Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
switching, Cisco IOS, and routing. Topics include TCP/IP model of internetworking,
configuring, and troubleshooting some of the most widely used Cisco switches and
routers. Also, CCNA is foundation exam for CCNP (Cisco Certified Networking
Professional). The exam notes is a brief review of important points that help in quick
review of key points.
1. Internetwork IP addressing:
IP addresses are written using decimal numbers separated by decimal points. This is
called dotted decimal notation of expressing IP addresses.
- Network address of all 1s means " all networks", same as hexadecimal of all Fs.
- Host (Node) address of all 1s mean "all Hosts (Nodes) " on the specified network.
2. The range of numbers from 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255 are used for multicast
packets. This is known as Class D address range.
Let us take a network ID of 168.8.0.0, and find the maximum number of possible
subnets and the corresponding subnet mask that can accommodate at least 500 hosts.
The steps involved are outlined below:
I. Find the Class of the IP address, in this case it is a class B network. Class B network
has the form N.N.H.H. Therefore, we have a total of 16 bits (two octets) for assigning
to internal networks and hosts. The minimum number of host addresses required is
500. The last octet corresponds to 2^8 = 256 hosts which is still less than 500 Hosts..
Therefore, you have to borrow one more bit from the third octet to make it 256*2 =
512 Hosts. This leaves 7 bits in the third octet for assigning subnet addresses. This is
equal to 2^7=128 subnets.
II. Write the 7 bits available for subnetting in third octet in the form 11111110 (last
bit being the Host bit). The decimal equivalent of the first seven bits is
2^7+2^6+2^5+2^4+2^3+2^2+2^1
Let us consider an IP address 196.202.56.0 with four subnets and maximize the
number of host for the given subnets. The steps involved are as below:
I. The number of subnets required are four. We need to add subnets of all ones and all
zeros to this. This is because all zeros and all ones subnets belong to "this subnet" and
"all subnets" broadcasts and can not be used. Therefore, the total number of subnets to
be reserved is 4+2 = 6.
III. Write the 3 bits available for subnetting in fourth octet in the form 11100000 (Five
0s being Host bits). The decimal equivalent is 2^7+2^6+2^5
For example, your network has 2 servers, 26 clients machines, and 2 router interfaces
the total number of IP addresses required are 30.
8. Finding the number of Hosts and subnets available for a given subnet mask: For
example, let us find the number of hosts and subnets available for an IP 156.233.42.56
with a subnet mask of 7 bits.
a. Class B network has the form N.N.H.H, the default subnet mask is 16 bits long.
There is additional subnet mask of 7 bits long.
Some times, the subnet mask is specified with the bits available in the default subnet
mask. In this case the bits available in default subnet mask is 16. Therefore, total
number of bits available in the subnet mask are 16+7=23. If you are given a subnet
mask of 23 bits long for a class B address, it is understood that it contains the bits
from the default subnet mask as well.
9. The directed broadcast should reach all Hosts on the intended network (or subnet, if
sub netted). For example, the directed broadcast address for an IP network
196.233.24.15 with default subnet mask is 196.233.24.255. This is arrived by putting
all 1s for the host potion of the IP address.
It is important to know that FTP, Telnet, SMTP use TCP; whereas TFTP, SNMP use
UDP.
13. SNMP is part of TCP/IP protocol suite. It allows you to monitor and manage a
network from a centralized place by using SNMP Manager software. The systems or
devices that provide the responses are called agents (or MIBs). An SNMP agent is any
computer running SNMP agent software.
MIB stands for Management Information Base. It is part of SNMP agent database. A
MIB records and stores information abut the host it is running on. An SNMP manager
can request and collect information from an agent's MIB. Routers are typical MIB
agents. SNMP agent generates "trap" messages that are then sent to an SNMP
management console, which is a trap destination.
14. Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is used to resolve or map a known IP address
to a MAC sub layer address to allow communication on a multi-access medium such
as Ethernet. Reverse ARP (RARP) is used to obtain an IP address using an RARP
broadcast. RARP can be used to boot diskless workstations over a network.
2. The Presentation Layer: This layer is responsible for presenting the data in standard
formats. This layer is responsible for data compression, decompression, encryption,
and decryption. Some Presentation Layer standards are: JPEG, MPEG, MIDI, PICT,
Quick Time, TIFF.
3. The Session Layer: Session Layer is responsible for co-ordinating communication
between systems/nodes.The following are some of the session layer protocols and
interfaces: a) Network File System (NFS), SQL, RPC (Remote Procedure Call), X-
Windows, ASP, DNA SCP.
