Solutions to Teacher Absenteeism in Rural Government Primary Schools in India: A Comparison of Management Approaches

Krishna Narayan and Jos Mooij ! Abstract

Teacher absenteeism in government primary schools in rural India is a huge and well-documented phenomenon. Using Christopher Hoods cultural-theory framework of doing public management this paper analyses this problem from four different perspectives i.e. the hierarchist egalitarian individualist and fatalist management approach. The paper proceeds with a discussion of three innovative strategies currently proposed or pursued in India to deal with teacher absenteeism. These are !" the creation of local-level institutions that could hold teachers accountable #" the creation of a voucher system to allow parents to choose the school $government or private" for their children and %" the recruitment of volunteers on contract basis to do a teaching &ob. These three strategies the paper argues can be interpreted as responses that fit respectively within an egalitarian an individualist and a fatalist approach. The paper concludes that none of the four perspectives can be e'pected to provide ()uick fi' solutions especially because they (act on teachers rather than (act with them. Teachers it is argued should get a larger role themselves in the formulation and implementation of a strategy to address teacher absenteeism.

I"TR#$%CTI#"

More and more children go to primary schools1 in rural India. Since the late 1980s, and especially since the mid 1990s, enrolment rates ha!e gone up considera"ly. #n the one hand, the demand $or education has gone up. %s has "een documented, $or instance "y the &ratichi 'esearch (eam )*00*+ and the &'#,(eam )1999+, many parents ha!e "ecome con!inced o$ the !alue o$ education. #n the other hand, there ha!e "een some major go!ernment e$$orts to "ring all children to school, nota"ly the .istrict &rimary -ducation &rogramme and the Sar!a Shi/sha %"hiyan )SS%+. ,y *000 01, more than 91 per cent o$ the estimated *10 million children in the age group o$ 2 11 years 3ere reported to "e enrolled in schools )M4'. 5oI, *002+. (he large majority o$ these children go to a go!ernment school, though the importance o$ pri!ate $ee charging schools is also rapidly increasing. %lmost all so called $irst generation learners access go!ernment schools. (he closing o$ the educational gap, hence, depends to a large e6tent on the 7uality o$ education in these go!ernment schools. 8n$ortunately, ho3e!er, there are major pro"lems 3ith rural go!ernment primary schools. % recent nation3ide sur!ey in rural India $ound that o!erall, 10 per cent o$ students studying in class $i!e in go!ernment schools could not read a class t3o te6t and 98 per cent could not sol!e simple di!ision sums )&ratham, *002+. :hildren may, hence, complete primary schooling 3ithout ha!ing ac7uired the e6pected literacy and numeracy s/ills. #ne o$ the pro"lems, and the main $ocus o$ this paper, is teacher a"senteeism. %s has "een reported in many studies, there is a pro"lem 3ith )unauthori;ed+ teacher a"senteeism in many parts o$ the country )Mehrotra, *002< &'#,- (eam, 1999+. (he most recent authoritati!e study on teacher a"senteeism in the country is the =orld
1

In most Indian States, primary schooling is $rom classes one to $i!e< the elementary cycle is $rom class one to eight. (ypically, in rural areas the entry age into class one is around 2 years.

,an/ National %"sence Sur!ey )=,N%S+ carried out "y Kremer et al in *000. Ma/ing unannounced multiple !isits to 0>00 go!ernment primary schools across *0 States 3ithin India, 09,000 o"ser!ations on teacher attendance 3ere collected. #!erall, *9.* per cent or roughly one in $our teachers 3ere $ound to "e a"sent in rural areas.* #$$icial non academic duties accounted $or only $our per cent o$ the total a"sences and ten per cent o$ a"sences 3ere on account o$ o$$icially sanctioned lea!es.0 (he &'#,- restudy conducted in *002 $ound that in the course o$ ten years many things had impro!ed )i.e. enrolment, school in$rastructure, school incenti!es, school meals etc.+ "ut classroom acti!ity had not )Shi!a Kumar et al, *009+. In an attempt to e6plain the high le!el o$ unauthori;ed teacher a"senteeism, se!eral scholars ha!e emphasised the lac/ o$ moti!ation on the part o$ the teachers. (his has "een ascri"ed to o!ercro3ded classrooms, poor in$rastructural $acilities, un$illed !acancies, too many non academic tas/s to "e completed, lac/ o$ ade7uate training to deal 3ith multi lingual and multi a"ility classes, declining social status o$ the teaching pro$ession and increasing social class di$$erences "et3een teachers and the client?le o$ go!ernment schools. #ther reasons ha!e to do 3ith the institutional conte6t@ lac/ o$ accounta"ility and the a"sence o$ incenti!es $or teachers to 3or/ 3ell.1 =hat can "e done a"out teacher a"senteeismA In this paper, 3e regard teacher a"senteeism as a pu"lic management pro"lem, and discuss the !arious pu"lic management responses that can "e de!eloped to deal 3ith the pro"lem. In this discussion, 3e use :hristopher 4oodBs cultural theory $rame3or/ o$ doing pu"lic management. (his $rame3or/ distinguishes $our di$$erent approaches o$ doing pu"lic management. In the ne6t section 3e 3ill descri"e these approaches. In the third section 3e 3ill apply them to the pro"lem o$ teacher a"senteeism in India. =e 3ill discuss ho3 teacher a"senteeism can "e interpreted in di$$erent 3ays, and ho3 these interpretations lead to di$$erent pu"lic management responses. (he $ourth section 3ill pro!ide a re!ie3 o$ the literature o$ three solutions that ha!e "een ad!ocated or tried in the Indian conte6t. (he paper 3ill end 3ith some comparati!e notes regarding the $our management responses, and 3ill conclude that 3hat misses in all $our is the acti!e in!ol!ement o$ teachers themsel!es. II &##$'S (RAM)*#R+ #( P%,-IC MA"AG)M)"T ST.-)S

