is not sufficient to drive the DC motors, so current drivers are required for motor rotation. The L293D is a quad, high-current, half-H driver designed to provide bidirectional drive currents of up to 600 mA at voltages from 4.5V to 36V. It makes it easier to drive the DC motors. The L293D consists of four drivers. Pin IN1 through IN4 and OUT1 through OUT4 are input and output pins, respectively, of driver 1 through driver 4. Drivers 1 and 2, and drivers 3 and 4 are enabled by enable pin 1 (EN1) and pin 9 (EN2), respectively.
4 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS MITS, LUCKNOW DTMF BASED WIRELESS MOBILE ROBOT
1.4 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Fig No 1.2 circuit 5 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS MITS,

1.5WORKING :
In order to control the robot, you need to make a call to the cell phone attached to the robot (through head phone) from any phone, which sends DTMF tunes on pressing the numeric buttons. The cell phone in the robot is kept in auto answer mo de. (If the mobile does not have the auto answering facility, receive the call by OK key on the rover- connected mobile and then made it in hands-free mode.) So after a ring, the cellphone accepts the call. Now you may press any button on your mobile to perform actions . The DTMF tones thus produced are received by the cell phone in the robot. These tones are fed to the circuit by the headset of the cell phone.
Fig No 1.3 Working
The MT8870 decodes the received tone and sends the equivalent binary number to the microcontroller. According to the program in the microcontroller, the robot starts moving.
When you press key 2 (binary equivalent 00000010) on your mobile phone, the microcontroller outputs 10001001 binary equivalent. Port pins PD0, PD3 and PD7 are high. The high output at PD7 of the microcontroller drives the motor driver (L293D). Port pins PD0 and PD3 drive motors M1 and M2 in forward direction. Similarly, motors M1 and M2 move for left turn, right turn, backward motion and stop condition.
The input is the keypad of the telephone or the mobile. The press of any button generates a unique combination of frequency which is fed into the decoder circuit through the 3.5 mm headphone jack. The resistances of 100k ohm and 104 capacitor forms a tone filter to minimize the noise introduced in the frequency spectrum. The IC 8870 has the inbuilt algorithm to convert this frequency into corresponding binary sequence which is fed to the controller Port1 as input. The crystal oscillator of 3.597MHz is used to provide the gate pulse/trigger to the IC. The 33pf ceramic capacitor tunes the gate pulses. On the basis of the input sequences the control is preprogrammed to generate 4-bit output on the port 0 of the controller. This output act as an input to the motor driver which in turn drives the DC motors to perform all the motions.
Note: The operation can be done from remote location by making the call on the attached phone from the location. Since the circuit acts on the DTMF the calling phone as well as the attached phone should properly generate DTMF tones. The dc voltage is input to the regulator which convert it into regulated +5V which input to the whole circuit.
1.6 Construction:
When constructing any robot, one major mechanical constraint is the number there a two- wheel drive or a four-wheel drive. Though four-wheel drive is more complex than two- wheel drive, it provides more torque and good control. Two-wheel drive, on the other hand, is very easy to construct. Top view of a two-wheel-driven land robot is shown in Fig. 1.4.The chassis used in this model is a 1018cm 2 sheet made up of parameter. Motors are fixed to the bottom of this sheet and the circuit is affixed firmly on top of the sheet. A cellphone is also mounted on the sheet as shown in the picture. In the four-wheel drive system, the two motors on a side are controlled in parallel. So a single L293D driver IC can drive the rover. For this robot, beads affixed with glue act as support wheels.
Fig.No 1.4 Construction

1.7 PRINCIPLE USED :

Dual Tone Multi-Frequency, or DTMF, is a method for instructing a telephone switching
system of the telephone number to be dialled, or to issue commands to switching systems or related telephony equipment. It is perhaps the most widely known method of Multi Frequency Shift Keying (MSFK) data transmission technique. It is used for telecommunication signalling over analogue telephone lines in the voice-frequency band between telephone handsets and other communications devices and the switching centre. These tones are then decoded by the switching centre to determine which key was pressed.
In DTMF there are 16 distinct tones. Each tone is the sum of two frequencies: one from a
low and one from a high frequency group. There are four different frequencies in each group.
Your phone only uses 12 of the possible 16 tones. If you look at your phone, there are
only 4 rows (R1, R2, R3 and R4) and 3 columns (C1, C2 and C3). The rows and columns select frequencies from the low and high frequency group respectively. The exact values of the frequencies are listed in Table below: 9 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS MITS, LUCKNOW
DTMF keypad frequencies (with sound clips) 1209 Hz 1336 Hz 1477 Hz 1633 Hz 697 Hz 1 2 3A
770 Hz 4
6B
852 Hz
9C
941 Hz
#D
When used to dial a telephone number, pressing a single key will produce a pitch
consisting of two simultaneous pure tone sinusoidal frequencies. The row in which the key appears determines the low frequency, and the column determines
the highfrequency. For example, pressing the '1' key will result in a sound composed of both a 697 and a 1209 hertz.
The * is called the star key or asterisk key. # (while technically referred to as octothrope) is called the number sign, pound key, or hash key, d epending on one's nationality or personal preference. These can be used for special functions.
In this project the robot, is controlled by a mobile phone that makes call to the mobile phone attached to the robot in the course of the call, if any button is pressed control corresponding to the button pressed is heard at the other end of the call. This tone is called dual tone multi frequency tome (DTMF) robot receives this DTMF tone with the help of phone stacked in the robot.
The received tone is processed by the microcontroller with the help of DTMF decoder CM8870 the decoder decodes the DTMF tone in to its equivalent binary digit and this binary number is send to the microcontroller, the microcontroller is programmed to take a decision for any give input and outputs decision to motor drivers in order to drive the motors for forward or backward motion or a turn. The mobile that makes a call to the mobile phone stacked in the robot acts as a remote. So this simple robotic project does not require the construction of receiver and transmitter units. Enable pins (EN1 and EN2) of motor driver L293d respectively, to drive geared motors. Switch S1 is used for manual reset. 11 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS MITS, LUCKNOW
CHAPTER 2 2.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM: MOBILE
MO
KEYPAD
TELEPHONIC NETWORK MANUAL RECEIVING SYSTEM
MOBILE
DECODE
MICRO CONTROLLER
MOTOR1 MOTOR DRIVERS MOTOR2
Fig No. 2.1 Circuit working

2.2DESCRIPTION :
The complete working of robot can be divided in the following blocks for easier understanding:
Transmitting
Cell phone (CT): It acts as a remote control of the robot. It remains with
the person who wishes to control the robot. Its purpose here is to generate the DTMF tones corresponding to the number pressed on its keypad and transmit it thru the mobile wireless network.
Fig no.2.2 .1 Cell phone
Receiving
cell phone (CR): It receives the DTMF tones and forwards them to the
decoder thru its earphone plug outlet. In this project any common mobile can be used. `
Decoder:
It decodes the DTMF tones received into the corresponding keypad number.
This number is available in four bit binary format at some of its output pins. The decoder used in this project is CM8870.
Microcontroller
Block: Microcontroller takes this 4 bit numbers from decoder and
converts them to the corresponding signal that will be fed into the motor driver. The microcontroller used in this project is AT89s8253. 13 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS MITS, LUCKNOW
Motor
Drivers: Motor Drivers take the TTL inputs from microcontroller and amplifies
their power to control the motors. The motor drivers used in this project are L298/L293D.
Motors:
They are the final mechanical part that which brings the motion to the robot.
Fig No. 2.2.2

Power
supply block: This consist a Lead Acid Battery and a power regulator (7805) to
get 5v power supply. The 12V supply drives motor drivers and motors while the 5v supply drives the microcontroller and the decoder.
Fig No.2.2.3
14 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS MITS, LUCKNOW
CHAPTER 3 KEY COMPONENTS:

TYPE Transmitting cell phone Receiving cell phone COMPONENT Any cell phone Any common NOKIA phone QUANTITY 1 1
Decoder Microcontroller Motor Drivers Motor Power supply Voltage Regulator
M8870 AT89s8253 L298/l293d 12V DC Motors 9V Lead Acid Battery 7805 Table no.3.1
1 1 1 2 2 1
3.1 IC lMT8870 DTMF DECODER:

The M-8870 is a full DTMF Receiver that integrates both bandsplit filter and decoder functions into a single 18-pin DIP or SOIC package. Manufactured using CMOS process technology, the M-8870 offers low power consumption (35 mW max) and precise data handling. Its filter section uses switched capacitor technology for both the high and low group filters and for dial tone rejection. Its decoder uses digital counting techniques to detect and decode all 16 DTMF tone pairs into a 4-bit code. External component count is minimized by provision of an on-chip differential input amplifier, clock generator, and latched tri-stateinterface bus. Minimal external
components required include a low-cost 3.579545 MHz color burst crystal, a timing resistor, and a timing capacitor.
Design considerations:
The need of touch tone signaling frequencies to be in the voice band bring with it the problem of vulnerability to talk-off which means that the speech signals may be mistaken for touch tone signals and unwanted control actions such as terminating a call may occur.
Another aspect of talk-off is that happens to talk, while signaling is being attempted. The main design consideration for touch-tone signaling stem from the need for protection against talk-offand include the following factors:
1.Choice of code
2.Band separation
3.Choice of frequencies
4.Choice of power levels
5.Signaling duration
In addition to these human factors and mechanical aspects also require consideration. The choice of code for touchtone signaling should be Such that imitation of code signals by speech and music should be difficult. Simple single frequency structures are prone to east imitation as they occur frequently in speech Or Music. Hence some form of multi frequency code is required. Such codes are easily derived by selecting as set of N frequencies and restricting them in a binary fashion to being either present or absent in a code combination. However some of the 2n combinations are not useful as they contain only one frequency. Transmitting Simultaneously N frequencies invoicing N-fold sharing of restricted amplitude range, and hence it is desirable to keep as small as possible the number of frequencies to be transmitted simultaneously. It is also advantageous to keep fixed the number of frequencies to be transmitted for any valid code word. These factors lead to the consideration of p out of N code. Here a combination of P frequencies out of N frequencies constitutes a code word. 16 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS MITS, LUCKNOW DTMF BASED WIRELESS MOBILE ROBOT Prior to touch-tone, P out of N Multi frequency signaling known as multi frequency key pulsing (MFKP) was used between telephone exchanges by the operators. Here 2 or of 6 codes were used. This code is known to give a talk off performance of less than I in 5000. However this degree to talk off performance is inadequate for subscriber level signaling. In order to improve the performance, two measures are adopted. Firstly while retaining P as two N is chosen to be seven or eight, depending upon the number of code words desired. Secondly the chosen frequencies are placed in two separate bands, and a restriction is applied such that one frequency from each band is chosen to from a code word. When multiple frequencies are presented in speech signals they are closely spaced. Band separation of touch-tone frequencies
reduces the probability of speech being able to produce touch-tone combinations. The number o valid combination is now limited to N1*N2 where N1 & N2 represent the number of frequencies in each band. With seven frequencies, four in one band and three in the other we have 12 distinct signals as represented in the above fig. With eight frequencies four in each band, we have 16 possible combinations. Since two frequencies are mixed from a set of seven or eight frequencies, CCIT refers t touch tone scheme by the name dual tone multi-frequencieshas the following advantages:
Band separation of two frequencies has the following advantages:

1.Before attempting to determine the two specific frequencies at the receiver end, band filtering can be sued to separate the frequency groups. This renders determination of specific frequencies simpler. 2.Each frequency component can be amplitude regulated separately. 3.Extreme instantaneous limiters, which are capable of providing substantial guard action, can be used for each Frequency separately to reduce the probability of false response to speech or other unwanted signals.
The choice of frequencies for touch-tone signaling is dictated by the attenuation and delay distortion characteristics of telephone network circuits for the voice band frequencies (300Hz340Hz). Frequencies in the range of 700-220Ohz. Both the lower and the upper frequency band are defined in this range. 17 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS MITS, LUCKNOW DTMF BASED WIRELESS MOBILE ROBOT
Having decided on the frequency band and the spacing, the specific Values of frequencies can be so chosen as to avoid simple harmonic relationships like 1:2&2:3 between adjacent two frequencies in the same band and between pairs of frequencies III two different bands, respectively. Such a selection improves talk off performance. As mentioned earlier, sounds composed of a multiplicity of frequencies at comparable levels are not likely to produce talk off because of limiter and selector design. Such sounds are produced by consonants.
However vowels are single frequency sound with a series of harmonic components present in them. Susceptibility to talk off due to vowelscanbe reduced by choosing the specific frequencies appropriately. The adjacent frequencies in the same band have a fixed ratio of 21: 19, I.e. only the 21 and 19t harmonic components have the same frequency value. Across the bands, the frequency that lie along the diagonals in above fig have ratio of 59:34. Thus chosen frequency values are such that they almost eliminate talk off possibility due to harmonics. Since signaling information does not bear the redundancy of spoken words and sentences it is desirable that the signals power be as large as possible. A nominal value of 1 db above 1m W is provided for at telephone set for the combined signal power of the two frequencies.
A major advantage of touch-tone dialing is the potential for data transmission and remote control. The powerful application touch-tone dialing is data in voice answer (DIVA) system.
The control unit can work in conjunction with either the signal from a remote FM transmitter or a remote telephone. When a telephones, acts as the remote control unit, the, telephone-lineinterfacing circuit come into operation as soon as ring is detected. It consists of a ring detector that detects the ring form the exchange and triggers a timing circuit. The output of the timer is given to a relay driver circuit in order to simulate offhook condition. The timer circuit maintains the telephone line in the offhook state for 1.5
minutes on detecting a ring from the exchange and connects the telephone line to the DTMF decoding section though energized contacts of the relay. The DTMF decoder uses IC MT8870, which forms a vital part of the circuit. It converts the dual tones to corresponding binary outputs. A 4-to-16-line decoder (74LS154) is used to convert the 4-0bit binary into 16 individual lines. The output of the 4-to-16 line decoder is applied to the appliance on/off control circuit that consists of AND gates and D flip-flops. The output of the on/off control circuit is sued to control the required devices with the help of relays. This circuit also provides a device status output that is used to enable a tone generator. The short duration tone thus generated is transmitted through the telephone line by the line interfacing circuit to inform the user about the resulting states of the controlled device/appliance. TheM-8870-02 provides a power-down option which, when enabled, drops consumption to less than 0.5 mW. The M-8870-02 can also inhibit the decoding of fourth column digits.
.Pin
Diagram:
Fig 3.1.1 Pin Diagram of IC1MT8870

Pin Functions of MT8870:
Table No.3.1.1 20 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS MITS,

Tone Decoding of MT8870:
Table No.3.1.2
DTMF signaling: AC register signaling is used in DTMF telephone. Here, tone rather then make/break pulses, are use for dialing. Each dialed digit is unique represented by a pair of sine wave tone. These tones (one form low ground for row and another from high group column) are sent to the exchange when a digit is dialed by pushing the key. These tones lie within the speech band 300 to 340Ohz, and are chosen so as minimize the possibility of any
valid frequency pair existing in the normal speech simultaneously. Actually, this minimization is made possible by forming pairs with one tone from the higher group and the other from lower group frequency. The DTMF spectrum is shown in fig. A valid DTMF signal is the sum of the tones, one from a lower group (697 Hz) and the other form a higher group (1209-1663 Hz). Each group constrains one individual tone. The DTMF dialing scheme is shown in fig. This scheme allows unique combination. Ten of these represent digits I through 9 and 0. The remaining 6 digit are reserved fro special- purpose dialing.
Tones in DTMF dialing are so choose that none of the tones is harmonic of another tone. Therefore there is no chance of distortion caused by harmonics. This tone is sent as long as the key remains pressed.
The DTMF coding scheme ensures that each signal contains only one component form each of the low and high groups. This significantly simplifies decoding because the composite DTMF signals may be separated with band-pass filters into single frequency component, each of which may be handled individually. As a result, the DTMF coding scheme is a flexible signaling scheme with high reliability, hence motivating innovative and competitive decoder design.
Features of DTMF decoder

Complete DTMF Receiver
Low power consumption Internal gain setting amplifier Adjustable guard time Central office quality Power-down mode Inhibit mode Backward compatible with MT8870C/MT887OC I 22 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS MITS, LUCKNOW
Typical Applications for DTMF decoders

Paging systems Repeater systems/mobile radio Credit card systems Remote control Personal computers
DTMF SIGNALING
3.2 MICROCONTROLLER DETAILS:

The microcontroller used here is a common 8 bit Atmel microcontroller AT89s8253.It is alow-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcontroller with12K bytes of InSystemProgrammable (ISP) Flash program memory and 2K bytes of EEPROM data memory. It has 32 programmable input output lines. Features: 12K Bytes of In-System Programmable (ISP) Flash Program Memory SPI Serial Interface for Program Downloading Endurance: 10,000 Write/Erase Cycles 2K Bytes EEPROM Data Memory Endurance: 100,000 Write/Erase Cycles 2.7V to 5.5V Operating Range Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 24 MHz (in x1 and x2 Modes)
F Fig No.3.2.1 pin Diagram of

Three-level Program Memory Lock 256 x 8-bit Internal RAM 32 Programmable I/O Lines Three 16-bit Timer/Counters Nine Interrupt Sources Enhanced UART Serial Port with Framing Error Detection and Automatic Address Recognition Enhanced SPI (Double Write/Read Buffered) Serial Interface Programmable Watchdog Timer 1.Description The AT89S8253 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcontroller with 12K bytes of In-System Programmable (ISP) Flash program memory and 2K bytes of EEPROM data memory. The device is manufactured using Atmels high-density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the industry-standard MCS51 instruction set and pinout. The on-chip downloadable Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in- system through an SPI serial interface or by a conventional nonvolatile memory programmer. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with downloadable Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89S8253 is a powerful microcontroller which provides a highly-flexible and cost-effectivesolution to many embedded control applications.
The AT89S8253 provides the following standard features: 12K bytes of InSystemProgrammable Flash, 2K bytes of EEPROM, 256 bytes of RAM, 32 I/O lines, programmable watchdog timer, two data pointers, three 16-bit timer/counters, a sixvector, four-levelinterrupt architecture, a full duplex serial port, on-chip oscillator, and clock circuitry. In addition, the AT89S8253 is designed with static logic for operation down to zero frequency and supports two software selectable power saving modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port, and interrupt system to continue functioning. The Power-down mode saves the RAM contents but freezes the oscillator, disabling all other chip functions until the next external interrupt or hardware reset.
The on-board Flash/EEPROM is accessible through the SPI serial interface. Holding RESET active forces the SPI bus into a serial programming interface and allows the program memory to be written to or read from, unless one or more lock bits have been activated.
Pin description :
VCC : Supply voltage (all packages except 42-PDIP).
GND: Ground (all packages except 42-PDIP; for 42-PDIP GND connects only the logic core and the embedded program/data memories).
VDD: Supply voltage for the 42-PDIP which connects only the logic core and the embedded program/data memories PWRVDD: Supply voltage for the 42-PDIP which connects only the I/O Pad Drivers. The application board must connect both VDD and PWRVDD to the board supply voltage
PWRGND: Ground for the 42-PDIP which connects only the I/O Pad Drivers. PWRGND and GND are weakly connected through the common silicon substrate, but not through any metal links. The application board must connect both GND and PWRGND to the board ground
PORT0: Port 0 is an 8-bit open drain bi-directional I/O port. As an output port, each pin can sink six TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 0 pins, the pins can be used as high- impedance inputs. Port 0 can also be configured to be the multiplexed loworder address/data bus during accesses to external program and data memory. In this mode, P0 has internalpull-ups. Port 0 also receives the code bytes during Flash programming and outputs the code bytes during program verification. External pull-ups are required during program verification.
PORT 1 :
Port 1 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 1 output buffers can sink/source six TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 1 pins, they are pulled high by the weak internal pullups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 1 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IL,150 A typical) because of the weak internal pull-ups. Some Port 1 pins provide additional functions. P1.0 and P1.1 can be configured to be the timer/counter 2 external count input (P1.0/T2) and the timer/counter 2 trigger input (P1.1/T2EX), respectively. Furthermore, P1.4, P1.5, P1.6, and P1.7 can be configured as the SPI slave port select, data input/output. PORT 2 : Port 2 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 2 output buffers can sink/source six TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 2 pins, they are pulled high by the weak internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 2 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IL,150 A typical) because of the weak internal pull-ups.
Port 2 emits the high-order address byte during fetches from external program memory and during accesses to external data memory that use 16-bit addresses (MOVX @ DPTR). In this application, Port 2 uses strong internal pull-ups when emitting 1s. During accesses to external data memory that use 8-bit addresses (MOVX @ RI), Port 2 emits the contents of the P2 Special Function Register. Port 2 also receives the high-order address bits and some control signals during Flash programming and verification.
PORT 3 : Port 3 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 3 output buffers can sink/source six TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 3 pins, they are pulled high by the weak internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 3 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL,150 A typical) because of the weak internal pull-ups.Port 3 receives some control signals for Flash programming and verification. Port Pin Alternate Functions P3.0 RXD (serial input port) P3.1 TXD (serial output port) P3.2 INT0 (external interrupt 0)(1) P3.3 INT1 (external interrupt 1)(1) P3.4 P3.5 P3.6 P3.7 T0 (timer 0 external input) T1 (timer 1 external input) WR (external data memory write strobe) RD (external data memory read strobe)
RESET: Reset input. A high on this pin for at least two machine cycles while the oscillator is running resets the device
PSEN Program Store Enable. PSEN is the read strobe to external program memory (active low). When the AT89S8253 is executing code from external program memory, PSEN is activated twice each machine cycle, except that two PSEN activations are skipped during each access to external data memory
Special Function Registers A map of the on-chip memory area called the Special Function Register (SFR) .
Note that not all of the addresses are occupied, and unoccupied addresses may not be implemented on the chip. Read accesses to these addresses will generally return random data, and write accesses will have an indeterminate effect. User software should not write 1s to these unlisted locations, since they may be used in future products to invoke new features. In that case, the reset or inactive values of the new bits will always be 0.
In this project the microcontroller block performs the following tasks: KEY(on cell phone) DATA(4 bit binary ACTION format) 2 4 6 8 0010 0100 0110 1000 M1=forward M2=forward M1=backward M2=forward M1=forward M2=backward M1=backward M2=backward 5 0101 Table No. 3.2.1 PIN CONFIGURATION: KEY Motor 1 output PIN NUMBER P2.1 M1=halt M2=halt
Motor 1 Output Motor 2 Output Motor 2 Output Decoder Input 1 Decoder Input 2 Decoder Input 3 Decoder Input 4
P2.2 P2.4 P2.5 P1.1 P1.2 P1.3 P1.4
Table No.3.2.2
3.3 DC MOTOR :
A DC motor is designed to run on DC electric power. Two examples of pure DC designs areMichael Faraday's homopolar motor (which is uncommon), and the ball bearing motor, which is (so far) a novelty. By far the most common DC motor types are the brushed and brushless types, which use internal and external commutation respectively to create an oscillating AC current from the DC sourceso they are not purely DC machines in a strict sense. Brushed DC motor
The classic DC motor design generates an oscillating current in a wound rotor, or armature, with a split ring commutator, and either a wound or permanent magnet stator. A rotor consists of one or more coils of wire wound around a core on a shaft; an electrical power source is connected to the rotor coil through the commutator and its brushes, causing current to flow in it, producing
Fig No. 3.3.1

