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The Hibbert
series
he brought to
it.
kind
effort of his
The public
to
be done, and will join the Trustees in grateful appreciation of the services of the gentlemen
who responded
to
the occasion.
efficiently met.
To
those
and
earnest
the
laborious
was made.
AUG CI
iQsg
CHRISTIAN CHURCH.
BT THE LATB
EDWIN" HATCH,
D.D.
EDITED BY
A. M.
FAIEBAIRN,
D.D.
SIXTH EDITION.
HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN, LONDON; 20, SOUTH FREDERICK STREET, EDINBURGH
AND
7,
PJUKTED BT
178, STKAND.
PREFACE.
The
fittest
Of
As regards
:
were simple
he had only
them
But
work
continuous
were
of selected passages,
with
the connections orally supplied, while the Lecturer did not always follow the order of his notes,
or, as
we know
What came
was
a series of note-
VI
PREFACE,
first
sight but
an amorphous mass
now in
now
in pencil
be laboriously learned
still
successive strata, as
followed
by pages almost
meant
to
sections or fields
be further explored
with an
now
complete,
now incom-
now
cancelled;
which
indicated,
now
or accuracy of a statement,
now
a simple suspense of
judgment,
now
now
Have
something like
this,
before
of the scholar
work-
him who
made
it
to
it,
to discover the
way through
But
and out of
The
clue
PREFACE.
VU
the result
is
now
but some of
it,
was
in
In the body
been taken
of the Lectures
be allowed a
more
free-
dom
be added
With
the foot-notes
it
One
find
of our earliest
was
to
whence many
The
author's
name was
given, but
We
to
have been, I
source.
Another
difficulty
was
connect the
This involved a
new
VIU
PREFACE.
and
place.
The
were
and con-ected;
the
now to
making
and now
to the discovery of
new
authorities
which
it
to use.
As
a result, the
by other hands
also
and in part
stated in
XL,
order that
and
inaccuracies
may be
seemed
make the
had been
made
it if it
by
his
own hand
in the region
where the
MSS. made
a discreet
as little
unworthy
of the scholarship
it
and
was in
his
power
of
who have
Vernon
greatly lightened
my
The
first is
Bartlet,
He
laboured at
PREFACE.
the
IX
MSS.
till
He
had
way
be followed.
He
way a
also
To him we
of Contents
Professor
The work
grateful that
is
it
am
the
fulfil
This
is
word
him
or
his work.
little
book
all
had
it
him
to do.
The book
an admirable
illustration of his
it
method
ought to be judged
It is a study
PREFACE.
but
it
He
never intended to
dis-
to
His purpose,
like his
method,
ought
to
be studied and
criticised.
and beyond
his conclusions
was a
positive
and co-ordi-
To
mind every
if
species of mechanical
Deism was
alien
and
his
traditions
lives in
still it
was only
of a faith
way
for the
coming
of the
Master he
A. M. Fairbaien.
SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS.
Lecture
I.
INTRODUCTOEY.
The Problem How the Church passed from the Sermon on the Mount
a change in
soil
:
page
to
...
...
...
1,2
2
The need
1.
of caution
...
A religion relative to
mind during the
...
...
3,
2.
and usage
in Hellenism
as to
the
...
key
...
...
...
4,5
The Method
Evidence
as to process of
representative
dence defective
...
10
Two
1.
resulting tendencies
To
2.
...
...
10
correlation of antecedents
and consequents 11
...
13
14
14
13,
Consequents
XU
Attitude of
1.
SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS.
PAGE
mind required
...
...
...
...
...
...
15
15, IG
Demand upon
Need
(a)
...
...
2.
3.
...
17, 18
The
baptism
...
and exorcism
(h)
...
...
...
19,
20
21
e.g. its
relation to conscience
21
24
Lecture
II.
GEEEK EDUCATION.
The first step a study of environment, particularly as The contemporary Greek world an educated world in
literary sense
I,
..
literary.
a special
...
...
...
...
...
25
27
Its
all literary
Grammar
Rhetoric
2830 3032
...
A
1.
"lecture-room" Philosophy
...
32
35
shown by
...
...
...
35
37
40 42 48
49
2.
...
...
...
...
...
37
3. 4.
Social position of
its
professors
40
up
to
to-day in general
...
42
...
mind
Christianity
came
48,
Lecture
III.
value
...
50, 51
SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS.
XUl
PAGE
metaphysics, &c.
52
57
64
among the
The
Stoics
...
...
...
...
57
especially at Alexandria
6569
harmony with Greek
...
69
74
Application to the
New
...
...
...
75,70
Origen
Reactions both Hellenic and Christian
1.
:
7779
viz.
in
...
The
Greek mythology
79,
80 80
2. 3.
against Christianity
...
81,
82 82
allegory
the poetry
of life
...
...
82, 83
spirit, viz.
..
.
...
...
...
84
84, 85
God
Lecture IV.
The Rhetorical
and new
...
...
86
88
88
... ...
manner of
discourse
its
rewards
94
94 99
Objections of earnest
tetus
men
reaction led
by Stoics
like Epic-
99105
XIV
SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS.
PAOX 105
v.
...
later
"preaching."
e.g.
its
in
Summary and
conclusions
...
...
Lecture V.
CHEISTIANITY
Abstract ideas
different degrees
philosophy
and 116
118
118
Tendency
to define strong
...
120
123
originality
...
Dogmatism regnant
...
120
...
123, 124
...
...
...
125,126
126
...
...
128
in allegorism and
cosmology
Christian philosophy partly apologetic, partly speculative.
128, 129
Alarm
of Conservatives
sition
and
conflict
...
130
133
134
The
issue,
...
133, 134
...
Summary answer
main question
:
...
...
in
to define
to speculate
i.e.
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
135
The tendency
The point
136
137
of emphasis,
Orthodoxy
1 37, 1 38
SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS.
XV
Lecture VI.
ETHICS.
PAGE
139, 140
An
...
...
...
140
...
142
142
life
Revived
Epictetus
...
143
...
147 147
A moral gymnastic
(1) Askesis
cultivated
:
,.
...
(aa-Kr^a-is)
Philo, Epictetus,
Dio
Chrysostom
(2)
2.
148150
or moral reformer
...
The "philosopher"
150
152
The contents
reference.
of ethical teaching,
Epictetus'
"Follow God"
Christian ethics
152155
difference
;
based upon
the Divine
sized at
1.
command
idea of sin
first, i.e.
158, 159
:"
Tone of
the
...
"Two "Ways
...
159
v.
162
life
Puritan ideal
... ...
permixtum
:
...
162
164
168
Church
within
...
the
...
Church
...
askesis,
... ...
ticism...
2.
Monas164
Ambrose of
168, 169
Milan
169, 17G
XTl
SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS.
Lecture VII.
Creator.
PAGE
of the unity
Creator,
Being
of idea of a beginning:
171174
Monism and Dualism
...
Growth
1.
174, 175
Monism
of the Stoics
175
Dualism, Platonic
creation recognized
:
...
177
177 180
Hence
Philo's significance
;
God
is
as Creator
Monistic and
Dualistic aspects
and unity
world
Earlj'-
after all,
God
180188
but questions as to mode emerged, and the
... ...
...
...
nent root
first
Evolutional typo
2.
There remained
(i.)
The ultimate
solutions
:
relation
of matter to
God
Dualistic
later doctrine,
(ii.)
though not
at once recognized
:
194
198 200
The
Mediation hypo...
...
thesis
(iii.)
the
Z(0<70s
solution
:
...
198
especially Marcion's
200, 201
all
Prevalence
...
202
207
Results
207, 208
SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS.
XYll
Lecture VIII.
A.
will
intelligent force
and law
209211
as a city-state (ttoAis)
...
The Cosmos
2.
...
211,212
and 213
New
Justice
...
215
we
find Destiny
and Providence,
and a tendency
of the terra
3.
to synthesis
God
of evil emerges
The problem
(a)
attempts at solution.
217
217
220 223
evil,
...
hence
...
:
220, 221
the
B.
Wages
for
work done
...
2.
Positive
Law
...
Forgiveness and
Law
Marcion's ditheism
result
Free-will.
by
aid of Stoicism
and Neo-Platonism
233237
5
x^all
SYNOPSIS of contents.
Lecture IX.
Being.
PAQB
Christian Theology shaped
basis
by Greece, though on
a Jewish
238, 239
A.
its
Transcendence of God.
History of the idea before and after Plato
Its
...
240
243
244
in Philo
...
244,245
Through intermediaries
(i.)
Mythological
Philosophical,
e.g.
246
in Philo
(ii.)
246, 247
3.
247,248
rela-
God
249
. . .
250
its
at first absent
...
250
252
...
..
first
...
252,253
empha254
But God as transcendent (v, supra-cosmic) sized by Basilides and the Alexandrines
2.
256
Mediation
problem
256,257
7nanifestation
...
...
TheouGS oi modal
257,258
258
259
Dominant idea that of modal existence (i.) As manifold so among certain Gnostics
:
...
(ii.)
As
constituting a unity
SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS.
xix
PAGE
259, 260
logoi
to
Eelation
Justin
of
the
the
Logos,
especially
in
260262
is
The
3.
issue
...
262, 263
God based on
the Logos.
263, 264
265
267
God
267,268
a stage
and but
...
in the contro-
268, 269
its
history
...
...
...
...
269
272
277
it to
God
...
273, 274
274, 275
As
also
Hypostasis:
history
...
...
...
...
275
Comes
tism
to
(ttpoo-wttov)
277, 278
Eesum6
dogma278
280
spirit
280, 281
L The
2.
3.
The nature
of God's perfection.
Conclusion
282
XX
SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS.
Lecture X.
A. The
Greek
religion.
Cults.
L The
Mysteries,
(i.)
e.g. at
Eleusis
283,284
lustra-
Initial Purification,
tion (baptism)
(ii.)
(iii.)
285287
...
...
287, 288
human
...
life
288
sacri-
290
2.
condition of entrance,
... ...
290, 291
Wide
291,292
the Church.
influence, general
and
292294
:
Baptism
...
:
...
...
...
294, 295
(ii.)
295,296 296,297
298
300
e.g.
in Didach6,
as
offerings
"mys-
300303
fifth
Culmination of tendency in
century in Dionysius
303
viz.
305
The tendency
Gnostics
strongest
in
the
most Hellenic
circles,
305, 306
... ...
306, 307
Anointing
...
...
...
...
...
...
307, 308
308, 309
...
Conclusion
...
...
...
...
309
SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS.
XXL
Lecture
XL
PAGE
trust in a person.
In Greek philosophy = intellectual conviction In Philo, these blend into trust in God
city, i.e. in
310, 311
vera-
in His
...
...
...
311, 312
...
Contemporary longing
on
fact
312
New
...
Testa...
313
At
first
;
emphasis on
its ethical
basis
...
...
315
test.
...
316,317
317319
influence of
:
Old Testament
apostolicity
as
319,320
the idea of a
Canon
it
...
...
320,321
321
had
in Philo
active
Trio-Tts,
upon the
especially
Origen
...
...
...
321
323
Hence tendency
to
it
...
323, 324
324326
XXU
Results
(i.)
SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS.
page
it
327,328
329
(ii.)
Resum^
329,330
...
...
330,331
an age so
ascer-
Development,
if
...
...
332
332, 333
Lecture XII.
THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE BASIS OF CHRISTIAN UNION DOCTRINE IN THE PLACE OF CONDUCT.
:
Association at
tianity
first
...
...
334, 335
characi.),
Holiness
its
the "
Two Ways,"
:
the
Elchasaites
335337
its
Also a
common Hope
changing form
...
337, 338
Church
stress also
338,339
upon the
intellectural
Growing
clement
...
...
...
Causes for
this,
realistically
...
conceived
...
the ministrant
:
341,342
moral
for-
(2)
Intercommunion
(e.g.
first
Didache),
...
subsequently a
... ... ...
doctrinal
...
mula
343
345
SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS.
XXIU
PAGE
communities
ofSamosata:
...
...
...
345
347
Novatianism
347,348
348, 349
(2)
Formation of esoteric
class
Monachism
Conclusion
:
The Greek
Churches: the
...
349, 350
Two
theories
development: no
...
...
350, 351
...
On
351
The problem
pressing
truly conservative
...
...
...
...
...
352
broken
a pioneer's forecast
the Christianity
,
352,353
Lecture
I.
IITTEODUCTOEY.
It
is
The Sermon on
of conduct
; ;
the
it
Mount
is
the
promulgation of a
new law
assumes beliefs
which underlie
absent.
it
is
torical facts
been unintelligible
place in
it.
ethics
have no
a world of Syrian
Greek philosophers.
it is
The
contrast
patent.
If
v^
sufficiently explained
by saying
it
a sermon
in reply
why
fourth century,
is
a problem
which claims
it
investigation.
It claims investigatioUj
but B
2
tigatcd.
I.
INTRODUCTORY.
have arrived
ticular changes
or
developments in Christianity
the
antecedent
It asks, not
how
come
to
another, but
how
did they
come
to the
frame of mind
membership.
first
point that
is
from conduct
to belief is coincident
with the
The presumption
is
that
it
was the
result of
Greek
influence.
It will appear
is true.
consequently,
The Influence
of Greece
upon
Christianity.
The
subject
of the
it
make
It
it
incumbent upon us
necessary to bear
it
;
approach
with
caution.
is
many
points in
mind
as
we
enter upon
change,
may be presumed
us.
first is,
is
to
phenomena before
1.
The
given time
relative to the
I.
INTRODUCTORY.
to
that time.
It is impossible
same way
of silver
which
embedded.
They
are as
much determined by
its soil,
determined by
and
its
cultivation
changing characteristics
flora of
of the race
and
They
not in
We
may
concentrate
still
remain
of the time,
and they
life.
If
any one
will ask
him
and
to consider
phenomena
doubts,
its
of
how he could understand the religious our own country in our own time its
hopes,
its
varied
its
enterprises,
its
shifting
enthusiasms,
its
its noise,
and
philanthropies
growth
of the
stress, of
the com-
own improvement.
In dealing, therefore, with the problem before
us,
we
must endeavour
attitude of the
whole mental
first
three centuries
of our
era.
its
We
its
of the breadth
and
depth of
sophy, of
education, of the
many
currents of
its
its
philoits
love of literature, of
scepticism and
4
mysticism.
I.
IXTEODUCTORT.
We
we can
sion,
find,
ments
and
history, of paintings
and sculptures,
of
inscriptions
at
and laws.
In doing
so,
we
musi^ be content,
any
and
until the
problem has
both
of the
The
distinctions
and that
of
may
be
left to
the minuter
The second
is
consideration
is,
that no permanent
Aristotle enun-
previously
known
and
to beliefs
is,
even
more than
to
knowledge.
religious
change
like a
and absorption
into,
existing elements.
The
religion
It
in Judaism.
came
''
fulfil."
It took the
Jewish
TTucra Oi5tt(TKttA(a
jxi9r](TL'i
i.
otaro)yTt/<i) 6K 7rpovapyov(Ti]<i
j^ost.
1, p.
71).
John
is laid
I'liilopouus, in
7;
yap
alcrOijTiK^] yvwcris
6).
ed. Brandis, p.
I.
INTRODUCTORY.
it
new
meaning.
and gave
applica-
them a new
tion had already been anticipated in some degree by the Jewish prophets. There were Jewish minds which had yu a.-^ been ripening for them and so far as they were ripe for "h*"**^ '
;
In a similar way we
shall
Greek Christianity
was rooted
in Hellenism.
and new motives; but there was a continuity between their present and their past; the new ideas and new
motives mingled with the waters of existing currents;
and
it is
we
shall
understand
how
it is
Sermon on the
^
the
The method of the investigation, like that of all investigations, must be determined by the nature of the evidence. The special feature of the evidence which aff'ects the method is, that it is ample in regard to the causes,
and ample
also in regard to the eff'ects,
but scanty in
We
state of
The
side
dim and
pallid light
when put
;
by
to
but
b
tives.
I.
IXTRODrCTORY.
cliildrcn of their time.
They
its
men who supremely transcended it. I will mention those from whom we shall derive most informathought than
tion, in the
of time
also
become
with their
works.
Dio
of Prusa,
commonly known
as
Dio Chry-
skill,
political unrighteousness.
whom
at ISTicopolis, taken
reflect
diligent
encyclopaedist,
far
more
them.
Maximus
whom
Academy
a glowing mysticism.
philosopher, in
losophies are
lit
by hope
by
despair, as the
rain.
Lucian, the
satirist
and
Sextus
name
the are
or
collection of writings
tlic
richest of all
mines
Philo-
Greek philosophy.
I.
INTRODUCTORY.
stratus, the
many
will hardly be
an anachronism
if
we add
to these the
;
for,
on
the one hand, he was more Greek than Jew, and, on the
other, several of the
We have
post-Mcene
Gregory
of
period.
The Fathers
Gregory of
of general
Athanasius, Basil,
jN'yssa,
Nazianzus,
and
local Councils,
literature, enable us to
as to the
mode
were produced
is
singularly imperfect.
If
we
we
find that
it
consists for
It tells us
It represents a
c,
few phases
5) singles
of
thought with
previous generation
whom
Of
perished
of Miltiades, only a
Justin survives
i.
in only a single
MS.
(see
1,
and the
I.
INTRODUCTORY.
it
In regard
to Palestine,
fourth centuries
we have
In regard to Asia
scanty
The
largest
Of the
Italian wiiters,
we
have
little
that
is
Of Gal-
ilean writers,
we have
whose
results are
is
Of African
writers,
we have
who would
;
in
modern times
influ-
The evidence
is
were produced.
assumed when
the
moulded
it.
And
if
we
I.
INTROBUCTORY.
as heretical,
thoiiglit
we
What
we know, with
comparatively in-
opponents.
of the
They were
that
of
and that
the Christians
philosophy.^
l*^on
possumus"
to
we
them is shown by the wide differences in those accounts. Each opjoonent, with the dialectical skill which was common at the
accounts which their opponents give of
time, selected, paraphrased, distorted,
and re-combined
him
to
be weakest.
The
was
so also
"With one
felt
hand was against him, addresses one of his in hate and wretchedness" (o-v/x/ztcroi'/xevoi'
adv. 31 arc.
2
disciples as
/cat
"my
partner
crvvTaXaiTrwpov, Tert.
4. 9).
Examples are the accounts of Basilides in Clement of Alexandria and Hippolytus, compared with those in Irenjeus and Epiphanius ; and the accounts of the Ophites in Hippolytus, compared with those of Irena3us and Epiphanius. The literature of the subject is considerable
see especially A. Hilgenfeld, die Keizergescliiclite des Urcliristeiithum^
(e.g.
p.
Qiielleiilcriiik
des Epiphanios
and
Lac-
non modo
But for the ordinary student, Keim's remarkable restoration of the work of Celsus from the quotations of
Origen, with
losses (Th.
its
many
Keim,
10
I.
INTRODUCTORY.
the
important exceiDtion,
so
many
its fold.
human
The
not
the
When
associated Christian
two
results
which constitute
difficulties
and dangers in
our path.
1.
The one
is
When
monuments
of a great
movement remain,
tend at almost
all
to
monuments
are
We
times to attach
;
an exaggerated importance
writers
to individual writers
the
We
few,
if
monuments
2.
of caution
which we
shall
do well to keep
The other
or
is
to the
we were
I.
INTRODUCTOHY.
11
current,
commonly
we
first
a body of
exponents
this
army.
Whereas what we
is,
really find
on examining the
evidence
to
shake
We can
but we have
mass,
if
who made
the
first
tenta-
preserved to us,
it
by some
of those
who have
But
particular doctrines.
it is
impossible to dej)recate
upon
historical
quicksands
and I propose
by
stating the
12
causes,
I.
INTRODUCTORY.
by viewing
by considering liow
There
is
were adequate in
resjoect of
effects.
in entire
harmony with
It
that
is,
which
arises
from the
first
hardly perceptible.
if
It
we were
in posses-
and a
of Christianity
hardly
effort
which ascends by
we
feel in
our
We
so, to
an incalculable
of
mankind which
is
stored
own powers.
was
in
which
WT
its
when it emerges, as it were, into the developed manhood of the fourth century. Greek pliilosophy helped
find
but the
assi-
milation of
We
by looking
at the several
I.
INTEODUCTOHY.
13
at them, to estimate
We
state of
education
we
it
scholastic form.
We
state of
literature
we
was an age
its
of great lite-
ancient monuments,
its
industry in endea-
We
state of
philosophy
we
was then,
as
it
physics of ideas.
We
state of
moral ideas
we
was an age
in
which
with
human
nature were
stru2:2;liu2:
in
which the
ethical instincts
ideal of
"folloAving God,"
by
Wc
state of
14
theological ideas
:
I.
INTRODTJCTOEY.
shall find that it
wc
was an age
in
feelinej after
God and
not feeling; in
of ethics, physics,
meta-
men were
many
all
His
and goodness."
We
state of
religion
we
was an age
in
which the
beliefs that
had
new
;
concei)tioiis
of
what God
in
which
the preparation of the soul for the spiritual religion of the time to come.
We
group of
ideas,
later
and
finally
of
Christian association.
I should be glad
if
examine
some
of these groups
But
I.
mTRODUCTORY.
is
15
to lead
not so
much
you
to
any
conclusions of
my
me
to
and
to
urge those of
historical
investigations
difficulties of
the investi-
gation
of
lie less in
mind
in
I feel that I
should
fail of
upon
either
is
we must make
before
we can become
There
the
more reason
history
is
An
ill-informed writer
may
state
his-
of finding listeners
a well-informed writer
may
any
contradicted.
There
to
In the
first place, it is
the
demand which the study makes upon the attention The scientific, that
is
comparatively new.
The minute
which
is
which
is
inadequately appreciated.
attention,
The study
16
I.
INTRODUCTORY.
events.
moving panorama, the series and sequence of its He must have that power in a still greater
and
to
felt
and acted.
But
is
demand
that can be
made upon
is
either the
that
which
made by such
move with
mind
it is
their
movements,
to pass
to
of their thoughts,
and
with
attitude of
place,
into another.
of our
own
it.
personal prepossessions.
Most
of us
come
to
about
to present,
of,
and
an accurate picture
or of
for
Peru,
the
when he begins
But most
study
is
of us
number
of con-
We
before
we examine
have before
it.
We
ideas
us,
We bring
I.
INTRODUCTORY.
17
tlie
rising
up round
if
us,
among us who in the maturity of their years have broken away from their earlier moorings, They are not these associations still tend to remain.
Even
there be some
They
linger
reso-
We bring to
associations
tion.
mostly
common
centuries before.
The terms
meaning
Greek
is
different.
was in
We
time,
law
of language,
meaning.
in
into our
own
language.
They have
themselves wholly
sciously hold
we
con-
them
disentangled.
We bring
made by
to
We
have in those
18
inductions so
I.
INTRODUCTORY.
many
We assume
historical edu-
cation
and we arrange
which we
is
one of
In the third
we have
to deal.
Every age
We
splendid heritage.
beliefs, the habits of
They
most
of
To them the mass our thoughts are relative, and by them the thoughts other generations tend to be judged. The importance recognizing them as an element in our judgments of
cannot transcend them.
We
other generations increases in proportion as those generations recede from our own.
we may
assuming that
its
inheritance of ideas
cognate to our
The
men
of earlier
I.
INTRODUCTORY.
19
Fewer streams
Consequently,
kvith
of
many
which were in
entire
harmony
^hen referred
)ut the
own
nor can
we
we have been
'dative.
by two
to
instances
"We tend
to take
with
us, as
we
travel into
bygone
is
lypothesis, but
an axiomatic truth
which
most of us
no
of the existence of
soul,
m unbridged
jpirit.
;o
matter and
The
relation in our
ceive
iVe
find
difficult
iction
either of matter
upon
spirit
or of spirit
upon
natter.
When,
mcient
:o
rites of baptism,
we
find expressions
which seem
we measure
them
belong,
5uch expressions
IS
by a modern
They
^n reality,
md
^
spirit
as
of the Stoics,
probably following
4.
of.
BoxograpM
(TVfj.TrdcT'x^eL
Grcbci, p.
jv8ev acrco/xaTov
Tw/xaTt'
crvfnrd(T')(^i
crcofiaTt
ov8e d(T(ofidT(^
(TWjJiarL
dXXa
apa
ij
aoifxa
^v)(r}
Se
aj}.
>)
^v^r]
tw
....
crwpia
;
(Chrysipp. Fragm.
by Zeno, in
Cic.
c2
20
*'
I.
INTRODUCTORY.
Whatever
acts,
is
body,"
it
it is
presented no difficulty.
that
It
was imagined,
direct causes
of diseases,
them
all
and
So water,
when
exorcized from
it,
actually
The conception
It
of the process as
so to speak, a ration-
tending to outgrow.
Academ.
1. 1.
11. 39;
Ly
(r?e
P^ac. P77o^.
yap;
SO
by Seneca,
Ejyist.
117.
2,
among some
^
Christian writers,
e.g. Tertullian,
de Anima,
5.
The conception
:
tismo
it
of exorcism
and the water which are foiind in the older Latin service-books, what is known as the Gelasian Sacramentary, i. 73 (in Muratori^ Liturgia Romana veins, vol. i. p. 594), " exaudi nos omnipotens Deus
the
oil
e.g.
in
et
et
171
sanitatem simul et vitam mereatur a?ternam." This prayer is immediately followed by an address to the water, " exorcizo te creatura aqua3
per
Deum vivum
adjuro te per
cfficiaris
Jesum Christum
filium ejus
unicum
dominum nostrum
Spiritui Sancto
.
ut
eum Deo
Patri et Filio et
So in the Galilean Sacramentary published by ]\Iabillon {de Liturgia GaUlcana lihri ires, p. 362), " exorcizo te fons aqua) perennis per Deum sanctum et Deum verum qui te in principio
."
ab arida separavit
et in
sis ."
I.
INTRODUCTOEY.
21
(5)
We
soul.
We
cannot believe
any virtue in an
act of worship in
which
We
ever
much we may
men were so profoundly convinced own personal beliefs as to deem it of supreme importance that other men should hold those beliefs also. But we find it difficult to understand why, in the second century of our era, a great emperor who
the same conception
:
was
secuted Christianity.
The
difficulty arises
Eoman mind.
It
Worship was an
of
^
was one
it,
The neglect
of
and
still
wlio quotes more than once the Delphic oracle, ^ re yap Ili^^ta
TToAews dvaipet TroLovvra'; eucre/^ws av
Trotetv,
Xen, Mem.
1. 3. 1,
and
again
4. 3.
16
y^iddai Kara to. Trdrpia eKayrots Trpoa-^Kei repeatedly in Plutarch, e.g. de Defect. Orac. 12, p. 416, de Comm. Notit. 31. 1, p. 1074 in the Atireum Carmen of the later Pythagoreans, dOavaTovs jxlv Trpwra deohs
:
v6{i(a
ws 8idKivTai,
TLfj.a
i.
p.
193)
and in the
yap
IN'eoplatonist
Kara
The
5,
intel-
upon
desertion of the
Odav.
"quanto
22
of
it,
I.
INTRODIJCTOIIY.
was a crime.
to
An
must necessarily
either compel
him
for disobedience.
It is not until
we have
any
of the physical
we can from
of
we have
inherited or
we
shall
be likely to investigate
I
upon these
difficulties.
Literature
is
they are
by
enthusiasts
whose imagi-
nation soars
by an easy
flight to the
mountain-tops which
who
give them
hand-book or
to
an
article in a review.
have no
desire,
and
am
sure that
you have no
desire, to
study.
The materials for such a study are available. The method of such a study is determined by canons which have been established in analogous fields of reThe difficulties of such a study come almost search.
venerabilius ac melius .... iiiajorum cxcipere disciplinam, religiones
traditas colore ;"
aud Celsus
iu Origeii,
c.
Ccls. 5. 25,
35
8.
57.
I.
INTEODUCTORY.
it
23
entirely
is
a duty to begin
by
recognizing them.
is
supreme importance.
Other history
or less antiquarian.
gratify our curiosity
and
to
add
to the
knowledge.
guide of our
But
lives.
claim unheard.
JN'either
is.
set aside
until
we
The
know what
are each of
Christianity
A thousand
to
dissonant voices
them professing
from them to
its
name.
its
appeal
lies
documents and to
history.
In order
to
know what
it is,
we must
it
first
know both
The study
it is
what
it
professed to be and
what
has been.
;
complement
of the other
but
with
we have
at present to do.
We
may
it is
a scien-
inquiry.
We may hear,
It is
if
we
will, the
solemn tramp
always to conquest.
domain
of Christian history. of
Upon
its
flanks,
as
upon the
flanks
the
physical
no foothold, and
issue.
is
no
But the
science
is
marching
tumely.
In front
of
it,
24
sciences, is chaos
;
I.
INTEODUCTOr.Y.
it is
beliind
order.
may
shoAV
some things
;
to
be derived which
to
wc thought
be original
thought
to
be compound which
;
be incapable of analysis
to
it
be phantoms which
will
we thought
to
be
Eut
;
to Christian apologetics
it
Avill
by showing
it
to
be in harmony with
its results
that
w^ith
never dim.
Lecture
II.
GEEEK EDUCATIOIT.
The
that a study of
of their environment. to
would be necessary
examine
all life
In some respects
it is
in absolute
of
The
political
and and
take them
all into
account.
But
less
be found
sufficient in
phenomena
shall
into
do,
which we inquire
with literary
and in dealing,
as
we
mainly
mainly
also.
The most general summary of those features is, that the Greek world of the second and third centuries was,
in a sense which,
26
II.
GREEK EDUCATION.
new elements
Greek
to
till
of
knowIt
had
for
men
the ground, or
The word
could
a-ocpo?,
which in
skilled in
earlier
who
any of
or tune a lyre or
if
not exclu-
practical
The
original reasons,
assuming
why
Greece should
for its
meaning
which
it is
tending to
of
mean
The tendency
and
colligate
less
be no
lost political
power, and on
equanimity in
of letters she
political subjection,
was
still
II.
GREEK EDUCATION.
27
bo
It
was natural
reflected
of speech
had become
to a large proportion of
They
They were almost the slaves of cultivated expression. Though the public life out of which orators had grown had passed away with political
were a nation
freedom,
it
had
left
behind
it
and arguing
in fictitious courts.
In
political
home
had
A
of
exist.
The mass
rations,
men
in the
to lay stress
bygone gene-
of cultivated speech,
which has
commonly spoken
it
of as education.
Two
to the
education before
examining: we must
at its mass. It is
look
first
and secondly
it
must be shown
amount
I.
as
If
we
much
own
as the cause of
28
II.
GREEK EDrCATION.
it.
by
direct tradition
from
It set a fashion
which until
world.
We
Eoman
In
it
^'
its
and writing,
ourselves.
among
We
But
this
elementary part of
Grammar
had come
to include
the
The following
:
is
all
important features
eyKwAios waiSeta which constituted the mediaeval quadrivium. The "works bearing on the subject will be found enumerated in K. F. Hermann, Lehrliuch der griechischen Antiquitliten, Bd. iv. p. 302, 3te aufl, ed. Blumner the most important of them is Grasberger, Erzichung und UnterricM im dassischen AUertlaim, Ed. i. and ii. Wlirzburg, 18G4: the shortest and most useful for an ordinary reader is Ussing, Erzielmng und Jugendunterricht bet den Griechen und liomeni, Berlin, 1885.
:
Littcratura
is
Quintil. 2. 1. 4.
Adv. Gramm.
44.
which was taught by the ypaufxaTia-Ttjs, Avheroas ypafxnaTLKT] was taught by the ypa/ximriKo^. The relation between the two arts is indicated by the fact that in the Edict of Diocletian the fee
* ypafifxaTLo-TLKy,
of the former
is
:
two hundred
p.
178.
II.
GREEK EDUCATION.
29
all
was
of slow
growth
con-
The
is
these
down
was
of canons of
Upon
this as
much
laid as
was
laid
"I owe
of not
"my habit
who
utter a barbarous or
awkward
or unmusical plu'ase."
" I must apologize for the style of this letter," says the
Christian Father Basil two centuries afterwards, in writing
to his old teacher Libanius
;
is,
have been in
of that kind,,
the
company
tell
of
Moses and
and men
who
us no doubt what
true,
but in a barbarous
dialect, so that
my
head."^
Grammar was
the
the exj)lanation of
the names of the gods and heroes, the legends and histories,
It is continued to this
classical authors.
250.
The
liave
third
Adv. Gramm.
"With
1.
91 sqq.,
cf. ih.
This
is
may be compared
tilian, 1.
2 3
4 sqq.
1. 10.
The substance
is
There
of Basil's letter, Ep. 339 (146), tom. iii. p. 455. a charming irony in Libanius's answer, Ep. 340 (147), iUd.
30
II.
GREEK EDUCATION.
critical,
readings
author's meaning.
Delphian priestess
to
The main subject-matter of this literary education was They were read, not only for their literary, the poets. but also for their moral value.^ They were read as we read the Bible. They were committed to memory. The
minds
men were saturated with them. A quotation from Homer or from a tragic poet was apposite on all
of
Dio Chrysostom,
to the
how he came
Greek colony
of the empire,
of the Borysthenitce,
ments almost
all
knew
the Iliad
by
heart,
else.^
to hear
about anything
Bhetoric
the
study
forensic argument.
by the study of literary expression and quasiThe two were not sharply distinguished in practice, and had some elements in common. The conception of the one no less than of the other had widened with time, and Ehctoric, like Grammar, was
of literature
It
The
lists of
selected
Sext.
Emp.
adv.
Gramm.
279.
^I'j'^ovOev ^iAt}?
Strabo,
1. 2. 3,
ov xpvxaydyyias x^P'"
dXXa
o-ox^-
povicr/xoi;.
3
vol.
ii.
p.
II.
GREEK EDUCATION.
31
style,
first
or he delivered of these
model
its
The
methods has
monument
in the hand-books
on a large
scale, in
it
monuments in the Scholia upon Homer and other great writers. The third method gave birth to an institution which also survives in modern Each of these methods was followed by the stutimes. dent. He began by committing to memory both the
also left important literary
professor's
rules
and
also
selected
passages
of
good
In
authors
tions
made
fii'st
his
is
" I have often wondered what in the world were the grounds
on which Eather
, .
.
.'
. . .
'
.*
It is neater."
From
this,
These are printed in Walz, Rhetores Grceci, vol. i. the account is mainly that of the Progi/mnasmafa of Theo of Smyrna (circ. A.D. 130). There is a letter of Dio Chrysostom, printed among
here followed
his speeches,
Orat
xvii.
irepl
Xoyov
d(TK7]creM<s,
ed.
Dind.
i.
279, con-
sisting of advice to a
late in life,
good a view
as could be
2
training.
32
II.
GREEK EDUCATION.
to
and to avoid
all
for whicli
he were an
The
crown
of all
was the
extempore.
when he had
Lut whether he
recited a pre-
same
artificiality of structure
of diction.
"
You must
who
is
of sentences that is
the rlietorician
all
make my boat
To
phy.
of Philoso-
in the education of
to Pliilosophy
and Rhetoric.
learnt,
Every one
number
in
Lucian^
tells
a tale of a country
after niglit,
and regaled
his
mother
Philostr.
V.S.
2.
21. 3, of Pioclns.
3
jf,,rmaiiin. SI.
II.
GREEK EDUCATION.
33
and dilemmas, talking about *' relations" and "comprehensions" and " mental presenfallacies
and jargon
" that
saying,
God
As
far
was concerned,
it
to a
Greek
mind
Dialectic
of a sharp-
But
it
was a comparatively
It
new phase
It
to
of Philosophy that
side.
had come
practice.
It
was degraded
It
was taught in
it.
way
as the studies
which preceded
place.
But
lectures
Sometimes
pronounced his opinion upon the correctness of the reasoning or the interpretation.! The Discourses of Epictetus
There
is
a good example
methods iu
and of the
Maximus
comments
is
said
dvayvwu,
34
lectures,
II.
GREEK EDUCATION.
it
and form, as
sopher's lecture-room.
and
though he followed the current usages of professorial teaching, his life and teaching alike were in rebellion
against
it.
"If
"with a
view only
to its literature, I
am
a litterateur ;
that I interpret
pro-
They sometimes
but also against the whole conception of literary educa"There are two kinds of education," says Dio tion.
Chrysostom,^ " the one divine, the other
divine
is
the
mean and weak, and has many dangers and no small The mass of people call it education deceitfulness. being, I suppose, an amusement (-rraiSlav^j (iraiSeiav), as and think that a man who knows most literature
Persian
and Greek
and Syrian
find
and Phoenician
;
is
when they
The
men
of old
used
to call those
who had
souls,
of education
1
men
:
with manly
Enchir. 49
p. 69, ed.
Dind.
II.
GREEK EDUCATIOX.
of
35
Herakles was
sons
God."
And
its
prevalence,
it
is
the deprecation
to Eusticus,"
he
says,^ " that I formed the idea of the need of moral refor-
make
rhetoric
II. I pass
The general
evidence.
1.
had
They
are
of literary
modes of obtaining eduThe exclusiveness of the old aristocracy had broken down. Education was no longer in the hands of
evidence as to scholars and the
cation.
''
It
entered public
it.
and in doing
so left a record
behind
It
may be
At
first
But it became a common practice for youths to supplement this by attending the lectures of an eminent professor elsewhere.
school to a University.^
1
-
They went, as we might say, from The students who so went away
17.
This higher education was not confined to Kome or Athens, but was found in many parts of the empire Marseilles in the time of Strabo was even more frequented than Athens. There were other great schools at Antioch and Alexandria, at Ehodes and Smyrna, at Ephesus and Byzantium, at I^aples and Nicopolis, at Bordeaux and
:
d2
36
II.
GREEK EDUCATION.
all classes of tlie
community.
"bettel-
Some
to
of tliem
like the
"You
to-day,
fill
you
sit
Some of them went because it was the fashion. The young sybarites of Eome or Athens complained bitterly
that at T^icopolis, where they had gone to listen to Epictetus,
the
gymnasium was
letters that
were
looked for but never came, and letters that brought bad
news
to
return
doubts
tion
home as living encyclopaedias, but who only raised when they did return home whether their educaas
Autun.
among
the general recognition of Christianity did not seriously affect the cur:
There
is
an interesting instance,
gown between
them, so that while one went to lecture, the other had to stay at home
iu
p. 78).
3
Diss.
1.
9.
1.'.
Ih. 2. 21.
12;
3. 24. 54.
lb. 2. 21.
12, 13,
15;
3.
II.
GEEEK EDUCATION.
37
"and
make moral
show
off.
progress."
Epictetus
"alderman" who
sat
And
who had
by attending lectures showed by their manner that they were there against their will. " You should sit upright,"
says Plutarch,^ in his advice to hearers in general, "not
lolling, or
if
you
were
of
asleep, or fixing
on the speaker."