4ood )1998+ distinguishes the $ollo3ing 3ays o$ dealing 3ith pu"lic management pro"lems@ the hierarchist, the egalitarian, the indi!idualist and the $atalist approach.9 %ll these approaches are a"out control and regulation, "ut they try to achie!e this in di$$erent 3ays. &u"lic management in the hierarchist 3ay )4ood, 1998@ >0 9>+ is characteri;ed "y strict relations o$ authority. #rganisations should ha!e a clear hierarchical structure and a clear di!ision o$ responsi"ilities. (he assumption is that such organisations 3ould pro!ide the "est guarantee that e!ery"ody 3ill do hisCher
*

Kremer et al )*009+ $ound signi$icant inter State !ariations. (he a"sence rate !aried $rom 11.2 per cent in Maharashtra )the lo3est+ to 11.9 per cent in Jhar/hand )the highest+. 0 &ratham )*002+ $ound a similar teacher a"sence rate o$ *9 per cent in rural areas in the 3hole o$ India. 1 See, $or instance, 5o!inda )*009+, Mooij )*008+, 'amachandran et al )*009+. Dor more arguments and re$erences, see Narayan )*00>+. 9 See also 'o"inson et al )*000+ $or a $rame3or/ o$ understanding organisational relationships that is similar to 4oodBs di$$erent approaches, e6cept that the $atalist management style is not included.

jo" E and that slac/ness or shir/ing can "e controlled. (here is a strong "elie$ in 3ell understood )not necessarily 3ritten do3n+ rules and rule li/e "eha!iour. =hen things go 3rong, it is al3ays clear 3ho is to "lame@ the person)s+ 3ho did not $ollo3 the rules )i"id@ >1+. =here management pro"lems crop up, the normal course o$ action is to clari$y the lines o$ authority and strengthen the role o$ the $ormal o!erseers. (his is the traditional 3ay in 3hich pu"lic management pro"lems ha!e "een tac/led in many go!ernment "ureaucracies, including the Indian one. .oing pu"lic management the egalitarian 3ay, on the other hand, is characteri;ed "y cooperation and participation )4ood, 1998@ 1*0 111+. 8nli/e hierarchists, egalitarians "elie!e in the desira"ility and possi"ility o$ sel$ organisation and sel$ steering processes. =hen things go 3rong, egalitarians tend to see Fthe sel$ ser!ing "eha!iour at the topB as the root o$ the pro"lem )i"id@1*1+. (he egalitarian mode o$ controlling organi;ations is through mutuality and Fma6imum $ace to $ace accounta"ilityB )i"id@ 1**+. ,ased on the su"sidiarity principle, decentrali;ed local sel$ go!erning units are thought to "e the "est guarantee $or meaning$ul "ottom up participatory management. %n indi!idualist approach to pu"lic management )4ood, 1998@ 98 119+ is "ased on the assumption that human "eings are essentially Frational egoistsB )i"id@ 98+. In principle, they pursue their o3n interests, "ut the 3ay they do this and 3hat their interests are can "e in$luenced "y an institutional conte6t pro!iding incenti!es and disincenti!es $or particular "eha!iour. (his insight can "e applied to people 3or/ing 3ithin the go!ernment, "ut also to clients. (he $irst $ocus 3ould try to enhance per$ormance "y ma/ing people 3ithin the go!ernment compete $or positions, money, assignments or pri;es. % $ocus on clients as rational actors comes 3ith the "elie$ that there should "e competiti!e pro!ision o$ pu"lic ser!ices. #nly 3hen clients ha!e choice, pro!iders are $orced to o$$er "etter 7uality, "ecome more responsi!e, e$$icient and less costly. In the $atalist 3ay o$ doing pu"lic management, the idea is that there are no e$$ecti!e chec/s on the actions o$ pu"lic o$$icials )4ood, 1998@ 119 12>+. (his leads to a !icious circle@ "ecause there is no $aith in e$$ecti!e chec/s on pu"lic o$$ice holders, no attempts are made to create a more stimulating incenti!e structure $or them. (hey 3ill per$orm poorly and "e corrupt and unaccounta"le as long as they can get a3ay 3ith this "eha!iour. (he result is 3idespread pu"lic cynicism a"out the moti!es and honesty o$ go!ernment o$$icials. (he e6pectations are lo3, 3hich leads to a lac/ o$ interest to organise collecti!ely $or "etter chec/s and control )i"id@ 11> 8+. (he 7uestion that can "e raised, o$ course, is 3hether this attitude is a management approach at all. Indeed, as 4ood descri"es )i"id@ 119 >+, there ha!e "een many theorists 3ho ha!e le$t $atalism out o$ their discussion o$ management styles. 4ood, ho3e!er, maintains that, although the attitude is Fnegati!eB, it is common. Many managers, he argues, "elie!e that pu"lic organisation and policy are essentially unpredicta"le and chaotic processes and that responses are o$ten more ad hoc than "ased on a clear cut theory E although most managers may e6press this opinion only Fo$$ the recordB. In relation to our topic E teacher a"senteeism in India E 3e also thin/ the approach is rele!ant. III MA"AG)M)"T ST.-)S A"$ T)AC&)R A,S)"T))ISM