electromagnetism. The commutator causes the current in the coils to be switched as the rotor turns, keeping the magnetic poles of the rotor from ever fully aligning with the magnetic poles of the stator field, so that the rotor never stops (like a compass needle does) but rather keeps rotating indefinitely (as long as power is applied and is sufficient for the motor to overcome the shaft torque load and internal losses due to friction, etc.)
Many of the limitations of the classic commutator DC motor are due to the need for brushes to press against the commutator. This creates friction. At higher speeds, brushes have increasing difficulty in maintaining contact. Brushes may bounce off the irregularities in the commutator surface, creating sparks. (Sparks are also created inevitably by the brushes making and breaking circuits through the rotor coils as the brushes cross the insulating gaps between commutator sections. Depending on the commutator design, this may include the brushes shorting together adjacent sections and hence coil endsmomentarily while crossing the gaps. Furthermore, the inductance of the rotor coils causes the voltage across each to rise when its circuit is opened, increasing the sparking of the brushes.) This sparking limits the maximum speed of the machine, as too-rapid sparking will overheat, erode, or even melt the commutator. The current density per unit area of the brushes, in combination with
their resistivity, limits the output of the motor. The making and breaking of electric contact also causes electrical noise,and the sparks additionally cause RFI. Brushes eventually wear out and require replacement, and the commutator itself is subject to wear and maintenance (on larger motors) or replacement (on small motors). The commutator assembly on a large machine is a costly element, requiring precision assembly of many parts. On small motors, the commutator is usually permanently integrated into the rotor, so replacing it usually requires replacing the whole rotor. 32 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS MITS, LUCKNOW
Large brushes are desired for a larger brush contact area to maximize motor output, but small brushes are desired for low mass to maximize the speed at which the motor can run without the brushes excessively bouncing and sparking (comparable to the problem of "valve float" in internal combustion engines). (Small brushes are also desirable for lower cost.) Stiffer brush springs can also be used to make brushes of a given mass work at a higher speed, but at the cost of greater friction losses (lower efficiency) and accelerated brush and commutator wear. Therefore, DC motor brush design entails a trade-off between output power, speed, and efficiency.
A:shunt B:series
C:compound f = field coil Brushless DC motors Some of the problems of the brushed DC motor are eliminated in the brushless design. In this motor, the mechanical "rotating switch" or commutator/brushgear assembly is replaced by an external electronic switch synchronised to the rotor's position. Brushless motors are typically85-90% efficient or more (higher efficiency for a brushless electric motor of up to 96.5% were reported by researchers at the Tokai University in Japan in 2009),[14] whereas DC motors with brushgear are typically 7580% efficient.
Fig No.3.3.2 Midway between ordinary DC motors and stepper motors lies the realm of the brushless DC motor. Built in a fashion very similar to stepper motors, these often
use a permanent magnet external rotor, three phases of driving coils, one or more Hall effect sensors to sense the position of the rotor, and the associated drive electronics. The coils are activated, one phase after the other, by the drive electronics as cued by the signals from either Hall effect sensors or from the back EMF (electromotive force) of the undriven coils. In effect, they act asthree-phase synchronous motors containing their own variable- frequency drive electronics. A specialized class of brushless DC motor controllers utilize EMF feedback through the main phase connections instead of Hall effect sensors to determine position and velocity. These motors are used extensively in electric radio- controlled vehicles. When configured with the magnets on the outside, these are referred to by mode lists as out runner motors. Brushless DC motors are commonly used where precise speed control is necessary, as in computer disk drives or in video cassette recorders, the spindles within CD, CDROM (etc.) drives, and mechanisms within office products such as fans, laser
printers and photocopiers. They have several advantages over conventional motors:
Compared
to AC fans using shaded-pole motors, they are very efficient, running much
cooler than the equivalent AC motors. This cool operation leads to much- improved life of the fan's bearings.
Without
a commutator to wear out, the life of a DC brushless motor can be significantly
longer compared to a DC motor using brushes and a commutator. Commutation also tends to cause a great deal of electrical and RF noise; without a commutator or
brushes, a brushless motor may be used in electrically sensitive devices like audio equipment or computers.
The
same Hall effect sensors that provide the commutation can also provide a for closed-loop control (servo-controlled) applications.
convenienttachometer signal
In fans, the tachometer signal can be used to derive a "fan OK" signal.
The
motor can be easily synchronized to an internal or external clock, leading to precise speed control. motors have no chance of sparking, unlike brushed motors, making them
Brushless
better suited to environments with volatile chemicals and fuels. Also, sparking generates ozone which can accumulate in poorly ventilated buildings risking harm to occupants' health.
Brushless
motors are usually used in small equipment such as computers and are generally used to get rid of unwanted heat. are also very quiet motors which is an advantage if being used in equipment that is affected by vibrations. Modern DC brushless motors range in power from a fraction of a watt to many kilowatts. Larger brushless motors up to about 100 kW rating are used in electric vehicles. They also find significant use in high-performance electric model aircraft.
They
Coreless or ironless DC motors Nothing in the design of any of the motors described above requires that the iron (steel) portions of the rotor actually rotate; torque is exerted only on the windings of the electromagnets. Taking advantage of this fact is the coreless or ironless DC motor, a specialized form of a brush or brushless DC motor. Optimized for rapid acceleration, these motors have a rotor that is constructed without any iron core.
The rotor can take the form of a winding-filled cylinder, or aself-supporting structure comprising only the magnet wire and the bonding material. The rotor can fit inside the stator magnets; a
magnetically-soft stationary cylinder inside the rotor provides a return path for the stator magnetic flux. A second arrangement has the rotor winding basket surrounding the stator magnets. In that design, the rotor fits inside a magnetically-soft cylinder that can serve as the housing for the motor, and likewise provides a return path for the flux. Because the rotor is much lighter in weight (mass) than a conventional rotor formed from copperwindings on steel laminations, the rotor can accelerate much more rapidly, often achieving a mechanical time constant under 1 ms. This is especially true if the windings use aluminum rather than the heavier copper. But because there is no metal mass in the rotor to act as a heat sink, even small coreless motors must often be cooled by forced air. Related limited-travel actuators have no core and a bonded coil placed between the poles of high-flux thin permanent magnets. These are the fast head positioners for rigid-disk ("hard disk") drives.
Printed Armature or Pancake DC Motors A rather unique motor design the pancake/printed armature motor has the windings shaped as a disc running between arrays of high-flux magnets, arranged in a circle, facing the rotor and forming an axial air gap. This design is commonly known the
pancake motor because of its extremely flat profile, although the technology has had many brand names since it's inception, such as ServoDisc. The printed armature (originally formed on a printed circuit board) in a printed armature motor is made from punched copper sheets that are laminated together using advanced composites to form a thin rigid disc. The printed armature has a unique construction, in the brushed motor world, in that is does not have a separate ring commutator. The brushes run directly on the armature surface making the whole design very compact. An alternative manufacturing method is to use wound copper wire laid flat with a central conventional commutator, in a flower and petal shape. The windings are typically stabilized by being impregnated with electrical epoxy potting systems. These are filled epoxies that have moderate mixed viscosity and a long gel time. They are highlighted by low shrinkage and low exothermal, and are typically UL 1446 recognized as a potting compound for use up to 180C. 36 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS MITS, LUCKNOW
3.4 POWER SUPPLY UNIT (+5V) Power supplies are designed to convert high voltage AC mains electricity to a suitable low voltage supply for electronics circuits and other devices. A power supply can by broken down into a series of blocks, each of which performs a particular function. For a 5V regulated supply :
Fig. No.3.4.1 Each of the block has its own function as described below Transformer steps down high voltage AC mains to low voltage AC. Rectifier converts AC to DC, but the DC output is varying. Smoothing smooths the DC from varying greatly to a small ripple. Regulator eliminates ripple by setting DC output to a fixed voltage.
TRANSFORMER: Transformers convert AC electricity from one voltage to another with little loss of power. Transformers work only with AC and this is one of the reasons why mains electricity is AC. The two types of transformers Step-up transformers increase voltage, Step-down transformers reduce voltage.
Fig. no.3.4.2 Transformer
Most power high mains
supplies use a step-down transformer to reduce the dangerously voltage (230V in UK) to a safer low voltage. The input coil is called
the primary and the output coil is called the secondary. There is no electrical connection between the two coils, instead they are linked by an alternating magnetic field created in thesoft-iron core of the transformer. The two lines in the middle of the circuit symbol represent the core. Transformers waste very little power so the power out is (almost) equal to the power in. Note that as voltage is stepped down current is stepped up. The ratio of the number of turns on each coil, called the turns ratio, determines the ratio of the voltages. A step-down transformer has a large number of turns on its primary (input) coil which is connected to the high voltage mains supply, and a small number of turns on its secondary (output) coil to give a low output voltage. Turns ratio = Vp = Np Vs Ns And Power Out = Power In Vs Is Where Vp = primary (input) voltage Np = number of turns on primary coil Ip = primary (input) current Ns = number of turns on secondary coil
Vp Ip
Is = secondary (output) current Vs = secondary (output) voltage RECTIFIER: A bridge rectifier can be made using four individual diodes, but it is also available in special packages containing the four diodes required. It is called a full-wave rectifier because it uses all the AC wave (both positive and negative sections). 1.4V is used up in the bridge rectifier because each diode uses 0.7V when conducting and there are always two diodes conducting, as shown in the diagram below. Bridge rectifiers are rated by the maximum current they can pass and the maximum reverse voltage they can withstand (this must be at least three times the supply RMS voltage so the rectifier can withstand the peak voltages). Please see the DIODESpage for more details, including pictures of bridge rectifiers. In this alternate pairs of diodes conduct, changing over the connections so the alternating directions of AC are converted to the one direction of DC.
Fig. No.3.4.3 OUTPUT Full-wave Varying DC
SMOOTHING: Smoothing is performed by a large value electrolytic capacitor connected across the DC supply to act as a reservoir, supplying current to the output when the varying DC voltage from the rectifier is falling. The diagram shows the unsmoothed varying DC (dotted line) and the smoothed DC (solid line). The capacitor charges quickly near the 39 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS MITS, LUCKNOW
peak of the varying DC, and then discharges as it supplies current to the output. Fig.No.3.4.4 Capacitor Voltage Note that smoothing significantly increases peak value (1.4 RMS value). For example of about 4.6V RMS increases to almost the (1.4V is lost in the the average 6V RMS AC DC voltage to almost the is rectified to full wave DC
bridge rectifier), with smoothing this peak value giving 1.4 4.6 = 6.4V smooth DC.
Smoothing is not perfect due to the capacitor voltage falling a little as it discharges, giving a small ripple voltage. For many circuits a ripple which is 10% of the supply voltage is satisfactory and the equation below gives the required value for the smoothing capacitor. A larger capacitor will give less ripple. The capacitor value must be doubled when smoothing half-wave DC.
Smoothing capacitor for 10% ripple , C = 5 Io Vs f
Where, C = smoothing capacitance in farads (F) Io = output current from the supply in amps (A) Vs = supply voltage in volts (V), this is the peak value of the unsmoothed DC f = frequency of the AC supply in hertz (Hz), 50Hz in the UK 40 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS MITS, LUCKNOW
REGULATOR:
Regulator Voltage regulator ICs are available with fixed (typically 5, 12 and 15V) or variable output voltages. They are also rated by the maximum current they can pass. Negative voltage regulators are available, mainly for use in dual supplies. Most regulators include some automatic protection from excessive current ( 'overload protection') and overheating ( 'thermal protection'). Many of the fixed voltage regulator ICs have 3 leads and look like power transistors, such as the 7805 +5V 1A regulator shown on the right. They include a hole for attaching a heatsink if necessary.
Working Of Power Supply
Transformer
Fig.No.3.4.5 Transformer Output The low voltage AC output is suitable for lamps, heaters and special AC motors. It is notsuitable for electronic circuits unless they include a rectifier and a smoothing capacitor. 41 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS MITS, LUCKNOW
Transformer + Rectifier
Fig. No.3.4.6 Rectifier Stage Output The varying DC output is suitable for lamps, heaters and standard motors. It is not suitable for electronic circuits unless they include a smoothing capacitor.
Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing
Fig.No.3.4.7 Filtered Output