"Many
persons
who
come
to a lecture
other people's
talks to
affairs,
an audience, as
were, not of
men but
2.
of statues,
which have
This
is
shown
much by
3.
who
n.
16.
U,
2 77,, 1.
00
9,
2 *
De
p. 45.
i.
The passage
is
abridged above.
Quis
p. 474.
ssays,"
For example, Verrius Flaccus, the father of the system of " prize who received an annual salary of 100,000 sesterces from
38
II.
GREEK EDUCATION.
might be regarded as exceptional, as by the fact of the recognition of teachers by the State and by municipalities.
The recognition by the State took the double form of endowment and of immunities from public burdens. (a) Endowments probably began with Vespasian, who
endowed teachers
of Ehetoric at
Home with an
annual
Eome,
an
Museum
adequate income, and with a building of sufficient importance to be sometimes used as a Senate-house.
also
He
per-
in this
but the
first
manent endowment
at
Athens seems
to
one of the
new
or literary Ehetoric,
or forensic Ehetoric.^
The inscriptions of Asia Augustus (Suet, de illusfr. Gramm. 17). Minor furnish several instances of teachers who had left their homes to teach in other provinces of the Empire, and had returned rich
enough
^
to
make
cities.
The evidence
same
subject,
Antuninorum femjiora, Gottingen, 1829 K. 0. Mliller, resimhlica apud Grxcos et Roinanos Uteris dodrinisque colendis et promovetidis impenderit, Gottingen (Programm zur Siicularfcier), 1837;
P. Seidel,
Romanonnn
imperio Athenis
1838
der philosoijlLischcn Schiden in Athen tind die Succession der Scholarcken, Berlin (Ahhandl. der Akadeniie der Wisseuschaften),
1843; L.
II.
GREEK EDUCATION.
of the teaching classes
S9
(h)
The immunities
began with
at once established
cities
He
the free
list five
and three of
literature
cities
might
so place
lite-
endowment.^
all
They exempted
those
whom
the
Marburg,
an interesting Roman inscription of the end of the Avhich almost seems to show that the endowments century a.d. second were sometimes diverted for the benefit of others besides philosophers it is to an athlete, who was at once " canon of Serapis," and entitled to
There
is
:
free
commons
at the
2apa7rtS]os koI
dreAwv
(juXoa-ocfiOiv,
Corpus Inscr.
Grcec. 59 i 4.
^
The
edict of
:
Antoninus Pius
is
contained in L.
is
cusat. 27. 1
the
number
of philosophers
:"
fient
described,
and if they make stipulations about pay, non philosophantes." The nature of the "a ludorum publicorum regimine, ibid. 8
:
ab
eedilitate,
olei, et
neque judicare neque legates esse neque in militia numerari The immunities were somee.g.
the
liidi
cf.
For the regulations of de studiis Uhercdlhus urhis Romce et Constantirtopolitanai ; and for a good popular account of the whole subject, see G. Boissier, L' instruction xniblique dans V empire
pp. 185, 18S,
9,
Romain^
in the
15, 1884.
40
II.
GnEEK EDUCATION.
upon
contemporary society
its
professors
recog-
any pre-
must
might be proposed
to him,
of Philoso-
phy
was
to read a discourse
upon morals.
"sermonette"
much
is
music
with
But the philosophers were even more in fashion than theii' brother professors. They were petted by great ladies. They became " domestic chaplains." ^ They were
^
Lucian's Convivium
is
humorous and
17.
satirical
description of
such a dinner.
The philosopher
c.
finely-written manuscript,
The
Deipnosophist(B of Athena?us,
and the
-
Quccstiones
monuments
of the practice.
is
An
afforded
by the mosaic pavement of a large villa at Hammam Grous, near Milev, in North Africa, where "the philosopher's apartment," or "chaplain's room" [filosophi locus), is specially marked, and near it is a lady (tho'
mistress of the house?) sitting under a palm-tree.
(The inscription
is
viii.
made
to a
II.
GREEK EDUCATION.
41
whom
we
Lucian, in his
essay
"On
Persons
who
One
is of
a philo-
who has
to
accompany
he
is
thrown in
is of
Another
a philosopher
who
is
summoned by
will
his lady
and
"You
lapdog
and careful
you take
my
waggon with you, and see that the poor creature does not want for anything ?"2 Another is of a philosohaving her hair braided
her maid comes in with a
is
hillet-douXj
suspended
to her lover. ^
Another
he asks
of a philosopher
who
and
is
thought a bore
is
if
and whose
tailor or
shoemaker
meanwhile wait-
when
the
money comes
it
become degenerate.
It
It afforded
an easy means of
livelihood.
it it
And
although
would be unsafe
satirist literally,
is
yet
lb. 34.
H}. 36.
* Ih. 38.
42
caricatures.
fact that such
II.
GEEEK EDUCATION.
and
also the
The
men
The following
is
his
He comes
raised, talking
solemnly to himself, with a Titan-like look in his thrown back from his forehead, the very
This
is
morning dresses himself simply, and walks sedately, and wears a sober gown, and preaches long sermons about virtue, and inveighs against the votaries of pleasure then he has his bath and goes to dinner, and the butler offers him a large goblet of wine, and he drinks it down with as much gusto
in the
:
man who
as if
it
opposite
were the water of Lethe and he behaves in exactly the way to his sermons of the morning, for he snatches all
:
the tit-bits like a hawk, and elbows his neighbour out of the
way, and he peers into the dishes with as keen an eye as if he were likely to find Virtue herself in them and he goes on
;
preaching
all
he
is
out.
jSTay,
is
not a
man
:
to beat
is
him
in the
way
of
he
the
first
of flatterers
and the readiest of perjurers chicanery leads the way, and impudence follows after in fact, he is clever all round, doing
:
But nothing could more conclusively prove the great hold which these forms of education had upon their
4.
It
might
be maintained that the prominence which is given to them iu literature, their endowment by the State, and
1
II.
GREEK EDUCATION.
43
and
passing phase.
spreads
its
of one generation
that succeed,
springs.
surface.
Greek education
itself,
and
and the West. It had an especial hold first on the Eoman and then upon the Celtic and Teutonic populations of
Gaul ; and from the Galilean schools
bly by direct descent, to our
time.
it
Two
(i.)
cation.
We educate
so
we
literature,
by simple continuation
the mediteval trivmrn, which was itself a continuation of the Greek habit which has been described above.
The other point, though less important in itself, is even more important as indicating the strength of the Greek educational system. It is that we retain still its
(ii.)
many
and modified by Latin habits, in the schools of the West. The designation "professor" comes to us from the Greek sophists, who drew their pupils by promises to
:
whom
in the
title
The
44
II.
GKEEK EDUCATION.
and became the general designation
titles,
" phi-
The
is
of giving instruction
by comments upon
in
comes
to us
which a passage
Homer
The
or Plato or Chrysippus
was
teacher was to
make remarks
or to give his
:
judgment
so
it
was not
much
title of
"prae-
lector."^
The use
office,
of the
and
of the
word "faculty"
branch
of
Greek terms.^
^
eVayyeAia
ra
8e ttoXitiko.
ouSet's,
kirayykXXovTai
fiev
avrwv
Arist. EfJi.
N.
10. 10,
and apparently tovs eVayyeAAo/xevoDS is used absolutely for The first use oi projitcri "professors" in Soph. Elench. 13, p. 172a. in an absolute sense in Latin is probably in Pliny, e.g. Ep. 4. 11. 1,
"audistine Y. Licinianum in Sicilia profiteri," "is teaching rhetoric."
2
See note on
1. 8.
p.
33
is
Quintil.
3
13.
is
FacuUas
its
meaning
of an art or
branch of knowledge, which is found in Epictetus and elsewhere, e.g. a writer of the end Diss. 1. 8 tit., 8, 15, chiefly of logic or rhetoric of the third century draws a distinction between 5x'i'u/xts and rexvat,
:
and
in
classes rhetoric
'Jr.
Meuander,
Jlepl tViSetKTtKwf,
Walz, lihdf.
196.
II.
GREEK EDUCATION.
is
45
also
Greek
it
was "philosopher"
"sophist,"
M.A.
is
or D.D.^
that of
The most interesting of these designations " sophist." The long academical history of the
at
The
of
The former
is
probably a result
The
put limitations
In the
some
of the professors at
chest, the
Emperors seem
to
(1)
raconensis,
maticcB, at
ii.
2892, 5079
Saguntum, ihid. 3872 ; magister grammaticus Groicus, at Cordova, ihid. 2236 ; grammaticus Grxcus, at Trier, Corpus Inscr. Rhenan. 801 (2) philosoplms, in Greece, Corpus Inscr. Grcec. 1253; in Asia Minor, ihid. 3163 (dated a.d. 211), 3198, 3865, add. 4366 1 2 ; in Egypt, ihid. 4817; sometimes with the name of the school added,
:
e.g. at
at Brundisium,
to be
" Regius
Philosophy to Herodes Atticus, Philostrat. V.S. 2. and Commodus nominated Polydeuces, ibid. 2. 12, p. 258,
3, p.
245/
46
"but in
II.
GREEK EDUCATION.
tion
was
Council,
or,
as
of the City Council, the ordinary body for the administration of municipal affairs.^
The
1
Lucian, Eunuclms,
3, after
So/ci/xacr-
dkvra ^-qjn^ Ttov apicrTwv, which last words have been variously
understood
38, especially
Ahrens,
\pi](f>L(Tfj.a
p. 74,
Zumpt,
p. 28.
lation of
to that
following note.
2
it
as a concession
This was fixed by a law of Julian in 362, which, however, states on the part of the Emperor " c^uia singulis civitati:
bus adesse ipse non possum, jubeo quisquis docere vult non rcpente nee temere prosiliat ad hoc munus sed judicio ordinis probatus decretum
curialium mereatur, optimorum conspirante consilio," Cud. Theodos. 13. 3. 5 ; but the nomination was still sometimes left to the Emperor
or his chief officer, the prefect of the city.
a request
was sent
from Milan
magister
Rome
sent,
5.
:
for the
nomination of a
rhetoi'iccs
St.
Augustine was
This
is
nou
denuo
ab eodem ordine reprobari posse incognitum non A professor was sometimes removed 10. 52. 2.
being a Christian, Eunap, PruJutres.
p. 92.
Cod. Justin.
by Julian
for
II.
GEEEK EDUCATION.
47
sort of conge
it
office.
It
d^elire
con-
system of
was the small beginning of that "examination" which in our own country and
It
The
successful
mark
of honour, by the proconsul and the " examiners," just as in Oxford, until the present generation,
a "grand
to
In the
foui'th
century
by putting on the
student's
gown without
modern University a
The
^
The
3,
Eunapius,
ibid. p. 84.
Olympiodorus, ap. Phot. Biblioth. 80; S. Greg. Naz. Oraf. 43 (20). 15, vol. i. p. 782; Liban. de fort, sua, vol. i. p. 14. The admission was probably the occasion of some academical sport the novice was
*
:
marched in mock procession to the baths, whence he came out with his gown on. It was something like initiation into a religious guild or order. There was a law against any one who assumed the philosopher's
dress without authority, "indebite et insolenter," Cud. TJieodos. 13.
3. 7.
48
II.
GEEEK EDUCATION.
to
belonged,
is
They
sixth centuries
when
education
new
all
and
"the Benedictine era," without special nurture and without literary expression,
original roots.
by the sheer
persistency of their
This
tianity
is
life into
which ChrisThere
came
which
It
had been
Its
work
The
main
for
example, in Sidonius
est;"
Apollinaris (t482), Carm. xxiii. 211, ed. Luetjohann, "quicquid rhetorics institutionis,
palrestrre
in
Ennodius (t521), Carm. ccxxxiv, p. 182, ed. Vogel, and in ^;. 94, which is a letter of thanks to a grammarian for having successfully in Venantius Fortunatus (t 603), who instructed the -writer's nephew speaks of himself as " Parvula grammaticse lambens refluamina gutta*,
;
i.
29, 30,
Leo ; but there are traces in the same poets of the antagonism between classical and Christian learning which ultimately led to the disappearance of the former, e.g. Fortunatus speaks of Martin as
"doctor apostolicus vacuans ratione sophistas," V. Martini,
^
i.
139.
"La
periode boncdictiue,"
ecoles 6pisco2)ales ci
monastigues de
V Occidentf
p. 173.
II.
GREEK EDUCATION.
49
effect in the
When
Christianity
came
of
into
mind
it
modified,
it
reformed,
which
it
to action
fied
but
in its turn it
was
itself
profoundly modiaccepted
it.
by the habit
of
mind
of those
who
It
was impossible
for Greeks,
Their
it
own
life
arti:
had
its
permanent categories
own
form.
The world
of the time
was a world,
I will not
its
own
bonds,
artificial
be able to
recognize
its
own
artificiality
knowledge
of the
And
if,
had
at first
been
isolated,
ness,
stress
it
place,
and
to
Lectuee III.
wonder
of the invention of
The mystery
of it still
little
or no
meaning in themselves,
felt or
man
that
of
glamour over
them an importance and an improssiveness which did not attach to any spoken words.
wi'itten words.
They came
their
OTVTi.
in time to have, as
it
were, an existence of
who
first
meaning
at the time of
glamour
of
for antiquity.
The
voice
sounded with a
fuller note
It
of the heroes
who had
of noble
become
divinities.
of
awakening
reflection, the
III.
51
itself
The other was the belief in With the glamour of writing was blended the glamour of rhythm and melody. When the gods
spoke, they spoke in verse.^
The
It
The
belief
in the best
minds
were spoken in the world about God and the universe, came into the souls of men not without the Divine will
and intervention through the agency of divine and prophetic men." ^ "To the poets sometimes, I mean the very ancient poets, there came a brief utterance from the
Muses, a kind of inspiration of the divine nature and
truth, like a flash of light
from an unseen
fire."^
The combination
mystery
It lifted
The
verses of
Homer were
meaning
for a par-
from the
"DictfE per carmina sortes," Hor. A. P. 403. But title of Plutarch's treatise, Ilept rov yur)
it
may
be inferred
XP^^
127(118), iiavr^veo
Aristides, vol.
i.
[xola-a
7rpo(f>aTV(r(o
8'
iyio
2
^ius
i.
iii.
p. 22, ed.
Cant.
vol.
p.
p. 12, ed.
Dind.
OeCai <f>v(rm
* Id.
ii.
59
T Kai
(j.Xy]6ua<i
KaOdwep auyi)
e2
52
III.
ticiilar time.
They were
Greek
races.
shown
to
current beliefs,
by being formulated,
;
so to speak, in
it
was inevitable
"I
dialogue which bears his name,^ " that the chief part of a
man's education
is
to
and
this
It
was a natural
lie
but divine
Homeri
which
(in vol.
is
ii.
of Polenus's
Supplement
(figured,
to Gronovius's Thesaurus),
bas-relief
e.g.
Museum
ii.
333).
The
outside Judaja.
titled,
ofj.rjpo's
There
by G. Croesus,
en-
Avliich
nominilms ac sentcntiis conscripta in Odyssea et Iliade, Dordraci, 170-i, endeavours to prove both that the name Homer is a Hebrew word, that the Iliad is an account of the conquest of Canaan, and that
is
the Odyssey
ttji
to tlie
death of Mioses.
339
a.
III.
63
rightly
and to know how to draw The give an answer when a question is put to him." educators recognized in Homer one of themselves he,
distinctions,
:
too,
at educating
men.^
of the
grammar-schools
The study of him branched out in more than one direction. It was the beginning of that study of literature for its own sake which still holds its ground.
imperial times.
It
was continued
by the
by
the suc-
who sharpened
their wits
by
of these disputations
some
relics sur-
But
was
j
Literary
but a means.
The
no
the
training.
It
virtue,
Homer was
so.
basis of
other.
than of the
Nor was
it difficult
for
him
to
become
For
of
men had
new
317 & oiio\oy(a re (ro<f)L(TTrjS sTvai /cat TratSeuciv dvOpiLFor detailed information as to the relation between the early sophists and Homer, reference may be made to a dissertation by W. 0.
vov<s.
Cf,
Ilias-Scholien,
Ham-
burg, 1872.
54
III.
new
conceptions of morals,
Homer was
directions.
is
is
plastic
new when it
There
was no fixed
traditional interpretation
He
The Hippias
Homer.
The method
found in
It
lasted as long as
Greek
literature.
It is
full operation in
the
first
was
explicitly recognized,
and most
prominent
application.
"In
"men,
Homer
he says again,^ "that poetry was meant only to please:" on the contrary, the ancients looked upon poetry as a
form
life,
men.
:
It
it
was
the
is
Bible with
in
to
There
Dio Chrysostom^
a charming "imaginary conversation" between Philip and Alexander. "How is it," said the father, "that
Homer
is
1
U.
2. 3.
III.
55
who ought
son,
not to be neglected?"
"it
is
not
for a
king
and the
Homer
is
for
one
who
will
And
Homer many
a moral meaning.
When,
for the
meant
to
all kings,
but only
staff
those
who have
had that
and
he
those rights, and that they had them, moreover, not for
their
own
gratification,
fact,
meant, in
that no bad
man
Greeks
and
It
all
him
king.
of ethics that
all
Homer, but
the
The Heracliteans
spoke of
when Homer
and Tethys
their mother,"
he meant
to
say that
all
The
of the
p. 3.
152 d, quoting Horn. II. 14. 201302. In later times, the same verse was quoted as having suggested and supported
the theory of Thales, Irena^us,
2.
14
2. 9.
56
III.
cbains of laws.^
The
Stoics read
much
liumoured banter,
tliat
old poets,
who had
have been
Stoical philosophers.^
human
Homer by heart, say mankind had written about almost and there is a treatise by an unknown
When
he
calls
men
deep-voiced and
women
high-
voiced, he
of the distinctions of
its
music.
When
appropriate
style of speech,
is
He
exam-
government
monarchy,
tactics
democracy.
He
is
and siege-works.
be wrong
He knew and
man
of
painting also."
Celsus in Origen,
Cic.
c.
Horn.
II. 15.
18 sqq,
N. D.
1.
15
quidem
Xcn. Sjpnpos.
Ps-Plutarcli,
4.
3. 5.
do,
vita ct poesl
Homeri,
vol. v. pp.
1056
sqq., chapters
III.
o7
him by
own
of
fancies,
We stand before
St.
of paintare,
ing
as
the
Madonna
and
of
it.
it
by the wonder
We
emo-
must be cold
Eaffaelle
tions.
we simply
meant by
The
individual voice.
ries of the past
the world
and
we
meant by
it all
that
means
to us
actually mean,
we have but
little care.
But
these tendencies to
all
that
Homer wrote, and to read philosophy into it, though common and permanent, were not universal. There was
an instinct in the Greek mind, as there
times,
ists
is
in
modern
literal-
There were
who
stood,
clearly immoral.^
The
is
Gramm.
193:
TTavra ^eois dvW'qKav Ofirjpos 6 'Ho"i'oSos re
ocro-a Trap
^oyos
ecrru
58
gists
III.
who
Homer
reflected faithfully
human
life,
and
Homer
must
clearly
if
made a
elements
their
distinction
:
was
said,
on
own
account
inspired,
the
Muses sometimes
if,
left
them
being men,
when
the
divinity
which spoke
But
poets,
all
The chasm
away from the Homeric world, was widening day by day. A reconciliation had to be found which had deeper roots. It was found in a process of interpretation whose strength must be measured by its permanence. The process was based upon a natural tendency.
of the will
which
lies
behind
all
some of those
men
in comparatively early
A narrative
of actions, no
It
Men who
pp. 24, 25.
retained
c.
4,
'
Lucian, Ju_pit
coiifat. 2.
III.
59
Homer,
or wlio at least
They were
assisted in doing
by the concomitant development of the "mysteries.'^ The mysteries were representations of passages in the history of the gods which, whatever their origin, had
become symbolical.
It is possible that
no words of ex-
them
expression in general,
and
uncertain
when
this
method
of interpretation
began
to
be applied
to ancient literature.
It
was part
of
movement by the
It
found in one of
its
forms in Hecatseus,
who
explained
existence of a poisonous
It
was
by the
sophists.
The connection
Heraclitus Ponticus,
6, justifies
Aoywv ovs
99, 101,
.
ajy.
.
rj
dXXrjyopca
ctAAo Tt
Trav
.
yap to wroyoovra
fJLVcrTt']pi.a
aAAos
tt/dos
etKa^'et
5io Kal
:
V aXX-qyopiais Xeyerai
SO Macrobius,
til
Somn.
an account of the way in which the poets veiled truths in symbols, " sic ipsa mysteria figurarum cuniculis operiuntur ne That a phy. vel hsec adeptis nuda rerum talium se natura prcebeat."
Scip. 1. 2, after
sical
is
stated else'
where,
by Theodoret, Grac.
3. 25.
Affect. Cur.
i.
without
Pausan,
46.
60
''
III.
makes Socrates
say,^ in reference
as the philoso-
then I might
was a
girl
a strong
wind and
;
.
cliffs
yonder
but
would take a
to deal
with
all
such questions
and
for
my own
part I cannot
investigate
I first
them
until, as
Know
myself."
Nor
Homer
" The
by
his father,
and
all
Homer
has described,
we
shall not
state,
whether
But the
direct line of
method seems
to
begin with
Anaxagoras and
allegory
his school.^
was probably
vii'tues
ethical
he found in Homer a
and moral
earlier or
art.
have been
first
Plat. Phccdr. \x
229
d.
c.
2 Plat.
2
Resp.
p.
378
Diogenes Laertius,
first
2.
who showed
p.
that the
and righteousness
Syncollus, Chronogr.
149
c)
vvv
and which
tried
by a
fanciful etymology to
407
h).
III.
61
but
pliysical.^
By a
by a survival of memories of an earlier religion, the Homeric stories were treated as a symbolical representation of physical phenomena. The gods were
science, possibly
movements,
and their
The method
had
for
;
many
it
;
mind
schools
and
Its
is
of both of
is
whom
so little is personally
2.
11
Tatian, Orat.
Ofjiy^pov
ad
Grt2cos,
c.
21,
Mr^rpo'Swpos
et?
:
Se o Aajtii^aKTjvos v
tw
ivepi
dWrjyopiav
fieraycoi/.
later tradition
767.
On
may be made
;
to
L.
p.
211.
It has
Lauer,
Wichmann, Bd.
ii.
p.
The most
recent edition
:
is
Schow, Gottingen, 1782, contains a Latin translation, a good essay on Homeric allegory, and a critical letter
that of N.
by Heyne. It seems probable that the treatise is really anonymous, and that the name Heraciitus was intended to be that of the philosopher of Ephesus see Diels, Doxographi Ch'ceci, p. 95 .
:
62
III.
and in both
of
is
blended with an
ethical interpretation.
1.
Heraclitus begins
apologetic purpose.
He would
unquestionably
it
is,
if
he were
of
there
is
no stain
the sun;
:
the
it
''
far-darter"
is
when
it
is
men with
when
it is
his arrows,
of
is
summerAthene
Athen^
to
is
thought
it
said that
came
Telemachus,
first
is
meant only that the young upon the waste and pro-
man
then
began
:
to reflect
man, came, as
of Proteus
it
The
story
and Eidothea
many
dued by
fire,
and restored
is
by
Poseidon, that
^
by
water.^
critical,
is
The most
recent,
and best
edition is
by
in Teubner's series.
More help
by
by Osann,
Gijt-
1,
c.
TravTWS yap
5,
y)(Te(3rjaev
el [irjSev
dXXi^y6pr](Tev
he defines
allegory,
/xi/
yap aXAa
(ri]fj.aivwv
iTr(iivvp.(ii<i
dXXqyopia KaAeirai.
* c. 8.
'
c.
c. 2. c.
^ c. Gl.
66
69.
III.
C3
2.
they knew
it
much
as
men
at greater length
his interpretation
He
rests
upon etymology. The science of religion was to him, as it has been to some persons in modern days, an extension
of the science of philology.
The following
is
are examples
Hermes (from
epeiv,
''to
speak")
and
He is called the
"conductor,"
because speech conducts one man's thought into his neighbour's soul. He is the " bright- shiner," because
speech makes dark things clear.
the symbols of
souls," because
''
His winged
feet are
winged words."
He
is
to rest;
and the
men
to
The
The
story of
of the universe
it
he
is
fire,
because
:
men found
out
its
it
use
he
is
said to
came down
is
in a lightning-flash
and
human thought
life, its
liver
gnawed
at unceasingly
1
c.
by petty
cares.^
* c. IS.
16.
C4
III.
Two
may be
given from
later writers, to
of its application.
The one
of our era.
is
from
century
judgment
of Paris.
The banquet
of the gods
is
a picture of the
The apple
is
is
thrown
itself
and
different qualities
by
for itself
and Paris
is
the soul in
its
sensuous
which
Powers in the
is
the
property of Love.^
The other
is
from a writer
of a late
He
of a
man who
that
is
tossed
upon the
sea of
life,
drifted this
by adverse winds of fortune and of passion the companions who were lost among the Lotophagi are pictures of men who are caught by the baits of pleasure
way and
the Sirens
j)ass
men who
charm
is to fill
one's senses
full of
with wax,
pleasure
^
that,
left
empty^
may knock
vol.
iii.
4,
phorum Grcecorum,
-
p. 32.
crrori'
III.
G5
it
had
took
been designed
to vindicate passed
;
with
it
had given
rise.
The
|
become
The
were needed as
not
interpreters,
know what
Augustan
"The
use of
man,
by
his biographer to
It tended to
in the
minds
of
many men
must
y/
The
is
who think
obscurely stated
is
more worthy
of difficulty
felt
on a
5. 8, p.
673.
c.
Ses
ySaros
/>ir;8e
tw
fSovXc/xeyia
voovfievos ev^cpws
Oaviid^rjTai.
aAAa
66
III.
Homer, was
no
less a
The Pentateuch,
It,
no
less
men
conld not be
no
less
with morality.
To
it,
no
less
of
a hidden meaning.
The
purpose
it
reconcile their
own
to
show
to the
whom
whom
It
they frequently
ti'ied
may be
conjectured
method had been helped by the existence of the mysteries, so in Egypt it was helped by the large use in earlier times of hieroglyphic writing, the monuments of
which were
all
itself
had
ceased.^
earliest
The
Jewish writer of
this school of
is
whom any
of the
-i
reputed to be AristO'
B.C.
is
170
150).^
1.
In an exposition
5,
:
The analogy
It
is
chapters
and
7.
he
is
quoted by
Clement
Alexandria {Strum.
15,
22;
5. 1-i;
G. 3),
and extracts
III.
67
Pentateiicli
which he
said to
have addressed
to
Ptolemy
from them.
said,
of visible things,
of important matters."
The anthropomorphisms
this principle.
of the
The
"hand"
of
Put by far the most considerable monument of this mode of interpretation consists of the works of Philo. They are based throughout on the supposition of a hidden meaning. Put they carry us into a new world. The hidden meaning is not physical, but metaphysical and spiritual. The seen is the veil of the unseen, a robe
thrown over
ceals
it
which marks
its
It
would be easy
to interest
of the strange
meanings
Put
which
was designed
which I have
chosen because
10;
we
possess about
him
is
much
much literature,
i.
of
which an account
found in
Schiirer,
760
Drummond, PMlo-Judceus,
242.
f2
68
III.
that
and that
the
latter the
deeper meaning.
The
is
^
:
text
is
"
He
his
head
the commentary
"The words
gorical and physical meaning, but also because of their literal teaching of trouble and endurance. The writer does not think that a student of virtue should have a delicate and luxurious
life,
imitating those
who
who
are in
and
rivalries,
whose
whole
life
homes and upset them I mean, not the houses they live in, but the body \vhich is the home of the soul by immoderate eating and drinking, and at night lie down in soft and costly beds. Such men are not the disciples
to others, return to their
rance and sobriety and modesty, who make self-restraint and contentment and endurance the corner-stones, as it were, of
their lives
:
who
rise superior to
money and
who
and
is
a soft
is
turf,
whose bedding
men, Jacob
is
a heap of
Of such
:
an example
he
a little
while afterwards (v. 20), we fiud him asking only for nature's wealth of food and raiment he is the archetype of a soul that disciplines itself, one who is at war with every kind of effemi:
nacy.
"
in symbol.
But the passage has a further meaning, which is conveyed You must know tliat the divine place and the holy
*
Philo, de somniis,
i.
20, vol.
i.
p.
639.
III.
C9
ground
souls.
is
are immortal
It is
mind, which
as
it
body and
soul.
He
upon
it."
In
all
this,
Hebrew but
as the
Greek method.
of the
He
expressly speaks of
it
method
Greek mysteries.
He
by
the
those
initiated.
He
bids
it
them be
was
And
in this
way
possible for
him
be a Greek
The
earliest
methods
of Christian exegesis
They
Just as
Homer,
theology.
''
so
Christian wi'iters
"When he
rej^resents
Odysseus as saying,^
let there
The
rule of
many
is
not good
be one ruler,"
God
us
is
many
When
he
tells
" the earth, the heaven, the sea, the sun that rests not,
is
Horn.
II. 2.
204.
Ps-Justin (probably Apollonius, see Driiseke, in the Jalirh. f. ]pTOTheologie, 1885, p. 144),
II. 18.
c.
Want.
3
17.
Horn.
483.
70
III.
books of Moses. ^
mean
that
fruitlessly
Some
skirts
of the philosophical
of Christianity mingled
Old
whom
the
name
Simon Magus
and
given,
is
cosmogony from a
was
to
to those
which
Ps-Justin,
28.
Horn.
//.
II. 14.
206
5. 14, p.
708.
Tt's ere
I'orcroi'
y ov
14)
Clement (Strom.
but
jjjjTis
5.
makes
this to
be an evident "divination" of
is,
His argument
of God.
G. 14.
apparently,
/xvyrts
= /x5)t6s
= Aoyo?
fiiJTLS
(by a
LiavTiia.'i
eviTToxov) the
Son
*
6
Herod.
4.
810,
Hippol.
5.
21.
III.
71
Homer.
" Far be
it
from us
to
He did not know for who then does foreknow? and if He 'repents,' who is perfect in thought and firm in judgment ? and if He
and
earth,
'
tempts
'
men
as though
who makes them wise? and if who makes them to see? and if He
whose then are
sacrifices,
all
a fi'uitful hill,'
things
is
and
that
is
He
who
it
He
delights in lamps,
who
heaven?"
Homeric mythoi
One
was a human
:
^
/
1
some things in
were
true,
and
some were
false:
why
prevail.
was that Moses had written in symbols in order conceal his meaning from the unwise and Clement
;
to of
to
be treated allegorically.
^
Chmentin. Horn.
2.
43, 44.
5. 4, p.
n^
2. 51.
237.
72
III.
The
interpretations
But the method was soon applied to new Exegesis became apologetic. Whereas Philo and
had dealt mainly with the Pentateuch, the
his school
came
to deal
mainly concerned
to
Moses
voured
to
Hebrew preachers
been
The
prophets, even
poets, lent
them-
of interpretation.
God
was
and an interpreter
often a parable.
His
will.
But
his message
He saw
visions
He
1
wrote,
The
J.
p. 63.
Athenag. Lcgat.
plectrum.
c.
Grcec,
is i\\Q
III.
73
The Greek word " prophet" sometimes properly belonged^ not to the nahi himself, but to those who, in his own
time or in after time, explained the riddle of his message.
1
When
tion of
God:
it
was be-
He
nahi,
not only
knew
all
come
men.
to pass,
The
through
whom He
to the present,
was
through
whom He
The prophetic
The
interpreters wandered, as
it
They found
in
be interpreted of their
own
They went on
to
cidence of
its
similar conception
It lay beneath
the
many forms of divination. Hence Tertullian^ speaks of Hebrew prophecy as a special form of divination, " divinatio prophetica."
So
far
to
the
Greek world,
it
was accepted.
The
:
Shiloli
of
the virgin's
son of
Isai/ih
was a picture
*
of Perseus
the Psalmist's
Tertull. adv.
Marc.
3. 5.
74
*'
III.
was a prophecy
of
Herakles.^
The
effect.
of inter-
with great
became one
Itianity.
modern
ears,
so far
When
it
was
it
said, "
The government
it
shall
shoulder,"
"He
of the grape," it
human origin, but, like the from God f when it was said that
of
"
He
power
Damascus,"
it
was meant
that the power of the evil demon who dwelt at Damascus should be overcome, and the prophecy was fulfilled when the Magi came to worship Christ.'* The convergence of a large number of such interpretations upon the Gospel
history
was a powerful argument against both Jews and Greeks. I need not enlarge upon them. They have
of Christian teaching
But
I will
draw your attention to the fact use of the Old Testament was not
much
to
i.
Justin
Ih.
i.
M. AiwL
54.
i 35,
32.
* Ih.
Tnjph. 78.
III.
75
by
It
was
instance, not
by the
Apologists, but
by the
Gnostics.
It
It
prediction.
secret.
was linked
of Christ
This extension
life
The
earthly
presented as
many
The conception
of God seemed common human
Wisdom and
the
Power
inconsistent with
life
;
the meanness of a
and that
life
bolic representations of
record of
it
When Symeon
took the young child in his arms and said the Nunc
dimittis,
he was a picture
learned his
own change
of place
on the coming
Saviour, and
The
whom
anew to the perception of the light which had forsaken her. Even the passion on the Cross was a
and perplexity
of
at
first
their bat-
and denunciation.
It
was a blasphemous
invention.
It
was one
But
it
was
was writing,
it
Treii. 1. 8, 4,
of the Yalentinians.
76
III.
which
it
has nevei
ceased to hold.
of Alexandria, in
ciliation
which
it
of
The methods
said,
the Old.
rest,
that
from the
have
it
Head
of the universe,
is
"When he
said to
of the
Law,
When we
symbol
read of
we
may be,
of the Apostles
who
so travelled,
having received
ment, which
Judas,
is
adulterated
oil, is
"by whom
for the
But
gorical
it
may
which
it
1. 3, p.
IL
6. 11, p.
787.
Pccdag.
2. S, p.
76.
III.
77
\
conflicts
who
it
and viewed
which
by the
seemed
it
Its anthroit
pomorphisms,
/^
God, seemed
many men
to
An important
authority altoof
gether
it
His
rival,
New
was part
spiiit,
were
still
con-
those difficulties.
was adopted and elaborated by Origen expressly with an apologetic purpose. He had been trained in current
It
\l^
methods
to
of
Greek
interpretation.
He
is
expressly said
in the
He found
of the
Greek mythology.
tells
The
difficulties
which men
find,
he
us,
arise
it
of the
spiritual sense.
sceptic.
Without
^
This was the contention of Marcion, whose influence upon the Christian world was far hirger than is commonly supposed. By far
the best account of him, in both this and Harnack, Dogmengeschichte, ler Th. B. i c.
2
Euseb.
H.E.
6.
19. 8.
78
III.
"What man of sense," he asks,^ "will suppose? that the first and the second and the third day, and the evening and the morning, existed without a sun and moon and stars ? Who is
husbandman, planted a life, that might be seen and touched, so that one who tasted of the fruit by his bodily lips obtained life ? or, again, that one was partaker of good and evil by eating that which was taken from a tree ? And if God is said to have walked in a garden in the evening, and Adam to have hidden under a tree, I do not suppose that any one
so foolish as to believe that God, like a
it
a tree of
Nay,
the Gospels themselves are filled with the same kind of narratives.
show him from thence the kingdoms of them what thoughtful reader would not condemn those who teach that it was with the eye of the body which needs a lofty height that even the near neighbourhood may be seen that Jesus beheld the kingdoms of tlie Persians, and Scythians, and Indians, and Parthians, and the manner in which their rulers were glorified among men ?"
into a high
mountain
to
The spirit intended, in all such narratives, on the one hand to reveal mysteries to the wise, on the other hand The whole series to conceal them from the multitude.
of narratives
is
and
meaning.
sometimes,
when
no such narrative
In
one was
Ori^"?n, de prinn'2\
16.
lb.
c.
15.
III.
70
tiie difficulties
cal
method estabdshed
:
Church
it
of the
Old
It
its
to
is
Greek mythology.
a
in
They used
it it
it
gave them
solved
some of the
difficulties
They used
it,
on the
Alle-
upon Greek
religion.
mere
Even
to be,
if
they were
as
of
good as
interpreters alleged
to
it
it
it
was a work
is
wicked demons
be behind
wrap round
a veil of dishonour-
able fictions.^
to
supposed
:
if
the
myth be true, the gods are worthless demons; if the myth be not true, but only a symbol of the powers of
nature, the godhead
is
Clement. Horn.
6.
18,
80
III.
younger generation
to explain
away
(QepaTr^a-ai) the
2. It was attacked
by the Greek
philosophers in
its
application to Christianity.
says Porphyry,^
way
an explanation of
so
much
own.
in
It is a delusive evasion of
your
difficulties, said
eff'ect
Celsus
;*
you
find in
by having recourse
but
you do not:
explanation
admit of being
is
often
which
it is
it
explains.
narrative
is
weak:
partly a
if
Tu quoque : Homer
it
and
it
the former:
secret, the
eyes, that I
1
may
ad.
see the
wondrous things
thy law."
Tatian,
Or at.
Gmc.
cf.
1
21.
2. 6, vol. iii. p.
74
Oepa-n-eia
became a tech-
im Alterthum,
vol.
i.
5.
//.
E.
6. 19. 5.
* Origen,
Cds.
4.
4850.
III.
81
The method had opponents even in Alexandria itself. Origen^ more than once speaks of those who objected to
3.
his
mentions a
entitled
work
of the learned
Kepos of Arsinoe,
"A
But
it
found
its
which arose
end
The dominant philosophy of Alexandria had been a fusion of Platonism with some elements of both Stoicism and
revived Pythagoreanism
:
that of Antioch
was coming
to
be Aristotelianism.
realistic
:
idealistic,
the other
tion
to the other,
it
was " a
Allegorical
literal inter-
interpretation
of the one
two short
was Lucian,
^
a scholar
The chief founder of the school who shares with Origen the honour
3, vol.
ii.
p.
94
vol. iv. p.
2 ^
Euseb. H. E.
Kilin,
24.
geten, Freib.
^
im
Breisg. 1880, p, 7.
Inferjjref.
iii.
J.
G. Eosenraliller, Hist.
p. 151.
The
letter is printed,
Sacrce,
82
of being
lifetime,
III.
tlie
came
to be leaders
on the Arian
among them were Eusebius of Nicomedia and Arius The question of exegesis became entangled himself. with the question of orthodoxy. The greatest of Greek
interpreters,
by the Christology
of the
for scholarship
many
modern
literal
The
its
allegorical
method
its
the circumstances of
opponents.
of Christianity.
of history,
it
though
it
grew out
of a
has come
and
to
wear an
aureole round
its
head.
It has
III.
83
so long as
was harmless
was
free.