4. The Transport Layer: The Transport Layer is responsible for multiplexing upper-
layer applications, session establishment, and tearing-down of virtual circuits. This
layer is responsible for flow control, to maintain data integrity.
5. The Network Layer: There can be several paths to send a packet from a given
source to a destination. The primary responsibility of Network layer is to send packets
from the source network to the destination network using a pre-determined routing
methods. Routers work at Network layer.
Data Link Layer is layer 2 of OSI reference model. This layer is divided into two sub-
layers:
The LLC sub-layer handles error control, flow control, framing, and MAC sub-layer
addressing.
The MAC sub-layer is the lower of the two sub-layers of the Data Link layer. MAC
sub-layer handles access to shared media, such a Token passing or Ethernet.
7. Physical Layer: The actual flow of signals take place through Physical layer. At
Physical layer, the interface between the DTE and DCE is determined. The following
are some of the standard interfaces are defined at Physical layer: EIA/TIA-232,
EIA/TIA-449,V.24,V.35,X.21,G.703,HSSI (High Speed Serial Interface).
II. Bridges and simple switches work at Data Link Layer (Layer 2),
17. CSU / DSU is an acronym for Channel Service Unit / Data Service Unit.
CSU/DSU is part of Customer Premise Equipment (CPE). CSU / DSU connect to a
Central Office (CO), a telephone switching company located nearer to the customer.
18. Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) IEEE Specification 802.1d is used to prevent
routing loops. In Cisco Catalyst 5000 series switches, use BDPUs (Bridge Protocol
Data Units) to determine the spanning tree topology. STP uses a Tree Algorithm
(STA) to prevent loops, resulting in a stable network topology.
19. HTTP is the protocol used for accessing the World Wide Web services. HTTP
operates over TCP/IP. TCP/IP is the protocol, which is used by all internet
applications such as WWW, FTP, Telnet etc. IPX/SPX is proprietary protocol stack
of Novell NetWare.
21. The port number used by TCP is 6 and that of UDP is 17.
1. Store-and-Forward switching: Here the LAN switch copies the entire frame into its
buffers and computes the CRC. The frame is discarded if there are any CRC errors.
Giant ( more than 1518 bytes0 and Runt (less than 64 bytes) frames are also dropped,
if found.
2. Cut-Through (Real-Time) switching: Here, the LAN switch copies only the
destination address into its buffers. It immediately looks up the switching table and
starts forwarding the frame. The latency is very less because, the frame is forwarded
as soon as the destination address is resolved.
3. Fragment-Free switching: Here, the switch waits for the collision window before
forwarding the entire frame. The collision window is 64 bytes long.
23. WAN (Wide Area Network) devices extend the reach of LAN (Local Area
Network) devices. WANs typically span over a wide area, such over multiple cities /
countries. WANs are connected over serial lines that operate at lower speeds than
LANs. Some of the WAN devices are:
4. Communication Servers: These are used for dial in/out to remote users. Provides
RAS Remote Access Server) functionality.
26. Routers can make alternate route decisions based on ICMP messages, if
appropriate. Routers send an ICMP message if the destination is unreachable.
27. Port numbers are used by TCP/ UDP to set up sessions with other hosts. The
following are the recommended port numbers:
2. Numbers 255 - 1023 are assigned to companies so that they can use these port
numbers in their applications.
3. Numbers above 1023 are used by upper layers to set up sessions with other hosts
and by TCP to use as source and destination addresses.
28. Ethernet_II has a type field to identify the upper-layer protocol. 802.3 has only a
length field and can't identify the upper-layer protocol.
29.To find valid hosts given an IP address (say 156.16.3.52) and a subnet mask (sat a
12-bit subnet). The valid hosts are determined as below:
A 12-bit subnet mask gives us 255.255.255.240; 4094 subnets, each with 14 hosts.
(Host addresses of all zeros and all 1s can't be assigned). The 156.16.3.52 is in the 48
subnet range. The valid range is through 49 - 62. 63 is a broadcast address.
Here is how you get the subnet range:
1. Find the subnet mask. In this case, default subnet mask for Class B address is
255.255.0.0. There are additional; 12 bits in the subnet mask. Now the subnet mask
looks like:
2. Now, deduct the lowest value octet (Which is non zero), from 256. Here, (256-
240)=16.
This is the value that the subnets are incremented. Therefore, you will have hosts with
values from:
156.16.3.1 to 156.16.3.14 (All 0s and all 1s host addresses can not be used)
156.16.3.17 to 156.16.3.30
156.16.3.33 to 156.16.3.46
30. The following are some important commands that can be used to edit and review
command history buffer on a Cisco router. It will be useful to practice these
commands.