3.5 Resistor:
A resistor is a two-terminal passive electronic component which implements electrical resistance as a circuit element. When a voltage V is applied across the terminals of a resistor, a current I will flow through the resistor in direct proportion to that voltage. The reciprocal of the constant of proportionality is known as the resistance R, since,
with a given voltage V, a larger value of R further "resists" the flow of current I as given by Ohm's law:
Fig. 3.5.1 Resistor Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel-chrome).Resistors are also implemented within integrated circuits, particularly analog devices, and can also be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits. The electrical functionality of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial resistors are manufactured over a range of more than 9 orders of magnitude. When specifying that resistance in an electronic design, the required precision of the resistance may require attention to the manufacturing tolerance of the chosen resistor, according to its specific application. 43 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS MITS, LUCKNOW
Fig. 3.5.2 Carbon Film Resistor The temperature coefficient of the resistance may also be of concern in some precision applications. Practical resistors are also specified as having a maximum power rating which must exceed the anticipated power dissipation of that resistor in a particular circuit: this is mainly of concern in power electronics applications. Resistors with higher power ratings are physically larger and may require heat sinking. In a high voltage circuit, attention must sometimes be paid to the rated maximum working voltage of the resistor.
The series inductance of a practical resistor causes its behavior to depart from ohms law; this specification can be important in some high-frequency applications for smaller values of resistance. In a low-noise amplifier or pre-amp the noise characteristics of a resistor may be an issue. The unwanted inductance, excess noise, and temperature coefficient are mainly dependent on the technology used in manufacturing the resistor. They are not normally specified individually for a particular family of resistors manufactured using a particular technology.[1] A family of discrete resistors is also characterized according to its form factor, that is, the size of the device and position of its leads (or terminals) which is relevant in the practical manufacturing of circuits using them.
Fig No.3.5.3
The resistance value is displayed using the color code ( the colored bars/the colored stripes ), because the average resistor is too small to have the value printed on it with numbers. You had better learn the color code, because almost all resistors of 1/2W or less use the color-code to display the resistance value. 45 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS MITS, LUCKNOW
3.6 Capacitor :
The capacitor's function is to store electricity, or electrical energy. The capacitor also functions as a filter, passing alternating current (AC), and blocking direct current (DC). This symbol is used to indicate a capacitor in a circuit diagram . The
capacitor is constructed with two electrode plates facing eachother, but separated by an insulator.
When DC voltage is applied to the capacitor, an electric charge is stored on each electrode. While the capacitor is charging up, current flows.The current will stop flowing When a circuit tester, such as an analog meter set to measure resistance, is connected to a 10 microfarad (F) electrolytic capacitor, a current will flow, but only for a moment. You can confirm that the meter's needle moves off of zero, but returns to zero right away. When you connect the meter's probes to the capacitor in reverse,
you will note that current once again flows for a moment. Once again, when the capacitor has fully charged, the current stops flowing. So the capacitor can be used as a filter that blocks DC current. However, in the case of alternating current, the current will be allowed to pass. Alternating current is similar to repeatedly switching the test meter's probes back and forth on the capacitor. Current flows every time the probes are switched. When it works.
The value of a capacitor (the capacitance), is designated in units called the Farad ( F ). The capacitance of a capacitor is generally very small, so units such as the microfarad (10-6F),nanofarad(10-9F),andpicofarad(10-12F)areused .Recently, an new capacitor with very high capacitance has been developed. The Electric Double Layer capacitor has capacitance designated in Farad units. This is new capacitor.
Sometimes, a three-digit code is used to indicate the value of a capacitor. There are two ways in which the capacitance can be written. One uses letters and numbers, the other uses only numbers. In either case, there are only three characters used. [10n] and [103] denote the same value of capacitance. The method used differs depending on the 46 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS MITS, LUCKNOW DTMF BASED WIRELESS MOBILE ROBOT
capacitor supplier. In the case that the value is displayed with the three-digit code, the 1st and 2nd digits from the left show the 1st figure and the 2nd figure, and the 3rd digit is a multiplier which determines how many zeros are to be added to the capacitance. The capacitor has an insulator( the dielectric ) between 2 sheets of
electrodes. Different kinds of capacitors use different materials for the dielectric.
Breakdown voltage When using a capacitor, you must pay attention to the maximum voltage which can be used. This is the "breakdown voltage." The breakdown voltage depends on the kind of capacitor being used. You must be especially careful with electrolytic capacitors because the breakdown voltage is comparatively low. The breakdown voltage of electrolytic capacitors is displayed as Working Voltage. The breakdown voltage is the voltage that when exceeded will cause the dielectric (insulator) inside the capacitor to break down and conduct. When this happens, the failure can be catastrophic. I will introduce the different types of capacitors below.
Electrolytic Capacitors (Electrochemical type capacitors) Aluminum is used for the electrodes by using a thin oxidization membrane. Large values of capacitance can be obtained in comparison with the size of the capacitor, because the dielectric used is very thin. The most important characteristic of electrolytic capacitors is that they have polarity.
They have a positive and a negative electrode.[Polarised] This means that it is very important which way round they are connected. If the capacitor is subjected to voltage exceeding its working voltage, or if it is connected with incorrect polarity, it may burst. It is extremely dangerous, because it can quite literally explode. Make absolutely no mistakes.
Multilayer Ceramic Capacitor