It
of innocent imagination
on
But when
it
became autho-
when
it
sense was
true of
moreover
which the majority approved, and when became traditional, so that one generation
was bound
predecessors,
became
souls.
dogmatism
Outside
its relation to
dogmabooks
little
monuments
of life
ing thoughts.
to literature.
more
to art
than
infi-
The poetry
it.
Dante
Eaf-
stirred to write,
would have painted, he would not have painted the Cecilia and though without it we should have had
;
Gothic cathedrals,
we
symbolism
education.
of their structure
which
is
of itself a religious
upon an
ele-
ment
in
human
its
nature which
is
away
whatever be
by the unknown,
that
^ See the chapter on "Scripture and its Mystical Interpretation" in lifewman's " Essay on the Development of Christian Doctrine," espe-
cially p.
324 (2nd
ed.),
" It
may
almost be laid
down
as
an historical
v^
and orthodoxy
together."
g2
84
there
is
III.
But two modern beliefs militate against ]. The one belief affects all literature,
secular alike.
relative to the past,
it.
religious
and
it.
written
The word is
taken
is
at the time at
which he used
them; but
The idea
it is
which
The other
ture.
God
He
told the
men
but also
what
He
tells
us now.
We
it
is
we
find
it
has
away
to
We
we
can
it
find
The study
of nature
and the
for roll-
maxim
III.
85
gioTis
which
is
divine
is
without us
also,
and
is
living
Ood.
Lecture IY.
GEEEK AND
CHEISTIAI^ EHETOEIO.
It
its
is
customary to measure
tlic
literature of
an age hy
by the
We look,
in our
for example,
at Athens, or the
Augustan age
country, as
own
higher than the ages respectively of the Ptolemies, the ;" CaBsars, or the early Georges. The former are " golden
the latter, "silver." the point of view
Nor can
it
from literature in
history or to social
is
life,
correct.
But the
wide diffusion
writer of the
spontaneous.
of literary culture.
This
is
we
are dealing.
It
It
produced no
rather than
original.
rank.
was
artificial
It
It
was
Its literature
when
there
is
no
IV.
87
is
hope.
But
an object of study no
is
an object
of
study
no
less
than
its
golden age.
it is
Its
difficult
paradoxical phrase,
had
its
Empire
of the
life
came
into closest
In
those schools the professor had been in the habit of illustrating his rules
by model
The
cases
actual,
but they
as close as possi-
The
is
true
of Greek Rhetoric
Roman
writers,
especially in Quintilian,
some
details.
The
best
though in the main agreeing with it, differ in modern summary of Greek usages is that of
1871, vol.
2
ii.).
Roman nnd
1876, p. 297.
S8
scliools to
IV.
hand
to
connection with
From
went
on, there
was sometimes
known
as Sophistic.
" exercises"
as
still
as a subject
was argued
in general terms or
The
latter
sometimes
Of the
^
first of
is
these there
There
a distinction between
and ra
a/z^i fieXer-qv,
and both
2.
are distinguished
20, p. 103.
SiKaviKov
much
of
much
of a lawyer to be a
good
^
defined by
Hermogenes
i.
as a/x^io-ySjjri^/xei'ou irpdyfiaro^
vTrodecris as
CtjTTjcris,
(Ti']Tr]<Tis,
p.
3.
50:
4
:
twv
iirl
/lepovi
Em p.
adv.
Gcom.
so ras us ovofia
x'lrodecreis,
Philostr. V. S. prooem.
3. 5. 5,
who
The distinction is best formulated by Quintilian, gives the equivalent Latin terms, " infiuitw (quaistiones)
situm
bis
utramque partem tractantur quod Groeci Oea-iv dicunt, Cicero propofinitaj autcm sunt ex complexu rerum personarum temporum
.
cajteroruraque
IV.
89
Tyrannicide
citadel of a
that a
man
town
not the
man
son
man
tyrannicide.
Demades "The Athenians wounded at Syracuse beg their comrades who are returning to Athens to put them to death." ^ The Homeric cycle was an unfailing mine
:
of subjects
you
or are
you
"
Atreus' son ?" asks Dio Chrysostom in one of his Dia" I should not take amiss even a speech about logues. ^
if
good from
it,"
is
In the treatment
laid
was
on dramatic
The
to
character,
was required
speak in an appropriate
The
Philostr.
V.S.
1.
25. 7, 16.
lb. 2. 5. 3. ^
"*
Dio Chrysost.
TT/Doo-wTTOTTotia,
ii.
Ivi. vol.
ii.
p. 176.
Theon. Progymnasmata,
c.
10, ed.
viroKpt-
Spengel, vol.
vea-duL
115
Quintil. 3. 8.
49
9. 2. 29.
The word
was sometimes applied, e.g. Philostr. V. S. 1. 21. 5, of Scopewhose action in subjects taken from the Persian wars was so vehement that a partizan of one of his rivals accused him of beating a
lianus,
tambourine.
of Ajax."
"but my tambourine
is
the shield
90
nation.^
"by
IV.
was heightened
for
more characters:
style,
wrangle in tragic
It
gave
a notable
litera;
example of such a
ture
is
romance in Christian
in
by
Eryxias
But though
it
Sophistic
had
^
its
roots also in
their voice sweet with musical cadences, and moduand echoed resonances :" Plut. de and. 7, p. 41. So at Eome Favorinus is said to have " charmed even those who did not know Greek by the sound of his voice, and the significance of his look, and the cadence of his sentences :" Philostr. V. S. 1. 7, p. 208.
hations of tone,
2
^
"
They made
Orat. lix.
of importance
A good by Arrian, whose " chameleon-like style" (Kaibel, Dionysios von Haliharnass und die Sopliistik, Hermes, Bd. xx. 1875, p. 508) imitates Thucydides, Herodotus, and Xenophon, by
in relation to Christian as well as to non-Christian literature.
study of the
turns.
IV.
91
off alto-
threw
morality or theology.
It preached sermons.
new literature, but also a new profesThe class of men against whom Plato had inveighed
class of educators
they were specialized partly as grammarians, partly as rhetoricians the word " sophist," to which the invectives
:
had
failed to attach a
name
for the
new
sophers in that
They differed from philothey did not mark themselves off from
Some
of
them
(ro<f)L(rTiKrjV
pr^ropiKrtv
TyyeiCTPat
^P^
a
<j>iXocro(})OV(Tav.
SiaAeyerai
jxev
yap
<TO(jiOvvTS
tu a-puKpa
6
rCiv
^TjToviJLevwv
(TO(^icrTr;s cos
7rpo/3t/3d^ovTes
ovttu)
cjiaa-l
ytyvojcrKetv
ra-ura
TraAaio?
eiSw? Aeyei
ib. p. 4, (TO(f)L(TTa<s 8e
ol TraAaiot f.iTOiv6[xa^ov
aAAa Kal
vpoi(^ kpfxrjve'vovTas.
On
stratus, p. vii.
8
of
life.
On
92
the
''
IV.
stated minister" of a
modern congregation
to place.
some
of tliem travelled
from place
The audience
There were no
bells
invitation.
made sometimes by a "card" or " Come and hear me times by word of mouth
:
to-day."
some-
them a
fine discourse.^
The audience
doors.
of a travelling sophist
When
a stranger
who
If there was a
;
just as
in
modern
times, a
famous
violinist
from Paris or
to play at the
3.
23. 6, 23, 28
non per
non per
libellos
commodum
esset,' et 'si
Her-
motimus, 11, where a sophist is represented as hanging up a noticeboard over liis gateway, " No lecture to-day."
'^
Philostratus,
V. S.
2.
Rome
ttJ?
about the sophist Adrian was such that when his messenger (toC
dKpod<Ti(s)<;
dyyeXov) appeared on the scene with a notice of lecture, the people rose up, whether from the senate or the circus, and flocked to
Synesius, Dio (in Dio Chrys. ed. Dind.
342), speaks of BvpOKoirriaravTa Kal eVayyeiAaj'Ta tois Iv ao-ret
IV.
93
A
The
but
man
There
is
a story in Plutarch^
who found
himself in a
professor.
made
a discourse.
he spoke,
and an inflammation
set in
which
killed him.
There
is
much
Herodes Atticus.
theatre in
The audience gathered together in a the Ceramicus, and waited a long time for
:
Herodes to appear
when he
it
was a
and
insisted on
to discourse before
Herodes
and
sang
all
charming interchange
said
compliments:
of
"We
sophists,"
of
Alexander,
"are
us only
slices
you,
Herodes."
to
show
Lucian^
tells
feathers
make a wonderful
His
as
an ex-
him by the
De
F. S.
Fseudolog. 5 sqq.
94
audience.
of
IV.
But the imposture was too barefaced some the hearers amused themselves by assigning the dif;
And
at
own:
they
You might
hear
of sophists shoutdisciples, as
poems, and
many
many
number
Of the manner of the ordinary discourse there are many It was given sometimes in a private house, indications.
sometimes in a theatre, sometimes in a regular lectureroom.
The
on in the
He mounted
seat
upon
its
ample
cushion.^
He
He often He was
eiri
Orat
viii. vol.
i 145.
i)
rptPwvUo dvafSdvTa
ttovXISlvov
incipit," as
'=
but Pliny,
JEj^ist. 2. 3. 2,
though
lie
Juices
Philostratus, V.
IV.
95
his
and
it
was part of
the
in something
which he had
says
abeady prepared.
to say
" His
memory
is
incredible,"
extempore
falter
even in a single
word."^
"When
it
hesita-
tion whatever
words come
to
about the
the
first
point coming
is
great thing
If
to
pauses.
you have
to talk at
above
that
is
always be turned
into sea,
Platcea,
so
Mark of Byzantium going into Poleino's lecdown among the audience some one recognized whisper went round who he was, so that, when Polemo
:
all
"
What
is
the use
lie
Avill
you a
subject," said
7, p.
Mark, "and
de audiendo,
who go
to a "feast of
words"
to
propose a subject that will be useful, and not to ask for a discourse on
the bisection of unlimited lines.
1 Plin. Epist. 2. 3. His disciple 4 ; cf. Philostr. V. S. 1. 20. 2. Dionysius of Miletus had so wonderful a memory, and so taught his
Philostr. V. S. 1.
96
forth,
IV.
must come
little
and, above
all,
those
S/j-rrovOeu
must
be sprinkled about
:
whether
even
was a disappointment
if
by
applause.
"A
sophist
is
"by
ence and tardy praise and no clapping." agape," says Dio Chrysostom,^ " for the
all
murmur
of the
crowd ....
like
men walking
move
them
to Epictetus.^
"What
sopher.
mean by my
and Wondercries
infrequent "Divine!"
"Inspired!"
clap-
"Unapproachable !"^
" If your friends see you breaking down," says Lucian in his satirical advice to a rhetorician,^ " let
price of the suppers
you a chance
p.
of
V. S.
2. 26. 3.
3.
i.
422.
3
"^
Epict. Diss.
23. 24.
and extravagant
^eo</)op7;Tajs'
words
'
use,
^ttws
koI
Ka\
aTrpoa-tTWS^
KaAws
Kal
toC
'
o-o</)(2i
Kal tou
'dXi]9ios' being
^
Ehci.
pmc.
IV.
97
tMnking of something
rounds of applause."
signs of disapproval.
between the
It is the
mark
of a
good hearer,"
says Plutarch, 1 " that he does not howl out like a dog
which he disapproves, but at any rate waits until the end of the discourse."
at everything of
"'What
me to-day?'"
sir,
says one in
Epictetus.^
Upon my
life,
I thought
you were
admirable.'
What
it
my
best passage
'Which was
Nymphs.'
'
that?'
'Where
I described
Pan and
the
Oh,
Again,
much
says
the professor.
'Yes; much
*
larger.'
;
Oh, nonsense
'
it
sand.'
Why that
:
I
'
wonder
Beauty,
why it was
sir,
The more
men
They were the pets of society, and sometimes its masters.^ They were employed on affairs of state at home and on embassies abroad.^ They were
1
De
audlendo,
4, p. 39.
^ Tvpavi/et
ye twi'
K.9i]vQ)v,
Philostr. V. S.
1.
jSiiai
ih. 1.
TToAAat
fxiv,
^vvrjKoXovdei Trpecr/SivovTi:
24. 2, of
Mark
Byzantium
1.
25. 1, 5, of
Polemo
2. 5. 2, of
Alexander Peloplaton.
98
IV.
of their city,
and lived
Lords
they
public
expense.
as
senators
raised,
we might
and
died,
When
The
inscriptions of
some
The Queen
of Cities to the
of
Eloquence," was
"
One
fulfilled
twenty-five years,"
a statue at Attaleia ;^
fjLiv
auTov
arreifyqvev
ovk ac^avwv
Wvmv
lyKareAe^e Se rots
:
SrjfjLoarta
nnrev
ovari
2
The
Pliilostratus, V. S.
23,
2, as
Athens, was found a few years ago near the Propyhx?a Dittenberger, F. i. 210, see also Welcker, Rheln. 3Iu^. C. I. A. vol. iii. No. G25
:
and a monograph by Kayser, P. Hordeonius Lollianus, Heidelberg, It is followed by the epigram 1841.
:
t apicrrov
AoXAiavov
t 8'
c^fAfts TtVes
ovvofia TrarpoS
Polemo died
;
at
him
there
whereas
if
he
Vit.
Pruhceres. p. 90.
*
MoSeo-Tos
cro(fii(TTr]s
(U
fiera
twv
cirra (ro<f)wv
/xt)
yefiicras iKoari
IV.
99
"He
airs.
about them.
Philostratus tells
man.
It
was that
Polemo,
who happened
;
but he
aXat^wu
Emperor out of doors.^ The common epithet for them is a word with no precise English equivalent, de-
But the
jected to
objected to
grounds on which the more earnest men them were those upon which Plato had obtheir predecessors their making a trade of
real
:
The making
of discourses,
was a thriving
trade.^
The
Philostratus,
V. S.
1.
25. 3, p.
was rather amused than annoyed by it. It was that " he used to talk to cities as a superior, and to gods as an equal," ibid. 4.
'
said of the
Dio
'iv
vtv
avTov TrXovTi^iDVTai.
h2
100
IV.
own
clay.^
But
was not
so mucli the
all.
being a trade at
is
no harm perhaps
but
they do
it
own
personal gain and glory, and not for the sake of benefiting
you, there
is
harm."
is
makes
for
himseK
me sometimes one much as a talent: but, since I must speak about myself, let me ask you Did any one ever come away the worse for having this heard me ? Mark, I charge nothing it is a voluntary
make money," he
says; "people give
mina, sometimes two, sometimes as
contribution."
The stronger ground of objection to them was their unreality. They had lost touch with life. They had made philosophy itself seem unreal. " They are not
2.
philosophers,
Musonius.^
were
all charlatans.
irre-
pressible
young man
air
his opinions.
But the tendency to moralize had become They preached, not because divorced from practice.
1
fee
21. 7, p. 222.
p.
403
Maximus
dyopa
to Trpdyixa.
aj).
Aul. Gell. 5.
1. 1.
IV.
101
to
"The mass
;
of
"enjoy
when he
is
discoursing about
but
if
importance to the
;
men
same
in
way
This, as
might be expected,
what happens
to
them
when
a sophist gets
down
real busi-
thumb
and
of
of the majority.
real
and above
to each individual,
for those
who
tion to them."
whom
at
" sophist"
always
the
its
word
among
new
school of Stoics,
who were
you
unreality.2
^
I will ask
p. 43.
De
It
audiendo, 12,
is
'
as in both earlier
and
later times,
word "sophist" had under the Early Empire, two separate streams of meaning. It
102
IV.
who came
For
to
him
to
1)0,
accordingly.
cases.
this is
games first of all decide and then proceed to do the things that follow from their decision So then when you say, Come and listen to my lecture, first of all consider whether your action be not thrown away for want of an end, and then consider whether it be not a mistake, on account of your real end being a wrong one. Suppose I ask a man, Do you wish
are practising for the
to
be,
Men who
wdiat they
mean
'
Thereto do good by your expounding, or to gain applause?' upon straightway you hear him saying, What do I care for the
'
?'
And
for in
(lud musician,
You wish
?
to
what particular
respect
tell
me, that
may
was used
Pmc.
1,
ru a-e/JLvoTarov
2.
Philostr. V. S.
31. 1,
when
(To<^i(TTi'j<i,
vtto
tov dvo/iaros
olfered
Eunap.
Vit.
when emperors
cfi-ja-as
Libanius great
titles
and
dignities,
he refused them,
But the disparagement of the c?i/at fid^ova. was applied runs through a large number of
Orat.
iv. vol.
i.
class to
whom
e. g.
writers,
;
151,
they croak like frogs in a marsh; ib. x. vol, i. 166, they are the wretchedest of men, because, though ignorant, they think themselves wise; ib. xii. vol. i. 214, they are like peacocks, showing off their
reputation and the
Epict. Diss.
2.
20. 23
as
peacocks do their
tails.
30.
rt koL ixlktov V
dXa-
TrXa^ofitvov.
8,
to twv
fxecrrbv
fiaO-qixaTwv, Kair-qXivov
TauTa Kal
Among
may be made
to
Clem. Alex.
Strom.
1,
chapters 3 and
8,
IV.
103
No
just as a
is
man
is
of no use to us in the
way
of carpen-
tering unless he
"
himself a carpenter.
Would you
like to
good yourself ? Bring me your convictions, philosopher. (Let us take an example.) Did you not the other day praise so-andDid you not so more than you really thought he deserved ? and yet you would not like your flatter that senator's son ?
own
"
"
sons to
be like him,
would you
flatter
to
him
"
""
He
is
How
Yes
;
" He admires
"
my
lectures.
that
is
But
don't
mean
tells
that
man who
is
is
him
man
and genuineness, of
to get
man wants
something out
tell
of
me
!'
Or
(if this is
me what
No
you
for a considerable
:
expounding
himself
" "
time he has heard you discoursing and but has he become more modest in his estimate of
:
or
is
he
still
him
Yes, he
is
No, fool
*
:
not
how
*
to live, but
liow to talk
"
which
*
is,
why he
admires you.
you like applause you care more for that than and so you invite people to come and hear you.] for doing good, " But does a pJiilosopher invite people to come and hear him ?
[The truth
Is
it
is its
own
sufficient attrac-
those
who
are to be benefited
let
(Imagine what a
104
IV.
invite you to you are in a bad way that you care for everything except what you should care for that you do not know what things are good and what evil and that you are unhappy and unfortunate.' A nice invitation and yet if that is not the result of what a philosopher says, he and his words alike (Musonius) Eufus used to say, If you have leisure are dead. Accordingly he to praise me, my teaching has been in vain.'
'I
come and be
told that
'
who
him
"
he so put his
some one had been telling Eufus about finger upon what we had done, he so set
is
a surgery
have
is
felt
something
one
man
another a
give you
Am
to sit
down and
may
praise
go away
the
abscess, the
for this that
man with the dislocated arm, man with the headache ^just as you came ? young men come away from home, and leave
'
their
you
for
your
fine
moral conclusions
?
Is this
did
or Zeno or Cleanthes
Who
denies
it
?
no such
But
in
what do exhortations
consist
In,
man
or to
many men,
the
what they
really mean.
For they
mean
to give
them
but they look for those things elsewhere than where they really (That is the true aim of exhortation) but to show this, is are.
:
it
come and
the pulpit
fine
?
upon noble
IV.
103
them Tell me who, after hearing you lecture or discourse, became anxious about or reflected upon himself? or who, as he went out of the room, I must not said, The philosopher put his finger upon my faults
that he wants to get something out of
' :
You
cannot
'
you get
is
when
man
says
to another,
other says,
pylse/
'
That was a beautiful passage about Xerxes,' and the No, I liked best that about the battle of Thermo-
sermon
!"^
tlie
Greek
life
of the
complete picture of
it,
will find
amply
not mass^
by further
researches, that
was
sufficient,
its
only in
its
life to Christianity,
I will ask
which
exists
known
stress
as "prophesying,"
times came to be
known
as " preaching."
more
upon the
"prophecy"
meant "prediction,"
with a certain
a "prophet"
was maintained
meant a "preacher."
lOG
IV.
taneoiis preacher.
He
help
it,
They were not church officers appointed to They were the possessors discharge certain functions. of a charisma^ a divine gift which was not official but personal. "No prophecy ever came by the will of man; but men spake from God, being moved by the Holy Ohost." They did not practise beforehand how or what they should say; for "the Holy Ghost taught them in Their language that very hour what they should say." was often, from the point of view of the rhetoiical schools, a barbarous patois. They were ignorant of the rules both of style and of dialectic. They paid no heed to refinements of expression. The greatest preacher of them all claimed to have come among his converts, in a city
23reachers.
human
logic,
aff'orded
by
spiritual power.
Of that "prophesying"
not certain that
it is
we
possess any
monument.
The Second
among the canonical books of the New Testament. The work known as the Second Epistle
it
of Clement
it
is
but though
rather more
is
it is
by a genuine enthusiasm,
it is
artistic in its
likely to
have been.
of the second century, this original spon-
In the course
IV.
107
may
in Asia
The Montanists,
heretics.
as they
it
who
ranked among
And
Tertullian
not even
be in the
right.
it
It
was
inevitable that
should be
The growth
Such a
it,
defi-
of
guarding
were
which
Prophesy-
when
And
preach-
difi'erent
it
elements.
is
In the formation
of a great institution
different elements
To the
original functions of a
which
of
teacher.^
that
is,
The
1j, avTOi
Ktti
StctKovoiJ
;
ydp
fxra Twv
Kal StSao-KaAwv
second book of the Apostolical Constitutions, pp. 16, 49, 51, 58, 84,
ed. La^arde.
108
IV.
and, on the
that
is,
men
and
Each
of these
certain natural
by practice. Each of them was consequently a function which might be discharged by the permanent officers of the community, and disaptitude, could be learned
We
conse-
grew up
tation,
also,
was
its
form came
it
the
which
It
filled
was not only natural but inevitable that when men who had been trained in rhetorical methods
rary Greek
life.
came
to
make such
to
is
methods
that Origen
down
who
seem
of the schools.
to
He lectured,
M as the text
his
IV.
109
carefully-
prepared
told, before
When
to be visible
on a
large scale
effects.
The
voice of the
begun.
The
said of
cessor
more famous Libanius, who on his death-bed him that he would have been his worthiest sucthe Christians had not stolen him."^
''if
The
discourses
of the
came
to
Greek
professors.
They had
homilies
a word which
and
to
was unknown in
common
life.
They came
schools
tinction
terms
is
by a
1
later writer,
6.
Euseb. H. E.
Sozom. H. E.
8. 2.
Eusebius, H. E.
sermons as SiaAe^ets,
whereas the original designation was 6/iiAtai. So in Latin, Augustine uses the term disputationes of Ambrose's sermons, Confess. 5. 13, vol. i.
118, and of his
jiars 2, p.
own
c.
5, vol. iiu
719.
110
IV.
The form
of the
same
if
you examine
side
by
and a similar
They were delivered under analogous circumstances. The preacher sat in his official chair it was an exceptional thing for him to ascend the reader's ambo, the modern "pulpit:"^ the audience
elaboration of phraseology.
:
crowded in front
of him,
The
what he wants
is,
There
is
a singular
quoted just
1 2
now
Sozomen. H.E. 8. 5. Augustine makes a fine point of the analogy between the church and the lecture-room (schola) " tanquam vobis Tanquam pastores sumus, sed sub illo Pastore vobiscum oves sumus.
:
illo
1429,
Ben.
Adv. Jud.
i.
7.
6, vol.
i.
671
Cojic. vii.
ad
lud. circ.
eos
790; Horn. ii. ad pop. Antioch. qui ad Colled, nan occur, vol. iii. 157; Horn.
prof. vol.
Aol. iv.
vol.
ii.
25; adv.
liv.
523; Horn.
Ivi.
541.
IV.
" There are
Ill
:
many
preachers
who make
long sermons
if
if
they
kingdom
if
despondency
worse, I
may
It is this
sermons that touch the heart, but sermons that will delight your ears with their intonation and the structure of their phrases, just as if you
that ruins churches, that
to hear
And we preachers humour your fancies, instead of trying to crush them. We act like a father who gives a sick child a cake or an ice, or somewere listening to singers and lute-players.
thing else that
it
;
just because he asks for is merely nice to eat and takes no pains to give him what is good for him and then when the doctors blame him says, I could not bear to hear That is what we do when we elaborate beautiful my child cry.' sentences, fine combinations and harmonies, to please and not to profit, to be admired and not to instruct, to delight and not to
;
'
ears,
and not
as
to
:
Believe me, I
am
moment
it.
it is
man
?
to feel.
I will
make a
clean breast of
Why
when
should I not
I go
am
And
then
people who have been applauding and indeed that whatever benefit they might have had has been killed by the applause and praises, I am sore at heart, and I lament and fall to tears, and I feel as though I had spoken altogether in vain, and I say to myself. What is the good of all your labours, seeing that your hearers don't want to reap any fruit out of all that you say ? And I have
home and
me
have received no
benefit,
down a
applause,
to listen in silence."^
And
there
human
nature of
after the
S. Chrys.
after bid238.
3, vol. ix.
112
IV.
and congregation
which he loved,
to the several
hear
and
whether ye be
all
and household
ye are nearly
know
not,
you unfaithful to God." (There was evidenMy a burst of applause, and he interrupts his peroration with an impromptu clap your hands, shout aloud, exalt your orator address.) " Yes to heaven your malicious and chattering tongue has ceased it
of
it
am
absent) with
silent."
(Then
is
more instance
of the
into
way
in
which
the habits
churches.
of the
sophists flowed
the Christian
sometimes peripatetic
them.
The
historians Socrates
an
in-
and Antiochus
of Ptolemais (St.
money
thereby.
On
he waited for some time, exercised his rhetoric, got together a large stock of sermons, and thou
*
went
to Constan-
xlii.
Socrates,
H.E.
6.
11; Sozomen,
H.E.
8. 10.
IV.
113
tinople. He was kindly received by the bishop, and soon became both a great popular preacher and a favourite at The fate of many preachers and court favourites court.
overtook him
of
It created the
It
added
is
to the functions of
church
a function which
an
Homer,
result
The/
of either
closely
an institution or a function.
into history,
you will
real.
it
and conduct
truths which
to that of exposition
and
literature.
Its
expression,
but
It died, in short,
had become
sophistry.
But
sophistry
is
of
no
upon
114
IV.
which
literature grows.
No
sooner
is
any
special
form
of
men who
sooner
it
for the
No
is
make
present.
So
it
It
came
into
Eighteousness.
its life,
It
by the
subtle bonds of
brotherhood,
by its Around it
it
and
to assimilate its
language to their
own.
victory.
But
its
it
With
ment
that
progress stopped.
ele-
and
so far as in
any
many
an
unreal world.
The
But
if
Chris-
power that
its costly
it
was in
its earliest
ages,
it
must renounce
purchase.
A
to
class of
rhetorical chemists
be
ridi-
culed
that
the
class
created
may
ultimately disappear
IV.
115
as
tical
the ages to come, who, like the prophets of the ages that
are long gone by, will speak only "as the Spirit gives
them utterance."
Lecture V.
The power
among
is
of generalizing
is
and
of
forming abstract
races
and
diJSerent
times.
The
which
it
The
manent
from
fixed
place.
The
earliest
sciences is geometry.
all
In
it,
drawn away
upon the
The
The process
of abstrac-
and from
ideas are
making
new
Complex
to another,
so
They can be
BO
marked
V. CHRISTIANITY
117
man
lias
and represented
The
"axioms"
to
another
tion of
man
mere
or at once disproved.
probability, nor
There
is
no ques-
opinions.
The
is,
The
result
who study
it
and
its
inferences.
The
elaboration of
They
are applied
limits
by
diff'erent
minds
to the
same
objects.
But the
When we
pass from
by the
senses, to
such
ideas as those, for example, of courage or justice, law or duty, though the words suggest, on the whole, the
same
ideas to one
man
men would
They enter into different combinations. marked out by lines which would be universally recognized. The attention of difterent men is arrested by different features. There is conseThey
are not sharply
The
idefjs
themselves
118
V. CHRISTIANITY
tend to shade
a fringe
The
about them
only
;
vary.
There
is
classes
of
generalizations
and
many Greek
clear
made any
distinction.
the canons
to the one
were con-
and the
in regard to
and
and
ethics.^
The habit
tions
of
making
definitions,
of
drawing deduc-
name
An indication of this may be seen in the fact that words which have come down to modern times as technical terms of geometry were used indifferently in the physical and moral sciences, e.g. theorem
(^deioprjfxa),
3.
27
(i.
Kal Twv
fiipiov
avTou
3. 9.
4. 8. 12,
&c., of
inter-
sometimes co-ordinated or
(ii.
changed with
de fort. 3
377),
:
Sio,
Aoyt/ctov koX
EjDictet. Diss. 4. 1.
(opio-/j,os)
1.
So
definition
is
to the
enclosed land.
So
also ctTroSet^is
all
marking out of the boundaries of was not limited to ideal or "necesexplanations of the less by the more
excerpt.
it,
Musonius, Frag.
not a good.
cip.
Ed.
tliat
ii.
pleasure
V.
119
that
it
was
like a
game
of
The game,
so to
speak,
The
and
definition of terms
dialectic
was
and
its
necessary preliminary
defi-
There was
them.
less
That
is to say,
there
as to
:
definitions
agreement
of ideas
the
to cover different
made from
There was
criterion^
them, there was nothing to determine which of two contrary or contradictory propositions was true.
was termed.
The making
of
such an affirm-
ation
phi'ase
''It
:
seems (good)
to
me"
{^oKd
ixoi)
the affirmation
(^o'y^ca).
by
But
just
by
is,
120
V.
might be assented
is,
by those who
In the
came
The
latter
an affirmation
as true
The made by
and
by
those who,
from the
fact of so accepting
became
his followers
The acquiescence
of a large
number
men
in the
to such
it
an affirma-
but
nor did
afford
of
Dio
Chrj'S. vol.
is
i.
p. 46, ed.
:
Dind.
Soy/xara
2
fill
The
use of the
word in Epictetus
especially instructive
are the inner
They
the
mind
{Kpijxara
ipyx^]'?,
Diss. 4. 11. 7)
and moral phenomena. They are especially relative to the latter. They are the convictions upon wliich men act, the moral maxims which form
the ultimate motives of action and the resolution to act or not act in
a particular case.
us.
They
9.
38; twv
17.
21, 32
3. 2.
12
Ench. 45.
is
opposed to
3.
speak
with the
16. 7.
If a
man
another person,
of a philosopher, so as to
make
his
own, he
is
"to
feel in
Diss.
1.
3.
1.
distinguishes
TTpdyixaTi,
(2)
it is
Bcieuces
in either sense
and
(b)
y. CHRISTIANITY
121 and
original
and proper
use,
word has an
indis-
But the fact of the personal character of a dogma soon became lost to sight. Two tendencies which grew with a parallel growth dominated the world in place of the recognition of it. It came to be assumed
putable value.
that certain convictions of certain philosophers were not
and
to the state of
It
came
also to
strict
The unity
of such a
system
reflected, it
was
It
was thought
to
be determined by
its logical
consistency
sum
of previous inferences.
Philosophy in
It
later
Greece
was
less
thought than
literature.
of received doctrines.
fessors.
The question
what was
had
of
:
firm conviction, not a mere vague impression it was in the latter of the two senses that the philosophers of research laid it down as their
maxim,
they did away, not with ra t^atvo/xeva, but jj.^ Soyixari^eiv with assertions about them, ibid. 1, 19, 22 their attitude in reference
:
:
to TO. aSrjXa
was simply
1.
ou^^ opi^oj,
of them," ibid.
197, 198.
122
V. CHRISTIANITY
had
said.
of a school
the truth at
doctrine
itself.
The
literary expression of a
came
to
The
differences of expression
Words became fetishes. Outside the schools were those who were litterateurs rather than philosophers, and who fused different eleand another were exaggerated.
ments together into systems which had a greater unity
of literary
form than of
logical coherence.
But these
it,
served to
spread
it
hand
hand
produce a propaganda.
its
school.
The
result
was
reaction.
to
The tendency
doubt
;
to dogmatize to
difficulty
Academics of Cicero.
of our era there Bchools.
had come
"
Some men,"
^
V. CHKISTIANITT
123
impos-
it is
be apprehended
some
still
search for
The
fii'st
who
are specially
and Carneades,
majority.
of
But the first of these was in an overwhelming The Dogmatics, especially in the form either
thought.
who claimed
to
The philosophy
earliest
were
all
forms of Christianity.
and
sive.
^
spiritual elements
They
formuh,
ovx
Twv
evvooviiivoiv
oi'crtas
cTrtvoeii/
6(f)t\o[Xv,
and
he argues that
because
it is
impossible for a
man
to
He
has
XtO
2, 3.
124
V.
oi Palestine.
ethical.
but of
human
life.
was
enforce them.
no eye
for
had no
was content
with the symmetry of balanced sentences, without attempting to construct a perfect whole.
It reflected as in a
mirror, and not unconsciously, the difficulties, the contradictions, the unsolved
fact.
selfits
When
own
its
became more
still
conscious than
had been,
it
within
still
subject-matter, and
of the
The
side
earliest
the
''Not
many
time
:
wise
men
were
law
''
of
communities to
no
we deem
him como
but whoever
is
is
ignorant,
whoever
is
is
unintelligent,
whoever
uneducated, whoever
simple, let
V.
125
and be welcome."^
It
" Instead of
Jesus
Chiist."
The
tion"
made
tian teachers
priests of
Mithra
or of Hekatd, leading
men wherever
maxims
of a blind belief.
It is therefore the
came
and methods
have made
of philo-
large a place in
it,
as to
it
no
less
arises,
how
this result is to
be
The answer must explain both how Christianity and philosophy came into contact, and how when in contact the one exercised upon the
accounted for as a whole.
other the influence of a moulding force.
The explanation
is to
that, in
and
between
Origen,
c.
Cels.
3.
44
Keim^
Celsus' walires
2
Origen,
c.
126
kinsliii^.
V.
and
to its
The kinship
it
of
are offered
'^
by
"We teach
the same as the Greeks," says Justin Martyr,^ "though we alone are hated for what we teach." " Some of our
number," says Tertullian,^ "who are versed in ancient literature, have composed books by means of which it
may be
of
or monstrous,
we have embraced nothing new nothing in which we have not the support
public literature."
common and
writer founds an argument for the toleration of Christianity on the fact that its opponents maintained
it
to
but a kind
innocence,
justice, endui-ance,
same
sophers.
The general recognition of this kinship of ideas is even more conclusively shown by the fact that explanations of
it
other.
was argued by some Christian apologists that the best doctrines of philosophy were due to the iuworking in the world of the same Divine Word who had
(a) It
become incarnate
Christ,
in Jesus Christ.
"
The teachings
For
of
though not
^
all
Apol.
i.
20.
De
testim. animce^ 1.
Ax)ol. 46.
* Apol. 2. 13.
V. CHRISTIANITY
127
of the im-
that philo-
"From
shadow
phets?
of half-truths."
"What
Tertullian,^
From thence
on hope and
fear of
love,
and the
God:" and he
many
show
or to
less
the
Law was
of the
Jews
of
to
(b) It
was argued, on the other hand, by the opponents Christianity that it was a mere mimicry of philosophy
it.
or a blurred copy of
"and
who
Christianity
in
it
Platonism.
1
Whatever
2. 1.
Octav. 34.
^pol
47.
c.
Strom.
* Origen,
Cels. 3. 16.
128
V.
expressed before.^
Even
said
by
Plato's Socrates.^
was through
was readily absorbed by some of the higher natures in The two classes of ideas probably 'the Greek world. came
had a
ture
into contact in philosophical Judaism.
For
it
is
litera-
was clothing
was philosophical.
Heraclitus, there
in
is
some
of tlie writings
to Philo,
them
is
"very
far
None The
way
sophy
articulate
Two
such elements
may
^allegorical
method of interpretation which was common to both Jews and Greeks, and by means of which both the
^
Origen,
c.
Ceh.
5.
65;
G.
1, 7,
15, 19
Keim,
^
p. 77.
Ibid. 7. 58.
So Minucius
Felix, in
Keim,
p.
157.
T. CHRISTIANITY
129
Gnostics
who were
who
well as in the
New;
so
prominent in the
first
Christian
The
Christian
out
of
The
apologetic part of
it
necessity of defence.
scout Christianity
when
was
first
presented to them, as
It
was necessary
other.
to
show that
it
The
less
defence naturally
who were
difference,
form.
The
arose from
some
of its
new developments
of Pythagoreanism
and Platonism.
to
to
130
in the
V. CHRISTIANITY
main
to the
same
and the
cults of the
The tendency
to
them
and
its
extreme development.
"Wisdom and
vice, silence
desire,
were
real beings
and hung
like clouds in
an uncer-
tain twilight.
The
real
were the shadows and not the substance, the waves and
not the
It
sea.i
to the
earlier
"I am
not
dinned in our
tell
of those
who
us that
^ The above slight sketch of some of the leading tendencies which have been loosely grouped together under the name of Gnosticism has
been left unelaborated, because a fuller account, -svith the distinctions which must necessarily be noted, would lead us too far from the main
track of the Lecture
some of the tendencies will re-appear in detail and students will no doubt refer to the brilliant exposition of Gnosticism in llarnack, Dog me ngcschi elite, i. pp. 18G
:
in subsequent Lectures,
226, ed.
2
2.
Strnvi.
first
book
is
valuable as a
V.
131
we ought
should
matters, those in
jDass
which the Eaith consists and hj the superfluous matters that lie
:
that
we
outside
who
duced into
from an
of
Economy"
[the philoTrinity].
the
known
Christ, seeking
say,
but what
and
if
can form
And
having
Him who
rate,
Some
some
of them, at
of
any
them are
:
as for
him."
The
new
mystical and
5.
Adv. Prax.
3.
Quoted by Euseb. H. E.
28. 13.
k2
132
V.
philosophical
/forms.
its
earlier
On
which probably
first
finds its
two books
the Apos-
moral practice
and of
strict
moral
God
the
On
the
new
their
members
of
knowledge side by
and with
The
conflict
was
it
inevitable.
In the current
as impos-
communities
the
them, as
would be
own day
The
result of the
The
no com-
The
old
In the
lists
of the
The more
by one
lost
They
The
The true
the name,
is
Plotinus.
development of the
V. CHRISTIANITY
133
thouglits of Basilides
and Justin,
and the
Naassenes,
is to
be found in Neo-Platonism
that splendid
of
Greek philosophy
set.
The
all
great conflicts
end, in a compromise.
and
of the
principles
their opponents
seem
to vanish
literature
and Christian
history.
It
was in
reality a victory in
by
less of s peculatio ns
than
of the tendency to
The residuum
of per-
manent
is at
effect
was mainly a
This
had been
diffused,
test
assertions
The existence of such a tendency is shown in the first instance by the mode in which the earliest " defenders of the faith" met
by philosophical canons.
their opponents
;
it
was
instincit
fact that
was
unconscious.
yet builds
Orat ad
Grcec. 2.