(he $our approaches are "ased on di$$erent assumptions a"out organisations and human "eha!iour 3ithin organisations. =hen applied to the pro"lem o$ teacher 0

a"senteeism, they lead to di$$erent hypotheses e6plaining the pro"lem o$ teachers a"senteeism, di$$erent lines o$ research, and di$$erent types o$ recommendations. =e can see that indeed re$lected in the !arious interpretations o$ teacher a"senteeism in India. See $igure 1 $or a summary o$ the $our approaches. Drom a hierarchist position, it 3ould "e argued that periodic super!ision and monitoring are necessary to support teachers to carry out their 3or/ 3ell and to control teachers a"senteeism. #$$icially such support and inspection e6ists in go!ernment schools in India. Se!eral studies re!eal, ho3e!er, that many schools are not inspected on a regular "asis. (here may "e a shortage o$ super!isory sta$$, or super!isory sta$$ may lac/ the capacity to carry out proper super!ision ):lar/e and Jha, *002< 5ro!er and Singh, *00*+ (hat regular monitoring is important has "een con$irmed "y Kremer et al )*001+, 3ho $ound that the $re7uency o$ inspection 3as, indeed, correlated to a"senteeism. Mooij )*008+ also $ound that lac/ o$ serious super!ision and appreciation $rom inspectors and others higher up in the educational "ureaucracy contri"uted signi$icantly to lo3 le!els o$ moti!ation. Solutions that $all 3ithin this management style are an intensi$ication o$ inspection. #ne idea that has "een tried in rural 8daipur in 'ajasthan is using cameras 3ith tamper proo$ time and date $unctions. (eachers 3ere re7uired to ta/e their snap along 3ith students at the start and close o$ each school day. (ogether 3ith other measures )a "onus in addition to the "ase salary contingent on presence, and a $ine in case o$ a"sence+, the e6periment led to a decline in the teacher a"sence rate $rom 11 per cent to *> per cent in a period o$ *> months. (he test scores o$ students also impro!ed ).u$lo and ,anerjee, *002+.2 MehrotraBs )*002+ suggestion o$ ha!ing a (eacherBs :ode o$ &ro$essional -thics 3ith sanctions against teachers !iolating the code also $alls 3ithin this approach. :ompara"le to hierarchists, egalitarianists also attri"ute teacher a"senteeism to an accounta"ility $ailure. (heir emphasis is, ho3e!er, not on accounta"ility up3ards 3ithin the same organisation, "ut on accounta"ility out3ards, !is a !is parents or the 3ider community. =ithin India, there ha!e "een many studies that ha!e o"ser!ed that these accounta"ility relations are, indeed, lac/ing in $undamental 3ays, and e!en to an e!er increasing e6tent. Majumdar and Mooij )$orthcoming+, among others, relate this to the rise o$ pri!ate schooling and the e6it )4irschman, 19>0+ o$ the more 3ell to do and educated parents $rom the go!ernment schools. =ith their departure, go!ernment schools loose the /ind o$ clientele that could monitor school 7uality and complain in case they are dissatis$ied. (he logical solution that $ollo3s $rom the egalitarian approach is to $oster and strengthen the school community lin/ through school management committees, parent teachers associations or other local le!el educational "odies. (his has "een tried, indeed, in many States in India. It is one o$ the strategies that 3e 3ill discuss in more detail in the ne6t section. Dor indi!idualists, the pro"lem has to do 3ith the 3ay in 3hich indi!idual choices and "eha!ioural patterns are structured or constrained. Dirst, the $ocus can "e on teachers themsel!es and the $ailing incenti!e structure. %s 'amachandran et al )*009+ ha!e argued, 3ithin the elementary educational system, there are typically no incenti!es $or teachers to per$orm 3ell. % 3ell de$ined per$ormance appraisal system is !irtually a"sent and primary school teachers ha!e negligi"le prospects $or promotion )Jha et al, *001< =orld ,an/, 199>+. &romotions and increments depend on seniority rather than per$ormance )'ao et al, *000+. Non monetary incenti!es li/e pri;es and a3ards ha!e "een used to moti!ate teachers, "ut o!er the years, the
2