<ctrl> N : Repeat Next (more recent) command, same as using "Down Arrow".
<ctrl>R : Creates new command prompt, followed by all the characters typed at the
last one.
<ctrl> N : Repeat Next (more recent) command, same as using "Down Arrow".
<ctrl>R : Creates new command prompt, followed by all the characters typed at the
last one.
3. COPY FLASH TFTP - Copies current IOS from router flash memory to TFTP
server.
4. COPY TFTP FLASH - Copies image file from TFTP server to flash. This is used to
upgrade the IOS image file to a newer version, or if your IOS image becomes corrupt.
32. The banner is displayed whenever anyone logs in to your Cisco router. The syntax
is
# symbol signifies the start of the banner message to the router. You will be prompted
for the message to be displayed. You need to enter "#" symbol at the end of the
message, signifying that the message has ended.
33. Router modes of operation:
1. User EXEC mode (Prompt: Router>):- This is the LOWEST level of access. This
allows examination of router status, see routing tables, and do some diagnostics.
However, you cannot change the router configuration, view the configuration files, or
control the router in any way. The prompt in this mode is "Router>".
2. Privileged (enable) EXEC mode (Prompt: Router#):- This mode allows you to have
all the privileges of EXEC (user) mode plus commands that enable you to view
configuration files, change the router configuration, perform troubleshooting that
could potentially disrupt traffic. The default prompt for this mode is "Router#".When
you are working in the privileged mode (at # prompt), you can get back to user mode
by typing "disable" at the "#" prompt.
Global configuration mode allows you to perform tasks that affect the
entire router, such as naming the router, configuration of banner messages,
enabling routed protocols, and generally anything that affects the operation
of the entire router
When you first switch on a router, you enter Setup mode. Setup mode is
different from configuration mode in that setup mode appears when there is
no configuration file present. Upon entering setup mode, you can supply
some basic configuration parameters to Cisco router.
34. You can use "tab" to complete the command that you are typing.
35. SHOW command is extensively used for seeing the status and configuration
information of the router.
1. Console port: During the initial installation, you configure the router from a console
terminal connected to the "Console port" of the router.
3. Auxiliary Port: you can configure a router through auxiliary port. Typically, a
modem is used to configure the modem through aux port.
5. NMS (Network Management Station): You can also manage router configuration
through NMS such as CiscoWorks or HP OpenView.
3. Virtual Terminal Password (vty password): The virtual terminal password is used
for Telnet sessions into the router. The password can be changed at any time. It can be
set up when you configure the router from the console. There can be five distinct
passwords corresponding to each vty (vty0 to vty4) or there can be a single password
for all vtys.
5. Console Password: Console password is used to set the console port password.
38. Internal memory components of a Cisco router:
1. ROM (Read Only Memory); Memory containing micro-code for basic functions to
start and maintain the router. ROM is not typically used after the IOS is loaded.
2. RAM/DRAM : stores the running configuration, routing tables, and packet buffers.
Some routers, such as the 2500 series, run IOS from Flash, not RAM.
3. NVRAM (Non-Volatile Ram): Memory that does not lose information when power
is lost. Stores the system’s configuration file and the configuration register. NVRAM
uses a battery to maintain the data when power is turned off.
4. Flash Memory: Stores the compressed IOS (IOS stands for Cisco Internetwork
Operating System) image. Flash memory is either EEPROM or PCMCIA card. Flash
memory enables you to copy multiple versions of IOS software. This allows you to
load a new level of the operating system in every router in your network and then, to
upgrade the whole network to that version at an appropriate time.
39. While a packet travels through an Internetwork, it usually involves multiple hops.
Note that the logical address (IP address) of source (that created the packet) and
destination (final intended destination) remain constant, the hardware (Interface)
addresses change with each hop.
40. Default administrative distances some important routing protocols are as below:
Static Route 1
IGRP 100
RIP 120
Unknown 255
40. Default administrative distances some important routing protocols are as below:
Static Route 1
IGRP 100
RIP 120
Unknown 255
- Routing protocols job is to maintain routing tables and route packets appropriately.
Examples of routing protocols are RIP, IGRP, EIGRP, OSPF. Routers can support
multiple independent routing protocols and can update and maintain routing tables for
each protocol independently.
- Routed protocols are used to transport user traffic from source node to destination
node. Examples of routed protocols are IP, IPX, AppleTalk.