The multilayer ceramic capacitor has a many-layered dielectric. These capacitors are small in size, and have good temperature and frequency characteristics. Square wave signals used in digital circuits can have a comparatively high frequency
component included .This capacitor is used to bypass the high frequency to ground.
Fig No.3.6.1 Capacitor
Generally, in the circuit diagram, the positive side is indicated by a "+" (plus) symbol. Electrolytic capacitors range in value from about 1F to thousands of F. Mainly this type of capacitor is used as a ripple filter in a power supply circuit, or as a filter to bypass low frequency signals, etc. Because this type of capacitor is comparatively similar to the nature of a coil in construction, it isn't possible to use for high-frequency circuits. (It is said that the frequency characteristic is bad.)
The photograph on the left is an example of the different values of electrolytic capacitors in which thecapacitance and voltage differ. From the left to right:
1F 47F 100F 220F 1000F
(50V) (16V) (25V) (25V) (50V)
[diameter [diameter [diameter [diameter [diameter
5 6 5 8 18
mm, mm, mm, mm, mm,
high high high high high
12 mm] 5 mm] 11 mm] 12 mm] 40 mm]
The size of the capacitor sometimes depends on the manufacturer. So the sizes shown 48 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS MITS, LUCKNOW DTMF BASED WIRELESS MOBILE ROBOT
here on this page are just examples. In the photograph to the right, the mark indicating the negative lead of the component can be seen. You need to pay attention to the polarity indication so as not to make a mistake when you assemble the circuit.
TantalumCapacitors
Tantalum Capacitors are electrolytic capacitors that is use a material called tantalum for the electrodes. Large values of capacitance similar to aluminum electrolytic capacitors can be obtained. Also, tantalum capacitors are superior to aluminum electrolytic capacitors in temperature and frequency characteristics. When tantalum powder is baked in order to solidify it, a crack forms inside. An electric charge can be stored . These capacitors have polarity as well. Usually, the "+" symbol is used to show the positive component lead. Do not make a mistake with the polarity on these types. Tantalum capacitors are a little bit more expensive than aluminum electrolytic capacitors. Capacitance can change with temperature as well as frequency, and these types are very stable. Therefore, tantalum capacitors are used for circuits which demand high stability in the capacitance values. Also, it is said to be common sense to
use tantalum capacitors for analog signal systems, because the current-spike noise that occurs with aluminum electrolytic capacitors does not appear.
Ceramic Capacitor
Ceramic capacitors are constructed with materials such as titanium acid barium used as the dielectric. Internally, these capacitors are not constructed as a coil, so they can be used in high frequency applications. Typically, they are used in circuits which bypass high frequency to ground. These capacitors have the shape of a disk. The capacitor on the left is a 100pF capacitor with a diameter of about 3 mm. The capacitor on the right side is printed with 103, so 10 x 103pF becomes 0.01 F. 49 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS MITS, LUCKNOW
In the photograph, the capacitance of the component on the left is displayed as 104. So, the capacitance is 10 x 104 pF = 0.1 F. The thickness is 2 mm, the height is 3 mm, the width F). These is 4mm .The capacitor to the right has a capacitance of 103 (10 x 103 pF = 0.01 The heightis 4 mm, the diameter of the round part is 2 mm. capacitorsare not polarized. That is, they have no polarity.
Polystyrene Film Capacitors

In these devices, polystyrene film is used as the dielectric. This type of capacitor is not for use in high frequency circuits, because they are constructed like a coil inside. They are used well in filter circuits or timing circuits which run at several hundred KHz or less.
The component shown on the left has a red color due to the copper leaf used for the electrode. The silver color is due to the use of aluminum foil as the electrode. The device on the left has a height of 10 mm, is 5 mm thick, and is rated 100pF. The device in the middle has a height of 10 mm, 5.7 mm thickness, and is rated 1000pF. The device on the right has a height of 24 mm, is 10 mm thick, and is rated 10000pF.
Electric Double Layer Capacitors (Super Capacitors)

This is a "Super Capacitor," which is quite a wonder. The capacitance is 0.47F(470,000 F). I have not used this capacitor in an actual circuit. 50 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS MITS, LUCKNOW
Care must be taken when using a capacitor with such a large capacitance in power supply circuits, etc. The rectifier in the circuit can be destroyed by a huge rush of current when the capacitor is empty. For a brief moment, the capacitor is more like a short circuit. A protection circuit needs to be set up. The size is small in spite of capacitance. Physically, the diameter is 21 mm, the height is 11 mm.
Care is necessary, because these devices do have polarity. Polyester Film Capacitors This capacitor uses thin polyester film as the dielectric. They are not high tolerance, but they are cheap and handy. Their tolerance is about 5% to 10%.
From the left in the photograph Capacitance: 0.001 F (printed with 001K) [the width 5 mm, the height 10 mm, the thickness 2 mm] Capacitance: 0.1 F (printed with 104K) [the width 10 mm, the height 11 mm, the thickness 5mm] Capacitance: 0.22 F (printed with .22K) [the width 13 mm, the height 18 mm, the thickness 7mm] Care must be taken, because different manufacturers use different methods to denote 51 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS MITS, LUCKNOW
the capacitance values. Here are some other polyester film capacitors. Starting from the left Capacitance: 0.0047 F (printed with 472K) [the width 4mm, the height 6mm, the thickness 2mm] Capacitance: 0.0068 F (printed with 682K) [the width 4mm, the height 6mm, the thickness 2mm] Capacitance: 0.47 F (printed with 474K) [the width 11mm, the height 14mm, the thickness 7mm] These capacitors have no polarity.
Polypropylene Capacitors
This capacitor is used when a higher tolerance is necessary than polyester capacitors offer. Polypropylene film is used for the dielectric. It is said that there is almost no change of capacitance in these devices if they are used with frequencies of 100KHz or less.
The pictured capacitors have a tolerance of 1%. From the left in the photograph Capacitance: 0.01 F (printed with 103F) [the width 7mm, the height 7mm, the thickness 3mm]
Capacitance: 0.022 F (printed with 223F) [the width 7mm, the height 10mm, the thickness 4mm] Capacitance: 0.1 F (printed with 104F) [the width 9mm, the height 11mm, the thickness 5mm] When I measured the capacitance of a 0.01 F capacitor with the meter which I have, the error was +0.2%. These capacitors have no polarity.
Mica Capacitors
These capacitors use Mica for the dielectric. Mica capacitors have good stability because their temperature coefficient is small. Because their frequency characteristic is excellent, they are used for resonance circuits, and high frequency filters. Also, they have good insulation, and so can be utilized in high voltage circuits. It was often used for vacuum tube style radio transmitters, etc. Mica capacitors do not have high values of capacitance, and they can be relatively expensive.
VariableCapacitors
Variable capacitors are used for adjustment etc. of frequency mainly. On the left in the photograph is a "trimmer," which uses ceramic as the dielectric. Next to it on the right is one that uses polyester film for the dielectric.
The pictured components are meant to be mounted on a printed circuit board. When adjusting the value of a variable capacitor, it is advisable to be careful. One of the component's leads is connected to the adjustment screw of the capacitor. This means that the value of the capacitor can be affected by the capacitance of the screwdriver in your hand. It is better to use a special screwdriver to adjust these components.
A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is a device for storing electric charge. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two conductors separated by anon-conductor. Capacitors used as parts of electrical systems, for example, consist of metal foils separated by a layer of insulating film. 53 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS MITS, LUCKNOW
Fig.No. 3.6..2 Carbon Film capacitor
A capacitor is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator). When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static electric field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate and negative charge on the other plate. Energy is stored in the electrostatic field. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power supplies, in the resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies and for many other purposes.
The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of conductor, hence capacitor conductors are often called "plates", referring to an early means of construction. In practice the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage, while the conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.
3.7 Crystal Oscillator :

A crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit that uses the mechanical resonance of a vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to create an electrical signal
with a very precise frequency. This frequency is commonly used to keep track of time (as in quartz wristwatches), to provide a stable clock signal for digital integrated circuits, and to stabilize frequencies for radio transmitters and receivers. The most common type of piezoelectric resonator used is the quartz crystal, so oscillator circuits designed around them became known as "crystal oscillators."
Fig.3.7.1 Crystal Oscillator Quartz crystals are manufactured for frequencies from a few tens of kilohertz to tens of megahertz. More than two billion (2109) crystals are manufactured annually. Most are used for consumer devices such as wristwatches, clocks, radios, computers, and cellphones. Quartz crystals are also found inside test and measurement equipment, such as counters, signal generators, and oscilloscopes.
Operation
A crystal is a solid in which the constituent atoms, molecules, or ions are packed in a regularly ordered, repeating pattern extending in all three spatial dimensions.
Almost any object made of an elastic material could be used like a crystal, with appropriate transducers, since all objects have natural resonant frequencies of vibration. For example, steel is very elastic and has a high speed of sound. It was often used in
mechanical filters before quartz. The resonant frequency depends on size, shape, elasticity, and the speed of sound in the material. High-frequency crystals are typically cut in the shape of a simple, rectangular plate. Low-frequency crystals, such as those used in digital watches, are typically cut in the shape of a tuning fork. For applications not needing very precise timing, alow-cost ceramic resonator is often used in place of a quartz crystal.
When a crystal of quartz is properly cut and mounted, it can be made to distort in an electric field by applying a voltage to an electrode near or on the crystal. This property is known as piezoelectricity. When the field is removed, the quartz will generate an electric field as it returns to its previous shape, and this can generate a voltage. The result is that a quartz crystal behaves like a circuit composed of an inductor, capacitor and resistor, with a precise resonant frequency. (See RLC circuit.)
Fig 3.7.2 Schematic diagram of crystal oscillator
Quartz has the further advantage that its elastic constants and its size change in such a way that the frequency dependence on temperature can be very low. The specific characteristics will depend on the mode of vibration and the angle at which the quartz is cut (relative to its crystallographic axes). Therefore, the resonant frequency of the plate, which depends on its size, will not change much, either. This means that a quartz clock, filter or oscillator will remain accurate. For critical applications the quartz oscillator is
mounted in a temperature-controlled container, called a crystal oven, and can also be mounted on shock absorbers to prevent perturbation by external mechanical vibrations.
Modeling:
Electrical model
Electronic symbol for a piezoelectric crystal resonator. A quartz crystal can be modelled as an electrical network with a low impedance (series) and a high impedance (parallel) resonance point spaced closely together. Mathematically (using the Laplace transform) the impedance of this network can be written as:
or,
where s is the complex frequency ( in radians per second and
),
is the series resonant frequency
is the parallel resonant frequency in radians per second.
Schematic symbol and equivalent circuit for a quartz crystal in an oscillator Adding additional capacitance across a crystal will cause the parallel resonance to shift downward. This can be used to adjust the frequency at which a crystal oscillates. Crystal manufacturers normally cut and trim their crystals to have a specified resonance frequency with a known 'load' capacitance added to the crystal. For example, a crystal intended for a 6 pF load has its specified parallel resonance frequency when a 6.0 pF capacitor is placed across it. Without this capacitance, the resonance frequency is higher.
Resonance modes
A quartz crystal provides both series and parallel resonance. The series resonance is a few kilohertz lower than the parallel one. Crystals below 30 MHz are generally operated between series and parallel resonance, which means that the crystal appears as an inductive reactance in operation. Any additional circuit capacitance will thus pull the frequency down. For a parallel resonance crystal to operate at its specified frequency, the electronic circuit has to provide a total parallel capacitance as specified by the crystal manufacturer.
Crystals above 30 MHz (up to >200 MHz) are generally operated at series resonance where the impedance appears at its minimum and equal to the series resistance. For these crystals the series resistance is specified (<100 ) instead of the par allel capacitance. To reach higher frequencies, a crystal can be made to vibrate at one of its overtone modes, which occur near multiples of the fundamental resonant frequency. Only odd numbered overtones are used. Such a crystal is referred to as a 3rd, 5th, or even 7th overtone crystal. To accomplish this, the oscillator circuit usually includes additional LC circuits to select the desired overtone.
Temperature effects
A crystal's frequency characteristic depends on the shape or 'cut' of the crystal. A tuning fork crystal is usually cut such that its frequency over temperature is a parabolic curve centered around 25 C. This means that a tuning fork crystal oscillator will resonate close to its target frequency at room temperature, but will slow down when the temperature either increases or decreases from room temperature. A common parabolic coefficient for a 32 kHz tuning fork crystal is 0.04 ppm/C.
In a real application, this means that a clock built using a regular 32 kHz tuning fork crystal will keep good time at room temperature, lose 2 minutes per year at 10 degrees Celsius above (or below) room temperature and lose 8 minutes per year at 20 degrees Celsius above (or below) room temperature due to the quartz crystal. 58 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS MITS, LUCKNOW DTMF BASED WIRELESS MOBILE ROBOT
The frequency stability is determined by the crystal's Q. It is inversely dependent on the frequency, and on the constant that is dependent on the particular cut. Other factors influencing Q are the overtone used, the temperature, the level of driving of the crystal, the quality of the surface finish, the mechanical stresses imposed on the crystal by bonding and mounting, the geometry of the crystal and the attached electrodes, the material purity and defects in the crystal, type and pressure of the gas in the enclosure, interfering modes, and presence and absorbed dose of ionizing and neutron radiation.
Temperature influences the operating frequency; various forms of compensation are used, from analog compensation (TCXO) and microcontroller compensation (MCXO) to stabilization of the temperature with a crystal oven (OCXO). The crystals possess temperature hysteresis; the frequency at a given temperature achieved by increasing the temperature is not equal to the frequency on the same temperature achieved by decreasing the temperature. The temperature sensitivity depends primarily on the cut; the temperature compensated cuts are chosen as to minimize frequency/temperature dependence. Special cuts can be made with a linear temperature characteristics; the LC cut is used in quartz thermometers. Other influencing factors are the overtone used, the mounting and electrodes, impurities in the crystal, mechanical strain, crystal geometry, rate of temperature change, thermal history (due to hysteresis), ionizing radiation, and drive level.
Crystals
tend
to
suffer
anomalies
in
their
frequency/temperature
and
resistance/temperature characteristics, known as activity dips. These are small downward (in frequency) or upward (in resistance) excursions localized at certain temperatures, with their temperature position dependent on the value of the load capacitors.
Mechanical stresses also influence the frequency. The stresses can be induced by mounting, bonding, and application of the electrodes, by differential thermal expansion of the mounting, electrodes, and the crystal itself, by differential thermal stresses when there is a temperature gradient present, by expansion or shrinkage of the bonding materials during curing, by the air pressure that is transferred to the ambient pressure within the crystal enclosure, by the stresses of the crystal lattice itself (non uniform growth,
impurities, dislocations), by the surface imperfections and damage caused during manufacture, and by the action of gravity on the mass of the crystal; the frequency can therefore be influenced by position of the crystal. Other dynamic stress inducing factors are shocks, vibrations, and acoustic noise. Some cuts are less sensitive to stresses; the SC (Stress Compensated) cut is an example. Atmospheric pressure changes can also introduce deformations to the housing, influencing the frequency by changing stray capacitances.
Atmospheric humidity influences the thermal transfer properties of air, and can change electrical properties of plastics by diffusion of water molecules into their structure, altering the dielectric constants and electrical conductivity.
Other factors influencing the frequency are the power supply voltage, load impedance, magnetic fields, electric fields (in case of cuts that are sensitive to them, e.g. SC), the presence and absorbed dose of -particles and ionizing radiation, and the age of the crystal.
Crystals undergo slow gradual change of frequency with time, known as aging. There are many mechanisms involved. The mounting and contacts may undergo relief of the builtin stresses. Molecules of contamination either from the residual
atmosphere, outgassed from the crystal, electrodes or packaging materials, or introduced during sealing the housing can be adsorbed on the crystal surface, changing its mass; this effect is exploited in quartz crystal microbalances. The composition of the crystal can be gradually altered by outgassing, diffusion of atoms of impurities or migrating from the electrodes, or the lattice can be damaged by radiation. Slow chemical reactions may occur on or in the crystal, or on the inner surfaces of the enclosure. Electrode material, e.g. chromium or aluminium, can react with the crystal, creating layers of metal oxide and silicon; these interface layers can undergo changes in time. The pressure in the enclosure can change due to varying atmospheric pressure, temperature, leaks, or outgassing of the materials inside. Factors outside of the crystal itself are e.g. aging of the oscillator circuitry (and e.g. change of capacitances), and drift of parameters of the crystal oven. External atmosphere composition can also influence the aging. 60 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS MITS, LUCKNOW
3.8 IC L293D :
L293D is a dual HBridge motor driver, so with one IC we can interface two DC motors which can be controlled in both clockwise and counter clockwise direction and if you have motor with fix direction of motion. You can make use of all the four I/Os to connect up to four DC motors.
L293D has output current of 600mA and peak output current of 1.2A per channel. Moreover for protection of circuit from back EMF output diodes are included within the IC. The output supply (VCC2) has a wide range from 4.5V to 36V, which has made L293D a best choice for DC motor driver. Pin configuration
Fig. 3.8.1 Pin configuration

Electrical Characteristic
Table 3.8.1 Electrical Characteristic
Supply voltage(Vss) is the Voltage at which we wish to drive the motor. Generally we
prefer 6V for dc motor and 6 to 12V for gear motor, depending upon the rating of the motor.
Logical Supply Voltage will decide what value of input voltage should be considered as
high or low .So if we set Logical Supply Voltage equals to +5V, then -0.3V to 1.5V will be considered as Input Low Voltage and 2.3 V to 5V will be considered as Input High Voltage.
L293D has 2 Channels .One channel is used for one motor.
Channel 1 - Pin 1 to 8 ; Channel 2 - Pin 9 to 16

Enable Pin is use to enable or to make a channel active .Enable pin is also called as Chip
Inhibit Pin. All Input(Pin No. 2,7,10and 15) of L293D IC is the output from microcontroller (ATmega8).
Eg-We connected (Pin No. 2, 7, 10 and 15) of L293D IC to (Pin No. 14,15,16and
17)of ATmega8 respectively in our robots, because on pin 14 and 15 of ATmega8 we can generate PWM. All Output (Pin No. 3, 6,11and 14) of L293D IC goes to the input of Right and Left motor through RMC(4 pin Connector). 62 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS MITS, LUCKNOW
Fig 3.8.2 Motor Driving Circuit 3.6.3 Motor Driving Table Table 3.8.2S Motor Driving Table
Characteristics
OUTPUT 1 --- Negative Terminal of Right Motor OUTPUT 2 --- Positive Terminal of Right Motor
OUTPUT 3 --- Positive Terminal of Left Motor OUTPUT 4 --- Negative Terminal of Left Motor 63 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS MITS,
CHAPTER 4 4.1 Algorithm :
An algorithm is designed to rotate motors in different directions viz. forward, backward, left turn, right turn and stop corresponding to the thrust applied on the mobile keys assigned to them. The algorithm for the same is mentioned below .
1.Make port 1 as input port 2.Make port 2 as output port 3.Check if input at port 1 is F2 Hex then move robot in forward direction else go to step 4.Check if input at port 1 is F8 Hex then move robot in backward direction else go to step.
5.Check if input at port 1 is F6 Hex then robot takes right turn else go to step 6. 6.Check if input at port 1 is F4 Hex then robot takes left turn else go to step 7. 7.Go to step 3 and continuously check the input.
4.2 Software used: Keil Software:
This tutorial will assist you in writing your first 8051 Assembly language program using the popular Keil Compiler. Keil offers an evaluation package that will allow the assembly and debugging of files 2K or less. 1.Open Keil from the Start menu 2.The Figure below shows the basic names of the windows referred in this document 2.Name the project Toggle.a51 3.Click on the Save Button. 4.The device window will be displayed. 5.Select the part you will be using to test with. For now we will use the Dallas Semiconductor part DS89C420. 6.Double Click on the Dallas Semiconductor. 64 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS MITS, LUCKNOW
Fig.no.4.2.1
Expand the Source Group 1 in the Tree menu to ensure that the file was added to the project.
Flash Magic
it is use for creating the HEX file to burn in burner hardware .
Fig.no.4.2.2 1.Click on Target 1 in Tree menu 2.Click on Project Menu and selectOptions for Target 1 3.Select Target Tab 4.Change Xtal (Mhz) from 50.0 to11.0592 5.Select Output Tab
6.Click on Create Hex File check box 7.Click OK Button 8.Click on Project Menu and select Rebuild all Target Files 9.In the Build Window it should report 0 Errors (s), 0 Warnings 10.You are now ready to Program your part 66 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS MITS, LUCKNOW DTMF BASED WIRELESS MOBILE ROBOT
Chapter 5 PCB DESIGNING:

5.1 :PCB (PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD) A printed circuit board, or PCB, is used to mechanically support and electrically connectelectronic components using conductive pathways, tracks or traces etched from copper sheetslaminated onto a non-conductive substrate. It is also referred to as printed wiring board (PWB) or etched wiring board. A PCB populated with electronic components is a printed circuit assembly (PCA), also known as a printed circuit board assembly (PCBA). PCBs are inexpensive, and can be highly reliable. They require much more layout effort and higher initial but cost are than much either wire-wrapped or point-tocheaper and faster for highpoint constructed circuits,
volume production. Much of the electronics industry's PCB design, assembly, and quality control needs are set by standards that are published by the IPCorganization. POWER SUPPLY
There is 5V supply voltage required for this project. An ac 9-0-9 V mains transformer is connected via a mains lead. The transistor is voltage regulator IC. It regulates 4.8V dc . Working The working is quite clear. It is describe in following steps.
Step down transformer convert 220V AC into 4.8V AC It convert AC voltage into pulsating DC voltage The filter stage uses a shunt capacitor to filter out ripples from pulsating DC The regulator stage gives a regulated output of a fixed voltage. The circuit runs on a power supply of 5V DC. A transformer 9-0-9V is used to step down the ac mains voltage from 230V, to 9V AC. The combination of transformer & diode converts this AC voltage into a pulsating DC voltage, which is filtered by using an electrolytic capacitor of rating 1000F, 25V. The IC BC547b provides a regulated power supply of 5V DC. The 5V DC supply drives and the ICs in the circuit. 67 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS MITS, LUCKNOW DTMF BASED WIRELESS MOBILE ROBOT
5.2 PCB-DESIGNING
PCB Designing includes the following steps:-
PROCESSING
CLEANSING
PRINTING
ETCHING
DRILLING
SOLDERING
MASKING
Fig 5.1 PCB Designing process 68 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS MITS,
PROCESSING
The layout of a PCB has to incorporate all the information on the board before one can go on to the artwork preparation. This means that a concept that clearly defines all the details of the circuit and partly also of the final equipment, is a prerequisite before the actual layout can start. The detail circuit diagram is very important for the layout designer and he must also be familiar with the design concept and with the philosophy behind the equipment. The General Considerations are-
a-) Layout scale:- Depending on the accuracy required, artwork should be produced at a 1:1 or 2:1 or even 4:1 scale. The layout is best prepared on the same scale as the artwork. This prevents all the problems which might be caused by redrawing of layout to the artwork scale.
b-) Grid system or Graph Paper: - It is commonly accepted practice to use these for designing. c-) Board types:-There are two side of a PCB board Component side & Solder side. Depending on these board are classified as-
Single-sided Boards: - These are used where costs have to be kept at a minimum & a
particular Circuit can be accommodated on such board. To jump over conductor tracks, components have to be utilized. If this is not feasible, jumper wires are used. (Jumper wires should be less otherwise double-sided PCB should be considered.
Double-sided Boards: - These are made with or without plated through holes. Plated
through holes are fairly expensive.