In *002, this e6periment 3as con$erred the FI:( .igital Gearning Inno!ation %3ardB.

selection o$ candidates has "ecome politici;ed and independent o$ per$ormance )'amachandran et al, *009+. %ll this means that there are !irtually no sanctions in place $or teacher a"senteeism. In more than 0000 inter!ie3s 3ith headmasters, Kremer et al )*009+ heard only a"out one case o$ a teacher 3ho had "een $ired "ecause o$ a"senteeism. (he logical solution here 3ould "e to lin/ the salary o$ teachers to their presence. =ithin India, as $ar as 3e /no3, this has only "een tried in the just mentioned study in rural 'ajasthan, 3here, together 3ith the help o$ cameras, this led to a considera"le reduction in teacher a"senteeism. 5i!en the normal pu"lic ser!ice conditions and the po3er o$ teachers unions, it is unli/ely that regular teachers in go!ernment schools 3ill mo!e to3ards a per$ormance "ased salary structure. &enali;ing teachers $or their a"sence "y 3ithholding their allo3ances or e!en suspension is possi"le, "ut di$$icult in practice. (his may "e lin/ed to the $act that teacher unions are typically strong and politically in$luential )Kremer et al *002< Kingdon and Mu;ammil, *001+. Secondly, the $ocus can "e on clients, i.e. those 3ho see/ education. In that case, the indi!idualistBs solution 3ould "e to enhance school choice. In principle, this choice e6ists already. (here is a rapidly increasing num"er o$ pri!ate $ee charging schools and there are N5# run schools. Many o$ these schools ha!e a monthly $ee that does not e6ceed the income that a daily 3age la"ourer 3ould earn on one day. (hey cater $or children $rom the la"our or lo3er middle classes. (hese so called Go3 Dee &ri!ate schools should "e stimulated, according to the ad!ocates o$ competition in education, $or instance "y introducing a !oucher system )e.g. (ooley and .i6on, *000+. (his 3ould mean that parents 3ould get an amount o$ money in the $orm o$ school !ouchers. (hey 3ould "e allo3ed to use these !ouchers in any school o$ their li/ing. %lthough this system has only just "een piloted and the e6periences are limited, 3e 3ill discuss the idea in more detail "elo3. Gastly, a $atalist approach to teacher a"senteeism 3ould "e to resort to cynicism or to decline responsi"ility altogether. (his reaction can "e o"ser!ed, indeed, as illustrated "y Mooij and Jalal )$orthcoming+. 'ather than assuming responsi"ility $or the !arious pro"lems that plague the educational sector, there is Fgo!ernance "y resignation, pri!atisation "y de$aultB, as the su"title o$ their paper states. (he currently popular response to recruit para teachers )or !olunteers+ could also "e interpreted 3ithin this $rame3or/. &ara teachers are un7uali$ied teachers. (hey ha!e had 10 or 1* years o$ schooling )i.e. completed secondary school+ plus a $e3 days o$ training. (heir salary is o$ten around 's. 1000 *000 )i.e. *0 10 euros+ per month, 3hich is much less than the monthly income o$ an a!erage go!ernment teacher, and they are hired on contract "asis.> (his is the third inno!ation that 3ill "e discussed "elo3.
(igure ! Management Styles and Teachers Absenteeism Management Approach &ierarchist #rigin of Public Management Problem &oor compliance 3ith rules and procedures< =ea/ system o$ authority to elicit accounta"ility Remedy (ighter procedures< greater FmanagerialB grip Strategies to $eal /ith Teacher absenteeism 'egular monitoring "y designated super!isory sta$$< using cameras to monitor teachers< laying do3n code o$ ethics $or

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=e realise that there is an alternati!e interpretation that 3ould regard the introduction o$ para teachers as a sign o$ hope rather than as a sign o$ $atalism< a$ter all, the idea is that this inter!ention 3ould help to address the malaise. =e classi$y it here as a $atalist response "ecause the introduction o$ para teachers on a large scale signi$ies a choice not to re$orm the e6isting human resources system 3ithin the .epartment o$ -ducation "ut to esta"lish a parallel cadre.