42. There are three ways a router learns how to forward a packet:
The command is
2. Default Routes - The default route (gateway of last resort) is used when a route is
not known or is infeasible. The command is
3. Dynamic Routes - In dynamic routing, the routing tables are automatically updated.
Dynamic routing uses broadcasts and multicasts to communicate with other routers.
43. To enable the Cisco IOS to forward packets destined for obscure subnets of
directly connected networks onto the best route, you use "ip classless" command.
2. Link State Routing: Link State algorithms are also known as Shortest Path First
(SPF) algorithms. SPF generates the exact topology of the entire network for route
computation, by listening to the first hand information. Link State protocols take
bandwidth into account using a cost metric. Link State protocols only send updates
when a change occurs, which makes them more efficient for larger networks.
Bandwidth and delay are the most widely used metrics when using Link-State
protocols. EX: OSPF and NLSP.
3. Balanced Hybrid - Balanced Hybrid combines some aspects of Link State and
Distance Vector routing protocols. Balanced Hybrid uses distance vectors with more
accurate metrics to determine the best paths to destination networks. EX: EIGRP
45. Distance vector protocol depends only on Hop count to determine the nearest next
hop for forwarding a packet. One obvious disadvantage is that, if you have a
destination connected through two hops via T1 lines, and if the same destination is
also connected through a single hop through a 64KBPS line, RIP assumes that the link
through 64KBPS is the best path!
46. RIP (and IGRP) always summarizes routing information by major network
numbers. This is called classfull routing
47. Convergence is the term used to describe the state at which all the internetworking
devices, running any specific routing protocol, are having identical information about
the internetwork in their routing tables. The time it takes to arrive at identical
information of the internetwork is called Convergence Time.
48. RIP,RIP2, and IGRP use distance vector algorithms.
RIP2 transmits the subnet mask with each route. This feature allows VLSM (Variable
Length Subnet Masks) by passing the mask along with each route so that the subnet is
exactly defined.
2. MTU (Maximum Transmission Unit): This is the maximum message length that is
acceptable to all links on the path. The larger MTU means faster transmission of
packets.
5. Load: Load is based among many things, CPU usage, packets processed per sec.
51. Following are the possible solutions for preventing routing loops.
1. Split Horizon - based on the principle that it is not useful to send the information
about a route back in the direction from which the information originally came.
2. Poison Reverse - A router that discovers an inaccessible route sets a table entry
consistent state (infinite metric) while the network converges.
3. Hold-down Timers - Hold down timers prevent regular update messages from
reinstating a route that has gone bad. Here, if a route fails, the router waits a certain
amount of time before accepting any other routing information about that route.
4. Triggered Updates - Normally, new routing tables are sent to neighboring routers at
regular intervals (IP RIP every 30 sec / and IPX RIP every 60 sec). A triggered update
is an update sent immediately in response to some change in the routing table.
Triggered updates along with Hold-down timers can be used effectively to counter
routing loops.
52. IP RIP based networks send the complete routing table during update. The default
update interval is 30 seconds. IGRP update packet is sent every 90 seconds by default.
53. For IGRP routing, you need to provide the AS (Autonomous System) number in
the command. Routers need AS number to exchange routing information. Routers
belonging to same AS exchange routing information. OSPF, and IGRP use AS
numbers.
54. CDP stands for Cisco Discovery Protocol. This protocol is proprietary of Cisco.
CDP runs SNAP (Sub network Access Protocol) at the Data Link Layer. Two Cisco
devices running two different Network layer protocol can still communicate and learn
about each other.
55. Show IP protocol: This command will show information on RIP timers including
routing update timer (30sec default), hold-down timer (default 180sec). It also
displays the number of seconds due for next update (this is fraction of update timer).
This command also gives the network number for which IP RIP is enabled, Gateway,
and the default metric.
1. Show IP route: This command will display the IP routing table entries. In addition,
it displays the Gateway of last resort (if one is assigned). It also displays the codes
used for various types of routes. Some of the important codes are:
C : directly connected;
S : Statically connected
I : IGRP
R : RIP
3. Debug IP RIP: Debug IP RIP will turn the RIP debugging ON. This will display a
continuous list of routing updates as they are sent and received. This leads to lot of
overhead, which is the reason that you use "undebug ip rip" to turn-off debugging as
soon as you finish with debugging.
1. boot system - This is a global command that allows you to specify the source of
the IOS software image to load. If you configure more than one source, attempts are
made to load the IOS from the first command in the configuration to the last
successively. If the first fails, the second boot command is used.
3. boot system flash - Loads the first file from flash memory.
4. boot system tftp <file name> < tftp_address > - Loads IOS with a filename <file
name> from a TFTP