CLEANING
The cleaning of the copper surface prior to resist application is an essential step for any type of PCB process using etches or plating resist. After scrubbing with the abrasive, a water rinse will remove most of the remaining slurry.
Scrubbing Water Rinse Wet Brushing Acid dip Final Rinse Drying Pumice/ Acid Slurry Tap Water Tap Water Hydrochloric Acid-HCl De-ionized Water Oven or Blowing of air.
Fig5.2Cleaningprocess
ETCHING
It is of utmost importance to choose a suitable Etchant Systems. There are many factors to be considered:Etching speed Copper solving capacity Etchant price Pollution character
Operation characteristics of different etchants:Factor Corrosive Neutralization Etchant FeCl3 CuCl2 Chromic acid Alkaline ammonia High Medium -ness High High High disposition problem Medium Low High
Toxicity
Required ventilation
Operation cost Medium Low High
Low Medium High
Low Medium High
Medium
High
High
Table 5.2.1 Characteristics of different etchants We have uses FeCl3 (Conc. 120 g/litre 0.1 M) for etching. Reactions Involved:FeCl3 FeCl3 +3H 2O + Cu Fe(OH)3 + 3HCl (Free acid attack to copper) FeCl2 + CuCl
FeCl3 CuCl2
+ +Cu
CuCl
FeCl2 2CuCl
CuCl2
DRILLING
The importance of hole drilling into PCBs has further gone with electronic component miniaturization and its need for smaller holes diameters (diameters less than half the board thickness) and higher package density. The following hole diameter tolerances have been generally accepted wherever no other specifications are mentioned. Hole Diameter (D) <= 1mm + / - 0.05 mm Hole Diameter (D) > 3 mm + / 0.1 mm
Drill bits are made up of high-speed steel (HSS), Glass epoxy material, Tungsten Carbide.
SOLDERING
Flux should be removed after Soldering. It is done through washing by 0.51 % HCl followed by Neutralization in dilute alkali to remove corrosive flux.Non-corrosive is removed byIso-Propanal.
MASKING
It is done for the protection of conductor track from Oxidation. 72 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS MITS, LUCKNOW DTMF BASED WIRELESS MOBILE ROBOT
5.3 Designing of PCB Layout

A PCB layout is required to place components on the PCB so that the component area can be minimized and the components can be placed in an efficient manner. The components can be placed in two ways, either manually or by software. The manual procedure is quiet cumbersome and is very inefficient. The other method is by the use of computer software. This method is advantageous as it saves time and valuable copper area. There are various softwares available for this purpose likeExpress PCB Pad2pad Protel PCB PCB design e.t.c. Many of them are loaded with auto routing and auto placement facility. The software that we have used here is EXPRESS PCB. This software has a good interface, easy editing options and a wide range of components.
Express P.C.B.
Express PCB is a very easy to use Windows application for laying out printed circuit boards. There are two parts to Express PCB, Express SCH for drawing schematics and Express PCB for designing circuit boards. We downloaded the software from the website www.expresspcb.com.
There are lots of functions available in the software. This software is free of cost and it is very easy to use. The different layers of the PCB can be viewed by just a click of a button on the interface. And we easily get its print on paper which is utilized for further processing. We can design single sided PCB as well as Double Sided PCB with this Software.
CHAPTER NO.6 APPLICATION

Since a cell phone controlled robot has overcome the limitations of the range of a normal RF controlled robots, it has endless applications. It can be used by any layman due to its simplistic nature. Also any available cell phone can be used to control this robot. These features extend the scope of this robot to a large number of diversified fields.
Some of the common applications have been listed below:
It can be modified to control home appliances (like - door locks, A.C. etc) from anywhere in the world just by dialling some numbers.
It can be used for security purposes where going near the target is highly risky(like - to destroying land mine, to examine earth quake affected buildings etc) It can be used for remote monitoring/data collection (like rain water data collection, vending machine status, water level monitoring in flood prone rivers).
It can be used as spy bot to penetrate into the enemys defence system. Such type invention a system for activating & deactivating a plurality of different appliances located on telephone subscribers residential or business premises. It is also used for home appliances controlled by mobile from any distance. It is also used to control the car and stop it with the help of mobile from anywhere. 74 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS MITS, LUCKNOW DTMF BASED WIRELESS MOBILE ROBOT
6.1 WEB CAM:

Wireless security cameras are closed-circuit television (CCTV) cameras that transmit a video and audio signal to a wireless receiver through a radio band. Many wireless security cameras require at least one cable or wire for power; "wireless" refers to the transmission of video/audio. However, some wireless security cameras are batterypowered, making the cameras truly wireless from top to bottom. Wireless cameras are proving very popular among modern security consumers due to their low installation costs (there is no need to run expensive video extension cables) and flexible mounting options; wireless cameras can be mounted/installed in locations previously unavailable to standard wired cameras
The term 'webcam' may also be used in its original sense of a video camera connected to theWeb continuously for an indefinite time, rather than for a particular session, generally supplying a view for anyone who visits its web page over the Internet. Some
of them, for example, those used as online traffic cameras, are expensive, rugged professional video cameras.
Videocalling and videoconferencing As webcam capabilities have been added to instant messaging, text chat services such as AOL Instant Messenger, and VoIP services such as Skype, one-to-one live video communication over the Internet has now reached millions of mainstream PC users worldwide. Improved video quality has helped webcams encroach on traditional video conferencing systems. New features such as automatic lighting controls, realtime enhancements (retouching, wrinkle smoothing and vertical stretch),
automatic face tracking and autofocus, assist users by providing substantialease-ofuse, further increasing the popularity of webcams. 75 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS MITS, LUCKNOW
Fig.no.6.1.1 76 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS MITS,

Video security
Webcams are also used as security cameras. Software is available to allow PCconnectedcameras to watch for movement and sound,[9] recording both when they are detected. These recordings can then be saved to the computer, e-mailed, or uploaded to the Internet. In onewell-publicized case,a computer e-mailed images of the burglar during the theft of the computer, enabling the owner to give police a clear picture of the burglar's face even after the computer had been stolen.
Recently webcam privacy software has been introduced by such companies such as Stop Being Watched. The software exposes access to a webcam and prompts the user to allow or deny access by showing what program is trying to access the webcam. Allowing the user to accept a trusted program the user recognizes or terminate the attempt immediately. Other companies on the market manufacture and sell sliding lens covers that allow users to retrofit the computer and close access to the camera lens.
In December 2011 Russia announced that 290,000 Webcams would be installed in 90,000 polling stations to monitor the Russian presidential election, 2012.[11]
Video clips and stills
Webcams can be used to take video clips and still pictures. Various software tools in wide use can be employed for this, such as PicMaster (for use
with Windows operating or Cheese (with Unix systems).

Input control devices
systems), Photo
Booth (Mac),
Special software can use the video stream from a webcam to assist or enhance a user's control of applications and games. Video features, including faces, shapes, models and colors can be observed and tracked to produce a corresponding form of control. For example, the position of a single light source can be tracked and used to emulate a mouse pointer, a head mounted light would enable hands-free computing and would greatly improve computer accessibility. This can be applied to games, providing additional control. Free Track is a free webcam motion tracking application for Microsoft Windows
that can track a special head mounted model in up to six degrees of freedom and output data to mouse, keyboard, joystick and Free Track supported games By removing the IR filter of the webcam, IR LEDs can be used, which has the advantage of being invisible to the naked eye, removing a distraction from the user. Track IR is a commercial version of this technology.
The Eye Toy for the PlayStation 2 (The updated PlayStation 3 equivalent is the PlayStation Eye) and similarly the Xbox Live Vision Camera and the Kinect AKA 'Project Natal' for theXbox 360 and Xbox Live are color digital cameras that have been used as control input devices by some games.
Small webcam-based PC games are available as either standalone executables or inside web browser windows using Adobe Flash.
Technology
Webcams typically include a lens (shown at top), an image sensor (shown at bottom), and supporting circuitry. Webcams typically include a lens, an image sensor, support electronics, and may also include a microphone for sound. Various lenses are available, the most common inconsumer-grade webcams being a plastic lens that can be screwed in and out to focus the camera. Fixed focus lenses, which have no provision for adjustment, are also available. As a camera system's depth of field is greater for small image formats and is greater for lenses with a large f-number (small aperture), the systems used in webcams have a sufficiently large depth of field that the use of a fixed focus lens does not impact image sharpness to a great extent.
Image sensors can be CMOS or CCD, the former being dominant for lowcost cameras, but CCD cameras do not necessarily outperform CMOS-based cameras in the low cost price range. Most consumer webcams are capable of providing VGA resolution video at a frame rateof 30 frames per second. Many newer devices can produce video in multi- megapixelresolutions, and a few can run at high frame rates such as the PlayStation Eye, which can produce 320240 video at 120 frames per second.
Support electronics read the image from the sensor and transmit it to the host computer. The camera pictured to the right, for example, uses a Sonix SN9C101 to transmit its image overUSB. Typically, each frame is transmitted uncompressed
in RGB or YUV or compressed asJPEG. Some cameras, such as mobile phone cameras, use a CMOS sensor with supporting electronics "on die", i.e. the sensor and the support electronics are built on a single silicon chipto save space and manufacturing costs. Most webcams feature built-in microphones to makevideo calling and videoconferencing more convenient.
The USB video device class (UVC) specification allows for interconnectivity of webcams to computers without the need for proprietary device drivers. Microsoft Windows XP SP2,Linux[12] and Mac OS X (since October 2005) have UVC support built in and do not require extra device drivers, although they are often installed to add additional features.
Privacy
Many users do not wish the continuous exposure for which webcams were originally intended, but rather prefer privacy. Such privacy is lost when Trojan horse programs allow malicious hackers to activate the webcam without the user's knowledge, providing the hackers with a live video and audio feed.Cameras such as Apple's older external Sight cameras include lens covers to thwart this. Some webcams have built-in hardwired LED indicators that light up whenever the camera is active. It is not clear whether these indicators can be circumvented when webcams are surreptitiously activated without the user's knowledge or intent, via spyware.
In mid-January 2005,
some search
engine queries
were
published
in
an on-
line forum[13] which allow anyone to find thousands of Panasonic- and Axis highend web cameras, provided that they have a web-based interface for remote viewing.
Many such cameras are running on default configuration, which does not require any password login or IP address verification, making them viewable by anyone. 79 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS MITS, LUCKNOW DTMF BASED WIRELESS MOBILE ROBOT
Parameters & Features