)galitarian

Individualist

%"use o$ po3er "y higher le!el o$$icials< insu$$icient participation $rom clientsCusers Daulty incenti!e structures< monopoly pro!ision Inherently unpredicta"le and chaotic nature o$ social organisation and pu"lic policy processes

-mpo3erment and participation o$ people at the "ottom Introduction o$ "etter incenti!es and disincenti!es to ser!ice pro!iders< Introduction o$ competition %d hoc solutions< &utting parallel structuresCde!ising other mechanisms that circum!ent the core pro"lem

teachers 5ranting o$ po3ers to !illage le!el decentrali;ed "odies $or monitoring and super!ision &er$ormance "ased pay $or teachers< Houchers in educational &ro!isioning :reation o$ a separate para teacher cadre

(atalist

I0 $)A-I"G *IT& T)AC&)R A,S)"T))ISM: A R)0I)* #( )0I$)"C) In this section 3e re!ie3 the literature regarding three di$$erent strategies to o!ercome teacher a"senteeism@ the esta"lishment o$ local educational committees, the educational !oucher system and the introduction o$ para teachers. %ll these strategies are relati!ely recent. (he more traditional 3ay, as 3e mentioned already, is through the hierarchist style, 3hich 3e lea!e out o$ the discussion here e6actly "ecause it is the more con!entional management style. (3o o$ the three solutions discussed here ha!e "een introduced on a 3ide scale and there is a lot o$ literature re!ie3ing the e6periences. (he third, the !oucher system is a ne3 idea that is gaining momentum, "ut it has only just "een introduced on a pilot "asis. %t the outset it should also "e made clear that these three strategies had multiple o"jecti!es and 3ere not initiated solely to address the pro"lems o$ teacher a"senteeism. Dor e6ample the strategy o$ creating a separate cadre o$ para teachers also had the o"jecti!e o$ reducing the e6penditure on teacher salaries. The Egalitarian Way: Decentralized Village Level Institutions (here are t3o 3ays through 3hich local school management can ta/e place. #ne is through the elected "odies that e6ist at the local le!el. Since 1990, State go!ernments are legally o"liged to trans$er many $unctions pre!iously managed and monitored at State le!el to local le!el elected "odies, the so called &anchayati 'aj Institutions )&'Is+. &rimary education is one o$ these acti!ities that, according to this legislation, should "e managed at the local le!el. (he other 3ay is through the creation o$ speci$ic user group committees. (hese committees can e6ist at the le!el o$ the school )such as a school management committee+ or at the le!el o$ the !illage )such as a !illage education committee+. (hese committees ha!e "een stimulated "y the -ducation Dor %ll programme, Sar!a Shi/sha %"hiyan, 3hich emphasi;es the potentially large and positi!e role o$ these community institutions in school super!ision, micro planning, construction and maintenance, learning impro!ement acti!ities and utili;ation o$ $unds. (here are success$ul instances o$ "oth $orms o$ decentrali;ation. Madhya &radesh is seen "y many as a pioneer o$ decentrali;ation to &'Is. (his State has relati!ely lo3 le!els o$ teacher a"senteeism )1>.2 per cent+, 3hich is attri"uted "y some as a positi!e e$$ect o$ democratic decentrali;ation )Mehrotra, *002< =orld ,an/, *001+. % similar positi!e e$$ect o$ decentrali;ation to &'Is is reported $rom Karnata/a ).r?;e and Sen, 2