134
V.
up
and
of the nature
though he
asks,^
''What
re-
semblance
tian,
is
between a disciple
for example,
against
Marcion
by
methods of controversy
Hippolytus,^ though
for listening
between philosophical
schools.
And
to
Go
way
The answer,
been before us
in short, to the
is
that Christianity
for
it.
ground
the community.
of inquiry
which
had
also
elements of the philosophical temper had come into existence on a large scale, penetrating
all classes of society
and inwrought
time.
certain
habit of mind.
When, through
mind
Apol. 46.
5. 18,
T. CHRISTIANITY
13o
It
it
showed
1.
itself
firgt
The
to define.
earliest Christians
to believe in
The God
their
and
to worship
to
define
Him
Him
as their
They thought of Him as one, as beneficent, and as supreme. But they drew no fence of words round their idea of Him, and still less did they attempt to demonstrate by processes of reason that their idea of Him was true. But there is an anecdote quoted with approval by Eusebius^ from Ehodon, a controverFather in heaven.
sialist of
He
new
had believed,
those
so
he should remain.
who
set their
But the
of all that
He
we
One Prin'
when
13.
I said to him,
Tell
H. E.
5.
136
US
V.
One
he
he did not know, but that that was his convicadjured him to
tell
When I thereupon
is
the truth,
he
know
how there
so
he believed.
Then
I laughed at
know how
2.
of
The
earliest Chris-
had but
little
conception of a system.
The incon-
was one
Christianity.
irre-
concilable elements in
It appealed to
men
of various
mould.
construction of
But the
the
regard to thosejacts.
The premises
of those speculations
:
were assumed
propositions
the
to-
contradictory
or less pro-
V.
137
by the
logical certainty of
test of truth.
the conclusions
3.
in
The new habit of mind manifested itself not less the importance which came to be attached to it. The
and
at last superior to, trust in
life.
God and
The knowledge
Greek philosophy^
of the facts of the life of Jesus Christ necessarily precedes faith in him.
of
whatever obligation
its
original sense
:
was conceived
of
to
in its
new
sense
the
new form
knowledge
was held
to
be not
less
assume in a
still
and
with
the
sum
more Western
of such a theology
and
its
They come
are in reality
same certainty
They
built
upon a quicksand.
There
is
no more reason to
revelatio njg^
suppose that
God has
He
It
138
V. CHRISTIANITY
itself afford
does not in
All
They
To the
assent:
men may
The
and
it
more than
which
doomed
to
perish,
and which
yet,
while
it lives,
the prison-house of
many
souls.
Lecture YI.
It has been
common
from
the statements of
satirists
who, like
all satirists,
had a
of exaggeration.
The
pictures so
Ic is
no
doubt
It
is
difiicult to
of
any age.
the
it is
possible that
if
of our
vices of ancient
own time were equally outspoken, the Eome might be found to have a parallel
it is
which remains, that there was in ancient Eome, is in modern London, a preponderating mass
as there
of those
who loved
their children
faithful friends,
who
conscientiously
140
VI.
discharged their
senses of the
It has also
and were in
all
the current
earlier writers,
and
Christian teachers.
such contact went so far as to induce a writer in an imitative age to produce a series of letters
which are
still
commonly printed
It is difficult,
at the
end
of his
Paul.
no doubt,
to
come
such contact,
existed, influenced to
is
any considerable
established
by the de-
in close logical
and
historical connection
with that of
age
in
^
the statements are in full harmony with the view of the chief modern
subject,
Friedliinder,
iii.
Roms,
676, 5te
aufl.
is
Tliis is sufficiently
shown by the
constitutiri'' a
fact,
which
in other respects
earlier
to bo rogretted, that in
and
later
homogeneous whole.
VI.
141
reformation.
morality,
of a higher religious
by
sacrifice.^
amendment.^
This
especially seen in
it
pre-
men
least important
among the
causes which
:
it
affected
members
of
who
of their guilds
It
into
its its
insignificance after
new
descendants of
But when the philosophical Zeno and Chrysippus had become fashionits
squalor.
able litterateurs
and
^
practice in a respectability
"How am
I to eatl" said a
man
"So
:
as to please
God," was the reply {Diss. 1. 13). The idea is further developed in Porphyry, who says " God wants nothing (281. 15) the God who is
:
771 TTtto-iv is
aiiAos
hence
all
IvvXov
is to
Him
M. Aurelius owed
depaTreia.
(i.
and
*
7 and
13).
142
VI.
be intolerable, Cynic-
earlier
to this
was Epictetus.
He was
ranked among
is
the Stoics
the
portrait of a Cynic.^
realiza-
tion
and
it
to construct a composite
all
what Epictetus
The reformation
affected chiefly
two points:
life
;
(1) the
(2) the
The
and
;
and
of the
age
of the CaBsars
had come
logic
literature.
The study
of ethics
was no longer
Logic,
supreme
and
it
had changed
its character.
which
its
was becoming
its
it
master
it
into casuistry.
The study
of
literature, of
of philosophy
had
which the
is irpl K-VVLO-fLOV.
VI.
143
Stoics of
The
The
revival of Cynicism
was a
and
re-assertion
of
conduct
was at first crude and were "the preachers of the the Cynics were "the preachers of the street." ^
It If the
Stoics
They The earnestness was of the essence, the squalor was accidental. The former was absorbed by Stoicism and gave it a new
friars of imperial times.
were squalid.
impulse
when
The Cynics would have postponed the study of it finitely. Moral reformation is more pressing, they
as a prophylactic against the deceitfulness of
arguments
But he deprecates the exaggerated importance which had come to be attached to it. The students of his day were giving an altogether
and the
plausibility of language.
weaving of
fallacious
to catch
men
He would
Neither
it
subordination.
1 "
H.
452.
Diss.
17. 4,
e77-tyet
of a student
when
the addi-
seems
to
show
144
VI.
losophy of which
was the instrument was of value in And moreover, whatever might be the place of itself. such knowledge in an abstract system and in an ideal
world,
it
was impossible
it is.
The
state of
human
nature
that to linger
of philosophy at
is to
art,
but
it is
by pernicious habits, and beguiling associations of ideas, and false opinions about good and evil. While you are teaching him logic and physics, the very evils which it is his object to remedy will be The old familiar names of gathering fresh strength.
possibility of unshaping,
"good" and
moment
to
mistaken
and
false pains
which
it is
to destroy.
He must begin,
practice.
He
act
must be measured by
but in moral conduct.
words
"
^
:
A man
who
is
making
object
and undesire
Diss.
1.
4.
VI.
145
evil things,
having learnt
never failing of the object of his desire and never encountering the
pones
that
if
it,
For he knows
some time or other encounter some such But if what moral perfection procause happiness and dispassionateness and peace of
is
pro-
professes to secure.
to that to
"
the approaching
How
?
is it,
of moral perfection,
we admit this to be the definition we seek and show off progress in other
?
things
What
then
is
is
"'Peace of mind
"
Who
it ?
He who
:
has read
many
treatises of
in
understanding Chrysippus
does,
nothing
as
it
But
while
"
'
we admit
we
make
progress
the approximation
tells us,
'
effect another.
can
by himself.'
"'You
friend,'
are
tells
my
he
indeed why do you make game of him ? Why do you lead him astray from the consciousness of his misfortunes ? Will you not show him what the effect of moral perfection is, that he may learn where to look for progress towards it ? "Look for progress, my poor friend, in the direction of the effect which you have to produce. And what is the effect which you have to produce ? Never to be disappointed of the object
" Progress
146
sire
:
VI.
to do
assent.
The
first
of these
is
point
for if it is
how
progress
" It is in
show me your
muscles,
progress.
If I were to say to
'
an
athlete,
'
Show me your
and he were to say, See here are my dumb-bells,' I should reply, Begone with your dumb-bells What I want to see is, not them, but their effect.' (And yet that is just what you do :) 'Take the treatise On Effort' (you say), and examine me in it.' Slave that but rather how you endeavour to is not what I want to know do or not to do how you desire to have and not to have
'
!
'
whether you do
or not.
you do so in accordance with nature, show me that you do so, and I will say that you are making progress but if not, begone, and do not merely interpret books, but write similar ones yourAnd what will you gain by it ? Don't you know self besides. that the whole book costs five shillings, and do you think the man who interprets the book is worth more than the book itself costs ? " Never, then, look for the effect (of philosophy) in one place,
and progress towards that effect in another. " Where, then, is progress to be looked for ? If any one of you, giving up his allegiance to things outside him, has devoted himto cultivating and elaborating it so as self entirely to his will to make it at last in harmony with nature, lofty, free, unthwarted,
if
is
must
:
who can produce or prevent them if, moreover, from the moment when he rises in the morning he keeps watch and guard over these qualities of his soul bathes like a man of honour, eats through all the varying incilike a man who respects himself
dents of each successive hour working out his one great purpose,
VI.
ETHICS.
147
this
man
is
making progress
left
in very
this
if,
man
is
one
home
in vain.
at
But what
is
on the other hand, he is wholly bent upon and labours found in books, and has left home with a view to
tell
acquiring that, I
him
to
may have there for the object which has brought him away from home is a worthless one. This only (is worth anything), to study to banish from one's life sorrows and lamentations and Alas and Wretched me and misfortune and failure and to learn what death really is, and exile and imprisonment and the hemlock-draught, so as to be
neglect whatever business he
'
!'
'
!'
'
My dear
Crito, if so
it
This
science
new or revived conception of philosophy as of human conduct, as having for its purpose
state of
the
the
human
and practice
of
it
It
It
all arts
Just as the
which
is
necessary to perfect
bodily development
is
effected
one an
artificial
by
by giving them a
exercise.
similarly artificial
and exaggerated
The
of
aim of
reason,
it
and
of God.
1
Sext.
iii.
239.
l2
148
VI.
was designated by
It is frequently
He
ing goodness
nature,
who
learning, discipline.^
lie distin-
guishes those
means
literary
of actual
He
holds
man
memory
It
a student's option.
He must
The
Stoics defined
and philosophy
pldl. 1. 2
2
;
j^lcic.
De Abraham.
(ii.
9)
de Joseph.
41)
de praem.
ei
poen.
8,
11
416, 418).
Philo
is
methods as those some of the writings that stand the same period.
:
Quod
det. potior.
12
198, 199)
591).
(i.
De
28
542).
Leg. alleg.
(i.
91),
Quis
51
(i.
509^
VI.
149
being
ostentation of endurance.
it
he owed
to Eusticus that
moral exercises.^
in his Student's Manual,^ "don't take every opportunity of saying, I drink water
And
if
you resolve
it
to
for yourself
and not
for the
world outside.
Don't embrace
if
ever your
become extreme,
it
fill
and put
out again
that
and
no oney
Epictetus him-
self preferred
against
should be disciplined, not by by the voluntary repression of The true " ascetic " is he who disciplines himself all the suggestions of evil desire ^ "an object of
:
men
do not straight-
way be
is great,
by
it
the task
is
divine
it is
for undisturbedness.
Think of God
in a storm
for
call
Him
is
to
side,
as
sailors call
yours
In a similar way
who endeavour
young men
1. 7.
:
to virtue
M.
Aurel.
Enchir. 47
is
cf.
Diss.
3. 14. 4.
In Diss.
3.
above
3
Diss. 2. 18. 27
cf. 3. 2. 1
3. 12. 1
4. 1.
81.
150
rather than
VI.
by a mingled
it
away from
elsewhere.
They went
into "retreat,'^
animum mutant," he
city to
city.
says, in effect,
Everywhere a man
:
same
The true
to
discipline is to live in a
its noise,
and not
duty before
us.
The extent
of "retreats"
to
which moral
is
discipline
went on
blended, as
we
shall see,
with
it
in a single stream.
(2)
ideals
But out of the ideas which they expressed, and the which they held forth, there grew up a class of men
since died out,
"both by
imitators,
1
their preaching
and living"
formation of mankind.
Nigrin. 27.
Ond. XX.
vol.
i.
pp.
irtpl 'Avaxw/j^^o-ewj.
VI.
151
With
was
who
of one
who
Dio
from that of
all
ordinary men, and his bed and exercise and baths and
man who
in
none of these
as one of
a philo-
The
(1)
distinction
was marked
in
Spartans.
(2)
A philosopher wore a
It
only dress.
was
thus
equipped not as a
to
sailor or a shepherd,
Vol.
ii.
p.
240.
152
VI.
possibly can
by talking
them and
this
to
they are."^
new
moral
by
raising
two planes of
ethical teaching.
:
The one
is
that of
receive the
The one
;
is
summed up
in the
maxim, Follow
stated
fact.
Nature
On
harmony with
nature.
it
is,
in dealing with
them according
of
to
It is the
evil,
thorough study
of the conceptions of
good and
them
to par-
ticular objects.^
endeavour
2
to
make
the will
Vol.
ii.
p.
246.
Enclh
4, 13, 30.
element in the philosophy XPW'-'^ ^cLVTaa-Lwv is an important of Epictetus. Every object that is presented to the mind by either the
3
The
and thereby to
undesiro
in most
men
this
good or
evil,
and the
is
and habit
it is
VI.
153
unth-warted in
ment out
of a
man's
life,^
and
change
its
disturbed
The result of the practice of philosophy is happiness.^ The means of attaining that result are marked out by the constitution of human nature itself and the circumstances which
torrent into a calm and steady stream.
surround
desires to
it.
itself in
two forms,
have or not
stimulated
is
to have, efforts to
do or not to do.^
to the
The one
is
by the presentation
to
mind
of
an object which
judged
is
him
men.
state according to
fails of
nature" of desire
the
is
that in
The which it
never
gratification,
it
corresponding state of
of its mark.
efi'ort is
that in which
never
fails
Both the
The
what
is
this
is
;
with ideas."
3. 21.
^
28. 11
1.
30. 4
2. 1.
2. 8.
4;
2.
19.
32;
23;
3.
k^apfioyri
twv
7r/DoA^i/'s are the ideas 9, 12, 16; 4. 1. 41, 44 formed in the mind by association and blending.
2. 11. 4, 7; 2. 17.
'
Diss.
Diss.
1.
1.
31
23.
1. 4.
18;
1. 17.
21
and elsewhere.
1. 4.
The
distinction
between (1)
ope^is, cK/cAicrt?,
not to have, and (2) opfi-i], a(^opii.rj, the effort to do or not to do, is of some importance in the history of psychology. It probably runs back
to the
to
eTn9v{x,rjTt,Kov
/xepos
and to
154
are in our
VI.
ETHICS.
is
power
determined by
For example
"
^
:
son.
What
is
involved in being
a son
To consider all that he has to be his father's property, to obey him in all things, never to disparage him to any one, never to say or do anything to harm him, to stand out of his way and give place to him in all things, to help him by all means in
his power.
"
:
Next remember that you are also a brother the doing of what is fitting in this capacity involves giving way to him,
yielding to his persuasion, speaking well of him, never setting
up a
rival claim to
him
beyond the
you are a senator of any city, remember that you are a youth, that you are a youth if an old man, tliat you are an old man if a father, that you are a father. For in each of these cases the consideration of the name you bear will suggest to you what is fitting to be done in relation to it."
"
Next,
if
a senator
if
by the natural
to
relations
in
those relations,
in that
But
world the
prominent
Eoman mind,
came
the idea of
The one was borrowed from the functions which men have to discharge in
it.
The former
1
of these,
2.
*'
officium^''
has not
Diss.
10.
VI.
155
debitum^^'' is familiar to
"duty."
Moral conduct
is
you
strung
:
loosely together, in
"
is
expressed
'We
also are
His
offspring.'
of us
may
call
him-
self a
son of God.^
we live to the same forces, resolved when same elements,^ so by virtue of reason our souls are linked to and continuous with Him, being in reality parts and offshoots of Hira> There is no movement of which He is not conscious, because we and He are part of one birth and
we
die into the
growth f to Him all hearts are open, all desires known ;'^ as we walk or talk or eat. He Himself is within us, so that we are His
'
and incarnations of
HimJ
By
virtue of
communion with Him we are in the first rank of created things ? we and He together form the greatest and chiefest and
most comprehensive of
" If
all organizations.^
we
mean
or
unworthy
of
it
The sense
forms
a rule and standard for our lives. must be faithful if God be beneficent, cent. If God be highminded, we also must be highminded, doing and saying whatever we do and say in imitation of and union
If
:
with Him.^^
did He make us ? He made us, first of all, to complete His conception of the universe He had need for such completion of some beings who
" "
:
Why
1. 9. 6, 1.
13.
1.
i_ i4_ 6,
3. 13, 15.
1.
4
6
14.
6;
11.
17.
27;
7
10
2. 8.
11.
^ 8
U.
6. 2. 8.
2. 14.
2. 8.
1214.
1. 9.
5;
11.
1. 9. 4.
1. 3. 1.
"
2.
14. 13.
156
VI.
ETHICS.
should be intelligent.^
made
us, secondly, to
behold and
:
understand and interpret His administration of the universe to be His witnesses and ministers.^ He made us, thirdly, to be happy in ourselves like a true Father and Guardian, he has
:
placed good and evil in those things which are within our
power.^
own
given
What He
it
;
is,
'
from within
there
is
To
this
end
He has
We
feel
no power in heaven or earth that can cry out in our sorrow, '0 Lord God,
sorrow
it.*^
;'
may not
and
all
the time
He
has given
He
the
manliness and fortitude and highmindedness, so that the greater difficulty, the greater the opportunity of adorning our
character by meeting
it.
'
If,
for
it
brings
from
Him
this message,
real.'
Give
is
me
:
There
what we have learnt in the lecture-room we learn and then God brings us to the difficulties of real life and says to
'
us,
It is time
now
:
Life
is
in reality an
Olympic festival we are God's athletes, to whom He has given an opportunity of showing of what stuff we are made.'^
"
What
is
our duty to
" It is
simply to follow
Him ? Him :^
to be of
:^
Him
:'
of a good
man
is,
1. 6. 1. 9.
13:
cf.
1.
29. 29.
4;
17.
15;
1.
29. 46,
56;
* 6 3. 2.
2.
16.
33;
4. 7. 7.
3. 24. 2, 3.
6 7 8
4.
1.
24. 3.
16. 13.
1. 24. 1, 1. 12. 5,
2;
1.
46;
3. 10.
7;
4. 4.
32.
8; 1.20.
9 o/ioyvw/xovefv
^
tw
Sew, 2. 16.
42;
2. 19. 26.
j
evapecTTilv ry 6(1^
4. 1. 90,
98.'
5i.oiKrj(Tt, 1.
12. 8
2. 23. 29,
4&
"
VI.
ETHICS.
157
whence he came, and to Whom he owes his being, to fill the place which God has assigned to him,^ to will things to be as they are, and to say what Socrates used to say, If this be God's will, so be Submission must be thy law thou must dare to lift up it.'^ your eyes to God and say, 'Employ me henceforth for what service Thou wilt I am of one mind with Thee I am Thine I ask not that Thou shouldest keep from me one thing of all that
' :
: : :
for me.'^
Fate,
Thy appointment
Only lead me, I
I await
shall go
And
consent reluctantly,
less I follow Thee.'^
None the
"
when we keep our eyes fixed on Him, joined in close communion with Him, absolutely consecrated to His commandments. If we will not do it, we suffer loss. There
can only do this
are penalties imposed, not
We
acting law.
If
we
Above
all,
we must
He
one of us a post to keep in the battle of life, and we must not His bidding is indicated by circumleave it until He bids us.^
stances.
When He
when
He
sends us where
according to nature
is
Supreme Captain,
to us,
'
for retreat,^
He, the
And when He
:
does
come
forth,
3. 24.
95.
1,
29.
18;
;
4. 4. 21.
2. 16.
42.
* 6
Encliir.
2. 16.
52
Diss.
3. 11.
4. 1.
131
24.
4. 4.
34
4.
46;
1;
7
3.
42;
4.
1. 9, 16.
1.
29. 29.
2. 13.
U.
168
VI.
as God's servant
He
praise
Think what it is to be able 'What others preach, I am doing their praise of virtue is a of me God has sent me into the world to be His soldier and
: :
witness, to tell
men
a good
sends
man no me at one
evil
die.
He
He
disciplines
me by
to
may
mankind.
With such
:
who my companions
are, or
my
whole nature
ethics of the
of difference
command.
but
God had
enacted
it.
Greek
God
is,
no doubt, found
His personal
but as being
3.
24.
97;
cf.
3. 5.
810;
2.
4. 10.
14
?,qq.
3,
04.
110114.
Katvos
vo/xos,
Barn.
6,
and
note, in
edition.
VI.
159
sin.
Into the
early
Christian
It
elements entered.
it
was
was in the
mind
what
it
But one element was constant. It was a trespass against God. As such, it was on the one hand something for which God must be appeased, and on the other hand something which He could forgive. To the Stoics it was shortcoming, failure, and loss the chief sufferer was the man himself amendment was possible for the future, but there was no forgiveness for the past. Beyond these and other points of dijfference there was a wide area of agreement. The former became accentuated as time went on it was by virtue of the latter
of St. Augustine.
:
: :
minds
of
many
and
persons had
that,
been predisposed
accepted
it,
to accept Christianity,
having
new
The agreement
and above
duct.
Christian communities
to
be attached to doctrine
its
communities
1.
is
shown by two
these proofs
The
first of
life
They
Ten Words.
IGO
VI.
They
raise those
most necessary
make them embrace thoughts and desires as well as words and actions. The most interesting of such documents is that which is known as the " Two
them
so as to
Ways."^
Apostles.
It is there prefixed to
new
part
be a manual of instruction to
may
thus be considered to
In the
"
Way
is
of Life"
which
it
no place.
summed up in the two commandments: " First, thou It shalt love God who made thee secondly, thy neighbour
;
as thyself:
done to
thyself,
These com-
mandments
the Mount.
Sermon on
thou
"Thou
thou shalt not speak evil thou shalt not be doublefor double-tonguedness
is
Thy
but
filled to
Thou
nor haughty
^
1. 1.
VI.
ETHICS.
161
against
tliy
neighbour.
Thou
any man,
shalt pray,
soul.^
is
.
.
some thou
shalt love
My
child,
on the
path to blasphemy
from
ing,
all
But be thou
and kind, and
lieard.^
and
pitiful,
and
guileless,
and
quiet,
Thou shalt not hesitate to give, nor in giving shalt thou murmur for thou shalt know who is the good paymaster of what thou hast earned. Thou shalt not turn away him that needeth, but thou shalt share all things
;
with thy brother and shalt not say that they are thine
own for if ye be fellow-sharers in that which is how much more in mortal things."^
;
immortal,
is
the
first
book of the
:
collec-
known
it
begins at
"Listen
to holy teaching,
command
of the Saviour,
harmony with
Take heed,
ye sons of God, to do
to
thiags so as to be obedient
all
God and
to
be well-pleasiQg in
if
our God.
For
after
wickedness and
do things contrary
2.
lUd.
3.
5 Ibid.
7, 8.
1C2
VI.
ETHICS.
is
afforded
by the
place which
life.
discipline
The
Iso-
Christians were
lation
drawn together
into communities.
Christian was to be a
basis of the
member
of a
community.
community
The
offences against
which
fell
it
had
to
more
and
The
qualifications
which in
officers,
later
were
nary members.
" If any
man who
bishop and the deacons free from fault, and the flock
abiding pure,
first
conscience
but
if,
he should venture
to enter,
to repentance.
For looking
VI.
163
tears
he will go out
God and
will
repent of his
is
sinful
member was
sion.
re-admission was
admis-
manuals
enforced
by
discipline,
to realize
what has
of
since
been
a
known
Each one
them was
community
earth,
The
and
earthly
ever-
community
was the
sitting
its
"new
Jerusalem."
Its bishop
on the throne
members were the "elect," the "holy ones," the "saved." "Without were the dogs, and the sorcerers, and the murderers, and the idolaters, and every one that loveth and maketh a lie:" within were "they which were written in the Lamb's book of life." To be a member of the community was to be in
elders round
him:
its
reality,
of
God and
community was
-^j^^
^d Diogn.
5.
1G4
VI.
ETHICS.
Over these
earliest
an enormous
The
The
interests of
contemporary writers
room
In the
The aggregate
was no longer
number
of those
party framed a
who should be saved. The dominant new theory of the Church as a corpus
it
tianity
by the same
inevitable drift
by which
its
practice
had been superseded by theory in Stoicism. In both the production of this change and
net result of the active forces which
it
further
The
brought to bear
of a
majority
men was
And
when
it
The
first
men with a varying tenacity There were some men who had a higher moral
seized diflferent
^ Side by had found a
of grasp.^
ideal than
ethics,
which
certain
lodgment in some.
VI.
165
others
whom
from
moral
life
human
citizenship,
to disentangle itself
There
was an attempt
gatory.
to
make such
were part
bers, they
of the
upon
church
mem-
were not
The
practice of
to
them was
in
known by
be
common
was that
was
relative to the
It of
conception of
an
athletic contest.
(aV/cj/o-i?).^
The
element
much
it
of this
within the great body of confederated comthe end of the third century
munities.
At
became
It
was
in-
by the growing
partly
which found
of society
^
in Neo-Platonism
itself,
'
Of
166
VI.
ETHICS.
of decadence
by the necessity
of finding a
new
outlet,
led
men
to a
soon took a
new
form.
Hitherto those
who
followed
men.
The
Clement
of
Alexandria
"acting the
human
affairs,
drama
of life
is
to play,
knowing
both what
is to
be endured."^
Eut
life
came
to be
shown
in the
same out-
ward way, but with a more marked emphasis, as the It was indeed known as similar practice in philosophy.
philosophy.^
it
It
to Cynicism, with
which
had sometimes already been confused, and its badges were the badges of Cynicism, the rough blanket and the
unshorn
hair.
grow was
higher
life of
self-discipline
1
It
was
to claim to stand
on
Strom.
7. 11.
3.
2 e.g.
"
practise this
mode
of
of philosojjhy, but
would be hard
to say how-
many thousands
it
were, of the
women throughout the whole world, priestesses, as God of the universe, having embraced the highest
for
So
33,
VI.
167
average Christians.
development.
times found
life
The
began
to
to live their
solitude.
of self-discipline
and contemplation in
The
still
(piXoaocpia.
still
were
oiava-^^wprjral^ ''anchorets."
The
a(rKt]T}]piovj
To
rela-
in solitude.
'"
solitaries,"
was a "place
tice
for solitude,"
ixovaary'ipiov.
When
for
the pracit
soil,
was
which Greece
wipe
more than
any other
factor,
earliest conall
a man's
^
efibrts
spiritual
life,
a.arKrjrripiov,
Socrat.
11
4. 23, as
(}>povrurTi]piov,
Evagr.
i.
21.
168
VI.
ETHICS.
to
and withdrew
bring
him near to God. 2. It was inevitable that when the Puritan party had left the main body, and when the most spiritually-minded
of those
common
of their brethren,
terioration
in
the
average moral
It
conceptions
of
the-
Chi-istian Churches.
was
by
Grreek influences.
The Pauline
ethics vanished
of the churches
empire,
educated
by Greek
They accepted Christian ideas, but without the enthusiasm which made them a transforming force. As in regard ta
metaphysics, so also in regard to ethics, the frame of
mind
new
ideas
which
it
absorbed.
:
The current
ideals re-
and
holiness,
conception of virtue
saying,
Thou
was
At the end
of the fourth
century the
new
state of things
by
ecclesiastical writers.
was formally recognized Love was no more " the handof Milan, formulated
is
Ambrose
3. 11.
YI.
ICD
because
it
Middle Ages.
But
the book
of the
is less
It is a recJiaiiffee
It
of
happiness
it
life is
life
realized
by virtue, and
that
Its virtues
and temperance.
of each of
moralists.
It
it
had been
wise
Greek
Wisdom,
is
for example, is
man can be
justice,
who
is
is
ignorant of
God:
its
justice
Greek
subsidiary
form of beneficence
Christian society.
The
victory of
Greek
ethics
was complete.
While
Christianity
were slowly
ethics of
The
170
of
VI.
ETHICS.
Eoman
law.
The
Christian, but
Eoman and
in possession
of
practically the
whole
The
transis
mutation
so
is
modem
question
not
much whether
The
modern language and justify by modern conceptions such an exhortation as " Sell that thou hast and give to the
poor," meet with no less opposition within than without
The conversion
of the
Church
working in
worked
in
But meanwhile there is Christianity the same higher morality which the ancient world, and the maxim. Follow
Kempis meet.
Lecture VII.
The Ceeator.
Slowly there loomed through the mists Greek thought the consciousness of one God.
It
of earlier
The varied
phenomena
into
The groups
by independent
divinities.
It
was by the
unconscious alchemy of thought, working through successive generations, that the separate groups
came
to
be
^
came
also
The sun which day by day rose and set, the moon which month by month waxed and waned, the stars which year by year came back to the same stations in the sky, were like a marshalled army moving in obedience to a
fixed
command.
also beneath.
The
sea,
which
and
172
VII.
but spring
summer
that not
The
earliest
is
"The
origins of matter
This conception of
as
it
slowly elaborated
and
sense of personality.
By
a transferit
may
things that
stars
life
life.
with personality.
The
life,
and
were persons.
Movement meant
application of
and
thing analogous to
human
was by an inevitable
when
it
the
sum
of
as a whole,
should be also
single
was a con-
was
and almost
fruitful,
f.
when Epicharmus
p. 479).
YII.
173
:
proclaimed
it is
"It
is
things
not only saw but thought, and that not only thought
but willed.
It alone
was the
real self:
it
who
is
was
which
activities of
The gods
of the old
mythology
moving
and
said,^
infinite heaven.
"He
has
"But though God is one," it was many names, deriving a name from each
is of
Time, because
He is He
called the
continues
eternity;
he sends)
tects);
cities
(which he pro-
forms of nature and events as being Himself the cause of all." " There are not different gods among
different peoples," says Plutarch, 3
of
TaXXa KW^a
1.
de
fort. 3, p. 98,
3, p.
Tmc. Disp.
20.
Pseudo-Arist. de mtcndo,
7, p.
401
a.
De
174
Vir.
earth,
and
common
to all
among different races, so, though there be one Eeason who orders these things and one Providence who administers
them
....
appellations
among
different races;
so leading
:
their thoughts
Divine
but
it is
for
and
others,
In the conception
of
God
Greek
intertwined
the thought
of a Creator, the
Absolute Being.
and
ment
It
was
at a comparatively late
stage in
its
history
that
to the conception of a
first
begin-
ning of
formulated
b.c.^
by Anaximander,
earlier conception
the
sixth
century
The
was that
of a chaos, out of
which gods
and
^
all
The
f.
first
remove from
p.
Theophrast
Simplic.
in phys.
6 (Diels,
476), tt/jwtos
TovTo Tovvofia
Ko/Aio-as
T^s a/3x^s
so Hippol. Philosoph. 1. 6.
VII.
GREEK
175
When
it
The conception of mind was evolved, two lines The one, following the
conception of
human
following the
to matter
it is
known
1.
as Dualism.
all
The
Monism was
Stoicism.
The
rhythmic motion, a
was kindling and being quenched with regulated limits of degree and time.^
that
is
The substance
is
one, but
was sometimes the bare and neutral contrast For the Passive was of the Active and the Passive.
It
Heraclit. ap. Clem. Alex. Strom. 5. 14, Koa-fiov tov avTov dravTajv
iiroirjcrev'
dW
rfv
du^wov,
176
yil.
order of ideas
and
for the
does,
on
the other hand, also the expression of thought in a sentence and the expression of will in a law, has no single
equivalent in
modem
language.
of
with personality:
and God.
The two terms of the antithesis being regarded as expressing modes of a single substance, separable in thought and name but not in reality, there
range of conceptions.
was a natural
drift of
God
of
Him
quodcunque vides
quodcunque moveris."^
The latter conceived of Him as This became the governing conthe natura naturans. ception. He is the sum of an infinite number of rational
forces
selves
which are continually striving to express themthrough the matter with which they are in union.
through them and in them working
to realize
He
is
an
end.
The
is
whole conception.
He
but not
is
all
equally divine.
essence,
He
mind
LMcan, Phars.
9.
579.
VII.
177
of
His essence,
He
is
poles
all to
the
purest essence of
especial sense
God
is
the
:
human
It is in
an
His offspring
it is
described
which
mother
is
have
settled.^
If all this
were expressed in
it
modem
terms, and
by
is
it is
con-
tion
that
which
:
is,
changing forms
cosmogonical
:
the theory
it
than
gives an account of
2.
The
Dualism was
1.
airoppoia,
M. Anton.
5.
2.
aTrocnraa-fia,
Epict. Diss.
14. 6
2.
8.
11; M. Anton.
The
51
rrj'i
de mund. opif. 46 (i. 32). co-ordination of these and cognate terms in Philo is especially
27:
aTrotKia, Philo,
de mund. opif.
35), Tras av^pcuTTO? Kara, ixkv rrjv Sidvoiav WKCtcorat deCco Aoyw,
i]
aTrocnraa-fMa
-q
dTravya(rfJ.a "veyovtus
to
Tov TravTos
'/'I'X^'
d7ro(r7rao-/ia
oirep
Kara
de mutat. nom.
39
(i.
612)
and he
is
an inference that
a.Tr6cnra(TfJLa
human
KIT
aTrdpTrja-iv,
dXXa
/;Iofov eKTetverai,
quod
209).
178
Vir.
Platonism.
mind is separate from matter and beyond him in founding upon this
distinction
upon
it
he went
separation a universal
between the
real
was that
moulds
The world was in its origin only being (to fxt] 6V). The action of God upon it of a craftsman upon his material, shaping it as
it
as a statuary
In so acting,
He
the world. ^
itself in
far as
they admit of
being grouped,
may be viewed
as imitations or embodias a
thought
mind of the Divine Workman, or as a force proceeding from His mind and acting outside it. As the conception of these forms was developed more and more,
they tended to be regarded in the latter light rather than in the former.
forces
which
They were less types than causes. They came midway between God and the rude material of the universe, so that its changing phenomena were united with an unchanging element. They were themselves grouped in a vast gradation, reaching its highest point in the Form of Perfection, which was higher than the Form of Being. The highest and most perfect of types is conceived as the
^
Pldleh. IG, p. 28
1',
vovv koX
<f>p6vr)criv
Ttva
6avjj.a(rTi'jv
iu
tlia
VII.
179
In the elabospoken of as
further conceived as
a person.
The
creative energy of
God
is
the Demiurgus^
and employed subordinate agents in the construction of the The matter upon which the Demiurgus actual world.
ideal world,
who
himself
made an
or his agents
iDcing,^
work
is
the bare
capacity of
and
reduced to order.^
The
distinction
since
it
of a
The
of matter
im Breisg. 1888.
schools,
The
conception of
is
it
and
is
which
,<jiven in
Ed.
1.
11 (Diels,
p. 308),
and
Hippol. Philosoph.
19.
Trai/
ocrov rjv
rjcrvx^Lav
avov
aAAa
3
ara^tas.
In Tim.
p. 41,
3ra;/ yevvrjcras (
=o
are,
iv
ovv
ryv
dvqTo. T y TO T
TTtti/
oVtws
ciTTav y,
The whole
Creator
theory
is
summed up by
artist
human
who
executes
by means of his servants. Thus the language of philosophy, which speaks of first and second causes, is crossed by another sort of phraseology, God made the world because he was good, and the demons
'
ministered to him.'"
n2
180
VII.
Perfect Being, and that of a world which was full of imperfections as being the
as
work
we
shall see, to
Christian thought.
It
was
inevitable,
in the syncretism
which results
an age
when an age
of
other.
The elements
in
by
the
into being,
and
of
Law
or
itself in
an
in Platonism, there
of the
one
infinite variety of
law
of the forms
in
self-developing seeds,
In the
e.g. in
the defigiven in
which
is
the base of
all things, as
by Plutarch, Eusebius, and Stobreus, Trdvras Tovs cnrepfxaTLKOvs Aoyoi'S Kad ovs
(Kaa-ra Kad'
lfj.apiJ.V)]v
yiviTai.
is
The
vom Logos
in der
110 sqq.
VII.
181
miglit
operations. 1
processes
multiplicity,
and
by the
per-
But while the monism of the Stoics, by laying stress upon the antithesis between the two phases of the one
substance, was tending to dualism, the dualism of the
Platonists,
by laying
stress
upon the
distinction
between
the creative energy of God and the form in the mind of God which His energy embodied in the material universe,
was tending
two
tion of creation.
It
became common
to speak, not of
Hence came a new fusion of conceptions. The Platonic Forms in the mind of God, conceived, as
or Pattern.2
Hence the
Kal
definition
elKOvi^ovcra Se ras
dfj-opcfyovi
vAas
1.
Stob.
2
10; 'Euseh. proip. evang. 15. 45; with additions and differences in Ed. 1. 12 (Diels, p. 308).
The
by varying but
identical terms
God, Matter, and the Form (t'Sea), or the By Whom, From What, In view of What (w(/)' ov, e^ ov, irpos o), in the Placita of Aetius,
1. 3. 21, ap. Plut.
de placit. pMl.
and
1.
19,
Herm.
Alexand. Aphrod. ap. Simplic. in phys. f. 6 (Diels, p. 485), where Simplicius contrasts this with Plato's own strict dualism.
182
YII.
were more or
a plural
become
They gather
together, without
nearly
It
is
all
that afterwards
grew up on Christian
soil.
much
larger
if
we we
could find a
key
And
even without
such a key
we
became dominant
It
is-
the'
of the
world
is to
be found in the
As
is
God
regarded as good.
He was
make
it
impelled to
make
the world
by
why
he were,
is
He
did
[ova-ln)
VII.
183
it
whicli of itself
had nothing
all
excellent,
though
again:
was
capable of becoming
soul once told
things."^
And
"My
with a
me
more
It told
me
God
He
begat
Power He governs it."^ God is thus the Creator, the Fashioner and Maker of the world, its Builder and Artificer.^ But when the conception of
His
is
it
dis-
tinction
of
and
to
God
is
mind.
From Him,
as
from
Eeason,
human
5)
:
thought,
is like
a river that
De mundi
Se
opif. 5
(i.
cf.
Plat.
Tim.
p.
30
(of
God),
o.yaBo<s tjv
dyaOw
iyytyverat
<f)d6i'os'
tovtov 8
De
cherub. 9
(i.
144)
cf. ih.
35
(i.
162).
is S-qixiovpyo'?,
e.g. TrXda-T-qs,
TJ^s,
ling.
38
(i.
434)
rexvtTJjs, ibid.
Kocr[xoTrXdar-
de plant Noe, 1
329);
koct/xottoios, ibid.
31
(i.
