DISCRETE SYSTEMS

STATICS
The finite element involves the transformation of a continuous system (infinite degrees of freedom) into a discrete system (finite degrees of freedom). It is instructive therefore to examine the behaviour of simple discrete systems and associated variational methods as this provides real insight and understanding into the more complicated systems arising from the finite element method.

Work and Strain Energy

Consider a metal bar of uniform cross section, A, fixed at one end (unrestrained laterally) and subjected to an axial force, F, at the other. The work done,

Wa , by the applied force F is Wa = F(u )du .

0

It is worth mentioning at this early stage that it is not always possible to express work in this manner for various reasons associated with reversibility and irreversibility. (To be discussed later) The work done,

Wse , by the internal forces, denoted strain energy, is:

u EA 1 1 EA 2 1 2 . Wse = AL d = EAL d = EAL 2 = u = ku , where = and stiffness k = L L 2 2 L 2 0 0

The principle of virtual work

The principle of virtual work states that the variation in strain energy is equal to the variation in the work done by applied forces, i.e.
u d 1 2 d 1 2 (ku F)u = 0 F(u )du Wse = ku = ku u = kuu = Wa = u = Fu du 0 du 2 2

df u where f is an arbitrary functional of u. In general, displacement u is a function of position (x say) and it du is understood that u (x ) means a change in u( x) with x fixed. Appreciate that F(u ') varies with u ' from zero to F = F(u )
Note that f = in the above integral.

Spring systems
Consider a single spring with stiffness independent of deflection. Then,

k k u 1 1 1 2 Wse = k (u 2 u 1 ) = (u 1 u 2 ) u k k 2 2 2 k k u 1 Wse = k (u 2 u 1 )(u 2 u 1 ) = (u 1 u 2 ) k k u 2 Wa = F1u 1 + F2 u 2 = (u 1

u1 1

u2 2

F1 u 2 ) , where F1 = F1 (u 1 ) and F2 = F2 (u 2 ) . F 2

The principle of virtual work provides:

Wse Wa = 0 u 1 ( k (u 2 u 1 ) F1 ) + u 2 (k (u 2 u 1 ) F2 ) = 0 , which gives

F1 k k u1 F2 = ku1 + ku2 or F = = Ku = F 2 k k u 2 2 2 T where K is known as the stiffness matrix. Note that this matrix is singular ( det K = k k = 0 ) and symmetric ( K = K ).

F1 = ku1 ku2

The symmetry is a result of the fact that a unit deflection at node 1 results in a force at node 2 which is the same in magnitude at node 1 if node 2 is moved by the same amount.

Boundary conditions
With the finite element method the application of displacement constraint boundary conditions is performed after the equations are assembled. Consider then the single spring element above but fixed at node 1, i.e. u 1 = 0 . Ignoring the constraint initially gives

1 2 k (u 2 u 1 ) , Wse = k (u 2 u 1 )(u 2 u 1 ) and Wa = F1u 1 + F2 u 2 . 2 The principle of virtual work gives F1 = ku 1 ku 2 = ku 2 and F2 = ku 1 + ku 2 = ku 2 , on application of the constraint. Note that F1 = ku 2 is the force required at node 1 to prevent the node moving and F1 = ku 2 is the reaction force. Wse =

Applying the constraint straightaway gives Wse = work gives

F2 = ku 2 with no information about the reaction force at node 1.

1 2 ku 2 , Wse = ku 2 u 2 and Wa = F2 u 2 . The principle of virtual 2

Method of Minimum Potential F1 1 T k k u 1 1 T P = Wse Wc = (u 1 u 2 ) (u 1 u 2 ) = 2 u Ku u F F u k k 2 2 2 where Wc = F1 u1 + F2 u 2 and can be considered as a work term with Fi independent of u i . The approach of minimising P
is known as the method of minimum potential. Note that,

1 u T Ku + u T Ku u T F = u T (Ku - F ) = 0 F = Ku , where use has been made of the 2 T T fact that u Ku = u Ku as a result of K's symmetry. Consider the minimisation of an arbitrary functional P(u ) where P 1 3 and the gradient Pi = , and the Hessian matrix coefficients P(u ) = u T P + u T Hu + O u ui 2 P H ij = 2 P u i u j . A stationary point requires that P = 0 , i.e. = 0 . Moreover, a minimum point requires that ui uTHu > 0 for all u 0 and matrices that possess this property are known as positive definite. P = Wse Wc =

( )

System Assembly
Consider the following three-spring system:

k1 2

k2 3

u3

u4 4

1 2 1 1 1 2 2 Wse = k 1 (u 2 u 1 ) + k 2 (u 3 u 2 ) + k 3 (u 4 u 3 ) , 2 2 2 F F 1 2 Wse = k 1 (u 2 u 1 )(u 2 u 1 ) + k 2 (u 3 u 2 )(u 3 u 2 ) + k 3 (u 4 u 3 )(u 4 u 3 ) ,

Wa = F1u1 + F2u 2 + F3u 3 + F4u 4 and Wse Wa = 0 implies that,

F1 k 1 F k F= 2= 1 0 F 3 F 4 0 k1 k1 + k 2 k2 0 0 k2 k2 + k3 k3 0 u 1 0 u 2 = Ku k 3 u 3 k 3 u4

where again it is apparent that K is symmetric but also it is banded, i.e. the non-zero coefficients are located around the principal diagonal. This is a property commonly associated with assembled FE stiffness matrices and depends on node connectivity. Note also that the summation of coefficients in individual rows or columns gives zero. The matrix is singular and

k1 k det K = 0 . Note that element stiffness matrices are: 1 , k 1 k 1 examination of K it is apparent how these are assembled to form K. u1 = 0 If a boundary constraint is imposed then
F2 k 1 + k 2 F = F3 = k2 F 0 4 k2 k2 + k3 k3 0 u 2 . k3 u 3 = K u k3 u 4

k2 k 2
row

k2 k3 and k2 k 3
one is

k3 where on k3
to give:

removed

Direct Formulation
It is possible to formulate the stiffness matrix directly by moving one node and keeping the others fixed and noting the reactions. The above system can be solved for u , once possible rigid body motion is prevented, by setting u1 = 0 (say) to give

F2 k 1 + k 2 F = F3 = k2 F 0 4

k2 k2 + k3 k3
1

0 u 2 k3 u 3 = K u k3 u 4

u 2 k 1 + k 2 u3 = k2 u 0 4

k2 k2 + k3 k3

0 k3 k3

F2 F3 F 4

The inverse stiffness matrix, K , is known as the flexibility matrix and, for this example at least, can be assembled directly by noting the system response to prescribed forces. 1 In practice K is never calculated and the system K u = F is solved using a modern numerical linear system solver.