*00*@ 1>9< 5hosh, 199*+. (he most acclaimed process o$ empo3ering Hillage -ducational :ommittees 3as underta/en "y the State o$ Nagaland. In response to teacher a"senteeism, the go!ernment passed the F:ommunitisation o$ Nagaland &u"lic Institutions and Ser!ices %ctB in *00* )'io, *009+ and granted signi$icant po3ers to this "ody. %n Impact %ssessment carried out "y 8NI:-D in *001 re!ealed that teacher attendance impro!ed to 90 per cent in 18 o$ the *8 sample schools.8 (hese positi!e e6amples are, ho3e!er, e6ceptional. (he e!idence $rom most other States is less encouraging. % sample sur!ey o$ 11 States )co!ering all the regions o$ the country+ to study the in!ol!ement o$ &'I "odies in primary education 3as carried out "y the N5# &'I% in *00*. (he $indings re!ealed that in the majority o$ the States the &'I "odies ha!e "een !ested 3ith the po3ers to super!ise the attendance o$ teachers "ut that they are not authori;ed to initiate any disciplinary action against malper$orming teachers. (he only right that they o$ten ha!e is the right to complain to the higher authorities. In many cases &'I mem"ers ha!e "ecome disillusioned 3ith the &'I institutions since action is rarely ta/en. %s a result, the &'Is 3ere $ound to play only a marginal role 3ith respect to teacher management )&'I%, *00*+. 9 (he &'#,- team )1999+ sur!eying $our northern States $ound H-:s on the 3hole to "e to/en institutions 3ithout use$ul super!isory $unctions (he Second Joint 'e!ie3 Mission o$ the SS% implicitly supports this "y ac/no3ledging the need $or greater empo3erment o$ community institutions $or e$$ecti!ely monitoring the $unctioning o$ schools )M4'. 5oI, *002+. ,ennellBs )*001+ o"ser!ation that the lin/ "et3een decentrali;ation and impro!ed teacher per$ormance in go!ernment schools is pro"lematic seems to "e true $or the majority o$ the States. -$$ecti!e $unctioning o$ local institutions is contingent upon the e6tent o$ po3ers and autonomy !ested 3ith them. In all States, critical $unctions in teacher management continue to rest 3ith the State department. (he local institutions may ha!e come in to some e6tent, "ut they ha!e ne!er replaced the department )&ritchett and &ande *002@>>+. (eachers are !ery 3ell a3are o$ the $act that the authority o$ the local "odies to punish them is limited ).u$$lo and ,anerjee, *002+. (hey ha!e also acti!ely opposed the decentralisation o$ teacher management $unctions to community le!el organisations )Hasa!i et al, 199>+. In $act, as many o"ser!ers ha!e argued, the outright dismissi!e attitude o$ teachers to3ards FegalitarianB accounta"ility relations is one o$ the important challenges to "e tac/led in order to ma/e this an e$$ecti!e strategy )Haidyanathan and Nair, *001+. % second reason $or the limited e$$ecti!eness is the lac/ o$ a3areness a"out the rights and po3ers o$ &'Is or H-:sCS-:s. (he &'#,- restudy $ound numerous instances o$ committee mem"ers 3ho 3ere una3are that they 3ere listed as committee mem"er )Shi!a Kumar et al, *009+. %ccording to &'I% )*00*+ the &'I mem"ers in 4aryana are hardly a3are o$ the importance o$ the %nnual :on$idential 'eport )%:'+ as a monitoring and super!ision tool, though they are authori;ed to note their remar/s in the %:' o$ teachers )&'I%, *00*+. In Kerala 3here the &'Is ha!e "een granted su"stantial po3ers, they demonstrate considera"le in!ol!ement in in$rastructure related aspects, "ut most o$ the acti!ities related to teacher management )including hiring and $iring o$ teachers+ remain 3ithin the domain o$ the State go!ernment )&ritchett and &ande, *002+. -!en in the relati!ely success$ul State o$ Madhya &radesh )M&+, 3here the head o$ the !illage &'I "ody is mandated to sign the salary slip o$ the teacher as a mar/ o$ ha!ing !eri$ied hisCher attendance, they
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(his has "een endorsed "y the 5oI as a good model 3hich could "e adopted "y other States )M4'. 5oI, *002+. 9 (heir role in in$rastructure pro!isioning and maintenance 3as $ound to "e comparati!ely larger.

>

o$ten do so 3ithout ha!ing underta/en any /ind o$ monitoring )Noronha, *000< Sharma, 199>+. :apacity "uilding o$ the $unctionaries is o$ crucial importance ).r?;e, *000< Hasa!i, 199>+. 8n$ortunately, not enough is done in this regard. -!en a$ter $our years o$ implementation o$ SS%, at least 1* States 3ere indicted "y the :omptroller and %uditor 5eneral ):%5+ o$ India $or per$orming "elo3 par )in terms o$ co!erage and 7uality+ in imparting training to the H-: mem"ers in *009 02 ):%5 'eports, *002+. It may, ho3e!er, also "e that some o$ the H-:CS-: mem"ers themsel!es 3ould not really "e interested in such training. In many States the mem"ers are nominated "y local politicians or elected along party political lines. In such cases, the committees ha!e sometimes "ecome stepping stones $or 3ould "e politicians or structures through 3hich local politicians can enhance their control, rather than tools o$ community control )5opinath 'eddy and ,ha!ani, $orthcoming< &o3is, *000< &ritchett and &ande, *002< 'ana et al, *000+. The Individualist Way: The School Voucher System 8nli/e the other t3o strategies discussed here, the !oucher system is not yet really in operation. It is, ho3e!er, an inno!ati!e idea that has "een pushed po3er$ully "y the :entre $or :i!il Society )::S+, an independent non pro$it research and educational organisation. In January *00>, the ::S launched the so called School :hoice :ampaign. (he "asic idea is that the disparity in the 7uality o$ schooling could "e addressed "est "y gi!ing parents a real possi"ility to choose the school they li/e most. % !oucher system 3ould guarantee such choice. (his system implies that parents rather than schools are su"sidi;ed. (hey recei!e money in the $orm o$ a !oucher. (his !oucher may co!er the $ull costs o$ education or only a part o$ it. &arents gi!e the !oucher to the school o$ their choice, and the school can reclaim the money $rom the institution that has handed out the !oucher. (his idea has caught the attention o$ some policy ma/ers and it is mentioned in the dra$t approach paper to the 11 th Di!e Iear &lan )*00> *01*+ )&lanning :ommission 5oI, *002+. (here are small pilot initiati!es to test out the idea.10 (he ad!ocates o$ the !oucher system "ase themsel!es on a legal argument as 3ell as more pragmatic arguments. (he legal argument is that %rticle *2)0+ o$ the 8ni!ersal .eclaration o$ 4uman 'ights )1918+ states that parents ha!e the right to choose the /ind o$ education they 3ant $or their children. =illmore )*001+ points out that li/e in se!eral other countries, also in India this right is !iolated since parental choice $or many is restricted to poorly $unctioning go!ernment schools as pri!ate schools are una$$orda"le $or them. (he more pragmatic argument is that choice 3ould result in go!ernment schools competing amongst themsel!es and go!ernment schools competing 3ith pri!ate schools )Muralidharan, *002+. (his competition 3ould lead to 7uality impro!ement )Shah and ,raun Mun;inger, *002@9+. (he system 3ould also enhance accounta"ility since parents 3ho pay 3ith their !ouchers 3ill either claim good education or ta/e their !oucher "ac/ and lea!e the school. (eacher a"senteeism 3ould come do3n since teachers 3ould "e under the Fconstant scrutiny o$ !oucher empo3ered parentsB ),alasu"ramanian et al, *000@ 0909+. Since the !oucher system has only just "een piloted in India, there is not much e!idence a"out its e$$ecti!eness. So $ar, as 3e /no3, there has "een one e!aluation o$ a !oucher project as implemented in .elhi. 11 In this pilot it 3as an N5# )the :entre $or :i!il Society+ that had a3arded school !ouchers 3orth up to 's. 0200 's. per year
10 11