348), ov Te;(vtT7js
Kal TraTrjp tcov yiyvop-kviov, Leg. alleg. 1. 8 (i. 47). The which became important in later controversies do not appear in the writings which are probably Philo's own, but are found in those which probably belong to his school the most explicit recognition of them is de somn. 1. 13 (i. 632), o ^eos ra z-avra
fiovov
dXXa
distinctions
yVV7^cras
iTToirjcrev,
ov p-ovov
ts
to e/x(^avS tjyayev
dXXa
ov 8r]p.Lovpyos p.ovov
(ii.
aXAa Kal
KTLcrTrjS
avros wv
TrotT^rr);
cf.
also de
oXtav.
monarch. 3
twv
184
VII.
Him
and
fills
the universe.^
is
:
In
man
The body
fashioned
is
created, but
all things.
For what
He
Adam
for
was nothing
else
so that granting
man
to
be
^
which
again:
is
And
Him,
"The mind
(of God),
only extended."^
And again, in expounding the words, " They have forsaken me, the fountain of life" (Jeremiah
13),
ii.
he says: "Only
God
is
life,
and reasonable
but
He
Himself
is
more than
life,
fountain of
life." *
But the theory of the origin of the sensible world is dualistic. The matter upon which He acted was outside Him. " It was in itself without order,
This
is
monistic.
and discord
identity,
37
it
proportion, harmony,
all
that
is
Desomn.
2.
(i.
691).
(i.
2
(i.
De mnndi
Quod
oxtif.
46
32)
cf. ih.
51
(i.
35)
24
(i.
208, 209).
Deprofu'j. 36
575).
YII.
185
He
touch
it.
" Out of
it
:
it
God begat
all things,
Himself not
touching
for
it
but
the
its
He
name
is
Forms
fitting
receive
shape." ^
called
and sometimes in the language of popular mythology as DaBmons.^ The use of the two
as Angels,
^
ment
De mundi
1
(i.
opif.
(i.
5)
this is the
most
explicit expression of
It
may be supplemented by
ets
de
plant Noe,
SiaKpLCTiv aytav 6
(i.
Koa-ixoTrXda-T-qs fiop(f)ovv
492)
de
eomn.
found,
word
2.
(i.
e.g.
665) ovcrta is the more usual word, but vXrj is sometimes de plant Noe, 2 (i. 330) the conception underlying either
:
:
is
more
i.
e.
it is
having the property of resistance than that of potential matter or empty space hence in de profug. 2 (i. 547), t^v diroiov Kal dvdSeov
:
Kal
da-)(r]p.6.Ti(TTov
ovaiav
is
with TO KIVOVV
*
atTLOV.
De
sacrlf.
13
(ii.
261).
I8eai are
common.
408), rwv
i.
ddwv
638),
122),
dyyeXovs
:
de somn.
19
(i,
ddavdrois Aoyois
Leg. alley.
3. 2.
62
2
(i.
(i.
Sat/zoves,
de gigant.
263),
'.
ous aAAo6
<f)i.X6(ro(f)oi
Satjuovas,
dyyeXovs
1.
MwiJcrTjs
eicadev
ovo/m^eiv
SO, in identical
words, de somn.
(i.
22
(i.
642)
dpiOp-ol
and
ixkrpa,
tt/jos
de mund. opif. 9
186
VII.
They
of
by means
He
fashioned
it.^
On
went outside
Logos.) the
Him
to
stamp with
The
the
Eeason or Will or
Word
of
God
more preits
activity
ideal
which precedes
(i.
7),
cf.
de monarch. 6
Treparovcrat
(ii.
219),
Ta
dcr)(r^fJ.a.TurTa
Kat
TripiopL^ovcrai Kal
^
(T)(t^ fnaTL^ovcrai.
The
(ii.
God
tells
Moses that so
far
Him
Kal
fxrjSiv
rrjs
dl'Siov
c^iVews fieTaXXofJuvas
ft^Tl
)UtOV/iVaS.
2
De mund.
Tf
opif.
(i.
5),
toi/
votjtov c?vai
Kocrfiov
Oiov Xoyov
rjSrj
KocrixoTTOiovvTos
vit.
Mos.
3,
13
(ii.
154),
Twv
acrco/iciTcav
BO de confiLs. ling. 34
Epictct. Diss.
1.
431)
cf.
<^avTa(nw.
VII.
187
city of his
call
thought
The archetypal
is itself
seal,
which we
Form
the Eeason of
God
is
but as a Force.
It is
instrument by which
He made
all
things.^
It is the
"river of
forth to
God" that is "full of waters," and "make glad the city of God," the
from a fountain,
all
that flows
universe.'*
From
flow.
it,
as
By
the
am," robes
itself
by
But
or opposing
by God. It is the expression of His Thought. His Thought went forth from Him, impressing itself in Forms and by means of infinite Forces: but though His Thought was the charioteer, it is God
infinite
^
De mund.
opif.
(i.
4)
is
expressed in less
Kara
/xepos
to yevtKov al(r6y]Tov
TrpofirjOiia
tou
TrcTroiij kotos.
^ SvvafiLS KO(T[J.oTroti]Ti.Kr],
de mund. opif. 5
(i.
5); Suva/zis
TroirjTiKT'f
deprofug. 18
(i.
560).
Leg. alleg.
1.
(i.
47),
rw yap
Aoyo), p-qixari, 6
^eos
ajx^onpa
(i.
(i.e.
281),
Aoyw
Kal
Koa-fiov Lpyd^eTo
alleg. 3.
more
expressly,
31
2.
(i 106),
de cherub. 35
162).
De De
somn.
37
(i.
691).
profug. 20
(i.
(i.
452)
cl Wisdom,
18. 24.
188
VII.
By
a different concepis
of
we
of
shall find in
some Gnostic
schools,
God
of
is
is
the Father
is
the
world:
Fatherhood
God
conceived as
His Wisdom
as the
Mother:
fruitful
"and
she,
birth-pangs
son, only
and well-
of
the current
new
fabrics.
Christianity
had no need
the world.
to
He made
was the
belief in one
God.
It rode in
beginning
God
It
of a single
supreme
aid of
Artificer:
by the
anthropomorphic conceptions
By
He
1
by His incomprehensible
Deprofiuj. 19 (i 561).
^ o
tZv oXwv
Trar-qp,
1.
de mi'jrat. Ahrah. 9
(i.
(i.
443); 6 ^eos ri
flravra
yivvq(Ta<i,
8
de sonin.
13
632),
and elsewhere.
De
ebriet.
(i.
361).
VII.
189
wisdom He
set
them
in order
He
it
...
and
last of all
He
impress of His
The
belief
be a
of ditheism
it
unsolved pro-
But
in proportion
simple
Semitic
cosmogony became
The
questions of the
relation of
mode
of creation,
and
of the precise
God
less instinctively,
keener-sighted enthusiasm,
religious conviction.
now than
philosophy
:
then,
is
the crucial
question of
all theistic
almighty
fection
God made
failure
and
and pain
of the
These questions
relation of
^
mode
God
trast
Clem. Rom. 33. 3, 4 but it is a noteworthy instance of the conbetween this simple early belief and the developed theology which
in less than a century later, that Irenoeus,
lib. 4, pra^f.
had grown up
c. 4,
mean
"
homo
per
manus
dixit
Faciamus hominem."
190
VII.
first
three
centuries.
resulted
The
first
of all schools, within the original communities and outside them, introduced conceptions
discarded.
of
One group
Christianity as symbols,
like the
mysteries,
also,
and
were symbolical.
with the
Another group
The philosophers
of all schools
only by the
common
and handed on
theories
and which
were
also
whole system.
But
they
may be
clearly
drifts
main
to
some way
it
The
many
forms.
It
was
The
VII.
191
same writers frequently made use of different metaphors but all the metaphors assumed vast grades and distances
between God in Himself and the sensible world.
One
its
mena
a
by
a tree.^
The
mena
of
human
generation
of the conception of
God
pressed
there
Wisdom or Silence
it
was held
pairs,
that,
all
Him came
forth in
and
all
union.*
^
Derivatio
of Basilidians).
2
This
is
common word
3rpo/3oXi7, e.g.
of Epiphanes.
2 The conception of the double nature of God, male and female, is found as early as Xenocrates, Aetius ap. Stob. Eel. 1. 2. 29 (Diels, p. 304) ; and commonly among the Stoics, e.g. in the verses of Valerius
him by
S. Augustitie,
de
civit.
Dei,
7.
So Philodemus, de
Zeus
o.ppr]v,
piet.
;
6,
ed.
Gomp.
p.
83
Zcvs dyjXv;
:
p.
100
6,
ap<Tr]v ye veto,
in, e.g.,
Zevs afx/Sporos
TheValentinians
6,
Hippol.
(^Jjcri
6.
29; 10, 13
so of
Simon Magus,
ajro
ib
Kurd crv^uyias
tov
irvpui.
192
VII.
various ways.
philosophers
is
The common expression in one group of won {alwv^^ a term which is of uncertain
In other groups of philoStoical
term
In the syncretism
of the
of
by the use
synonym
God
forces,
embodying themselves in
way
In
upon
his materials.^
to
vanish.
at
once
to the monistic
conception of
God
Himself.
They were
subtler
its
and
more
active forms of
grosser
In the conception
of another school,
God
is
^
is
43
(of Marcus),
ra
ra
kolvo,
Aoyous
ii)v6fj.a(re.
Hippol.
5.
/at)
TrapaAeiVets
voi]6iv,
19 (of the Sethiani), Trav o ti vo-qa-et tTnvods y Kat touto iKacrTrj twv dp^wi' vre^vKe yevecr^at J)s v
Hippol.
8.
(TVKTJs [JLeyWei
ibid.
c.
9,
A
it
9 sqq., but
fire
(heat
flame).
by Peter
and where
G^d
is
the fn^a,
man
the Ka/)-o9.
VII.
193
The obvious
its failures
difficulty
with,
to all theories of
The
itself.
from
original
righteousness"
was
divinity
in various ways,
some
of
symbols.
Wisdom
herself
she
One
what
is perfect.
Out
of this shapeless
mass, and the passions that came forth from her, arose
who
fashioned
it.^
of revolt
Both
:
theories simply
farther back
way
Ibid. 8, 8,
y to
The
iu lan-
seven chapters
first
book of
Ireno3us,
and Hippolytus
6.
32 sqq.
5. 13.
ii,
9.
25.
194
YII.
either in philosophy or
Western world.
to It
by
was a tendency, which ultimately became supreme, account for the world by the hypothesis of creation. was the
matter.
result of the action of
existing
It
God was
less
tained grave difficulties, arising partly from the metaphysical conception of God, and partly from the conception
of
moral
evil.
connection with
of matter to
(i.)
God ?
(ii.)
How
did
with
it
so as to shape it?
(iii.)
How
The
dualistic hypothesis
assumed a co-existence of
The assumption was more frequently tacit than explicit. The difficulty of the assumption varied according to the degree to which matter was There was a regarded as having positive qualities.
universal belief that beneath the qualities of
all
existing
in Justin Martyr,
^4^50?.
i.
10,
raVra
:
ti)v
ih. c,
59,
but Justin,
Plato adopted
it
from Mosea.
VII.
195
its
were
grafted,
each thing
unity.
empty
of
was sometimes
as a potter as a
moulds
house.2
clay, partly
of matter tended to
It
regard
as
more or
less gross.
was
still
plastic in the
possessed the
With
The
distinction of
was preserved,
the Transcendent
of evolution
;
He
still that of creation and not was " out of that which was not " that made things to be. That which He made was
God was
but
it
5. 3,
ov yap eK tov
:
p) oiros
rj
yevecrts
t^v to.
aXA. cK To{3
7r/3o ttJs
KttAws
firj^
iKavw? e;^ovTOS
:
ibid. aKoa-jxia
yap
cf.
- Wisdom, 11. 18, Kria-aa-a tov koctjxov l^ dp.6p(jiov vXr]s Apol 1. 10. 59 (quoted in note, p. 194) Athenag. Ler/at
:
Justin M.
15, ws
yap
o /cepa^eus
pev o
TvrjXos, Te;(viTr;s 8e 6
i)
Kepapevs, Kal 6
rex^W'
o2
196
VII.
itself possibilities,
kinds of growth.
the world of
spirit,
it:
of matter,
and between
is
The metaphor
original seed
sometimes
explained by
The
the ultimate
summum
genus.
The
by which
all
process of our
ideas ascend,
knowledge.
The
steps
by which our
by an almost
is
The
basis of the
theory was Platonic, though some of the terms were borrowed from both Aristotle and the Stoics. It became
itself
in the Church.
The
In
him,
God
is
"The Lord
was alone
and since
all
power over
Ho
to all
Hippol.
Tiji'
7.
22 (of Basilidos),
toijto
eVn To
(TTTipjxa o ;^ei Iv
eavrw
TTa'sav
Trav(nrepiJ.Lav
dvai
cis det'/DOVS
Tc/iv'()/xei'ov
ICTTIV *
OVK ov.
Cf.
ih.
10. 14.
Orat.
text of Schwartz).
VII.
197
is
found in another
of
form in Athenagoras
God,
it
He
alone
in
it.
found
also
But
its
importance was
soon seen.
It
had probably
monotheism
a philosophical form
it
God had
created
but
* 2
its
4.
Ad
adds, Tt 8e fikya
2
^eos e^
v-!roKet[XV)]S
is
Hermas, Aland.
to.
which
is
expressed
tou
[xi]
ovtos
3.
etS
to etVat
4.
i.
sage
5. 8.
20.
p.
Eusebius, H. E.
1. 5,
7: Origen, de princip.
:
3, vol.
61, 2.
p. 79,
elsewhere)
this
and which
where to ov
=
is
TO voj^Tov, which
to
ot5k
ov
:
to
alcrO-qrov,
which
i^rj
Kal Trav6[j.evov
the meaning of to
ov
dXXd
to
/xt)
ov,
whence
clear that to
p.
/xy]
ov
= to
Kosmologie,
123).
it is
phrases occur,
In some of the other passages in which similar not clear Avhether the conception is more than that
to exist
errotrja-ev
of an artist who,
exist before
i.
2 Clem.
8, e/caXeo-ev
:
yap
rjfids
rj9e\-t)(TV
(K
fj,r]
ovTOi (TvaL
rjixas
Clementin. Horn,
3. 32,
tci /x>|
oVto
ts
tj
198
VII.
way
to
felt
lite-
strongly.
one
is
the treatise of
is
a dialogue
ascribed to an otherwise
unknown Maximus.^
insoluble difficulties
Both
to explain
was found
was found
God
created
(ii.)
its
qualities
and form
The
difficulty
of the question
tide of
thought
ovpavov
(jVtwi'
Tats Si
aAAais ovk
p)
uvTiov.
7}
In Theopliilus, these
v\i] in
v7T0Ke.ip.kvi)
such a
way
1.4;
TrdvTa
oj/
2.
10,
e^ ovk ovtwi'
vXi]'i
tu iravra
kiroUt tov
eTTOLijcrev
2. 4,
tl 81
p.kya
f.1
o ^eo?
to.
k^
v7roKeLp.kvy]<;
iironjcrev.
In the
:
hiter
books
p)
= void
space
and elsewhere
reprinted in Eouth,
Reliquiae Sacrae,
87.
VII.
199
was that
plurality
of mediation.
and variety
of the effects,
They
indica-
to Scripture
saw an
make man."^
Another current
of
first
In some schools
was combined
The view
up out
Greek.
into
ultiitself
On
and the
belief in
On
Justin
M. Tryph.
Q'2;
(i.
Iren. 1. 24,
25; Hippol.
7.
16,
20: so
/xo'
Philo,
de irrofug. 13
ovv
rr^s
^I'X^'
avTov
T)(^vy]y.
The
200
VII.
chaos,
of the Logos as
mode
God.
affinity for
and
were
new
in Philo
earliest
not always
is
activity, or as
In either
because
view,
His supremacy
rival,
was
as absolute as
His unity
there
was no
was God.
at once beneficent
How
could a
and almighty create a world which contained imperfection and moral evil? The question was answered, as we
have
on the monistic theory of creation by the It was answered on the dualistic hypothesis of a lapse.
seen,
but
it
and
disorder.
says, " If
The Jew through whom Celsus sometimes speaks Logos ir the Son of God, we also assent to the same."
2. 31.
youu
Origcn,
c CeU*
Til.
201
The
latter hypothesis is
distinction
which
He
Platonic conception,
God
Himself, in a certain
mode
of
His
activity,
inferior
was the Creator (Demiurgus), and the agents were beings whom He had created.^
In the conception which grew up early in the second century, and which was first formulated by Marcion, the
Creator was detached from the Supreme God, and conceived as doing the
was subordinate
derived from
finite
to
:
Him ^ but looming large in the horizon of thought, He seemed to be a rival and an adversary.
ability,
The
The same
solu-
Testaments.
of the
It
Old and New had been already thought that the God
di:fferent
Jews was
made
so deep a
Law and
the Gospel,
the Flesh and the Spirit, that the two were regarded as
inherently hostile,
Cf. Origen,
c.
Cels. 4. 54.
'
Hippol.
c.
Noet. 11.
202
VII.
of love
and
grace.^
The
was
it
that,
in spite of its
tended to ditheism.
The
The enormous wave of belief in the Divine Unity, which had gathered its strength from the whole sea of contemporary thought, swept away the
barriers in its path.
The moral
difficulty
was
solved, as
we
free-will
God with matter were solved, partly by the that God created matter, and partly by the
that
conception
conception
is
He moulded
it
also
The
it
first patristic
is
:
in Irenseus
and
it
seems
to of
states it as part of
is
^
:
only
it
There
is
one Almighty
God who
by His
Word and
1
many
contributions of Professor
Harnack
he has vindicated Marciou from the excessive disparagement which has resulted from the blind adoption of
to early Christian history tliat
Bd.
2
i.
pp.
22G
:
1.
22
cf. 4.
20.
VII.
203
all
By
the
Word
of
the Lord were the heavens made, and all the host of them by the Breath of His mouth and again, All things were made by Him, and without Him was not anything made that was made. There is no exception the Father made all things by Him,
:
:
whether
by angels
He made them not by any powers separated from His Thought for God needs none of all these beings but it is by His Word and His Spirit that He makes and disposes and governs and presides
or
:
over
all things.
This
this
God who
and
the
of Isaac,
God
of Jacob, above
whom there
this
The same view is expressed with equal prominence and emphasis by a disciple of Irenseus, who shows an
even stronger impress of the philosophical speculations
of his time
^
:
first
and
sole
warm
:
fire,
or
but
He
was
one, alone
will
He made
the things
that are, that before were not, except so far as they existed in
This supreme and only God begets Eeason first, having formed the thought of him, not reason as a spoken word, but as an internal mental process of the universe. Him alone did He beget from existing things for the Father himself constituted existence, and from it came that which was begotten. The cause of the things that came into being was the
His foreknowledge
Him who
begat
when
come
204
scliool
became the
It appealed,
went
on, to a
the judgment of average Christians on the main philosophical questions of the second century.
The questions
all
idealists of Alexandria,
its difficulties,
God who
this
culties
modified also
their
The cosmogony of Origen was a His aim was less to show in detail how the theodicy. world came into existence, than to ''justify the ways of
view
God
to
man."
He
manner
of life
he was a Christian, in
God he was
a Greek.
He
followed
was
existences,
He
differed from,
Word
or
Wisdom
of God,
by whom He made
the world,
His Son, and that both the existence of the Son and the
ap.
Euseb. H. E.
6. 19.
2. 9. 1, 6.
205
all eternity.'
For
it is
God
and
it is
Wisdom
should
was
varying ways
is,
it
to be, the
Son caused
to
be rational:
another
is,
visible
and
invisible,
who conveyed
its
beginning in time
last, of
but
not the
first,
nor will
it
be the
such worlds.^
The matter
God.^
It
of
it
was created by
it
Him
will return.
The
Stoical theory
had conceived
of the
universe as
it
a similar seed
:
so did
all
2
Deprincip.
1. 2. 2.
m^i
2. 2,
10.
Ibid. 1. 3. 5, 6, 8,
* Ibid. 2. 6. 3.
Ibid.
3. 5. 3.
Ibid. 2. 9. 4.
206
VII.
it
recognized
were
eternities
which we are
part.
In them,
:
all rational
originally equal
and free
and
a complement,
of the hypothesis of
human
freedom,
Large elements
of this theory
But
it
which distinguished
it
by a
rival
God was
many
inconsis-
which
and in
But the
God with
seriously disturbed.
The
close
of the controversy
difierent,
was marked by its transference to a though allied, area. It was no longer Theolo-
of the sole
came
to
YII.
207
economy"
In
this
of the Father,
Holy
Spirit.
new
area of con-
The monistic
and
dualistic
of
God, and in
In the determination
Greek philosophy
it
had a no
ments
less
controversies
of that determination
we
shall
be concerned in a
future Lecture.
We may sum up
universe,
by saying
that
it
Hebrew monotheism.
nities to believe as
commuThe
influ-
they had
first
moral
difficulties of
human
life,
But
is
men, which
the
for
ultimate solvent of
all
philosophical theories,
had
down
unity of God.
permanent as
difficulties in
it
it
Power
limited
by the existence
difficulties in
the belief in a
God
who
The dominant
Theistic philosophy
208
TII.
of Greece
tianity.
It prevailed in
in substance.
God
as the Artificer
its
immanent
"will
may
change.
"of Him,
:
to
Him, are
all
it
not impossible that, even after this long lapse of centhe Christian world
turies,
to that con-
ception of
Him
He
is
"not
in
"He
is
in
us and
we
Him;"
He
is
and that
He who
moving universe
itself is
ing manifestation of
Him.
Lecture YIIT.
The
as
we
of
But
it
it
in the idea of
change
traced, it
movements
of
It could be expressed
by numbers.
give to the
The philosopher
army.^
of
first to
being expressed by
That a certain
ratio should
it is, is
1
inconceivable.
327), Iiv9ay6pa<;
oAwv
avTw
rcigews.
210
VIII.
conceived of
tlie
Cosmos conceived
,
metaphysicians
who
followed
The length of a man's life and his measure of endowments had been spoken of as his " share" or " portion."
of this portion to a
man
men
It
itself
was viewed
it
actively, as
was sometimes
any
was,
in
case, inevitable.^
Through
its
character of inevi-
things are
by
necessity,"
Aetius, ibid.
1.
25
effii]
Trepi-
Kela-Oai
"
tw
koct/xw'
Kara dvayKi^v.
For
tlie
may be made
^
Homerische Theologie,
2.
2.
3; Nacli-
homerische Theologie,
Aetius, ui supra,
27 (Diels,
p. 322),
flfjLapiJLevrjv,
Kal dvdyKrjv
the identification of
uvdyK-r}
a a
made by Parraenides and Democritus in But in much later times continuation of the passage quoted above. distinction was sometimes drawn between the two words, dvdyKrj
and
elfiapixevq is also
:
being used of the subjective necessity of a proposition of which the AIba. Aphrcdia. QucBst. Nat. 2. 5 (p. 96, contradictory is unthinkable
ed. Spengel), recrcrapa
yovv
to. 81s
Svo e^ dvdyKi]<s, ov
elixapfxevqv
;
/xrjv
KaO
etfiap-
Ka&
but,
on the other
av KaO
elfiapfjihriVt
VIII.
211
Over against the personal might of Zeus there thus came to stand the dark and formless fixity of an impersonal Destiny.^ The conception was especially elaborated by the Stoics. In the older mythology from which it had sprung, its personifications had been spoken of sometimes as the daughters of Zeus and Themis, and some-
working.
It
nent.
was an " eternal, continuous and ordered movement."^ It was ''the linked chain of causes."^ The
idea of necessity passed into that of intelligent and in-
herent force
that of law.
human
race,
The Greek
times
is
modem
not
civil
but
was an ideal
society, the
embodied
(arua-rrnu.a').^
were
all
affect,
koI TeTayjxhrjv
SO, in
other words,
1.
28, 06 SrwtKot
ei/)/xov alriCiv:
Ic.
de divin.
1.
55,
'
ordinem seriemque
em
At?
D.
ex so gignat.'
was
a-va-T-q/xa
Alex. Stroni.
2C
cf.
Ariua
p2
212
whole
;
VIII.
was
ideal
expressed in
society.^
its
its
laws.
It consisted of gods
;
The moral law was a reason inherent in human nature, prescribing what men should do, and forbidding what they should not do
rulers
the
1/
human laws were but appendages of it.^ man was a " citizen of the world." ^ To
man, as
to
In
this sense
each individual
every other created being, the administrators had assigned a special task. " Thou be Sun: thou hast
the power to go on thy circuit and
the seasons, to
lull
make
make
fruits
grow and
ripen, to stir
and
the winds, to
warm
the bodies of
men
go thy way,
so fulfil
army
to Ilium:
power
to fight in
The
was unchangeable.
:
* The idea is found in almost all Stoical writers Plutarch, de Alex. Magn. virt. 6, speaks of 17 iroAv Oavjxa^oixkvii TroAtTeia tov t)v Stwikwi/
'
(rvvka-TqKiv
avdp(l)Tr(Jiv
:
KaX
Epict. Diss.
1, 9.
2. 13. 6
3.
22. 4
3. 24.
10
4,
most fully
ouVw nal o
15.
OlOl'Cl TToAlS
tCTTtV iK
CTWCCTTOJIXa,
TWV ukv
Oiiov
*
Ti)i'
dvOpwirtov VTroTeray^ercov.
Philo, de Josepho, 6
46),
Aoyos
[j.ev (jjv
TrpaKTeov aTrayopevTLKos Se
wv ov
ixtv
\ap
ot
Kara
TroAets I'ojxoi
tov
t>}s (^vcrecos
opdov Aoyov.
VIII.
213
conception,
bound by
" That
which
all
Is it that
they would not ? I for my part think that if they had been able they would have placed the other things also in our power but
;
'
Epictetus,
been
is
possible, I
would have made thy body and thy But as it is, forget not that
thy body
And
since
I could not do
making
or not
;
making
dulging desire
in short, the
the power of indulging or not inpower of dealing with all the ideas
of thy mind."'i
by side with this conception of destiny were growing up new conceptions of the nature of the gods. The gods of wrath were passing away. The awe of the
2.
Side
and the earthquake, which had underlain the primitive religions, was fading into mist. The meaner conceptions which had resulted from a vividly realized anthropomorphism, the malice and spite and intrigue which
make
earlier
mythology read
court,
European
Two
gradually asserted
just,
They punished wicked deeds, not by an arbitrary vengeance, but by the operation of unfailing laws.
1
Epict. Diss.
1.
1.
10;
cf.
Seneca, de Provid.
5. 7,
'non potest
it
artifex
tion,
mutare mateiiam.'
a ques
Diss. 4. 3. 10.
214
VIII.
them
after death.
of their kindness,
The gods were also good. The idea which in the earlier religion had been
The con-
with the Stoical teleology .2 The God who was the Eeason
of the world, and
immanent
in
it,
was working
to
an end.
also
member
of the whole.
In the
sphere of
human
life,
The forethought
It
God was
worked by
tetus,^
\
self-acting laws.
"There
it
"punishments appointed as
were by law to
"Whoever
those
who
man
feel
him be him
flattered, let
him be unquiet
is
whoever thinks
be unhappy."
^
And
again:
"This
is
the law
divine
Nach-
The data
which
religion
given in a note
to God, e.g. in
2
the student
i.
is
homerische Tlieologic,
17
58.
Epict. Diss.
3 j^isg^ 3. 11. 1.
7III.
215
greatest
it ?
him be vainglorious administration, let him slave, let him feel grief, let him bemoan himself
let
:
the
man who
be mean-spirited,
him be a
;
in short,
and be unhappy."
human
forces
the activity of
created things,
the conceptions of
conceptions
of
men, to approach
in the
was
rational because
;
it
and
it
was
incident to perfection,
blending of the
two conceptions into one the identification, fii'st of Destiny with Eeason;^ and, secondly, of Destiny or Eeason
1 2
Diss.
3.
Destiny
1.
Eeason
pMlos.
28. 1; Stob.
Ed.
15 (Diels,
ovcrtas
Chrysippus, ibid.
Koa-fxco
to,
TOV
KocTfJLov
Aoyos
17
Adyos Twv v Tw
yeyovdra yeyoj/e
Trpovoi^
owtKov/xevwi/
rj
Adyos Kad ov
to. /iev
8e
yivoneva
216
VIII.
with Providence.^
raclitus,
The former
of these is
found in Hedistinguishes
but
is
who
what comes into being by necessity, from what is wrought by mind: the elaboration of both the former and the latter is due to the Stoics, growing logically out of their
conception of the universe as a single substance
moved
many cases a change rather of language than of idea when Destiny or Eeason or Providence was spoken of as God ^ and yet
by an inherent law.
It
was probably
in
by an
all
intuition
which transcended
and
immu-
ytVerai
Zeno
ap. Ar.
iu Stob.
EcL
1.
Xoyov ov
evioc
et/xap/ievTjv KaXov(TLV.
^
Destiny, or Reason,
is
Providence
:
Zeno
Ed.
1. 5.
p.
322).
is
Chry-
5,
on
S'
7;
Xoyos
ilfiapfievy]
uiTtS*
[sc.
o X/3U(rt7r7ros] op^ws
c})vcnv
Kal
tt^v*
twv oAcuv
Kad
ijv
Trdura
StoiKUTat.
e;(ii'
id.
5,
ouSe ToijAa;^ta-Tov
/3ovXi]<tlv
:
ecm
twi' [lepujv
aAAws dXX
Kara
Trjv
rov Aios
Arius Didymus,
:
Philodecius, de
Gomportz,
p.
83 (Diels,
p. 30G),
p. 549).
The more
is
exact state1. 7.
ment
Stob.
is
in the
1. 2.
summary
17,
Ed.
29 (Diels,
where God
said to
comprehend
iljiap^
o~7rep[j.aTLKovi
yiveTai.
Tlie loftiest
2.
Lucan, Pharsal.
of i\ite or
form of the conception is expressed by 10, 'se quoque lege tenens:' God is not tke slave
it.
VIII.
217
God.
3.
Eeason
moral
filled
failure.
a large
The problems which the fact suggested place in later Greek philosophy, and were
ways.
solved in
many
The
solution
of the
universality of Providence.
God
is
good: evil
is
due
to other causes.^
found
Plato,
its first
who
it
incorporated
Platonic elements.
Platonic form
assumed the
who
ultimately
owed
their
He
permitted or overlooked.
itself
In some
later
forms the
view linked
inherently evil.
The
* Plat.
solution
in a denial
Rep.
2, pp.
Tim.
p. 41.
Pliilo,
de mund. opif.
24
(i,
35
(i.
t^
iravr]yejxovL k^iirpeirh
ov X^P'^'
KaKiav oSov Iv ^'^XV ^oyiKrj 8i lavTOV 8r]/XL0vpfier avrov iireTpeif/e t-)]^ tovtov tov [xepovs Karacr556), avayKalov ovv rjyrjcraTO T7)v KaKcav ycvecnv
Kivrjv:
deprofvg. 13
(i.
SO also
Abraham. 28
(ii.
22).
The other
is
stated
(is
vpocTKeLTai.
218
VIII.
They were
all
either
its
operation or essentia)
production.
It
Stoics.
This was the common solution of the had many phases. One view was based upon
The world
is
march-
ing on to
its
:
end
it realizes its
by degrees there are necessary sequences of its march which seem to us to be evil.^ Another view, akin to the
preceding,
as a whole.
tions
was based upon the conception of the world In its vast economy there are subordinaSuch subordinaof the plan.
tions
The pain
What about my leg being lamed, then ?" says Epictetus,^ addressing himself
bution to the good of the whole.
in the character of
an imaginary objector.
"Slave
do
you
will
you not
let it
to the
Giver ?"
The world,
{oIkovoixlo)^
was regarded
which
as an economy
This
is
the concrete
form of the
Kara
difficulty,
with which he
dealt,
was
at
twv
di'^pwTrojv voVot
and his answer was that diseases come Kara irapnon per naturam sed per sequellas quasdam necessarias,' Aul. Gell. 7 (G). 1. 9. So also in the long fragment of Philo in Euset. Pra;p. Ev. 8. 13 (Philo, ii. 643, G-44), ^eos yap ovSevos atVios KaKov to
(fivaiv y'lvovTai,
'
aKoXovOrjo-iv,
TTapdivav
d\X
iTraKoXovdovvTa.
2
Diss.
1.
12. 24.
YIII.
210
whole.^
"What
is
"by
if
distinguishing
'
'
according to nature
The phrases
'
are used as
For example, to a foot to be according to nature is to be clean; but if you consider it as a foot, a member of the body, and not as isolated, it will be its duty both to walk in mud, and to tread on thorns nay, sometimes even to be cut off for the benefit of
if it refuse, it is no longer a foot. We have to form a similar conception about ourselves. What are you ? A man. If you regard yourself as isolated, it is 'according to
to live until old age, to be rich, to be in good health you regard yourself as a man, a part of a certain whole, it is your duty, on account of that whole, sometimes to be ill, sometimes to take a voyage, sometimes to run into danger, sometimes to be in want, and, it may be, to die before your time. Why then are you discontented ? Do you not know that, as in the example a discontented foot is no longer a foot, so neither are you a man. For what is a man ? A member of a city, first the city which consists of gods and men, and next of the city which is so called in the more proximate sense, the earthly city, which is a small model of the whole. 'Am I, then, now,' you
nature
'
but
if
say,
'
is
so-and-so to
:
fall into
fever
to be
so-and-so to go on a voyage
so-and-so to die
so-and-so
sort of
this
atmosphere round
us,
and with
life,
on
that
if
a perfectly good
to him,
happen
^
man had foreknown what was going to he would co-operate with nature in both falling
2, ap.
Chrysippus, de Diis,
to,
dya^ois
(pavXoa
KoA-acrecus
\o.piv
2
aAAa
KttT
5.
aXXr^v otKovoju,iav
24.
rats
TroAecrii'.
Diss. 2.
220
sick
VIII.
and dying and being maimed, being conscious that this is is assigned to him in the arrangement of the universe, and that the whole is supreme over the part, and the city over the citizen."^
the particular portion that
if
be assumed,
adequate as an
But it was clearly inadequate as an explanation of misery and moral evil. And the sense of misery and moral evil was growing. The increased complexity of social life revealed the distress which it helped to create, and the
intensified consciousness of individual life
quickened also
The
which these
facts of
life pre-
was found in a
belief
which was
correlative to
His Providence.
their
men were
the authors of
own
misery.
own
folly or
They belonged
to a
margin
of life
which
The
is
belief
it
Out
of
of a
problem not
itself
less
important than
had
sprung.
The conception
free.
men were
to the
1
Diss. 2. 10. 6.
Aul. Gell. 7
(6). 2.
1215.
VIII.
GEEEK
221
first
and
freedom of the
will.
The freedom
to
to external nature
was asserted of
do
human
natiu'e.
It
right or wrong, to be
"
Of
all
in our
in a word,
Bear in mind, then, that if you mistake what is depenis free, and what belongs to others for what is your own, you will meet with obstacles in your way, you will
others.
be regretful and disquieted, you will find fault \vith both gods and men. If, on the contrary, you think that only to be your own which is really your own, and that which is another's to be,
as
it
really
is,
another's,
fault
harm
an enemy."
The
"antinomy
lines,
it
of the practical
understanding"
was
tha
not
them was sometimes stated as though had no limitations. The harmony of them, which is
and each
of
indicated
Endu
1.
Kg.
9.
222
VIII.
to
end, realizing
its
own
perfection,
tainty.
The majority
of its parts
move
march
To man
is
of
good
If
and
evil,
and freedom
is
of choice
he
against the
;
movement
of nature,
if
movement, he
man
fulfils his
destiny:
''
traliuntr^
It is a
so to educate his
that to
mind and discipline his will, as to think be best which is really best, and that to be avoided
:
who
is
stronger, but as
man
bemoaning the
to
diffi-
culties of
life,
send them,
but thank
Him
This
is
The
life
a commentary upon
Seneca, Dial.
1. 5.
fato.
grande
solatium est
cum
universo rapi.
mori
inrevocB bills
humana
ipse
omnium
conil'tor et rector
quidcm
fata,
sed scquitur.
VIII.
223
1
"Look
at the powers
God, what difficulty Thou wilt; for I them, say, 'Bring me, have the equipment which Thou hast given me, and the means
for
making
all
my
adornment.'
'
is
at the thought of
what may
you
sit
Then you
find
is
the consequence
of such degeneracy
And
yet
God
but
we may
it,
"^
the good
King and
it
He
is,
absolutely your own, not even reserving to Himself the power of thwarting or hindering
"
it."^
What words
gifts of
Providence to us
If
we were
really wise,
what should
we have been
God, and bless God, 'Great
;
hymns
?
to
Him and
recount His
gifts (ras
yipnai)
Digging
we not to be singing this hymn to God for having given us these tools for tilling the ground great is God for having given us hands to work with and throat to swallow with, for that we grow unconsciously and breathe while we sleep ? This ought to be our hymn for everyor ploughing or eating, ought
is
'
hymn should be for His having given us the power of understanding and of dealing since most of you are utterly bKnd rationally with ideas. Nay
to this
function,
be some one to make this his special and to sing the hymn to God for all the rest ? What else can a lame old man like me do but sing hymns to God ? If I were a nightingale, I should do the work of a nightingale if a swan, the work of a swan but being as I am a rational being, I must sing hymns to God. This is my work this I do this
to
;
rank
with
as
me
far as I
can
to join
in this
same song."^
1
3740.
Hid.
16.
15 2 L
224
VIII.
The Christian
Idea.
we seem
to
be breathing the
us,
air of Syria,
guage which
with
its
is
city,
orderly government,
we have
to substitute the
picture of
his dependents
and
their judge.
Two
conceptions are
dominant, that of wages for work done, and that of positive law.
1.
The idea
of
master
who
will in
it,
was a
whom
the day's
The
ethical problems
by the teaching
all
them
The
men
them
in heaven.-
The
smallest act
wages.^
Son
S.
of
The payment will be made Man, whose " wages are with
G.
S.
Matthew,
5.
12;
Luke,
9.
23.
Ibid.
6.
1.
Ihid.
10.42; S.Mark,
41.
VIIT.
225
him
to
to give to every
is
man
So fundamental
"he
that cometh
is,"
God must
He
but also
that
He "pays
due
to
after
Him."^
L/
still
So also in the early Christian literature which moved within the sphere of Syrian ideas. In the " Two
is
Ways," what
in the Epistle of
is
blended
"The Lord
judges without
he has done
before
if
go
him
if
wicked-
God
is at
The
underlying conception
who
issues definite
commands, who
gratified
by obe-
made angry by disobedience, who gives prewho please him and punishes those with whom he is angry. The punishments which he inflicts are vindictive and not remedial. They are the manifestation of his vengeance against unrighteousness. They are external to the ofi'ender. They follow on the offence by the sentence of the judge, and not by a self-acting
dience and
sents to those law.
