Review of Selected Materials Topics Darrell Wallace

1 Stress-Strain Curves:
Stress-strain curves are perhaps the single most widely used material test for metals. The reason for this is that the many predictions can be made about the behavior of a large piece of metal under various loading and deformation conditions based solely on the results obtained from a simple tensile test. While this will not cover the test or evaluation procedures in-depth,

1.1

Where Do Stress-Strain Curves Come From?

A stress-strain curve (or when referring to the true stress-strain curve, a flow-stress curve) could theoretically come from a number of metal deformation processes. However, the most common source of this kind of material data is derived from a standard tensile test. The details of such a test will not be discussed here. However, it should be noted that very detailed standards (well over 100 standards for tensile tests alone) are put forth by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) regarding the proper method to conduct a tensile test for a given material.

1.2

The Basic Idea of a Tensile Test

In a tensile test, a specimen, such as that shown in Figure 1, is pulled from both ends. Load cells measure the force applied to the specimen throughout the stroke. Likewise, a device called an extensometer measures the change in length of the gate region. From this test a graph of Load vs. Elongation (in inches, not %) will be obtained, Figure 2.

Width (W0 )

Extensometer

Figure 1Typical tensile test specimen

Length (L0)
Gage Region

Elongation (in)
Figure 2 Typical output from a tensile test

1.3

Engineering Stress and Strain

To interpret the result of the test for any random part geometry, the load-elongation data (or load-stroke data as it is often called) must be converted to stresses and strains. Given the initial geometry of the specimen, any point on the load-stroke curve can be converted using the following equations: Engineering Stress F e A0 Engineering Strain L-L0 e L0

A typical engineering stress-strain curve is shown in Figure 3. Key features of this figure are discussed below.

TS Y

Fracture

e la s t ic

reg io
slope =E (Young's Modulus)

0.2%

e (%)

EL

Figure 3 Typical engineering stress-strain curve with key points labeled

1.4

Important Features of the Engineering Stress-Strain Diagram

1.4.1 Youngs Modulus, E

Youngs Modulus, denoted as E, is the slope of the engineering stress strain curve in the elastic region. The elastic region is the linear portion at the beginning of the curve (marked in the figure as elastic region). E, also called the modulus of elasticity, has units of pressure (psi or Mpa). This is because strain is unitless (in/in).

1.4.2 Yield Strength, Y

The yield strength is the engineering stress at which the material begins to undergo permanent plastic deformation. When a lower stress is applied, the material will deform under load, but will return to its original geometry when the load is removed. This point is observed as the departure of the stress-strain curve from a perfectly linear relationship. Because this point is difficult to determine accurately, a rule called the 0.2% criterion is used. According to the 0.2% criterion, the yield strength, Y, occurs at the point where the stress-strain curve deviates from a straight line by 0.2% (0.002 strain). To find this point, a line is drawn parallel to the elastic region of the curve (slope = E), intersecting the x-axis at a strain of 0.002 (0.2%). This line intersects the stress-strain curve at the yield point. The stress at this point is Y.

1.4.3 Tensile Strength

The tensile strength of the material, TS is sometimes also referred to as the Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS). This is the highest stress which the material can undergo before the onset of necking. Necking is localized deformation which is the first step toward fracture. When necking occurs, the specimen begins to deform locally, hence the observed drop in load and engineering stress toward the end of the curve. The onset of necking occurs at the highest measured load or engineering stress (just before the curve turns downward). The tensile strength, TS, is the engineering stress at this point.

1.4.4 % Elongation (At Failure)

Used as a measure of ductility, the %Elongation at failure, EL, is the % elongation of the specimen when fracture occurs. An alternative measurement of ductility is the %Area Reduction, AR. However, the EL measurement is often preferred because of the ease of determining the value from a tensile test.

1.5

True Stress and Strain

Because the specimens dimensions change continually throughout the test process, the engineering stressstrain curve does not exactly represent the true stresses and strains within the material. (See Figure 4.) In a true stress-strain curve, the stress can never decrease, thus it is not possible to locate the onset of necking by looking at a true stress-strain diagram. The true stress-strain diagram conforms to an exponential equation of the form: =Kn.

1.5.1 True Strain

Engineering strain is based from the initial gage length. However, as the material is strained, each incremental change in length acts over the entire length of the specimen which becomes progressively longer as the test continues. In other words, if we look stepwise for a change of length of L, we see that the true strain must account for the continuous change in length of the specimen.
L i Li L1 L0 L2 L1
1

L L L L1 2. L

L 0 Gage

... Ln L0 L We find that the incremental strain is Ln Strain Ln 1

The true strain is the sum of the incremental strains as L approaches 0. To convert from engineering to true strain we use the following relation: ln( 1 e )

1.5.2 True Stress

Much as with strain, the engineering value is based on the assumption of constant cross-sectional area. However, the reality is that as the specimen is elongated volume constancy requires that the area decrease. To take this into account, engineering stress values may be converted to true stress values according to the following relation: =e(1+e)

1.5.3 Strain Hardening Exponent, n

The exponent in the exponential equation which models the true stress-strain curve is called the strainhardening exponent. This value determines the rate at which the material hardens. The greater the exponent, the greater the effect of strain on material strength and hardness. It should be noted that this value is equal to the true strain at the onset of necking (found on the engineering stress-strain diagram).

K =K
n

True Strain at the onset of necking. This point must be found from the e -e curve then converted to .

(%)
Figure 4 True stress-strain diagram (flow stress)

n=

Example Calculations:

C1 B1 A1

C2 D1 A2 B2

C3 D2 A3 B3

D3

Elongation (in)

0.2%

e (%)

If you are given: A0=0.10 in 2 L0=2.0 in and: Point A1 B1 C1 D1 Load (lbf) 3500 4000 6500 4600 Elongation (in) 0.00230 0.00667 0.352 0.560

From this data, you should be able to fill in the data for the engineering and true stress strain curves using the equations discussed. For the engineering values we find: Point A2 B2 C2 D2 e (ksi) 35 40 65 46 e(%) 0.12% 0.33% 17.6% 28%

For the true values we find: (ksi) 35.04 40.13 76.44 58.88 (%) 0.12% 0.33% 16.2% 24.7%

Point A3 B3 C3 D3

We can also find (by looking at the curves and the calculated data): Tensile Strength, TS = 65ksi %Elongation at Failure, EL = 28% Yield Strength, Y = 40ksi

We can also calculate: Youngs Modulus, E: E=slope in linear region= (35 ksi / 0.0012)=29.2 x 106 psi K and n: n: We know that n is the true strain at the onset of necking. From the engineering curve we see that necking onsets at point C. The true strain at point c is 0.162. Therefor, n=0.162. K: K can be found, in this case, by selecting a point on the true stress-strain curve and solving for K in the exponential equation =Kn 76.44ksi = K (0.162)0.162 K=102.65ksi

2 Time-Temperature Transformation Diagram (TTT)

The TTT diagram is used to determine the structures of a metal that will be present based on the time history of its cooling. Below are given 4 examples of cooling curves and the structures which would be expected in the final material at room temperature:

For the four cooling trajectories shown, A-D, the expected compositions below 200C are: A: B: C: D: Martensite Martensite + Pearlite Austenite + Pearlite Pearlite

3 Phase Diagrams / the Lever Rule

Attached is an excerpt from: Van Vlack, L.H., Elements of Materials Science and Engineering, 1989, Addison Wesley, Reading, Massachusett. This is a better explanation of the Lever Rule with an example.