See 333.ccs.in and 333.schoolchoice.in. See F-!aluation o$ the .elhi Houcher &roject. SummaryB, do3nloada"le $rom http@CC333.schoolchoice.inCe!entsC*0090*19Jdelhi!!oucherJsummary.php )accessed 2 March *009+

to 108 students. (he e!aluation sho3ed that the majority o$ the !oucher "ene$iciaries )20 per cent+ had made use o$ the possi"ility to e6ercise school choice, and had s3itched o!er $rom a go!ernment to a pri!ate school. #n the 3hole, those 3ho had recei!ed a !oucher 3ere more satis$ied 3ith the school than those 3ho had not recei!ed a !oucher. It is unclear 3hether this !oucher system only entailed a payment to the parents, or 3hether it also entailed a 3ithdra3al o$ $unds $rom the go!ernment schools. (he e!aluation also does not mention the e$$ects o$ competition on school 7uality. % !oucher system only 3or/s in case there are multiple suppliers. % rele!ant 7uestion is hence 3hether there are, indeed enough suppliers to ha!e real school choice. (his may not "e the case e!ery3here, although there is no dou"t that the num"er o$ lo3 $ee pri!ate schools is rapidly increasing, also in rural areas. (he %S-' *002 sur!ey $ound that 18.2 per cent o$ all rural primary age children )> 10 years+ in the sample 3ere attending pri!ate schools )&ratham, *00>+. -ight States had more than 00 per cent o$ children in pri!ate schools at the primary le!el. Muralidharan and Kremer )*002+ $ound that *8 per cent o$ the !illages in their sample had access to a go!ernment school as 3ell as a pri!ate unaided primary school )though there 3as considera"le inter State !ariation+. %ll in all, these $igures suggest that in "y $ar the majority o$ !illages there is still only one pro!ider E and a !oucher system 3ould hence not 3or/. It is, ho3e!er, not inconcei!a"le that the introduction o$ a !oucher system 3ould itsel$ change this scenario some3hat. It might 3ell "e that the system 3ould stimulate pri!ate FedupreneurialB acti!ities. % second crucial issue is related to 7uality assurance. %"out hal$ o$ the !illage pri!ate schools o"ser!ed "y Muralidharan and Kremer )*002+ 3ere unrecognised. (hey $all outside the regulatory system o$ the go!ernment, meaning that there is no go!ernment "ody responsi"le $or 7uality control. Since a !oucher system is li/ely to increase the num"er o$ unrecognised schools )in any case in the short run+, the 7uestion is ho3 7uality can "e monitored and assured. Some ad!ocates o$ the !oucher system ha!e argued that this is not a pro"lem< the !oucher system 3ould lead to competition and the la3s o$ demand and supply 3ould ensure that 7uality impro!es ),alasu"ramanian et al, *000@ 0901+. =hat /ind o$ 7uality this intensi$ied competition 3ill lead to remains, ho3e!er, a 7uestion. %s Majumdar and Mooij )$orthcoming+ argue, there are di$$erent $orms o$ competition in the pri!ate schooling sector@ the Fhigher segmentB catering $or the elite and middle classes compete "y setting high standards )in terms o$ e6am results+. (hey restrict admission to children 3ho 3ill do 3ell in their e6ams, and 3ho come $rom reputa"le $amilies. (he Flo3erB segment, ho3e!er 3ants to attract more children to the schools, and competes "y concentrating on the more !isi"le dimensions o$ 7uality@ colour$ul and $reshly painted classrooms, continuous acti!ity in the schools, claims o$ -nglish medium instruction, home3or/ $or the children )e!en 3hen they are !ery young+, etc. Shu/la and Joshi )*008@20+ re$er to these $eatures as Fstaging educationB rather than as e6pressions o$ real 7uality. It is !ery li/ely that the !oucher system 3ill enhance competition particularly in this lo3er segment, and that competition may there$ore $ocus more on the !isi"le signs o$ Fschool acti!ityB rather than on dimensions o$ the teaching and learning process itsel$. Kuality monitoring "y a regulatory "ody 3ould remain necessary, as has also "een argued "y Ge!in (2002), Lauglo (1995) and Muralidharan (2006). 1*
1*