He
sends
men
into
punishment.
^
/ico-^os
The introduction
1
Revelation, 22, 12
avTov.
^
Hebrews, 11.
Didaclie,
6.
4. 7, Y'wcri]
yap
KaAos avTairoSorr)^.
Bariiab. 4. 12.
226
VIII.
solved,
if
indeed they
The
chief of
The
Christian conception of
God on
its ethical
side
who had issued commands: He was a Householder who had entrusted His servants with powers to be used in His service. As Sovereign, He
God was
a Sovereign
could, at
as Householder,
to
He
Him
The
sj)ecial
message of the
men
their
and
Jesus Christ.
I
'/^
come
to
The order
It
If
(was rational
it
was
universal.
The punishment There was a of its violation came by a self-acting law. possibility of amendment, but there was none of remisEach of these conceptions is consistent with itseK sion.
could not be violated with impunity.
:
each by
itself
But
Christian theology
cile
world,
The one conception belonged to a moral by a Personality who set forces in motion the other to a physical world, controlled by a force which was also conceived as a Personality. Stated
them.
controlled
;
VIII.
227
God
is
God
is just.
The two
first to
be
"p
infi;
God excluding
on
The
difficulty
seemed insoluble,
by the conception that the second God had been created by the first, and was ultimately subordinate to Him. In the theology of
The ditheism was sometimes
veiled
Marcion, which
filled
the other
of
is full,
and
of
which that
Law and
^
Grace
The
ISTew
existimant igitur
quemdam
esse
quod bene
fieri
omnibus debeat
indignus
sit is
cui beneficium datur nee bene consequi mereaesse talem qui unicuique
quodam
ferri
'
adversus eos.
The
title of
Contrasts': the
e.g.
Justin
M. Apol.
by the
1.
26, os
Twv
8at/i.oi'OJv
(jvXX'i]\p(.oi<i
TToXXovs
TreTrolrjKe
Xkyetv,
Iren. 3. 3. 4,
and
also
by side with the Catholic an inscription "of one of them, Waddington, vol. iii. iSTo. 2558, and they
is
at the
:
95)
him
is
shown
by the
Martyr,
large place
Ii'enteus,
which he occupies in
to refute him.
^ n
228
VIII.
the
God
of for-
The
ditheistic hypothesis
it
more
difficult
than
explained.
The
writers
who
opposed
it
of evangelical tradition,
They
God
with every
man
that of repentance.
The
who
argues that in
God would
bestow
God
also good, so as to
favours on those on
lie should,
whom He
whom
Judge neither wise nor just. On the other hand, if the good God be only good, and not also able to test those on whom He shall bestow His goodness, He will be uutside goodness as well as outside justice, and His goodness will seem imperfect, inasmuch as it does not save all, as it should do if it be not accompanied with judgment. Marcion, therefore, l)y dividing God into two, the one a God who judges, and the other a God who is good, on both sides puts an end to God."*
He
will he as a
1 Iren. 3. 25. 2.
VIII.
229
It is
by an almost unconscious
transition
from physical
to
God
it
in its physical
making
of an
moral operation
is good which is unjust; all that is just is good where the just is. From the beginning of the workl the Creator has been at once good and just. The two qualities came forth together. His goodness formed the world, His justice
"Nothing
is
The good
harmonized
tion
it.
It is the
work
is
a separa-
between light and darkness, between day and night, between heaven and earth, between the greater and the lesser lights As goodness brought all things into being, so did justice distin-
The whole universe has been disposed and ordered Every position and mode of the the movement and the rest, the rising and the setting elements,
guish them.
by the
When
God
evil
the result
is
is
dispensed
is
it
is
it is
avenged on
In
this
:
way
this
whole
function of justice
an agency
for goodness
in condemning, in
it,
you
JMarcionites express
It is
an element
Tert.
c.
Marc.
2. 11, 12.
Homil.L 13;
9.
19;
18. 2,3.
230
VIII.
God
is
good
wc must know
it is
He
just."^
It is elaborated
;
by both Clement
of
Alex-
linked closely
in his time
was
settling
down
mind
other in the
of
God
God
(ii.)
as a
But
this
problem in Greek
good God
to
moral
evil.
its
The
difficulties of the
problem
Iwere increased in
Christian form
by the conception
knowledge.
by Marcion
God
is
why
did
He
is
to say
own
substance, to be tricked
?
by the
if
For
He
had been good, and thereby unwilling that such an event should happen, and prescient, and thereby not ignorant that it would happen, and powerful, and thereby able to prevent its happening, it would certainly not have happened, being impossible under But since it did these three coii(li':ions of divine greatness.
1
Recogn.
3.
37.
p. 233.
Especially Padag.
1. 8, 9.
See below,
231
certain that
God must be
believed to be
The hypothesis
of the existence of
was
by the great mass of the Christian communities. The solution which they found was almost
uniformly that of the Stoics
production of moral virtue
there
It
is
: :
there
is
no virtue where
free to choose.
no choice
was found,
"
This solution
The nature
:
be capable of vice
and virtue for no one of them would be an object of praise if it had not also the power of turning in the one direction or the
other." 2
It is
"
is
found in Tatian
of the
Each
two
born with a power of self-determination, not absolutely good by nature, for that is an attribute of God alone, but brought to perfection through freedom of voluntary choice, in order that the
bad man may be justly punished, being himself the cause of his being wicked, and that the righteous man may be worthily praised for his good actions, not having in his exercise of moral
freedom transgressed the will of God."^
It is
"
found in Irenseus
as in angels, for angels also are rational beings,
In
man
who have
might justly be in possession of what is good and that those not obeyed may justly not be in possession of what is good, and may receive the punishment which they deserve But if it had been by nature that some were bad and others
1
ap. Tert.
c.
Marc.
2. 5.
j^p^i g. 7.
* Tatian, Orat.
ad
Grcec. 7.
232
VIII.
inasmuch as they were born so. But since in fact all men are of the same nature, able on the one hand to hold fast and to do what is good, and again on the other hand to reject it and not do it, it is right for them to be in the one case praised for their choice of the good and their adherence to it, and in the other case blamed and punished for their rejection of it, both among well-governed men and much more in the sight
blame
of God."i
It is
human nature, so Tertullian* answers Marcion's objection, that if God foreknew that Adam would fall He
should not have made him
the goodness of
God
in
was
''the
And
just as
life
as a
and
means
of
Iren. 4. 37.
Ad
Autoh
2.
27.
Legcit. 31.
5
* c.
1,
Marc.
2. 5.
2. 10.
1; Origen, de princ.
G;
c.
OeU,
6.
56
so
all
Tert. Scorjy. 5.
VIII.
233
There was
The hypothesis
sessed
it
had|
pos-
who
natural aptitudes.
difference
The
difficulty
was strongly
felt
school
more
applied,
also
to*
whole and
who
above
it.
"Very many
it is
the
God in making the world to some creatures an abode in the heavens, and not merely a better abode, but also a loftier and more honourable position to grant to some principahty, to others powers, to others dominations to confer upon some the noblest seats of the heavenly tribunals, to cause others to shine out with brighter rays, and to flash forth the brilHance of a star to give to some the glory of the glory of the moon, and to others the the sun, and to others
inconsistent with the justice of assign to
; ;
to
make one
star differ
from another
star in
men
than ta
is
is
begotten by
according to promise
another
womb, is said even before he is born to be beloved of God. One man is born among the Hebrews, among whom he finds the learning of the divine law ; another among the Greeks, themselves also wise and men of no
and, supplanting his brother even in the
small learning
another
among the
Ethiopians,
who
are canni-
234
bals
;
VIII.
another
"
among the Taurians, who offer their guests in sacrifice. They consequently argue thus If this great diversity of
:
is
not caused by a
And
if
that
no longer be credible either that the world was made by God or that it is governed by His proconclusion be admitted,
will
vidence and consequently neither will the judgment of God upon every man's doings seem a thing to be looked for."^
:
theology of Origen
is relative.
on the basis
whole, and
of philosophical theism.
It is necessary to
it is
^
:
of his
view as a
own words
"
all things, as
there will be
M'ill
The
lie
They were created absolutely equal had no reason in Himself for causing
being an advantage which
^
for,
inequalities
He
He
They
Origeu, de princ.
2. 9. 5.
follows is, with the exception of one extract from the contra Celsum, a catera of extracts from tho de 'princi^iis,
-
1.
6. 2.
M.
8.
2;
2. 9. 7.
1. 8. 4.
VIII.
235
were
also,
by a
;
being diverse
none save
it must be accidental, and conseThe lapse, when it takes place, is voluntary for every being endowed with reason has the power of exercising it, and this power is free ^ it is excited by external causes, but not coerced by them.^ For to lay the fault on external causes and put it away from ourselves by declaring that we are like logs or stones, dragged by forces that act upon them from Every created rational without, is neither true nor reasonable. being is thus capable of both good and evil consequently of praise and blame consequently also of happiness and misery of the former if it chooses holiness and clings to it, of the latter if by sloth and negligence it swerves into wickedness and ruin.*
God
The
will,
lapse,
when
it
is
Some
beings,
though possessed of
never lapsed
slightly,
Some
lapsed
but
'
opposing powers
all
been determined by their own conduct.'^ "The present inequalities of circumstance and character are
their place has
life.
But
this
world
is
it
Every soul has existed has therefore passed through some worlds
and will pass through others before it reaches the final consummation. It comes into this world strengthened by the Its victories or weakened by the defeats of its previous life. dishonour or to place in this world as a vessel appointed to
honour
is
1
determiiaed
1. 5.
by
its
Its
5;
1. 6. 2.
3. 1. 4.
3 3. 1. 5.
1, 5. 2, 5.
6 1. 6. 2.
1. 6. 3.
7 3. 3,
3. 5. 3.
236
work
VIII.
is to
follow
sight of God.
It is
which created beings are themwrought together into the harmony of the
is
when
it
lapses
All
punishments are remedial. God calls what are termed evils into existence to convert and purify those whom reason and admonition fail to change.
He
is
The process
suffering,
of cure, acting as
For God
is
long-
some souls, as to some bodies, a rapid cure is But in the end all souls will be thoroughly not beneficial. purged.* All that any reasonable soul, cleansed of the dregs of all vices, and with every cloud of wickedness completely wiped away, can either feel or understand or think, will be wholly God:
and
to
will no longer either see or contain anything else but God God will be the mode and measure of its every movement and Nor will there be any longer any distincso God will be all.'
it
:
'
evil,
for
God
is
all things,
and in
Him
no evil inheres.
So, then,
when
it
the end has been brought back to the beginning, that state of things will be restored which the rational creation had
when
;
knowledge and He all sense of wickedness will have been taken away evil who alone is the one good God becomes to the soul all,' and There will be no longer that not in some souls but 'in all.'
had no need
;
of good
'
3.
1.
20, 21
but sometimes beings of higher merit are assigned may benelit those who properly belong to
may
G,
e.
Cds.
56; de princ.
2.
10.
* Dej^rinc. 3.
11, 17.
VIII.
237
wmbe'alliuaU.'"^
Of
been generally
it,
accepted.
have had a
share.
it
later history in
The
has
in the marshes
which
it
has descended.
The
ment
of the
human
The
its
sections
have con|
ceived of this
life
admitted a probation in a
into the recognized
'
body of
God.
3. 6. 3.
Lecture IX.
Jemsh world
It
was shaped.
was
of
upon a Jewish
basis.
way
Christianity
by
their
its_
Christianity
won
of its satisfy-
On
had, as
we have
Stoicism; on
theological side
And
those
it.
They gave
faith,
a philosophical
to those
and especially
of St.
Paul had
earlier
The
c.
7'ri/ph. 2.
IX.
239
and
dialectics
example, of
The conception, for the one God whose kingdom was a universal
all ages,
blended with,
conception of a Being
The conception that " clouds and darkness were round about Him," blended
space.
Being who was beyond not only human sight but human
thought.
The conception
of
it
His unity
and that
His incommunicability,
gave a philo-
of a mediator,
was
its
But the
prevail,
theories
of specu-
two
centuries of conflict.
At every
philosophical schools.
The
stages,
conflict
may be
said to have
His revelation
nature.
of
l^Tearly
seven hun-
240
IX.
time
when
Christianity
first
came
into
of a
large
contact with
mind
of
ences of
Greek thinker, outstripping the slow inferpopular thought, had leapt to the conception
God
He was
the ultimate
abstraction of
or
is
sight,
all
of
Him
it
hearing."
But
is
its first
:^
metaphysics was
first
securely laid
by a second form
first
half-a-century
it is
everywhere
entire,
a continuous unity, a
perfect s^Dhere
able.
which
fills all
Over against
:
it
are the
objects of sense
have
of
them
is
not truth,
form,
But the conception, even in this second was more consistent with Pantheism than with
It
Theism.
was
lifted to the
it
God
be-
Absolute
of the earliest
t]
Greek philosophy
crco/iacri
tois
Suvct/xeis,
29.
The form
in whicli
it is
iv
that to nat
Tracrt,
IX.
241
Mind
for
mind
the modes of
:
its
it
but
can
itself
go behind
its
modes, and so
retire, as it
were,
In
this
sense
God
is
transcendent
rtj?
ova-la?^^
of
God
therefore
is to say,
Mind, a form
sejDait,
from
all
matter, that
capable of being
God
The
history of
it is
beyond
in
Plutarch, in Maxi-
mus
^
of Tyre,
is
This
a post-Platonic
summary of
Plato's conception
into the
it
inner development,
Plato's
in
own
writings
is
It is
more
know
what he was supposed to mean than Avhat lie meant. The above is taken from the summary of Aetius in Plut. de plac. pliilos. 1. 7, Euseb. The briefest Pnejj. evang. 14. 16 (Diels, Doxografphi Grceci, p. 304). and most expressive statement of the transcendence of God (to dyadov)
in Plato's
own
writings
is
probably Republic,
p.
Tou dyaOov,
dW cVi
vrep-
It
this
and Stoicism.
242
IX.
Plutarch says
"
What, then,
is
is
It is the Eternal,
whom
Tor time
it is
after,
belongs to the
and that not in time but in eternity, motionless, timeless, changeless eternity, tbit has no before or after and being One, He fills eternity with one aSTow, and so really is/ not 'has been,' or 'will be,' without beginning and without
is
: :
But God
'
ceasing."^
Maxinius
"
of
Tyre says
all
He
who
older than the sun, older than the sky, greater than time
and lapse of time and the whole stream of nature, is unnamed by legislators, and unspoken by the voice and unseen by the eyes and since we cannot apprehend His essence, we lean upon words and names and animals, and forms of gold and ivory and silver, and plants and rivers and mountain-peaks and springs of waters, longing for an intuition of Him, and in our inability naming by His name all things that are beautiful in this world
:
of ours."-
And
" It
tells
again
Father and Begetter of the universe that Plato
tell us, for
is of this
:
us
he knew
not
felt
;
it
not
nor
does he
lie
Him
nor His
size, for
touched
Him
not.
^ Ph;tavch, de Ei ap. Delph. 18; cf. Ocelkis Lucanus in the Augustan Age, ap. Diels, 187, Mullach, i. p. 383 sq. The universe has no beginning and no end it always was and always Avill be (1. 1. p. 388). It
:
moon, the
moon marks
400).?
the limit
aet Okovros
a^
-
1, p.
394,
2. 23, p.
Max. Tyr.
Diss. 8. 9.
IX.
243
voice,
is unseen by the sight, untouched by fleshly touch, unheard by through its likeness to Him, and heard
only
through
its
"how
Let us
call
not
Him,
wdio
only
way
in
is
alone.
We must,
then, gaze
which we can pray, alone to Him upon Him in the inner part
of us, as in a temple, being as He is by Himself, abiding still and beyond all things (cTre/ceti/a airavTuv). Everything that moves must have an object towards which it moves. But the One has no such object consequently we must not assert movement of Him. .... Let us not think of production in time, when we speak of things eternal. What then was produced was produced without His moving .... it had its being without His assenting or willing or being moved in anywise. It was like the light that surrounds the sun and shines forth from it, though the sun is itself at rest it is reflected like an image. So with what That which is next greatest comes forth from Him, is greatest. and the next greatest is vovs for vous sees Him and needs Him
;
. .
alone." ^
1
Max. Tyr.
17. 9.
5. 1.
^ Plotinus,
Enneades,
7)
cf.
1. 8,
where vovs
is
a/>iepccrTos,
distinguished from
irepl
ra crwyxara
iMepccrrr) (oucrta).
We are between
The
of the body to that of character and laws, of arts and sciences, utto Se
TMV dpeTwv
TTopecav, 1.
t^Stj
dva/3aiveiv
7rt
vovv,
eirl
to
ov,
2.
r2
244
13 lit
IX.
the conception of
It
capable
of
may be
God who
passes
are
beyond
all
phenomena
divisible,
by virtue
;
only by mind
or
it
may be
God who
exists
is
the other
supra-cosmic.
In either
;
He is
of
and
since the
ments
I
natural that
and
present to a writer's
mind
Greek philosophy.
It
blended in a
common
ing.
new
[The process
" I
well illustrated
by
Philo.]
The words
is full
am
thy
God"
secondary sense.
of itself
For Being,
q_iia
Being,
is
out of relation
itself
and
He
being better than virtue, better than knowledge, and better even
itself
;
itself.^
He
is
not in space,
but beyond
is
it
for
He
contains
it.
He
is
He
is itself tiie
father of time,
since from
movement time
*
;
proceeds.^
i.
He
is
"without body,
i.
228, 229.
IX.
{parts or
245
passions"
all
without
:
feet,
for
whither should
who
fills
things
whom
should
He walk He
receive anything
who
should
He
need eyes
how
the light.^
to gaze
He
is invisible, for
enough
upon
Maker.^
He
is
not
much less the human mind, can contain the conception of Him :^ we know that He is, we cannot know what He is:* we may see the manifestations of Him in His
even the whole universe,
works, but
it
were monstrous
folly to go
is
He
Side by
side
and
it,
of beings or
transcendent
God was
i.
281.
'
De Ahrah. 16;
ii.
ii.
12.
ii.
12,
ii.
654.
i.
*
6
De
proim.
et poen.
7;
i.
De post.
Cain, 48;
ii.
258.
Damtd. nom. 2;
580;
597.
The necessity
for
question
'real
how
In
far,
system.
The
God by
the express-
oucria,
p.
Sext.
Emp. Pyrrh.
242.
354;
cf.
246
i.
IX.
belief in
spirits
men.
The
belief
of the primitive
psychism
which peopled the whole universe with life and animaThere was an enormous contemporary develoption."^
ment
They are found in Epictetus, Dio Chrysostom, Maximus, and Celsns. In the latter some are good, some bad, most of them of mixed nature to them is due the creation of all things
of the idea of
dsemons or genii.
except the
human
soul
and the
was afforded
Stoical Locfoi
and the
We have
Greek cosmoimportant
logies
and cosmogonies.
less
The Forms according to which He shaped the world, the Forces by which He made and sustains it, the Eeasons which inhere in it and, like laws, control its movements,
Origen's idea of the lieavens in de ^^rinc. that Christians misunderstand Plato
ii. 3, 7, and Celsus' objection by confusing his heaven with the
Jewish heavens.
^
Origen,
c.
Cels. vi.
2.
19;
of.
Iveim, p, 84.
252.
Similarly, Thales, tu
ttu-v efixj/vxov
2 Cf.
ix. 86.
(Diels, 301);
Pythagoras, Empedocles in
;
Hippolytus, StotKoGvTcs
rot
Kara
Philo,
Tr]v
12;
15 (Diels,
1307)
8.
ii.
635
Oclsus, p.
u.
Mantik
IX.
247
communicate a knowledge
tures.
of it to
The
and Angels,
pass into
relative to
them
are interchangeable.
is
expression for
them
Logoi,
and
it
The Logos
it is itself
God
because
gence
is itself
an offshoot
of the Divine.
a revelation
Him.
to
apprehend God, and travelHng first of all meets with the divine Eeasons, and with them abides as a guest hut when he resolves to pursue the further journey, he is compelled to abstain, for the eyes of his understanding being opened, he sees
along the path of wisdom and knowledge,
;
is
afar off
him.'"-^
advance of
he does not
Divine Presence
off
but sees
Him
afar
off,
or rather not
^
even afar
419).
De
post Cain. 6
(i.
229).
248
IX.
infinitely far
What
he sees
is
not
God Himself but the likeness of who cannot gaze upon the sun may
of it."
^
The
Logos^ reflecting
not only the Divine nature, but also the Divine will and
the Divine goodness, becomes to
men
it
a messenger of
help
like
rescues
men from
all
kinds of evil;*
it
who
succours
them
what
a refuge.^
to
Like a king,
a teacher,
;
it
it
men ought
do
like
will benefit
them
best
like a counsellor,
who do not
know what
is
like a friend,
it tells
many
which
it is
not lawful
And
standing
it
not only
reflects
God downwards
to
man, but
also reflects
man
upwards
" It
God.
and
so
God, not begotten like ourselves, becomes not only an ambassador from the Euler to His
from mortal
man
yearning after
the immortal."^
The
from
1
its
functions, is expressed
somn.
1.
by
2
De
11
1 3.
(i.
(i.
(i.
630).
m^i
41 ^i 655)^
139).
(i.
8
*
Deprofug.
Leg. Alleg.
547);
(i.
so de Chcruh. 1
^ 7
G2
122).
/^^ gomn. 1. 15
633).
Ihid. 1.
33
Gi9).
42
(i.
501).
IX.
249
They
may
be gathered into
two
classes,
corresponding to the
The one
class of
metaphors belongs
to the monistic,
is
evolved from
God
in the
created
by Him.^
projected
The
by God
as a man's as
shadow
off
or his
thrown
by
it
after the
is
contains,
as a parhelion
by
the sun;^
it is
an outflow as
class
from a spring.*
^
The
chief
De
18
(i.
a/ia ejrotei
[j.rj8iv
fiiTa^v djx^oiv
:
Tibet's' et Se y^pi^
(ii.
epyov avTov
of the
de decern orac. 11
in
188),
LXX.
Exodus xx.
on the ground
6<f>daX[xol irpo
eiTTOL
2
dW
'^pya, direp
wTwv
Scopt^ovcrt
de mund. opif. 6
Oeov Aoyoi'
rjSrj
(i.
rj
koct/xottoioiji/tos.
The word
o-Kia
Homer, Odyss. 10. 495, and frequently in classical writers, of a ghost or phantom hence God is the TrapaSety/xa, the substance of which the
:
Logjs
is
3.
31
(i.
106)
hence also
cTKvi is
sense of either a
(i.
in de confus. ling. 28
427),
the Logos
3
is
De
somn.
41
(i.
656).
Quod
23
(i.
207),
250
is
IX.
that of a son
the Logos
is
the first-begotten of
God ;^
and by an elaboration
in later theology,
of the
is
God
Father,
Wisdom
as its Mother.^
God
God though
The
earlier conception
:
forms
it
the
Eeason led
:
Eeason
out of
made the world the conception to the conception of God as Personal that grew the thought of God as greater
it
as
His instrument
and
at last
had come the conception of the Eeason of God as in some way detached from Him, working in the world as a subordinate but self-acting law.
It
this
the metaphor of a
human
B.
its
Development in Christian
Theology.
(1) The Transcendence of God.
All
28
(i.
the conceptions
They
De
agric.
12
(i.
(i.
308): de con/us.
414),
ling.
427)
spoken of as
yvvi]Bi.i<i, ibid.
14
De
profug. 20
(i.
5G2)
(i.
so
God
is
cro<^ta in
dc Cherub. 14
148).
But
361),
God
is
the Father,
universe.
8
Knowledge the
mit. somn.
]\Iother,
Quod a Deo
i.
683.
IX.
251
phenomena phenomena come into being, God is unbegotten and without beginning: phenomena are visible and tangible, God is unseen and untouched.
of sensible
:
They
God is unchangeable, indivisible, unending. He has no name for a name implies the existence of something prior to that to which a name is given, whereas He is
:
all
negative
He
is
all things,
He
is self-existent,
He
is light.
"The
is
Father of
all," said
a primal light,
blessed, incorruptible,
and
infinite."
'-The essence of
is
incorruptibility
and self-existing
light, simple
and uniform."^
From
near to
God
:
is
absent.
God
is
men and
speaks to them
:
He
is
He
is
merciful to
He
does
all this
He
is
transcendent.
community
is
"We
and
Holy
Father, for
for the knowledge and immortality which Thou hast made known to us through Jesus Christ, Thy servant. To Thee be glory for ever.
to dwell in our hearts,
and
1-
i.e.
1.
30.
1.
* Ptolemseus, ad Flor.
7.
252
IX.
Thou, Almighty
Thy name's
and drink to men for their enjoyment, that they may give thanks to Thee and upon us hast Thou bestowed spiritual food and drink and eternal life through Thy servant. Before all things we give Thee thanks for that Thou art mighty to Thee be glory for ever."^
sake, hast given food
:
stress
was
laid
wasj that
God
that
and
is
everlasting, that
all
over
His works.^
:
physical discussion
of metaphysical conceptions.
some Christians
laid themselves
of believing that
God
is
only cog-
which denied
all
and
regarded
in Adoptian Christology.^
But most
above de-
They
For
inter-
literal
24.
1. 1. 7.
3
^
Origen,
c.
Ccls. 7.
7.
36;
cf.
Cvn. Cels.
37,
;
Kai hoyjiaTi^uv
cf.
TrapaTrXrjo-ms
TOis
dvaipovcri
ii.
Keiiu,
p.
100.
Sec also
Oi'ig. in
Gen. vol.
//.
E.
iv.
IX.
253
Old
Testament
"You
Lord of
nor
up.'
rises,
own
may
but
be, seeing
He
and
knows
He
move,
world,
nor is any one of us hid from Him nor does He who is uncontained by space and by the whole seeing that He was before the world was born."^
all things,
And
"I
have
sufficiently
who
sible,
believe in
One who
comprehended by mind and reason only, invested with ineffable light and beauty and spirit and power, by whom the universe is brought into being and set in order and held firm, through the agency of his own
incomprehensible and uncontained
Logos."
'^
Theophilus replies thus to his heathen interlocutor asked him to describe the form of the Christian
" Listen,
who
God
His glory
my
friend
the form of
God
is
it
for
is unHis beneficence rivalled. His goodness beyond imitation. beyond description. If I speak of Him as light, I mention His handiwork if I speak of Him as reason, I mention His government
:
if I
mention His breath if I speak of mention His offspring if I speak of Him as strength, I mention His might if I speak of Him as providence,
speak of
as spirit, I
:
Him
Him
as wisdom, I
Dial.
c.
Tnjph.
c.
127.
Legatio, 10.
254
IX.
if I
many
of these
mind
God.
The
God
as
"the great
He
is
"how
full,
could one
who is empty have made who is void have made and one who is incorporeal have
But there were some
made
schools of
The
earliest
is
It anticipated,
It conceived of
God
He was
absolutely beyond
all predioation.
Him. The language of the school becomes paradoxical and almost unmeaning in the extremity of its
cable of
effort to express the transcendence of
same time
His transcendence
with " When there was nothing, neither material, nor essenthe belief that
is
tial,
1
He
Ad Autohjcum.
2.
and Novatian,
ie Trln. 1.
2
Adv, Marc.
1. 3.
Adv. Prax.
7.
IX.
255
nor absolutely anj^ of the things that are named or perceived or thought, ....
(ovk
cov 0eo?),
will,
with-
make a
world.
necessary,
in saying
sible
'
world,' I do not
mean
This
was
ing,
said
more
briefly,
:
by Marcus
There
of God.2
of
were further
ela-
who
inherited
and
of theosophic
Judaism.
Clement anticipated
Plotinus in conceiving of
the
God Monad
as being
itself,"^
"beyond the
which was the
There
''
:
is
no
named
of
Him
neither the
One, nor the Good, nor Mind, nor Absolute Being, nor
Father, nor Creator, nor Lord."
1
"
for
3
avevvorjTOs Kal dvovcrios, ibid. 6. 42, p. 302; cf. 12 Monoimus, and aho Ptolemaeus, ad Floram, 7.
f.,
pp.
424
ff.,
Poedag.
1. 8.
cf.
256
unto
IX.
Him; "for
;
ciples
but there
ten."^
of
not a
is
that of a
or
nature which
Being
He
has no more or
less,
no before or
of either .^pa^e or
time.
is to
Being absolutely
intelligent.
His only
v.
tri )ute
know and
to
be known.
like."
He
is
is to
which
of
made
in
His image
the
human mind
is
is
capable
it.
But
as
word He
beyond our
knowledge
our knowledge
is like
of the sun.^
But
How
The
soli-
Greek philosophy,
scendent
could
God
He
God who
was "
If like
knows
Strom.
CeU.
G.
Deprinc.
4 Ibid. 1. \,
passim;
c.
cf.
4. 1.
cf.
36.
Celsus, 158.
e.g.
Min. Felix,
10;
Keim,
IX.
257
felt this
it,
question,
to
be the
The
tentative answers
were innumerable.
One
early
of Stoical
and some of
It
came
to
an especial promi-
an explanation
It lay beneath
what
is
known
as
Modal Monarchianism,
mode
of the
It
will to
mode
One and
Father of
*
because
it
He
The
older sort,
who
see
cf. v.
13.
"Expavescunt ad
Prax.
Cf.
Weingarten,
p. 25.
Pantsenus,
world,
when asked by
if like
How
i.
can
p.
God
know the
Tov vTTip
knows
rot
379)
/xryre aladrjTois
ra
alcrOrjTa
/jt^^re
voepws
to. vo-qra
TO,
ovra Kara
ra ovra
(fiajxev
for if
he made
all
things
by His win, no one can deny that He knows His own will, and hence knows what His will has made. Cf. Julius Africanus (Routh, ii. 239),
Aeyerat yap ofKavvfJiws 6 O^hs
^
Trdcri
ei/xt,
yivofxai o
ap.
Hipp,
5. 7.
*
Cf.
Harnack,
art.
258
IX.
appeared to righteous
is invisible,
men
of old.
is
For when
He
:
is
not seen
is
He
and when He
seen
He
is visible
He
uncon-
tained
when He
contained
He
was
is
When
:
He
undergo
He
was His good pleasure to became on being born His own son, not
when
another's."*
From
the Supreme
God came
forth, or in
The
conception of
God
as supra-cosmic or as transcendental,
less
development of the
forms were viewed
They varied
forces;
and means
of
knowledge
to the other.
The
exist,
same
school.
the latter, in
common with
n.
I.
the great
Hipp.
9.
c.
Tert
cf.
12. 1
IX.
259
God and
re-
And
made a genealogy
of
^ons, and
fur-
^ons
Almost
all
Him
as
Mind.
for light
to different elements in
mind
itself,
and
or
reflexion, voice
But
side
by
tendency to indivi-
dualize
of the
mind
God
mind
is
On one He alone
-qv.
jjipp. 6. 12.
2 *
Ptolemy
Hipp.
c.
S2
2 GO
IX.
On another knows God and wishes to reveal Him. from unborn Father, and from the theory, mind is born
Mind
are born Logos
and thence
Powers
of the as the
Another theory,
key
to
some
Mind
that
Mind
is
the revelation of
is,
God
to
nimself
His seK-consciousness
so to speak,
projected out of
creation
Him.
It is at once a revelation
and a
the
The Father, "resolving to bring forth that which is ineffable in Him, and to endow with form that which is invisible, opened His mouth and sent forth the Logos^'' which is the image of Him, and revealed
immediate creation.
Him
to Himself.^
sent forth
The Logos or "Word, which was so was made up of distinct utterances: each
^
part and
who
is
The theory
is
is
found
more
it
won
its
way
to general accept-
We
cf.
is
Iren.
1.
14. 1, TrpoiljKaTO
\6yov
o/xoiov avry.
IX.
261
Logos.
We
How
He
have
could
also
problem,
God
was found
of
in the doc-
trine that
created
by means
The
How
to
can a transcendent
How
could
God come
also
into
Eeasons
woke mind
Logos
to consciousness
of
of God, as like
it
knows
by virtue
of
of containing
within
itself.
human
angels,
race,
race
partaker,"
fire,
"which had
and
at another in the
form of
now by
human
The
difference
between Christ
men have
As compared with
Philo,
who
work of creation, Justin lays stress on the Logos as Revealer, making known to us the will of God of. aTroa-roXos, Tnjph. 61.
the
:
Justin, Apol.
i.
63.
262
IX.
and the
between Chris-
latter lived
by the
whole Logos}
Within
whom
the
The form
in
which the
belief is stated
by
Irenseus
is
the following
"
No
is
one can
know
Word
of God,
that
know
the
of the Father.
:
Father
and unlimited: and since He is ineffable, He himself declares Him to us and, on the other hand, it is the Father alone who knows His own Word both these truths has the Lord made known to us. Wherefore the Son reveals the knowledge of the Father by manifesting Himself: for the manifestation of the Son is the knowledge of
is,
Apol.
It
ii.
8.
to go into Christology.
(1) INIodal
MonarchianCf.
Dynamical Monarchianisiu
i.
(3)
Logos theory.
Harnack,
IX.
263
by the Word The all by making His Word visible to all and conversely the Word showed to all the Father and the Son, since He was seen by all. And therefore the righteous judgment of God comes upon all who, though they have seen as others, have not believed as others. For by means of the creation itself the AVord reveals God the Creator by means of the world, the Lord who is the Fashioner of the world and by means of His handiwork (man), the Workman who formed it; and by the Son, that Father who begat the Son."^
fclie
Father: for
and Mediator.
;It
of deve-
in
human
was an age of
and
than
dialectic.
It
was no more
in
mass
of
educated
it
men to
is
possible
our
own days
for chemists to
Two main
genesis,
questions
(ii.)
engaged attention
(i.)
what
was the
thought
(i.)
Greek
The question of the genesis of the Logos was mainly answered by theories which were separated from one another by the same broad line of distinction which
separated theories as to the genesis of the world.
The philosophers
who, as
been the
cf.
264
:X.
all
defi-
was made
"out
were not."^
under various
of theories expressed
which was
from God.
The
rival hypotheses
by the hypothesis
it
though
was
so created
by the Logos, who was not created by God, but came forth from Him. The metaphors were chiefly those of
the "putting forth"
or fruit of a plant,
{irpo(5o\}], prolatio),
as of the leaves
son.
They
esta-
of the Logos
had
and some
of
them were
originally relative,,
by
distinction
The combination was important. The metaphors supplemented each other. Each of them contained an element
1
Cf.
Hipp.
7.
21,
;
Tert.
Apol 51
Noet. p. 62.
IX.
265
settled
in the theory
judgment
The main
of
of
The doctrine
monarchy"
of
God,
two Gods in
conflict,
seemed
to
be running another
its
defenders.
The
who
reflected
God and
revealed
Him
to rational
creatures,
who
form and
In Athenagoras there
universe, spirit, force,
is
a pure
monism But
"
God
is
Him-
unapproachable
^
light, a perfect
logos?''
to involve
an exist-
God and
posterior to
Him.2
He was
after the Father of all and the Lord God;" for "as the beginning, before all created things, God begat from Himself a kind of rational Force, which is called by the Holy Spirit (i.e. the Old Testament)
Leg. 16;
cf.
5.
1;
cf.
Theophilus,
2.
22, for
hy Clement
c.
cf.
Hipp,
Noet. 10.
on TrpoeXdwv in relation to
"Son
of
God"
to the world
cf.
Keim,
Celsus, 95.
266
IX.
sometimes
'
sometimes
^^
Angel,'
sometimes
God,' sometimes
'
sometimes he speaks
:
of himself as
'
for
he has
by
It follows that
"there
the
is,
and
spoken
of,
another
Maker
of the universe."^
to ditheism
was saved
two
dis-
of
from Neo-Platonism.^
Deity
severing of a part
by
c.
multiplication, as
Tryph. 61 A, 16
;
many
torches
may
be
Justin, Dial.
c.
cf.
c.
Hipp.
2 2
Noet.
8, 10,
c.
Tatian,
Justin, Dial.
Tryph. 56 C,
p. 180.
Hipp. 9. 12; Callistus, while excommunicating the Sabellians Schmid, 48 ; Weing. 31), also called Hippolytus and his party ditheists. For Callistus' own view, cf. ibid. 9. 11. See Schmid, p. 50
(cf.
The Gnostic
God
of the
Him
Justin,
<i)S
C.
Trijph.
128
aTro-
rofJLrjv
d7ro/x6/3t^o/iei'j;s ttJs
:
cf.
Plotinus ap.
Ham.
j
Dogm. 493
cf.
Kara
jiepicriiov
Hipp.
c.
Noet. 10.
IX
lit
267
The
In
it
was a time when there was not a Son."^ But the influence of the other metaphors in which the relation was
expressed overpowered the influences which came from
pressing the conception
of
paternity.
Light,
its
it
was
capacity to
The Supreme Mind could never have been withThe Father Eternal was always a out His Thought. Father, the Son was always a Son.^ (ii.) The question of the nature of the eternally-begotten Logos was answered variously, according as the supra-cosmic or the transcendental idea of God was dominant in a writer's mind.^ To Justin Martyr, God is con1
Justin, Dial,
c,
Tnjpli. 61 C,
is
also employed.
2 3
ap. Tert.
c.
Hermog.
3.
For metaphor
There
of light, cf.
Monoimus
ap.
Hipp.
8.
12
also Tatian,
c. 5.
is
see Engel-
hardt, p. 118.
in Irenceus
Noet. 10.
Though implied
is
(Ham.
495),
it is
not through-
Emanation seemed to him to imply division out steady and unifonn. But he hovers between the Logos as thought and as into parts.
substance.
Harnack,
God unchangeable
:
human
changes
c.
affairs
t-q -rrpovoiq.
koi ry
14.
His
Word
whom
he comes,
Cels,
268
IX.
ceived as supra-cosmic.
:
tliat
are above the heavens " the " first-begotten," the Logos,
is
is
"a
second
'will,"
doing only
far the idea
is
It is uncertain
how
who
There
a similar
introduced
"ratio"
and "oratio;"^
while Tertullian
with these.
It
scended,
we have
It is in Basilides, in
whom
of
Him
is
seen to
be
first
expressly abandoned.^
doctrine in
But the place of the later the Christian Church is mainly due to Origen.
of the
He
uses
many
same expressions
as Tertullian,
but
The Saviour
is
by
essence.^
He
is
The
generation
an outflow as
from
light.
i.
Justin,
Apol
c.
Try. 5G.
ad AuMi/c.
net
ii.
22.
by
:
side with
God
existed,
i^ova-ia,
but
oixria,
vTrocTTao-is
* Cf.
Hainack, Dugmaig.
580.
IX.
269
But
From
internal to Christianity.
in origin.
'
But their elements were Greek The conceptions which were introduced into
In Christian theology that philosophy has
But although
lowed the
final
it
of the tran-
Greek uses
of the terms.