300k/20.0 megapixels resolution (by software). High resolution CMOS colour sensors. Large window capture size. Video mode -24 bit true colour. Interface USB port. Manual focus. Automatic colour compensation. Automatic brightness adjustment.
Images focus -6cm to infinity. Noise signal ratio: greater than 48db. Dynamic range greater than 72db. Software with fast snap function
Driver installations
Plug the webcam into the computer first. Insert the driver /application CD into CDROM .wait for second you will find auto run page .Double click the button of auto run page file and the system will automatically run necessary file. Click next -> click finish. You may find AMCAP on the desktop, click AMCAP screen shall display the image on the AMCAP window, if not select option on the top of the window after click
Preview, you will be able to capture the image on screen. Run Amcap.exe and you will see the picture. you also may change effect setting.
System Requirement:
CD ROM driver. IBM PC or Laptop with USB port. 32MB or higher memory. Pentium 200 or higher CPU.
6.2 LPG Gas Leakage Detector: MQ-6 Semiconductor Sensor for LPG
Sensitive material of MQ-6 gas sensor is SnO2, which with lower conductivity in clean air. When the target combustible gas exist, The sensors conductivity is more higher along with the gas concentration rising. Please use simple electronic circuit, Convert change of conductivity to correspond output signal of gas concentration. MQ-6 gas sensor has high sensitivity to Propane, Butane and LPG, also response to Natural gas. The sensor could be used to detect different combustible gas, especially Methane, it is with low cost and suitable for different application.
Fig. 6.2.1 Gas sensor

Configuration
Fig.6.2.2
Character Configuration *Good sensitivity to Combustible gas in wide range *High sensitivity to Propane, Butane and LPG *Long life and low cost *Simple drive circuit Application *Domestic gas leakage detector *Industrial Combustible gas detector *Portable gas detector
Table 6.2.1
Sensitivity Characteristics
Fig.6.2.3 Structure and configuration
Structure and configuration of MQ-6 gas sensor is shown as Fig. 3, sensor composed by micro AL2O3 ceramic tube, Tin Dioxide (SnO2) sensitive layer, measuring electrode and heater are fixed into a crust made by plastic and stainless steel net. The heater provides necessary work conditions for work of sensitive components. The enveloped MQ-4 have 6 pin, 4 of them are used to fetch signals, and other 2 are used for providing heating current.
Notification 1 Following conditions must be prohibited 1.1Exposed to organic silicon steam Organic silicon steam cause sensors invalid, sensors must be avoid exposing to silicon bond, fixature, silicon latex, putty or plastic contain silicon environment 1.2High Corrosive gas If the sensors exposed to high concentration corrosive gas (such as H2Sz, SOXCl2HCl etc), it will not only result in corrosion of sensors structure, also it cause sincere sensitivity attenuation. 1.3Alkali, Alkali metals salt, halogen pollution The sensors performance will be changed badly if sensors be sprayed polluted by alkali metals salt especially brine, or be exposed to halogen such as fluorin. 1.4Touch water Sensitivity of the sensors will be reduced when spattered or dipped in water.
1.5Freezing Do avoid icing on sensorsurface, otherwise sensor would lose sensitivity. 1.6Applied voltage higher Applied voltage on sensor should not be higher than stipulated value, otherwise it cause down-line or heater damaged, and bring on sensors sensitivity
characteristic changed badly.
2 Following conditions must be avoided 2.1Water Condensation Indoor conditions, slight water condensation will effect sensors performance lightly. However, if water condensation on sensors surface and keep a certain period, sensor sensitivity will be decreased. 2.2Used in high gas concentration No matter the sensor is electrified or not, if long time placed in high gas concentration, if will affect sensors characteristic. 2.3Long time storage The sensors resistance produce reversible drift if its stored for long time without electrify, this drift is related with storage conditions. Sensors should be stored in airproof without silicon gel bag with clean air. For the sensors with long time storage but no electrify, they need long aging time for stbility before using. 84 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS MITS, LUCKNOW
2.4Long time exposed to adverse environment No matter the sensors electrified or not, if exposed to adverse environment for long time, such as high humidity, high temperature, or high pollution etc, it will effect the sensors performance badly. 2.5Vibration Continual vibration will result in sensors down-lead response then repture. In transportation or assembling line, pneumatic screwdriver/ultrasonic welding machine can lead this vibration. 2.6Concussion If sensors meet strong concussion, it may lead its lead wire disconnected.
2.7Usage For sensor, handmade welding is optimal way. If use wave crest welding should meet the following conditions:
2.7.1Soldering flux: Rosin soldering flux contains least chlorine 2.7.2Speed: 1-2 Meter/ Minute 2.7.3Warm-up temperature10020 2.7.4Welding temperature25010 2.7.51 time pass wave crest welding machine If disobey the above using terms, sensors sensitivity will be reduced.
IT DOESNT WORK WHAT I DO ?

1. Check that all components are in their correct place and the correct way around. 2.Check for unsoldered joints and solder bridges or splashes. 3.Is the 5V supply OK? 4.Any IC legs bent up under the IC body?
LM 358P IC:
DESCRIPTION These circuits consist of two independent, high gain, internally frequency compensated which were designed specifically to operate from a single power supply over a wide range of voltages. The low power supply drain is independent of the magnitude of the power supply voltage. Application areas include transducer amplifiers, dc gain blocks and all the conventional op-ampcircuits which now can be more easily implemented in single power supply systems. For example, these circuits
can be directly supplied with the standard +5V which is used in logic systems and will easily provide the required interface electronics without requiring any additional power supply. In the linear mode the input common-mode voltage range includes ground and the output voltage can also swing to ground, even though operated from only a single power supply voltage.
Pin diagram
Future scope
This project demonstrates the tele/remote control of the electronic appliances and the DC motors using mobile phone. However, a closed loop system that gives feedback to the transmitter can be implemented so that output work done can be acknowledged by the transmitter side. DTMF receiver and transmitter IC can be used to give feedback to the controlling mobile. IR sensors can be used to automatically detect & avoid obstacles if the robot goes beyond line of sight. This avoids damage to the vehicle if we are maneuvering it from a distant place. Similarly, the current project can interfaced with a camera (e.g. a Webcam) robot can be driven beyond line-of-sight & range becomes practically unlimited as GSM networks have a very large range. GSM Modules can be incorporated in our system to discover the status and location of the robot. This Project along with Tone generator and keypad can also be used to make our own private telephone exchange. 87 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS MITS, LUCKNOW
APPENDIX A:
A complete program for this project mov A,#0FFH mov p1,A mov B,#00H mov p2,B forward: mov A,p1 Cjne A,#0F2H,left setb p2.0 Setb p2.2 clr p2.1 clr p2.3 sjmp forward left :cjne A,#0F4H,stop setb p2.2 clr p2.0 clr p2.1 clr p2.3
//to move OFF in accumulator //to make port1 as input //to move 00 in register B //move content of B to make it as o/p //to move port1 data in accumulator //to move forward //to make p2.0 high //to make p2.0 high //to make p2.1 low //to make p2.3 low //to make control in this loop //to move left //to make p2.2 high //to make p2.0 low //to make p2.1 low //to make p2.3 low
sjmp forward stop :cjne A,#0F5H,right

//to jump control to forward level //to move right 88 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS MITS,
clr p2.0 clr p2.1 clr p2.2 clr p2.3 sjmp forward back :cjne A,#0F8H,back clr p2.1 clr p2.2 clr p2.3 setb p2.4 sjmp forward right :cjne A,#0F6H,forward setb p2.1 clr p2.0
//to make p2.0 low //to make p2.1 low //to make p2.2 low //to make p2.3 low //to jump control to forward level //to move right //to make p2.1 low //to make p2.2 low //to make p2.3 low //to make p2.0 high //to jump control to forward level //check again //to make p2.1 high //to make p2.0 low
clr p2.3 setb p2.2 sjmp forward here:sjmp here End

//to make p2.3 low //to make p2.2 high //to jump control to forward level //to make control here //to end the program 89 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS MITS,
Conclusion
It can be concluded that mobile controlled robots can be constructed using the components: IC CM8870 (DTMF decoder), (AT89S5) microcontroller and L293D (motor drivers). Locomotion of the robot in different directions can be controlled and maneuvered by pressing the assigned keys on the mobile phone (in this experiment; key 5 for forward motion, key 7 for left turn, key 8 for stop, key 9 for right turn an d key 0 for backward motion). Similarly, household electric appliances can be remotely controlled with the assistance of L293D and relay circuit. Finally it is an object of this invention to provide a means for wireless control system operate through mobile. Accordingly the present invention provides a system for controlling appliances at any place, which is connect to a telephone switched network using DTMF telephone signal.
Bibliography:
The 8051 Microcontroller and Embedded Systems 2nd edition by Muhammad A. Mazidi, Janice G. Mazidi, Rollin D. McKinley , An imprint of Pearson Education (2007) Electronics and Device Circuits by Robert L. Boylstead and Louis Nashelsky An imprint of Pearson Education (2007) Electronic Communication by Dennis Ruddy and John Goolen An imprint of Pearson Education (2007) Digital system design Moris mano
www.google.com www.bricsworld.com www.alldatasheet.com

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DTMF Based Wireless Mobile Robot

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DTMF BASED WIRELESS MOBILE ROBOT

CHAPTER 1 1.1 INTRODUCTION:

Fig No 1.1 connection 3 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS MITS,

1.3 Schematic of cell phone operated robot:

1.4 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig No 1.2 circuit 5 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS MITS,

Fig No 1.3 Working

Fig.No 1.4 Construction

1.7 PRINCIPLE USED :

CHAPTER 2 2.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM: MOBILE

MOTOR1 MOTOR DRIVERS MOTOR2

Fig No. 2.1 Circuit working

Fig no.2.2 .1 Cell phone

Block: Microcontroller takes this 4 bit numbers from decoder and

Fig No. 2.2.2