Ousia
(ova-la) is
is
the distinction
clearly phrased
by
Aristotle.^
(a) It is used as a
material part of
synonym of h?/ie, to designate the a thing. The use is most common among
of the universe,
the Stoics.
was regarded
In
the same
way
vehicle, to
ovcricoSe?,
Hence
in both
was some-
ova-ta
1]
p.
1035a, "ousia
compound
of matter
and
form."
^
(fitjcri
6fxoi(o<;
SO in
M. Anton,
iirexov,
fwov tov
"
AU
Whole,
soul."
i.
Quod
209.
270
IX.
man
an ousia in
It is used of the
into
which sensible
stracta
(etSog),
ewai)P-
was used
was the
by a
realist or a nominalist
to the
former
it
common
a^iivaTOV
members
(since
of a class (to
X'^jOi?
TO
e^oV),3
rriv
oxxrlav kolI
ovcriaj
OV
whlch
are
what they
and
are:
elSosj^
of its equivalent
To a
^
ll-l']T
ovcria 8e eo-Ttv
tj
KaO
iWos, Cafcj.
of the form,
5, p.
2 a
ovaia
is
used ia
i.e.
11, p. 1037.
e.g. 6. 7, p.
1032
&, 7. 1,
p.
1042
a.
Metuph.
6. 11, p.
1037 a.
4
^
Ibid. 12. 5, p.
e.g.
1079
6.
rarineu.
p.
132c:
etcos.
ol 6' uv tu
6'/xota
iK(.'./o
iiTTaL
auTo TO
IX.
271
to a
in the
same sense
of a distinction
its
real
turn
tended to accentuate.
The
as
visible
world of concrete
individuals
was regarded
the invisible world of intelligible essences was real and permanent the one was genesis^ or " becoming ;" the
:
other, ousia^ or
and whereas in
class, as
being
which was at the farthest remove from the concrete, and filled the widest sphere, and contained the largest number of other
contrary, that
ousia in its highest sense
classes in itself
:
was
it
genus.^
Hence
we
are farthest
from
soul
;
ousia^
but that
we
partake of
it
in respect of our
is itself
control.^
Kara
iratrOtv
twv
vtt
avTrjv
iiTTOCTTacrecov
^epo/xevov,
Kai,
cwwi/i^yutos
KaTrjyopovfiivov,
Suidas,
^
s. V.
vor]Ta
eKeivoJV (TcojuaTa
arra Ka\ da-wfiara etSi] nyv dXrjdivrjv ovcriav ilvat' to. 5e yevecriv dvT overeat (^e/DO/xevr^v Ttva 7rpo(TayopevQvcn,,
.
e.g. it is
stated
Origen,
c.
Cels.
7.
45
^
7}
sq.
ovcrta
ai/ojTaTO)
ovcra,
jUTjSev
itvai
irpo
avrrj?,
yeuos
-tjv
to
Kara pXv to
crw/xa Troppin
av
i'li]
ovcrtas',
Kara
St
272
IX.
Greek philosophy.
oiisia
a definition
was only
in part
it is
necessary for us to
know
not
they
fall
But
of the
class,
in the one
meaning
members
same
class,
same wider
was an argument that animals should not be killed for food, on the ground that they belong to the same class
as men, theii* souls being homoousioi with our
men
one another,
three strangers
washed the
himself.*
Tr)v xpvyriv,
substance" with
Kol o fiaXicTTa
Kat
TOVTO Se
ovcria.
nn.
6. 8. 12.
1
90
Tox>. 5. 2, p.
130 i; Metaph.
6. 4,
p.
1030
^
^
3.
1. 2.
ye o/xoovcrioi at twv
1.
(^^aiav
\pv\^al
rats
rjfJ.Tpai<;,
Porphvr. de
Ahstin.
*
19.
Tovs TToSa?
w5
oyuooi'cri'wv
dvOpdnriav avdpwTTOi.
tvi\fav,
Clement,
Hum.
20. 7, p. 192.
IX.
273
to
The difficulty of the whole conception God was felt and expressed. Some
haA^e already seen,
possible.
in its application
philosophers, as
we
was
The
tide of
Origen
The
fourth
century were
complicated to no
small
extent
who met
And, in
was predicable
of God.^
Nicene formula,
I^Teo-
God
hjperousios?
Even
those
who mainthis
when
so applied to
Him. In
" Those
shall
the ousia
own
soul,
how
in spite of these
diffi-
1 2 ^
c.
Geh.
64.
e.g.
in S. Athanas.
ad Afr.
episc. 4, vol.
5.
i.
i.
714.
1.
30, vol.
62
cf.
de post. Cain.
8, vol.
i.
229
there
a Cliristian and a
xl.
845.
274
ol"
IX.
philosophical
by the
Him.
He
is,
and by the
He is,
there
must be an
ousia of
of the
God
the Father
God
the Son.
and
so of the
term as
Holy Spirit. Those who maintained that the Holy Spirit was a creature, thereby maintained that He was severed from the essence of the Father.^ The
term occurs first in the sphere of Gnosticism, and expresses
part of one of the two great concej^tions as to the origin
of the world.2
It
was rejected in
its
application to the
But
homoousios,
though
true,
was
It
insufficient.
was capable
of being
used by those
3, vol.
i.
GIG.
2
Cf.
Harnack,
i.
Achamoth brought
5.
1.
1.
TO
1'
in
Epiphanes (Valentinian?),
ap. Iren.
1.
11.
3 (Hipp.
38),
as Suva/its o/xooiVtos
(Ivtyj.
Cf. Clem.
Hom.
20.7;
"ex
unitate substantias
Ham.
IX.
275
who held
nal.^
which
it
The term
and hyparxis
here.^
ousia in
most
of its senses
had come
to
be
The
latter of these
played but a
disregarded
may be
i/cfyia-rdvai,
The term hypostasis is the conjugate of the verb which had come into use as a more emphatic
elvai.
form than
Thus
it
also of that
which
came
into being,
its
ova-la
was
said vcpia-rdvai.^
one of
chief uses,
designated
andria gave
2
it
up because of
its
cf.
Ejx 52 (300).
It is found, e.g., in
-iwocTTao-ts
Kal
writers, e.g.
Athan. ad Afr. episc. 4, vol. i. 714, ri yap ecm. The distinction is found in Stoical Chrysippus says that the present time virapxet, the past
tj
ova-ca vrrap^is
and
2 4
future vcfiLcrTavraL.
Diels, ibid.
1.
372
p.
363, where
it is
Sext. Empir.
192,
226.
5 Diels,
318.
lb. 469.
20
so
Kara
462, 26.
t2
276
ova-la
IX.
in its ISTeo-Platonic
had been
Trpcorrj
ova-la
by the term
vTroa-Taa-L<s.
:
This
is
expressed by Athanasius
when he
says
common
for the
dis-
more
by Irenseus
and
species,
Epict.
1.
14. 2.
:
r]
ova-la
ti]v
I'TTOCTTao-ts
i^Tis
ovk
ecrrt
koivt)
it
ova-ta^
vTroa-Taa-ewv.
Cip'il.
He
elsewhere identifies
:
with
Trpoa-ioTrov
in Ath. et
IStU}-
in ExjWS. vrtliod.fid.
vTroa-raa-iS
eo-rtv
the identity of the two terms was allowed even after the}' were
:
tending to be differentiated
{iTTOcTTacrts
of,
Atlian.
ad Afr.
Ej). 4, vol.
6>^t
t]
i.
714,
>)
Se
ov.
a~rj[J.aivo[JLii'ov
avro to
So ad Antioch,
one
was only
vTToo-Tacrts in
Cf.
objection at Council of
against three
i<7roa-rdo-eis
rTToo-rao-is,
3
of Father,
Son and
Spirit.
Cf.
IX.
277
of
tlioiiglit to
individual, the
of Galen.^
The
distinction,
however, was far from being universally recognized. The clearest and most elaborate exposition of it is contained
in a letter of Basil to his brother Gregory,
who was
evi-
upon the
point.^
The
result was,
senses of
oJcr/a,
so a
more
to a difficulty in
So long as
ovarla
and
vir6(TTa(7i<s
equivalent of
vTroo-rao-/?,
word had
When
it
the
became
mark the
difference.
jarred upon a
Latin
ova-ia,
ear.^
while for
L^
sought.
may be
"a
this usage.*
Ed. Kuhn,
5.
662.
Cf. Quintiliau,
2.
who
3. 6.
ascribes
it
and
6,
to Sergius to Cicero,
riavius,
U. 2;
23;
8. 3.
33
For substantia,
Quint.
7. 2. 5,
" nam
by
679
also
Orig. de 'princ.
2. 8.
278
IX.
Such Western practice would tend to stimulate the employment of the corresponding Greek term irpoa-wTrov^
whose use hitherto seems to have been subordinate to And, finally, the philosophic terms that of vTrocrraa-i?.^
(pva-ig
(p{i<Ti<s
use.
had been
distinct
from
ovala
and
it
identical
to
with
Eeason.2
tified
it,
But
came
be iden-
whereas the Monophysites identified it with viroaracri^. To sum up, then. We have in Greek four terms, ovalaj.
and in Latin
three, substantia^
two
series not
Times have changed since Tertullian's^ loose and vague usage caused no remark; when Jerome, thinking as a Latin, hesitates to speak of rpeh vTroarda-eig, by which he
understood
tres substantias,
is
There
is
it
runs
I'Troo-Tacrts
Tvpoa-divov o/jlo-
ova-iov.
In Epictetus,
1. 2. 7,
14, 28,
it
racter, that
*
25,
77
ra oAa StotKovcra
rj
<f>va-i<s
is
distinguished
from
Twv oAwi/
SO 7. 75,
tov oAou
Jp/xrjo-ev.
^
For
<^v(rts
30
(i.
105).
cTSos,
ii.
337),
within
p. 407.
Bp. Kaye, in E. T.
ii.
IX.
279
as follows:^
that
to
"They seemed to be ignorant of the fact when we deal with words that require some training understand them, different people may take them in
Thus there was an
indisposition to accept
of the people.^
;
A reacbut the
with
its
of God,
then, the
nature of God.
But
history of the
way
in
which
for
of the
fair fields,
the flame
For
all this,
Greek
These
evils
mostly came
which
De
Homoousios.
2
(Routh, Reliq.
'
dyi'oovixevov vtto
twv
Aawi',
Athan. de Synod. 8
(i.
577).
280
IX.
human
which
banishment or
Philosophy branched
its
ofi
from theology.
It
It
became
their
for
handmaid and
its
rival.
postulated doctrines
It
had
to
show
And
I feel as strongly
you can
which
are,
But
it is
only by
seeing
that
we can
theology.
sions in
world
ultimately acquiesced,
we must
Three may be
indi-
it
has been
Ed.]
The tendency
to abstract has
to
production of a tendency to
form rather a negative than a positive conception of God. The majority of formularies define God by negative terms, and yet they have claimed
which are negative a positive value. to Greek philosophy to the hypothesis of the chasm (2) between spirit and matter the tendency to interpose powers between It may be held that the attempt to the Creator and His creation. solve the insoluble problem, how God, who is pure spirit, made and sustains us, has darkened the relations which it has attempted to explain by introducing abstract metaphysical conceptions.
for conceptions
We
owe
IX.
2 SI
(1) It is
important.
I
less
am
it is
much
of
what we believe
There
is
rests
upon
this
are.
other-
away from
plate,
we may
us, to
gain
contem-
even at
(2)
The second
sical distinctions
to realities in the
us, or in
God who
but
is
am
far
it
we
(3)
The
third assumption
is
which we
It is
assumed that
than change.
rest is better
selves
selves,
know these things of ourof One who is unlike ourwho has no body that can be tired, who has no
we cannot know them
that even in the later
We
It
may be noted
sum
of the
qualities,
282
IX.
aim, with
perfect
whom unhindered
life.
would be
difficult to
men from
God
as a
human
feel
time
knowledge of
we may be destined
life.^
new
assumptions,
which
knowledge and
1 These Lectures are the history of a genesis it would otherwise have been interesting to show in how many points theories which have been thought out in modern times revive theories of the remote past of
:
Christian antiquity.
Lecture X.
rites
Mysteries.
by
common
political
new forms
of
common
epavoi or opyeuive?.
I will speak
first
and then
of the
The mysteries were probably the survival of the oldest religions of the Greek races and of the races which pr-eceded them. They were the worship not of the gods
1.
284
X.
of the sky,
of the earth
of
at Eleusis,
to
Greece
a cult
in
the
It
largest in
celebrated.
had been
borrowed
settled.
common
from the
It
earlier races
was
which produce
god
whom
god almost disappeared from view, and was replaced by a divinity, lacchus, who had no place in the original
myth. 2
fice,
were the
natural
and human
life,
of
which the
may be made
to Keil,
259, 592
441 sqq.,
622
^
401 sqq.
The
the preparatory
;
crvcr-aa-ts
the
the
initiatory rites
;
and
sacrifices
reXirrj or
prior initiation
and
kirovTiia,
initiation,
which admitted
to the Trapdoocrts
the
ritual.
39
if.
UPON
(i.)
CIIiaSTIAN USAGES.
285
of initiation was,
human
life
to
approach God.
were admitted
and
The creation of this The race of mankind distinction is itself remarkable. was lifted on to a higher plane when it came to be taught that only the pure in heart can see God. The
the hope of a resurrection.
rites of Eleusis
to the inhabitants
all
came
in time to
be open to
to
Greeks,
women
to
as well as
to men.^
The bar
at the entrance
came
be only a
moral bar.
" Let no one enter whose hands are not clean and
is
whose tongue
not prudent."
enter
is
In other mysteries
is
it
was
"
He
only
may
who
pure from
all
defile-
who
The proclamation was probably accompanied by some words or sights of terror. When Nero went to Eleusis and thought at first of being initiated, he was deterred by it. Here is another instance of exclusion, which is not less important in its bearing upon Christian rites. ApoUonius of Tyana was excluded because he was a
^
An
come
to light, -which
shows
that the public slaves of the city were initiated at the public expense. Foucart,
*
I.e.
p.
394.
c.
Cf. Origen,
Cels. 3. 59.
286
magician
X.
(70*??)
We learn
In
it
of the mysteries
Alexander
and
which go on
is
On
the
first
there
a proclamation of a
come
upon the
festi-
him
flee
let
who
believe
Then forthwith at the The prophet himself sets the example, saying, "Christians, away!" and the whole crowd responds, " Epicureans, away " Then the show begins the birth of Apollo, the marriage
in the
god go on successfully."
of Coronis, the
coming
and in
Alexander.
The proclamation was thus intended to exclude notorious sinners from the first or initial ceremonial.^ The rest was
1 ^
4. 18, p.
138.
ff. ;
2 j^j^x.
38.
39
ff.
and 89
inoa|t
Welcker,
Griecli. Got-
terl.
530
532,
"
The
first
and
of those
who would
Professor W. M. Ramsay in
at
Ency. Brit.
s. v. "Mysteries." For purification before admission to the worship of a temple, see, in G.I. A. iii. Pt. i. 73. 74, instances of regu-
Men Tyrannus
Laurium
in Attica,
aKadapTov
being
specified.
on the inscr. of Andania in Messenia, b.c. 91 ; the mysteries of the Cabiri in Le Bas and Foucart, Inscr. du Pcloponnese, ii. 6, p. 161; and Sauppe, die
Cf. Reinach, Traite d'Epigr. Grecque, p. 133,
287
He was
asked
" To whom am I to crime that he had ever committed. ?" said Lysander to the mystagogoi who were confess it
conducting him.
"
Then
if
you
will
go away," said
he,
"I
The
of the
The manner of bathing and the number of immersions varied with the degree of guilt which they had confessed.
the bath
new men.
It Avas a KaOapa-i?,
They had
;
to practise
and when
The purification was followed by a sacrifice was known as a-oor/jpia a sacrifice of salvation
(ii.)
which
:
and in
Then
lava-
Nam
et sacris
quibusdam per
crum
to
initiantur
5.
"
The mysteries
but
:
Ibid. 5. 11
"It
is
among the
Greeks, lustrations hold the first place, as also the laver among
the Barbarians.
to
come
and the great mysteries, in whicli nothing remains to be learned of the universe, but only to contemplate and comprehend nature and things." We have thus a sort of baptism and catechumeuate,
after
;
The
and during
it
wholly forbidden.
^
189
:
197.
is
and a greater initiation law that those who have been admitted to the
lesser
There was a
" It
a regulation of
lesser
5,
should again be
:
Hippol.
see the
whole
288
X.
procession each
those
honour
of the god.^
It set out
The next day there was Then followed three days and nights in which the initiated shared the mourning of Demeter for her daughter, and broke their fast only by
and reached Eleusis at night.
sacrifice.
another great
kvkccov
And
at night there
the
for sight.
The doors
before
opened
there
was a blaze of
light
and
them
loss
the
of the child.
It
through
It
its
yearly periods.
is
of !N'ature.
summer
fruits
die
down
and
life.
new
is
seeking for
Cf.
"0
stainless light!
My
:
way
is
heavens and
is
God
am become
holy whilst I
am
initiated.
The Lord
the hierophant, and seals while illuminating him who is initiated," &c. lb. 2 : " Their (Demeter's and Proserpine's) wanderings, and seizure,
and
grief,
So
2
/Elius Aristid.
ras
(/)cucr</>opovs
vvKzai.
2.
"I have
fasted, I
289
the
child
the hopes of
new
blossoming of spring.
It
was a drama
It
also of
human
It
was a
fit
piirgatio
animce,
might be
were
lifted into
new
life.
Death had no
The
of the gods,
life to
come.^
quote
dies,
it.^
is
When
man
he
like those
who
The one expression, reAeurav the other, Our whole life is but a succession of TcXda-Oai, correspond. wanderings, of painful courses, of long journeys by tortuous ways without outlet. At the moment of quitting it, fears, terrors, quiverings, mortal sweats, and a lethargic stupor, come over us and overwhelm us but as soon as we are out of it, pure spots and meadows receive us, with voices and dances and the
into the mysteries.
.
.
It is there that
man, having become perfect and initiated restored to liberty, really master of himself celebrates, crowned with myrtle, the
most august mysteries, holds converse with just and pure souls, looking down upon the impure multitude of the profane or uninitiated, sinking in the mire and mist beneath him through fear of death and through disbelief in the life to come, abiding
in
its
miseries."
there
it
was
all
an acted
The gain
2
of the festival
lie in
454, on the burning of the temi:)lc at Eleusis. was not for this life only, but that hereafter darkness and mire like the uninitiated.
i.
Fragm.
p.
ap.
Stob. Florileg.
120.
1880,
430.
290
parable.^
X.
But
was
all
kept in silence.
it.
There was an
sight in comIt
it
each
man
was his
glamouito
communion with
it
the divine
The
it
was published
to
the world.2
The
was conceived
be a
The
go
initiated
were by virtue
life to
of their initiation
made
partakers of a
to the
come.
who
:
to-
them alone
2.
draw a
definite line
strictly so called,
common as
there
is
tian catacomb at
Eome,
of
in
Greek mysteries
that the
also.*
Synes. Orat.
p.
48
(ed. Petav.),
But the
fivcTTaywyol pos-
sibly gave
who were
committed
2 3
them.
p.
Cf.
414
sq.
8; 493 B, Phcedo. G9 C (the lot of the uninitiated). They were bound to make their life on earth correspond to iheir initiation ; see Lenormant, zd siqy. p. 429 sqq. In later uii.il.ii it was supposed actually to make them better ; Sopatros in Walz,
Cic. Legg.
2.
36
Plato, Gorg. p.
Rhet. Gr.
^
viii.
114.
See
les
291
had an
initiation
The
"Let no one
it
enter the
Nor was
to
left
to
the
conscience
man had
much
be tested and
in
examined by the
officers.^
The
offerings
mon
sometimes spoken
distributed
They were
by the
in
servants (the deacons), and the offerer shared with the rest
in the distribution.
In one
association, at
Xanthos
to half of
The
feast
ship.2
as there
in Christian times, a
in a
sense of
communion
the
with Grod.
During the
centuries
of
Christianity,
and
man was
re Act o?.
1,
says that
it
The most
fivcTTai
is
elaborate account
is
Kome
ci.
^
at
Teos
and of the
Koman Monarchians
of.
U 2
292
X.
of strong invective.^
of
the
aim
life,
They were
B.
It
was inevitable when a new group of associations came to exist side by side with a large existing body of associations, from which it was continually detaching
members, introducing them into
its
the
their
to assimilate,
with the assimilation of their members, some of the This is what we elements of these existing groups.^
1
Clem. Alex.
(ii.
Protrejy. 2
el
Hippol.
1, proo???i.
lo
12
2
260), Tt yap
also
KaXa ravT
icrrlv
fivarTai k. t. X.
They
the
cf.
truth.
is
They
possibly also
There
an inscription of Dionysiac
as Oavfiacnov
Pergamos,
Ev.
3
dTroppi'jTWV fxvcTTijv.
p. 124,
4;
cf.
many
forms,
cf.
Harnack, Dogm.
p. 101.
* Similar practices existed in the Church and in the new religions which were growing up. Justin Martyr speaks of the way in whirh, under the inspiration of demons, the supper had been imitated in the o-rrep kuI iv rots tov MiOpa jxv(tti]p'iols irapeSwKav !Mithraic mysteries
:
yiVifrOai
p.i.iJ.rj(ja.p.ivoi
oi
Trovr]pol
Sat/xoves
ApoJ.
1.
66.
Tertuliiatl
points to the fact as an iustance of the power of the devil {de prcBse.
293
case.
It is possible that
Up
no evidence that
It
It
bar to admission.
teaching was public.
But
its
rites
its
changed
mysteries have arisen in the once open and easily accessible faith,
But
the in-
40)
**
:
mysteriis semulatur."
qui ipsas quoque res sacramentorum divinorinn idolorum He specifies, inter alia, " expositionem delictorum
Celsus, too,
:
fiva-Tyjpta
Orig.
Cels. 6. 22.
^
The
objection
which Celsus makes (c. Cels. 1. 1; Keim, p. 3) to the would hardly have held good in
Origen admits
(c.
and
and
justifies it
by
On
the Valentinians
Vcdent.
1,
where there
:
is
a direct parallel
drawn between
two
classes
men
into
:
and
xpvx^xol or vXikol
2^'>'0(^'^'^i
Harn. Dogm.
222,
cf.
Hipp.
1,
V- ^>
of the heretics, adding, Ka\ Tore SoKi/iao-avres Secr/xtov elvai t^s a/xapria?
fivovcri
fMrfve
rvxovTL jnexaSouvac k.t.X. Yet this very secrecy was naturalized in the Church. Cf. Cyril Hier. Catech. vi. 30; Aug. in Psalm ciii., Horn.
T(^
xcvi. in Joan.
ii.
{Inconfvsus)
Chry.
Hom.
Se
xix. in Matt.
is
Sozomen's
TOtaura
(1. 20. 3)
and language
Se
ota
nva-jais /cat
7rr^vcra
(3ovXr]v' oi
yap
rtv'as
ryjSe
t-q
[ii[3Xia
294
X.
were analogous
to the mysteries,
the
practice,
fication,
of
the society
sider first
by a common meal.
you
to con-
to
show
how
at once
upon conversion
it
was
of the sim-
appear that
minister.
The
the
first
point
is
of the Apostles
men who repented at Pentecost, those who believed when Philip preached in Samaria, the Ethiopian eunuch,
Cornelius, Lydia, the jailor at Philippi, the converts at
known
The
second point
also
shown by the
Acts.
It
was a bap-
tism of water.
A later,
"he
1
though
still
the vague
that baptizeth" (o
ii.
/3a7rT/^a>i^)
seeming to exclude a
x.
Acts
8
;
38, 41;
38;
47,
48;
xvi. 15,
33;
xviii,
-
xix. 5.
7.
295
to
an
officer
hut there
is
When
it
of obscurity
like a river
the enormous
The
first
is
Martyr we find a
name given
ipcorl^ecrOai).'^
to
Greek mysteries
It
(b)
(<^ft)Tio-/xo?,
seal"
which
also
came both
from the mysteries^ and from some forms of foreign cult, was used partly of those who had passed the tests and
who were " consignati," as Tertullian calls them,^ partly of those who were actually sealed upon the forehead in ;sign of a new ownership.
1
Apol.
1.
61;
cf.
Otto, vol.
1.
i.
p. 146, n.
14; Engelhardt,
p.
p. 102.
2
]S"az.
Hence
= those
Cf.
pared
^wTto-^evres
=
ff.
the baptized.
Lobeck, Aglao^jh.
Apol. 8
:
p. 3G, cf.
31
talia initiatus et
consignatus
cf,
= /xep)rj/xevo9
1.
Kal ecr^payw-
jxevoi.
^
See Otto,
vol.
i,
p.
141;
ad
Valent.
For the
2.
3; Quis
dives,
Greg. E"az.
1. 4.
Cels.
illumination
The
si] is
effect of
baptism
6; hence
296
(e)
it
Z.
The term
comes a whole
series of technical
terms unknown to
to the mysteries,
known
^^^^^^
3 'reXeiwa-i?,'^ ixva-ra;
of the
subject, like
with
u/xvijTo^fi
In
this terminology
we
than of the
(ii.)
Kew
Testament.^
is
baptism
to
came
be
by a long period
2.
of preparation,
13.
Early instances
cf.
als>
p.
301.
;
Sozomen,
2
8, 6.
i.
Sozomen,
3. 5.
^ 1.
3, p.
242.
3, p. 3,
413 0.;
242.
v.
*
"^
Ham. 21
acZ
^j)^^:)?^/.
Antioch;
Sozomen,
17. 9.
8 Sozomen, i. 3. 5 ; ii. 7. 8 ; iv. 20. 3; vi. 38. 15 ; vii. 8. 7, etjmssim. These examples do not by any means exhaust or even adequately represent the obligations in the sphere of language, and of the ideas it at once denotes and connotes, which the ecclesiastical theory and practicebut they may help to indicate of baptism lies under to the mysteries
;
297
The
who
Tertullian
as a
:
mark
distinction
a catechumen,
who a
believer, is uncertain
And
for
{c)
As
if
to
as
we have
initiated
is ixva-raywyo's^
are ixvcrraywyovfiepou
I dwell
features,
of names, because it
to the sacrament
and what
by evidence
^
Apost. Const
pp. 443
Cf. passages
and
5.
446.
fin.
See Bingham,
Deprcesc.
hcer. 41.
Cf.
12.
cf.
a QvSk
eTTOTTTeveii'
e^ecm
Orig.
Cels. 3.
59 ad
and
them
8.
to participation
"then and not before do we invite in our mysteries," and " initiating those already
60, e.g.
Cf. Diet, Christian Antiquities^
Arcani.
298
X.
many
(a)
what has
As
those
of the mysteries
or pass- word
or
crw0>7//a),
SO the
them
the
baptismal formula
and the
Lord's Prayer.^
occupies
In the Western
an important place
rite for
it.
in
It took place a
week
or
office of
and kept
so as mysteries
for
day
the technical
(/3)
name
a creed
is a-vju^oXov
or pass-word.
initiated
at Eleusis
proceeded at once
after a
day's fast
to
The usage was local, but lasted at Alexandria modern times. It is mentioned by Vansleb.^
((?)
See
p.
293, note
also
p.
vv. Baptism,
Catechumens, especially
2
De
haptismo Christi,
4.
ii.
aSeA^wv avv
fj.v(j-Tayoiyovp.eyo}v tVi.
Cyril, Prcefatio
ad Catech.
15.
299
at
any place or
time,
on
water,
be baptized?" passed
into a ritual
mysteries.
which
is
given of
the practice at
Eome
Pre-
The
they
they fasted
Prayer.
afternoon,
On
John
Lateran.
The
rites of
his priests
come
singing of psalms.
And
water
is blessed.
They
are arranged
in a great
circle,
and each
of
them
;
carries a light.
Then
It
a vast array of
lights is kindled
Musceum
300
is
the beginning of a
new
life.
The mass
is
celebrated
is filled,
not with
may imderstand,
upon
more symbolical
And
often suppressed
a lamb
was
was simply
and
we have
The
purified
crowd
at Eleusis
saw a blaze
of light,
life
and death
and resurrection.
2.
Baptism had
felt
may be
passages of the
clearly
New
feel,
we may
no sensible
argu-
The
Teachmg
which implies
servant,
"
David Thy
Thou
(b)
hast
Servant.
Thy
"We thank
It Avas
9.
301
known
to us
To Thee be
none
name
of
the
Lord.
which
carries us
who has
a quarrel with
(ev viroKpia-ei'^?
any?
(3)
Is there
The next
Apostolical Constitutions.^
fact that the
The advance
consists in the
out, just as
those
who were
who were
philo-
and
ol reXeioij
would be beyond
exist.^
Bk.
viii.
ii.
57, p. 87:
cf. viii. 5, p.
Origen,
Cels. 3. 59.
Persons
of the Eucha6.
i.
(Chrys. de compunct.
1.
p. 132),
and
ot ixeixvq[j.voi (id.
x.,
Ho7n.
vi.
de
beat. Phil.
4,
3.
i.
p.
498, and in
Horn. xvii.
vol.
xii.
169).
Degrees and
came
44,
viii.
13.
o02
X.
an
altar,
and
npon the
later
table of
(a)
which the
The conception
an altar
is
It is nsed in
It is
used
by Ignatius
phorically.^
in
It
always meta-
may be
ii.)
Constitutions (Bk.
of a
Qva-iaa-rripiov.^
speak of a
This use of
Oucriaa-Tijpiov is
probably
The conception
;
of the elements as
it
/jLva-ryjpia is
even
like
later
became permanent,
munerum
offerings
:
in
Novo Testamento
ei
The
118.
mystery,
4, vol.
382.
He
7,
375.
713
Cone. Laod.
Bruns,
p. 74.
ii.
Found
;
ad
Corinth, v.
(T<f)ayrj.
c.
3, vol. x.
470
^
Ad
Ephes. 5
2.
ii.
Cf.
Trcdl. 7
Philad. 4
Mag. 7; Rom.
*
Ap. Const,
57, p. 88.
6, iv. 3.
But
figurative sense,
5
iii.
//.
E.
X. 4, 44.
ry
o-eTrTol ^txriaor-
Trjpito
ra
L
Bilu
fjLv
50
ad Demet.
1. 6, vol.
303
The conception of a priest into which I will not now enter was certainly strengthened by the mysteries
and
associations.
full
The
is
of the fifth
whom
is
expressed
to the mysteries.
is
The
perhaps personal to
in sympathy with his time, and his Church of the after-time must count
treatises
Communion
p.
dial. 2, vol. iv. 125. There was a sacred formula. no saint has written down the formula of consecration After saying that some docde Spir. Sando, 66, vol. iv. pp. 54, 55. trines and usages of the Church have come down in writing, ra Se Ik
131; Theodore t,
Tijs Tcuv
rjixiv
iv fJLVcrTrjpio) TrapeSe^a-
fieda,
as
among
the latter
ra
ctti
kvyapL(TTias xal tov TTOTrjpiov ttjs evAoytas Tis twv dytojv eyypd(po}<s
rjfiLV
1
KaraAeAotTrev.
In Dionysius Areop.
(s. v.
lepapx-q^, ed.
Corderius,
i.
839), the
bishops are xeAecrTai, leporeAecrTai, TeAco-Tapi^at, p.v(jray(ayoi, xeAecrTovpyoi, TeXecTTLKoi; the priests are c^wTtcrTiKoi
TiKoi',
;
the Eucharist
the priest,
hand into
The deacon, diroKathem in the water; ^WTaywye? tovs KadapOevTas, i.e. leads the baptized by the the church; the bishop, aTroTeAeio? tovs t^ dtL(^ ^ojtj
is
dips
KeKoiva)y7^xoTas.
304
X.
the participation of
mysteries.
him who
it
is
For though
be the
common
characteristic
make
me
the
whose mystic
light,
as
it
were, I
am
guided
to the
contemplation
(e7ro\//-/av)
things."
The
and
upon the
and announces
completed.
and
have
lists
priests
wash
their
of the divine
priests
ministers.
The
And when he
working, he himself
And
communion, he
he himself,
led in a priestly
man-
frame of mind
(ev KaOaporriTL
Ilicr.
c.
3, par. 1, 1, 2, pp.
187, 188.
305
elements -the
Once again
tices
tlio
are
:
The
came
doors
changed into
The
idea of prayer
interesting,
(a) It
seems
was
tablets
commemorating
a continuation of
(b)
The
may have
seems
fair
to
were great
changes in the
new
strengthened
when we
first
in
which
among
For in the decree mentioned in a previous note (p, 292, n. 2), other honours to T. .^Elius Alcibiades, he is to be irpQiTov tois
evypa^oyLievov.
St7rTz;;)(0ts
2
money
accounts, from a
30
these
X.
whom
SM
We read
had
life to
supreme an
all
by
itself eternal
^co^?
who were
baptized.
The
it
Xovrpov
was
expanded
and
was added a
which came
all
who
entered into
Some even
the baptized from the corrujDtible world and an emancipation into a perfect and eternal
life.
Similarly,
some
them
what the
mysteries
initiated
were supposed
to
is
feel
about the
all,
above
by the
Hippolytus (1, prooem; 5. 23, 24) says the 1. had mysteries which they disclosed to the initiated only after long preparation, and with an oath not to divulge them so the I^aassenes, 5. 8, and the Peratse, 5. 17 (ad fin.), whose mysteries "are delivered in silence." The Justinians had an oath of secrecy before proceeding to behold "what eye hath not seen" and "drinking from the living water," 5. 27.
1
Adv. Valent.
heretics
Hipp.
^
41,
sin, 9. 15.
Eus.
II, E. iv. 7.
307
Good One,
to no
to
one;" and
of
seemed
to feel the
power
God
to
be upon him, as
it
As
soon as the
oath had been taken, he sees what no eye has seen, and
hears what no ear has heard, and drinks of the living
water
which
it is
is
of water springing
up within them
to everlasting life.
Again,
bation
is
life,
which
is precisely
what happened
in the
fourth century.
The general
Gnostics on baptism,
is
more
likely to
have been
There were
the element
of anointing.
two customs
the
oil of
more
characteristic of
West
(1)
thanksgiving,
by the
of the
by the
who then
sealed the
Hipp.
5. 27, of
the Justiuians.
x2
30S
X.
practices
and ceremonies
of the Church.^
of practice,
it
is
among the
first
time an attempt
The
were so
But
at the
same
realized, is
proved
by the
for
men
municants
on their
travels.
homes and carried about with them But we read of Marcus that in his
For the Eastern custom, see Cyril Hier. Catech. Myst. ii. 3, 4, 312: the candidate is anointed all over hefore baptism with exorcised oil, which, by invocation of God and prayer, purities from the burning traces of sin, but also puts to flight the invisible powers of
1
p.
Cf. Apost.
c.
iii.
15,
46
(ed.
Tattam),
cf.
in Ep.
ad
(ixnrep ot
all
dOXrjTal
;
a-ToiSiov
e[xf37]cr6[ji.evoL,
over
Dionys. Areop.
Eccles. Hicr. 2. 7
Basil, de Spir.
Western
hapt. 6
as distinct
;
Sand. 66, vol. iv. 55. For earlier from Eastern thought on the subject, cf. Tert. de
and 7 de resiirr. carnis. 8; adv. Marc. i. 14; Cyprian, JEjh For the later Western usage, introduced from the East, see Cone. Bom. 402, c. 8, ed. Bruns. pt. ii. 278 Ordo 6, ad fac. Catech. in Martene, de ant. eccl. rit. i. p. 17; Theodulfus Aurel. deord. hapt. 10; unction of the region of the heart before and behind, symbolizing the Holy Spirit's unction with a view to both prosperity and adversity Catechumens (Sirmond, vol. ii. 686) Isid. Hisp. de off. eccl. 2. 21 exorcizantur, sales acci]_nunt et uiujuntur, the salt being made tit eorum
70.
; ; ;
Apol.
1.
66.
309
of Christian
worship was
But
it
The tendency
to
an
elaborate ceremonial
of
ficence
those
human
It rose
it
new
life,
and though
life still.
it
lives only
by a
survival,
lives that
new
of
lights, in
mon
their sacred
hymns
there
is
what
;
I cannot find
it
in
it
my
because though
it
was
than
search for
our
1
own.
ap.
Hipp.
6.
39.
2,
* Tert.
ad Sca^.
may
Lecttjee XI.
The
to
object
which
is
show the
transition
influence of
to-
the-
metaphysics.
They
are as
much moral
of character.
as intellectual.
an estimate
God was not different from their use in application to men. Abraham trusted God. The Israelites also trusted God when they saw the Egyptians dead upon the seaIn the first instance there was just so much of shore.
intellectual assent involved in belief, that to believe God.
God
exists.
XI.
311
But
this
how,
when this
it
proposition
God ?
good, or just.
God is. "Why do I The answer was Because He is wise, or The propositions followed I believe that
: :
God is wise, that He is good, that He is just. Belief in God came to mean the assent to certain propositions
about God.^
of
than of moral
trust,
and of the
from impression
for a
man,
it.
he
says,
may have an
it
He
uses
come through
to
reason.
There
is
sophical use,
which led
results.
He
The mass of men, he says, trust their senses or their The good man trusts God. Just as the mass reason.
of
men
God
does not
deceive him.
God was to trust His veracity. But God spoke directly to a man were and what He said when He so spoke commanded
To
trust
an unquestioning acceptance.
1
He more commonly
c.
spoke
Orig.
Cels. 3.
39
Keim,
p. 39.
312
to
Xr.
men through
His angels
spoke to men, sometimes in visions of the night, sometimes in open manifestation by day.
to
men.
To
what
He
say, of
what
It transcends reason
God
so.^
In
this
connection
we may
note the
way
in
which
the longing
for cer-
The mass
certainty.
of
men were
sick of theories.
They
wanted
teachers
i
The current teaching of the Christian gave them certainty. It appealed to definite
their predecessors
life
facts of
which
was a necessary
but
men's needs.
upon that
tradition
if
to see
Him, His
is
i.
Quis
Hcres, 18,
39.
313
In
this latter
we may
forms of
belief, the
logical, the
other more historical and concrete, namely, (1) the conviction that
attributes
;
God being
God being
true, the
statements which
He makes
The one of these forms of belief was elaborated into what we know as the Creed; the other, into the Canon of the New Testament.
ministers are also true.^
We
became
first
authoritative.
In the
belief
was subordinated
Belief
purpose of the
itself
religion.
itself,
was not
insisted
upon in
and for
The main
men
and honoured
for their
ground
of this conviction
God
is,
and that
He
The
feature
Cf.
is
He
is
-
of
God must believe that He is, and that them that seek Him," Heb. xi. 6 ; and " He that God heareth God's words," John viii. 47.
that cometh to
a rewarder of
"
He
was one of Celsus' objections to Christianity that its preachers more stress on belief than on the intellectual grounds of belief Orig, c. Cels. 1. 9. Origen's answer, which is characteristic rather of
It
laid
his
this
is
that
mass of men, who have no leisure or inclination for deep investigation (1. 10), and in order not to leave men altogether without help (1. 12).
314
XI.
by a
revelation.
was
salvation
degrees stress
God had been made The purpose of the revelation regeneration and amendment of life. By came to be laid on this underlying element.
had not only made some propositions
it
The
tain
revelation
cer-
had also
of its distinctive or
New
some But none of them conexpress a recognized standard. Yet the standard
like references to
which read
may be
in
subsequent history,
uncertain
is
;
the
former.
at least in
is itself
it
existed
There
evidence to show
name
of the three
last
is
found in the
It is
chapter
But
there
evidence,
of the
by
E.g.
Rom.
vi. 17,
els
;
ov TrapeSo^r^re tittov
2 Tim.
;
8tSa;;^^s
2 John, 9, iv
TTj
SiBa'^ij
Tou XpicTTOu
e'/xou
i.
Adywv
(OV Trap
T^Kovcras
Tim.
tu/toAoyi^cras
rijv
KaXrjv
ojxokoyLav;
ap. Eus.
Jude
3,
i)
Polycrates,
H. E. 5. 24, 6 Kavwv t?}s Trto-rews see passages collected ia Gebhardt and Harnack's Patres Apost. Bd. i. th. 2 (Barnabas), p. 133.
2
3
Cf.
c.
Schmid, Dogmeng.
p. 14,
Das Taufsymbol.
7. 4.
315
of Christ,
name
which
in the uncertainty
exists is
how
other,
was conceived
any other
Even
this
explicit.
It is in the
The teaching
became
of
The
step
no means
is
knowing when
it
or
how
it
was made.^
It
conceivable that
was
first
made
homiletically, in
When
its
the
become
explicit,
test.
Concurrently with
use as
much
But the
and
facts
were capable
^
of different interpretations,
16, xix. 5,
different
vi. 1
See Acts
xxii. 16.
viii.
11,
',
Acts
Didaclie, 9. 5, ol /JaTrTto-^evres
ii.
ovo/ia
Kvpiov
and
ol
7,
p.
ovk
offteiXovcriv
afxapTaveiv ol
roiovroC
ws
yap
tw XptcrTW airpaKTOi
Trpo? afxapriav
cf.
ad Juhaianum, 16
2
18
cf.
Cf.
Cf.
107.
'
130
ff.
* Cf.
to his
own, Strom.
316
XI.
upon them.
In the
first
speculation
was
free.
different significance.
The same
were
amendment
of life.
It is
an almost ideal
picture
of the Christians
and yet
all
agreeing to say,
"The world
^
is
crucified to me,
and I
The
influence of
Greek thought,
by the
slender bases,
made
When
impor
certain
were added.
It
is
became
of special
by
and that
It
its
was not a philosophy which successive generations might modify. It went back to the definite
preaching.
It It
was
of importance to
to recog-
was agreed
and
it.^
But there had been more than one apostle. The teaching was consequently that, not of one person, but of many. Here was the main point of dispute. All parties
within the Church agreed as to the need of a tribunal,
its
own.
Each made
its
appeal to a
Orig.
c.
Cels. 5. 65.
c,
7, ed.
Pot
317
But
since,
own
more orthodox
to lay stress
or Catholic tendency
found
it
necessary
upon
their unity.
the plural,
ol aTroa-roXoiA
consensus.
The
ttIo-ti?
was
It
airoa-ToXiKTjj
tradition.^
was
and confederation
^
became important
were regarded
while
to a
down
p.
134.
Thus
The
17,
was said
be a hearer of Theudas,
all
who was
a pupil of Paul.
Hippol. l,^)rocemy
argued against
Scripture,
e.
Cf. Tert.
Marc.
1.
But
Cels. 3.
12
cf.
7. 17.
Cf.
7. 17, fiia
TrapdSocris,
tion of Tert. de
hcer.
non
pp. 133
ff.,
134
136.
Harnack,
4. 7.
Eusebius, H. E.
writers
had written in
against Basilides,
Adamantius (Origen,
ed. Delarue,
i.
Xtes
Se ipevSen-ccrKOTruyv 8ia^o)(^a.[.
318
XI.
came
of the
churches
Church
accepted.
But
it is
It is quite
when
or in what form
was accepted.
in the
main
preserved for us
with undoubtedly
later accretions
in
a complete
the
that
sense,
The
additions
of the
common
common
They
The
earliest
form
is
that
Eome and the West it is a bare statement. " I believe in God Almighty, and in Jesus Christ His Son our Lord, who was born of a virgin, crucified under Pontius Pilate,
:
the third day rose again from the dead, sitteth on the
right
hand
of the Father,
from whence he
;
is
coming
to
and in the Holy Spirit." The term Son came to be qualified in very early times by "only begotten;" and after "the Holy Spirit," "the
^
iKKXyjo-LacrTiKrj,
hcer.
cc.
de 2^r^sc.
for the
21.
36;
Iren. 3. 1
3;
Orig. de
princ.
4; Tert. adv. Marc. 1. 21 (regula sacramenti) ; de Virg. vel. 1; adv. Prax. 2; depmsc. hcer. cc. 3. 12. 42; di monog. 2. In general, see Weingarten, Zdttafeln^
;
:
KavMv t^?
iria-Tews, Iren, 1, 9.
6.
17. 19.
2
De
prcBsc.
Iicbt. cc.
25. 26.
319
of sins,
were added.
side with this question of the standard or
of traditional teaching,
2. Side
by
authentic
minimum
it
and growing
of
necessarily with
and out
of
it,
and
been
of the materials
interpreted.
oral.
The greater part of apostolic teaching had The tradition was mostly oral. But as the
generations of
age,
men
and
necessarily to vary,
what was the true form and content of the tradition. Written records came to be of more importance than
oral tradition.
They had
at first
series of revelations of
Ood
to
oral
had become
written.
The
revelation
consisted of
known
as the Scriptures,
Old Testament.
a large extent in
The
its
Scriptures
was
less strictly
used than
The hedge round them had gaps, and there were patches lying outside what has It was partly the indefinitesince come to be its line. ness of the Old Testament canon which caused the
sometimes supposed.
term Scripture
apostolic age.
to
But the
was
320
XI.
The
It
spirit of
prophecy had
New
Testament; as the
both,
it
spirit of
attributes.
The
term Scripture
(?
Hermas by
IrenaGus.^
The
body of
the
TTapa^oa-i's.^
The term
Scripture
was applied
to the
Then,
finally, it
But
all
and
of the
memoirs
of the apostles.
men which
were
slow,
of doubtful authority.
4. 20.
See Overbeck, die Anfdnge der patrisl Literatur, in the Hist Zeiischri/t, N.F. Ed. xii. 417472.
2 2
Cf.
4. 22. 3,
iv
eKacrrj;
TroAei
olItws
f^ei ws o vo/xos KY^pvcra-ei Kal ol Tr/aoc^^rai xai 6 Kvptos, for this practical
Harnack on
131.
Dogm.
321
There
is
The
first
Biblical critic
was Marcion
its
first
the controversy
height in Tertullian,
Which recensions
be a recognized
list
and which
of the letters
There
came
to
new
revelations, as there
came
to
be
to
though be a
list
it is
doubtful
of the -writings
Writings on the
came in
Holy Ghost.^
had been,
They were,
Hence
came
sense that
it
had in Philo
Ood, but
3.
It
if
rest
with this
stage in the
Cf.
Weingarten, Zeittafeln,
first
whom
he traces the
where he cites the Muratorian and Athanasius, in the last of use of the term "canon" in our sense. But
p. 19,
H.E.
6. 25),
we must
canon and the contents whence the idea of a canon of Scripture tame, whether from the ecclesiastical party or from the Gnostics and if from the latter, whether it was from Basilides, or Valentinus, or Most likely the last. Harnack, Dogm. 215 fF. ; cf, 237 Marcion. 240 for Marcion as the first Biblical critic.
carefully distinguish the idea of a
of the canon.
It is uncertain
f.
322
XI.
TIIE
conflict of speculations
by the New Testament. But the which had compelled the middle
of the sources also
and a limitation
had the
of
In
the
or
Word
Son
to the Father,
and of both
to
men.
The Creed^
is
as given
elaborate.^
it to
in
equally
be
traditional as
satisfied.
he believed.
He
depre-
cates
the
He
denies
the
"Seek and ye
shall find," to
:
it
relates
when
man
has foundis-
that he needs:
further "seeking"
In other words, as
faith
tradition (authority).^
dom
of speculation
There grew up
he abandons argu1.
han-.
ment with the Gnostics, yet in his adv. Marc. of argument, and enters into formal discussion.
2
c.
2.
^ Tert.
dc x>rascr.
323
also,
Scriptui-es,
its
them
yvwa-i's
took
place
side
by
side
with
Tr/o-Tf?.^
It
grew up
in several parts of
Christendom.
Palestine, in Alexandria,
men who
on the
study
for the
was
Clement.
of Christian doctrine,
tional limits,
thought.
But he
first
disciple Origen.
In the
De
we
its
have the
and
I recom-
mend
the study of
which
my
these speculations.
The two
points to
which
wish to
(1)
1
The
distinction
ori;
and
Trto-rts
e. g.
the former was conceived to relate to the Spirit, the latter to the Son,
5. 1).
y2
324
XT.
facts,
Tertullian,
among
it.
The
in his time to
as the " dis-
make
its
way
it
was known
^jensation" i^ceconomia).
remarks,
"not
to
who
since the
God
not
underis to
God be
one, yet
His oneness
conser-
It
came
be considered as imporit
it
in the fact.
The
away
of this distinction,
and
of the
culative element,
speculations,
was a tendency
to
check individual
and
The
who
asserted
was a
single
and
and
as
those
who claimed
that the
Holy
Spirit spoke to
them
truly as
tles.
He had
spoken to
men
The
final,
victorious opinion
was
Adv. Prnx
3.
325
was the
sufficient
sum
of Christian teaching
hence the
stress laid
upon
apostolic doctrine.
The
were
claimed,
to
be taken in their
required
were
of
no private In other
interpretation,
was
tion.
necessarily supplemented
A rule
of faith
'
useless,
and were
felt to
without a traditionally
The Gnostics were prepared They also appealed to tradition to accept all but this. and to the Scriptures.^ So far it was an even battle each side in such a controversy might retort upon the
authoritative interpretation.
other,
^
and did
so.^
If
it
were allowed
to each side to
whom
Tertullian
opposed: de prcesc.
2
liczr. cc.
upon
Origen {de princ, prcef. 3) follows in the line of those who rested apostolic teaching, but gives a foothold for philosophy by saying
(2) that
tigated
stating the
^
manner and
de prcesc.
hcer. 18.
arguments
32 G
XT.
might cLaim a
victory.
A new principle
had
to
be
and
no serious
dif-
among
the apostolical
churches.
It
They
The
growing up on
Gnostic
all sides
They needed a limitation and a The check was conterminous with the sources check. of the tradition itself; the meaning of the canon, as
opinions.
itself,
of apostolical churches;
method
of enforcing
to
important
the
standard
of belief.
Bishops had added to their original functions the function of teachers (^itida-KaXoi)
of
will
God
{irpocpriTai)}
tlie
necessary.
In Strom.
7.
IG and 17, Clement makes Scripture the criterion between the Church
and the
apostolic
^
heretics,
all
orthodox teaching
is
The combination
2.5.
found in
A}iost. Const.
Bk.
ii.
IG,
INTO
A BODY OF DOCTRINE.
827
Two
The
first
and interprecommunities
The mass
of
upon
tradi-
an
by a continuous
tion.
But a
is
definition of
fined
an expansion
of
the Creed,
is
in the
letter
sent
by
Paul of Samosata.^
The
faith
is
down from
the beginning
"that God
unbegotten,
whom
no
it
man
see,
is impossible for
human
Him
Him ....
whomsoever the Son revealeth Him.' We confess and proclaim His begotten Son, the only begotten, the image
of the invisible God, the firstborn of every creature, the
wisdom and word and power of God, being before the worlds, God not by foreknowledge but by essence and
substance."
The
facts
of the
creed
were altogether
p.
p.
290; Harnack,
644.
328
XI.
obscured.
was
belief in
certain
speculations.
The conception
round a wide
had travelled
circuit.
own
day.
The
a witness, or in facts of
which
may
God
in
admit of a
came to
it
But with
this
there
The acceptance
was
God and
developing
all
In the
but
it
different
had gone
before.
The habit
of defining
and of making
as the philo-
The
upon became
still
deeper
the
Councils
of
Constantinople
and
come
to
new
revelation,
and
and
3.
329
the
rejection
of
The second result was the creation of a distinction between what was accepted by the majority at a meeting and what was accepted only by a minority. The distinc(ii.)
tion
And
the
was
admissible.^
concord of the brethren, but they did not break the unity
of the faith.
tified
;
ISTow heretics
was followed by
'
political
penalty.
The
original
contention,
still
pre-
man
should worship
God
according to his
own
man's
religion neither
changed
Contro-
began
venom and
abuse.
I
But I
have them at
was by these
t$
stages,
into the
atpecTLs is
Christian doctrine
p. 13,
17
ovtl dpLcrrrj
at'/Decris:
as in Sext.
Empir. (Pijrrh.
16)
it
to a system of
implied).
2
Ad
Scap. 2.
track.
The "cart-loads
e. g.
(oAas d/tdt^as
(SXacrcf^rjjxtiov
Gregory of Nyssa.
odU
other
XI.
by a slow
is
which
the basis of
with
and metaphysical
speculation with
It
spiritual truth.
God
is
then (4) came in the definition of terms, and each definition of terms involved a new theory
;
sphere
and instead
world of religious
belief,
which
metry
of its foliage
of its discords,
all,
that the
symmetry
thereof.
of a
system
is
its
am
far
true.
The
that
from the
The importance
body
conception.3
(1)
belief
The first conception comes from the antecedent which was rooted in the Greek mind, that, given
which
f^re
admitted on
all sides
requisite that a
man
should define
INTO
those beliefs^
A BODY OF DOCTRINE.
it is
331
that
-with
as necessary that a
man
should
be able to say
I believe in God.
It is
A philosopher
cannot be satisfied
with unanalyzed
(2)
ideas.
politics
a meeting.
and
majority of church
officers
and
duty
of the individual
is,
light of nature or
Spirit
may be
The theory
to
men
except through
It is a large assumption.
which
what
is
business of
human
its
society
it is
untrue, or that
arguments in
its
recognized.
(3)
The
third conception
is,
See Lecture V.
p. ,135.
332
XI.
THE INCORPORATION OF CHRISTIAN IDEAS view that once, and once only, did
of
It is a conceivable
God speak
It
is
to
is
Himself in
continually
the Grospels
also
God
is
meaning
assump-
The
difi&culty is in the
tion
which
is
and that
it
arrested.
The
of the original
by Jesus Christ
is
The point
of
most
we have been
it
affords
wholly untenable.
We
what
is
distinctive in the
dually formed, but also that the whole temper and frame
of
were extraneous
to the first
form
of Christianity,
and
were added
traced.
by the operation
be
so,
is
of causes
which can be
If this
which went on
and
be
amount of
is
positive testimony.
absolutely none.
But
it
may
333
come
we
of religion
and
of the criterion
by which
We
have to
for the
life,
its possibilities,
we must combine
an average, yet law
into societies
of
[
I
by
striking
knowledge we must go
whispered
dual soul.
It
still
may
be that too
much
is
but of
facts,
mind
in
It
And
may be
is
which
which builds
is
it
upon
of
the character and not only upon the intellect, us thereby to that conception of
it
drawing
life
which the
Lecture XII.
THE TRATTSFOEMATION OF THE BASIS OF CHEISTIAN UNION: DOCTEINE IN THE PLACE OF CONDUCT.
I SPOKE in the
last
enormous change
assent to that
by which an
body
of doctrine
became the
but
basis of union.
I shall
have to speak
Greece than
in previous Lectures
it is
but
sum
in the
changed basis
of Christian
communion.
There
is
no adequate evidence
age of
It
Christianity, association
fii'st
time
human
^ouL
The ground
sonship.
And
the sons of
God were
They
But the clustering together under that constraining force was not necessarily the formation of an association.
XII.
335
tenof
The
to
form
societies
and
is
social purposes.
ample evidence
that,
to
An
but
it
existed as an
element, not
by
itself
was not separable from the element. Of the same spiritual element, " faith"
life.
sides.
The
faith
were,
by
common
They were
one
spirit,
Saviour,
by by the common belief in Jesus Christ as their by the overpowering sense of brotherhood, by
baptized, not only into one body, but also
of immortality.
is,
the
common hope
Their individual
mem-
The
collective
the Church
God
was holy.
which
was regarded as holy before it was regarded as catholic. The order of the attributes in the creed is historically
correct
The
pictures
remain
The
earliest
H.E.
of a philosophical school.
336
Xir.
that of the
Two Ways."
From
it
the Acts of the Apostles and the canonical Epistles, and the extra-canonical writings of the sub-apostolic age,
is
But
of
''Two Ways" we have a primitive manual Christian teaching, and the teaching is wholly moral.
in the
two
to
is
God and
any one give thee a blow on the one cheek, turn to him " Give to every one that asketh thee, the other also." and ask not back."
nor double-tongued."
grasping."
"
Thou shalt not be double-minded " Thou shalt not be covetous nor
angry nor envious."
"Thou
shalt not be
"Thou
shalt not
"But
and considerate."^
it
The
ideal
moral, but
was
also that of
an internal morality, of a
new
is
heart, of a
change of character.
is
the
first
book of the
collection of
documents known as
It pictures the
aim of the
will
as being to please
sons
become well-pleasing in
1
all
Didache,
cc. 1
3.
Ajwst. Const p.
1.
15
17.
337
from
all that
He
hates,
and do none
Son, as believers,
as the phrase
is
expanded, "those
^
who have
of life
is
The
rule
the
as Christ
expanded them,
well as of deed.
comprehend
sins of
thought as
ideal
It
was a fellowship
of a
common
all
mutual
service, of abstinence
from
that would
human
but in a
"I
call these
seven witnesses to
steal,
not covet, I will not hate, I will not despise, nor will I
common ideal, but also on the fellowship common hopa In baptism they were born again,
to immortality.
and born
1 ^
lb. 5.
2022.
/J
6^
"We
"only
lives
^
for the
Apologists was based on the fact that the Christians led blameless
:
c.
4.
The
338
XII.
The Son of Man would come again, and the regenerated would die no more. The kingdoms of this world would become the kingdom of the Messiah. The lust and hate,
the strife
and
conflict,
new
might ascend.
But
and
all
of the Son of
Man
to
began
form.
It
was no longer
of the
The nations
munion.
There would
it
would be a transformed
The
this
first
Is,
that
reli-
this conception of
an all-embracing human
sciously, carried
discipline.
society,
naturally, if uncon-
with
it
The very
earnestness
to
their
vol.
ii.
Weingarten, Zeiita/eln,
p. 12,
pp.
310312.
339
There
of the test
was
softened.
The
old
Adam
asserted
itself.
There were
social influ-
ences,
and weakness
and a
less
It
became
less
and
ode.
It
was against
this
was a
rebellion
tianity,
worldliness.^
it
The
earlier
embraced
sins
of
sins.
human
organ-
The second
when
and had
be re-admitted. The limitation was not accepted without a controversy which lasted over a great part of two centuries,
and which
The Church was gradually transformed from being a community of saints of men who were bound together by the bond of a
Christian communities into fragments.
lioly life,
antagonism to
to a
community
of
The Church
which
floated
of this troublesome
world
was
a Noah's ark, in
as clean.
*
Weingarten,
p. 17.
z2
340
XII.
member-
of the intellectual
The
times
came
to include in early
Hegesippus,^ in speaking of
its
moral
foolish
The growth, both within the Chiu'ch and on outskirts, of opinions which were not the opinions of
the majority
the tendency
power
the flocking
in the age
gave to
had not
it
previously possessed.
been in some
sort
came
by
Agreement
in opinion,
and
now came
to
new element
1
in the
bond
of
the Churches.^
Eusebius, H. E.
But the
4. 22, 4.
practical necessity,
when once
of
is
The very terms heresy and heterodox bear witness to the action the Greek philosopliical schools on the Christian Church at'/Dccris
:
p. 1 3, of
principle
which
is
cf.
Diels,
In Clem. Alex. Strom. 7. 15, it is Doxogr. Gr. pp. 27G, 673, 388. used to denote the orthodox system, 'ErepoSo^ovs is used of the dogmatics from point of view of a sceptic
40.
:
p.
771,
Joseph us uses
it
of the
men
8. 5.
341
an
intellectual element
by
and a standard
within which
it
list of
to be laid at once
upon the
is to say,
was
of the right
new temper
which
and tendency.
The
first
him
as the
Son
of
became the
membership.
The
profession of faith
rule.^
must be in the
of the cate-
The teaching
which we
that
Two
was
Ways"
its
the inculcation
meaning.
The law
of
life is
compromise.
with its curious counterpart in laxity of 42 44. He speaks of the Valentinians,
of opinion in Gnostic
societies,
Cf.
Harnack, 190 ff., also 211. The very cultivation of the Gnosis means the supremacy of the intellect.
^
Tertullian, de Spedaculis,
c. 4.
If yvwo-ts
Trto-Tis
was important
if iria-TLs
as
au
by
side
with
then
2.
or
included
also the rejection of the right faith Avas a bar to salvavras regarded as involving eternal
hence heresy
death
Tert. de
prase.
342
XII.
The one
attached to baptism.
There
is
was conceived to have in itself an efficacy which in later The expressionstimes has been rarely attached to it.
which the more
ing away of sins
it
literary ages
literally.
was a
real
washlife ;
it
was
new
was a
The renun-
ciatio diaholi
the abjuring
also
of false gods
worship
was
were indeed even more strongly emphasized by certain Gnostic societies than by the more orthodox writers but
;
whether
all
efficacy.
it
Was-
depend on
which
it
was administered ?
awful
It
became important
who
Th&
rules
which were
laid
There werefact of
which
vitiated baptism,
^
To it. de Sped.
c.
343
which was
laid
It
drew away
of inter-
more
for trade
the travelling
test
had been
of the
and
teachers.
It is
Apostles.
intellectual
But the
teaching.
all
teaches you
these things"
the
"Two Ways"),
teaches,
ing^ so
But in case he who himself turns and teaches you another teachas to destroy (this teaching), listen not to him
receive him.
to
but
if
he teaches you so as
add
to
your righteous-
him
as the
Lord." 2
So of the prophets:
is
"Not
every one
who
by these ways
be known the
false
is
a false prophet."^
2. 1.
11. 1, 2.
c. 11. 8,
10;
cf.
Herm. Mand.
11. 7
and
16.
344
brethren:
XII.
who comes
in the
....
If
he wish
craftsman, let
so eat.
If he be not a
way
of his living
among you
as
If he be unwilling so
of godliness."
^
he
is xP'-'^'^^l^'^^po^
making a gain
The test here also is a test of character and not of belief. But when the intellectual elements had asserted a prominence in Christianity, and when the acceptance of the baptismal formula had been made a test of admission to a Christian community, it gradually became a custom to make the acceptance of that formula also a condition of
admission to hospitality.^
or pass-word.
It was, so to speak, a tessera
it
By
became
also a
of current
opinion as those
of the
who
are hypocrites.
The importance
to indi-
whole communities.^
The
fact that
when
that book
later
munity
1
members with a
et appellatio
circular
c.
12. 1,
35.
i.e.
The jura,
the communicatio
pads
fratemitatis et
tradition of
contesseratio hosjntalitatis,
were controlled
{regit)
by the
the creed
^
{uiiiiis
hoc
testimonium
345
a pass-
recommendation.
Such a
letter served as
it
port.
The
travelling Christian
who brought
received
But when an immediate and ungrudging hospitality:. churches had wide points of difference, they would not receive each other's letters. The points of difference which
thus led to the renunciation of fellowship, related in the
first
They came
to relate
to belief.
cipline,
came
to
last Lecture.
other's certificates.
it
The
it.
hier-
archical
and out
of
The
of the
assumed
desirability of
new
new
sanction.
It
rested belief
Men
were no longer
with
life in
were altogether
But that which gave importance to their operation was not internal, but external. It was the interposition of the State. The first instance of that
346
XII.
interposition
was
Paul of Samosata.
communities ever
of churches
The
since.
principle
esta-
was
middle
Empire, which
we
Nicene Council
it
The Bishop
of Antioch,
who was a
new
was
forcing
way
Meetings
to
of
have
He was
He
refused to
An
was made by his opponents to the Emperor. The answer of the Emperor determined the principle already referred The tenant of the buildings held them on condition to.
of being a Christian.
what Christianity
lever
might be properly
This determined
Eoman
policy,
and
went
far to
future.
to
34V
of giving
whatever sanction
He
said in
doctrine
and
civil
burdens,
who
The succeeding Christian Emperors The test of being a Christian was followed in his track. conformity to the resolutions of the Councils. One who accepted them received immunity and privileges. One who did not was liable to confiscation, to banishment, to death. I need hardly draw out for you, who know what
human
nature
is,
the Church
the conservative
The
most important
of the
were those
in the fourth.
Its first cause
Callistus,
now
of the
Eoman
bishop,
The
policy
was continued.
it.
The
who belonged
d4b
XII.
on a schism.
strong.
It
had sym-
in Egypt, in
the power
of the
Keys.
was
had
to
recognize
it.
on in detached com-
munities, but
it
ceased to be a power.
State,
The
majority,
but also of
human
The other
It
reaction
permanent.
Christian
community
who framed
for
common
as the
They stood to the rest of the community community itself stood to the rest of the world.
ideal.
itself
The tendency
schools,
to a large extent
by the
its
influ-
upon
its
borders.
But
it
asserted
place as a
side
by
side
with the
Tuy/ULa
KXrjpiKociv
Tcou XaiKcoVj
acrKyjTwu.
in
human
life
Lcct. vi. p.
164
349
it
And
tlie
wMcli has
survived to our
own
began as
as
it
a,
tianity as
it
was and
is
an
regenerate
fact of
human
society^
its separation,
current morality.
its officers
were men
of the
members were of the world, basing their conduct on the current maxims of society, held together by the loose bond of a common name, and of a creed which they did not understand. In such a society, an
world;
intellectual basis is the only possible basis.
In such a
society also, in
which
officialism
instinct of self-preservation.
But
it
Christianity has
won no
its basis
was changed.
The
|
won,
it
has
man. Its darkest pages are those which record the story
endeavouring to force
its
physics upon
alien.
men
is
or
upon races
whom
they were
of despair in those
who
accept
the fear
that the
which
ment
in
it
will be perpetual.
I have
now brought
is
The
net result
350
XII.
mind
Ehetoric, Logic,
shown
called Christian
and Metaphysics.
that a large part of
doctrines,
and many usages which have prevailed and and Greek usages changed
in
Greek
colour
theories
form and
by the
life
their essence
Greek
still.
its
dying
by
them
by the continuIts
its
theology, whose
God
it is
is
more metaphysical
than spiritual
its
whose essence
important to define
in life is
creation of a class of
the spontaneous
artistic periods of
a rhetorician
its religious
ceremonial,
and the
its
conception
in
all these,
an argument
that
first
it
much
that
was
at
alien to
It is
an argument
much
of that
has been
351
many
But
is
the question of
in Christianity to
is vital.
The question
It claims
The
theories
which
two in number.
a
It
is possible to urge,
its first
and death
may throw
Hellen-
form cannot be
essential,
Mount
life,
is
sum.
of
God Himself
in
the
to
human
society,
first
it
grow by assimilating
to
to itself
whatever elements
found there.
was intended
essential.
its
successive
growths are for the time at which they exist integral and
It is possible to hold that
it is
and
on the developments
of the future.
it
852
XII.
The one
or the other
we accept the one or the other, it seems much of the Greek element may be abandoned.
;
on the
latter,
is
permanence.
to
be the
work
we
and
if
we
it
by
new thoughts
human
am
many who
deposit.
the
Bible.
fabric of belief
that Genesis
work of a single author. The timidity The recognition of the fact that has virtually ceased. the Book of Genesis was not made, but grew, so far from
is
religion,
has become a
new
So
it
and there-
am
earnest in urging
its
study.
353
begun.
unexplored ground
to
who
after
wandering by
landscape
looked, I
and speaking
am
sure that
it is
as one
who
it
you
fairer
landscape beyond.
am
though
fields
it
be
on the
either
we
is
which
Christianity
which
not
new but
which
is
Christianity in
which men
will be
is
bound
together
by the bond
the bond
its
first
communities.
INDEX,
CONTAINING THE CHIEF TOPICS, PROPER NAMES, AND TECHNICAL
TERMS, REFERRED TO IN THE LECTURES.
Italicized subdivisions of a
title
titles.
to,
116
its ethical
;
cf.
132, 336
Bk.
190
two
259.
ii.,
fin.,
Bks.
and
viii.,
Alexandrine School,
transcendence,
its
philosophy, 81
270; of
in Philo,
on moral probation,
255.
232
on God's
148
ff.
and Origen.
Allegorism, 58 ff. ; " mysteries," 59,
physical, 61
;
148 reduced
;
148150.
Christian,
164
ff.
its
germ,
66
ethical,
60
the Stoics, 61
63
later
exponents, 64.
in religion, 65
e.g.
;
Greek
290
ff.
Syn-
69, 72,
128
72
Gnostic, 69
;
prophecy
its
akin to "mysteries," 290, 291; purity of life required, 141 ; mixed effects on Chriselements, 291, 292
;
tianity,
292295,
cf.
141.
his
Monism,
tion,
82
irony of
use
life,
and abuse, 83 ;
its place in
modern
8385.
Alogi, 252, n.
\
its exegesis, 81, 82.
Baptism and dualism, 19. Primitive simits its formula, 315 plicity, 294, 295
; ;
Ambrose
ethical character
among the
Elchasaites,
Antiochene School,
Apologists
337
later
mark
transition,
e.g.
;
126
131
free-will,
231 transcendence of God, 252, 253 Logos doctrine, 261263, 267, 268.
;
ritual, 299,
Apostolic doctrine,
idea
of,
316, 317
"Apostles' Creed,'
317319.
his view
356
of creation, 195,
INDEX.
196
;
of transcendence,
Definition
infla
318
Development not arrested, 332, 351, 352. Dialectic, Greek, 118 fin. Didache, the: the "Two Ways" emphasizes conduct, 160, 161, 335,
336; and
Canon
of N. T.,
its
simple theo-
319321.
Catholic Church, its genesis, 11, 132
;
an end
252 Baptism, 294, 295, cf, 315 the Lord's Supper, 300, 301 intercommunion based on moral test, 343,
; ;
of Christianity
and Greek philosophy, 125; unconsciously Hellenized, 132 135; as a " corpus pcrniixtum," 164.
and Porphyry's polemic against
;
344.
Dio
Chrysostom
characterized,
on
"askcsis," 150.
Celsus, his
Christian allegorism, 80
on relation of
early
Christian,
ii.
162
ff:
in
11
init.
:
Christianity, primitive
New Law,
238, 239,
162, 163 ; its Puritan ideal, 163; later " corpus per-
158162
225
;
its ethical
its
theological basis,
251, 252.
mixtum" idea, 164. Dogma (Soyfia), its original sense, 119, 120; later Dogmatism, 121123; the
age of Dogmatism, 280.
Church,
its early
;
character,
335 ;
holiness,
335337
Clement
of
and Stoicism,
and 70 ; appeal to hieroglyphics, 71 on Christianity N. T. allegories, 76 and philosojiliy, 127 on the Conserva:
181
tion, 194,
195.
their Old Testament
Clementines,
the:
;
criticism, 71
God
Ebionites become
" heretics,"
*.
132
as
230.
Conservatives, 252, n.
:
the formula
Education, Greek, 26
ff.
its
forms literary,
Rhetoric,
Conservatism
Clement and Tertullian on in Ebionites and Elchait, 130, 131 often not recognized saites, 252, 337
:
27 28
mainly
;
Grammar and
its
ff.
also
as such
(cf.
Epictetus characterized, 6
former, 142
ff.;
as moral re-
324; Paul of
;
345, 346
in Puri-
quoted, 144
his
348
Monachism, 348,
germs, 313, 314;
144; 149;
of ethics,
152: "follow
"follow God,"
its
Essentia
its
dis-
comes a
test, 31 5
by "Apostolic teaching," 316, 317; the "Apostles' Creed " of the Bishops (TrapaSoaic ticK\i](na(TTtK)i), 317
ff.
319.
Cyprian characterized,
8.
139 ; philosophic 140; moral reformation in first centuries a.d., 140, 141 ; in religioui
Average
ethics,
morality,
its relation
n.
to Logic
in
INDEX.
Epictetus,
357
fin.
;
143
ff. ;
147 150
ashesis,
148
152
ff. ;
Basilides
Idea of
ff. ;
e.g. Basilides
and
in Epictetus,
Ethics, Christian,
158170.
Modalism, 257 ff. Connecting link with the Mysteries, 305 ff.;
e.g.
Marcus, 254.
Compared with Greek, 158; its basis and characteristic idea (sin), 158, 159 agreement upon value of conduct, 159 the "Two Ways," 160, 161; Apost.
;
Const. Bis,
i.
161
discipline, earlier
;
and 164
later,
162
;
168
164
169
;
and the Scriptures, 325, Grammar in Greek education, 28 ff. Ypai.iixaTi.Kr), and ypafifiaTiauKi], 28
its
fin.
Christian askesis,
of
deterioration
victory
average
Guilds
see Associations.
ethics,
168,
of
Greek
Hellenism characterized, 13, 14. Heresy, original use of term, 340,
Hippolytus, 6 203.
;
ethics in
Roman Law
of Rights, 169,
170.
n.
^,
his
theory of creation^
193;
reve-
257
ff. ;
Homer
in
Greek thought, 51
ff. ;
in Chris-
310
ff.
Homoousios
Gnostics,
Old Testament, 310, 311; Greek philosophy, 311 Philo, 311, 312.
;
first
;
used of
God by the
274
its
ambiguity, 274
276,
313
ff. ;
relation
ff.
to
New
Testament
speculative
Eyparxis
{vTrap^ig)
^.
= " hypostasis,"
275,
Canon, 319
Further
especially n,
Hypostasis
sia,"
TTpuiTt]
{viroffratrig), relation to
"ou-
and
339
275;
of
gradually
f.
:
specialized
341
check found
;
in
consensus of
ovaia, 276
further defined
(
Bishops, 326 expansion of Creed, 327 contrasted uses of term " belief, " 328
by aid
;
"prosdpon"
Trpoo-wTroi'
re-
root of "officium"
tfpapx?jc
for minis-
trants, 303, n.
155.
""Generation, eternal," 267; essential, 268
its idea,
285.
287;
;
sacrifice,
procession,
its
&c.,
287, 288
mystic drama,
nature,
cism,
130134,
cf.
323
ff.
and
339
288290.
Inspiration
in
Greece,
connected
with
rhythm, 51.
Irenoeus, 8
:
rizes the
Gospel,
cosmogonies,
190
203
193
hypothe-
on Justice and Goodness in God, 228; on free-will, 231 ; his Logos doc;
lapse,
193
opposition from
trine, 262,
263,
cf.
266,
358
INDEX.
and Lord's Supper, 300 ff. culmination of influence, 303 305; Gnostics
;
a bridge, 305
ff.
Jadaism as basis
238, 239.
Justin Martyr,
8
of Christian theology,
fivrjaig,
philosophy, 126
on free-will, 231
;
on Christianity and on
;
Natura
see
(piiaiQ.
cf.
159
162
(espe-
Logos doc-
266 ; nature
Logoi (Xoyoi),
182,
Origen, 8
77, 78
;
defence of
it,
a theodicy, 204
206
268
;
80
;
his
cosmogony
scale,
its
grand
Logos, the, in Philo, 247 ff. ; relation to God, 249, 250 ; and " logoi," 259261
233
the
237
first
(especially n.
his
Dcprincipiis
263
=hyle;
(ii.)
= substantia concreta;
Its
272.
God, 273
Marcion, his ditheistic tendency, 227, 230
his idea of a Canon, 321
;
;
279,
his literal
method, 325.
Marcus
God's
Maximus
of Tyre, 6
transcendence, 242.
67
69;
7,
128, 182;
his
his
v.
allegorism,
"^
"literal"
" deeper
Modalism,
its
:
Monachism
168; a reaction, 348, 349. Monarchianism a witness to older " Motian, 1G7,
185, 186;
and
unity, 186,
187; but
interme-
God
is
ture,
247
ff.;
as
Montanism
a survival of "prophecy,"
ff.
its
"damnosa here-
its
66
Greek, 283
ff.
;
initiation at Eleusis,
284
affect Christianity,
293 ;
Bpecially
238
Plato author
INDEX.
of transcendence proper, 240, 241, and
n.
^
;
359
:
extra-biblical deve-
243
genesis
daemons, 246.
Plotinus on transcendence, 243
of Logos, 266, n.
^.
;
Apost. Const. Bks. ii. and viii., 301 the " altar," its " mysteries," the sacred
formula, 302 and n.^; "priest," 303;
Plutarch, 6
among
cf.
contesseratio,
344.
<s<ppayiQ, of
baptism, 295.
of
109;
the "ho-
free-
109113.
;
on genesis of Logos, 266, 231 n. 1 and n. , 267, n. . Teaching profession, 37 ff. endowed, 38
;
how
te\et7), reXtiaQai
see initiation,
cf.
296.
see hypostasis.
258
fin.,
259.
Puritanism in early Church, 347, 348. Pythagoreanism and Christianity, 81, 129.
Religion, its political aspect to the
131, 257, n. ^;
on creation,
232
transcendence in him
;
Roman,
n.
supra-cosmic, 254
21
on
ecclesiastical tradition
and specula-
tion, 322.
"Rule
scendence, 253;
;
on genesis of Logos,
mainly on 88 90;
265, n. S
cf.
268.
popularized in SiaXs^ng, 91
rant, 92
94; mannerof
rewards, 97, 98
and
itine-
Mind, 240
in Plutarch
and Maximus,
discourse, 94
;
242
Plotinus,
243
97
its
and
airs, 99.
its
Objections, 99
101
reaction led by
f.
appears in
f.
101105.
Gnostics, 254
;
Alexandrines,
255
f.
mediation
of,
332, 333.
State, its interference with doctrine,
256
ff.,
especiaUy 257, n. I
(1) exorcism, (2) thanksgiving,
279 f.
Unction of
n.
;
345347.
Stoicism
its
\
278
its
(piait;
(
sometimes
(fiiitTiafioQ,
246.
Sulstantia at
ousia, 277,
hypostasis,
then
278.
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