Majumdar and Mooij )$orthcoming+ mention a second argument $or a pu"lic regulatory "ody. I$ 7uality impro!ement depends e6clusi!ely on parents see/ing the "est opportunities $or their children and the FedupreneurialB acti!ities 3ithin an increasingly dominant pri!ate sector, 3hat is lost is the possi"ility o$ a larger pu"lic de"ate a"out the educational goals one 3ishes to achie!e as a community

% third crucial issue is related to the political $easi"ility. %s )Indiresan, *002+ noted, the idea goes directly against the interests o$ go!ernment school teachers, 3ho are a po3er$ul and 3ell organised group. (his ma/es implementation on a large scale an unli/ely proposition. The Fatalist Way: Creation of a Se arate Cadre of !ara"teachers 8nli/e regular teachers in go!ernment schools 3ho ha!e permanent tenure, para teachers are recruited on a $i6ed term contract. (hey recei!e a $i6ed lo3 remuneration, instead o$ a salary plus allo3ances as the normal teachers )&andey, *002+. In most States, local "odies play an important role in the selection o$ para teachers )Dy$e, *00>+ and in the majority o$ cases, the para teachers are local residents )5o!inda and Josephine, *001+. 'ather than the o$$icial t3o year teacher training programme that is re7uired $or regular primary teachers, para teachers ha!e a much shorter pre ser!ice training programme. %lmost hal$ a million para teachers 3ere appointed in *009 02 across 09 States, o$ 3hich 90 per cent 3as 3or/ing in rural areas and 22 per cent 3ere posted in primary schools )N8-&%, *00>+. &ara teachers can "e hired $or regular schools or $or alternati!e schools )e.g. schools run "y N5#s, schools set up "y SS% or other programmes $or speci$ic groups, etc.+. Initially the idea 3as that i$ para teachers 3ere recruited $or regular schools, they 3ould assist the normal teachers rather than teach themsel!es independently. In most cases, ho3e!er, they $unction as normal teachers. (he hiring o$ para teachers in regular schools has an economic and a non economic rationale. (he rising share o$ teacher salaries in educational e6penditure com"ined 3ith the increasing $iscal de$icit $aced "y se!eral State go!ernments led to a $ree;e on the recruitment o$ regular teachers )Mehrotra and ,uc/land, *001+. &ara teachers are a lo3 cost solution since they are appointed on one $ourth to one $i$th o$ the regular salary )Kumar et al, *001+. (he non economic argument $or hiring para teachers in regular schools is that a locally recruited person 3ould "e more accounta"le to the local population, 3ould "e less a"sent and hence per$orm "etter. I$ para teachers are recruited as a part o$ the solution $or teacher a"senteeism, the 7uestion arises 3hether their a"sence rate is lo3er than that o$ regular teachers. (he e!idence is mi6ed. #n the one hand, studies in Madhya &radesh ),ose and Haugier :hatterjee, *001+ and 8ttar &radesh )SI-M%( 8&, *009 cited in =orld ,an/, *002+ $ound para teachers to "e less a"sent. Kremer et al )*009+, on the other hand, o"ser!ed that para teachers and regular teachers had roughly the same a"sence rate o$ a"out *1 per cent. Moreo!er, there is some e!idence suggesting that regular teachersB a"senteeism could increase a$ter the appointment o$ para teachers )Mehrotra and ,uc/land, *001+. It may "e that the record o$ para teachers in alternati!e schools is "etter than in regular schools E something that could "e related to the $act that there is a higher le!el o$ community in!ol!ement in these schools than in regular schools leading to more e$$ecti!e accounta"ility relationships. % study conducted "y the &ratichi (rust in =est ,engal in *00* sho3ed that a"senteeism among para teachers in alternati!e schools 3as, indeed, 10 per cent lo3er than that o$ teachers in regular primary schools. Geclerc7 )*00*+ in his study on alternati!e schools in Madhya &radesh $ound, ho3e!er, that though these schools 3ere o$ten $unctioning regularly )unli/e many regular schools+, the 7uality o$ education imparted "y the para teachers 3as pro"lematically lo3. Many scholars ha!e o"ser!ed that the training o$ para teachers is
E a pu"lic !ision a"out educational 7uality.

10

o$ten insu$$icient. Dor e6ample in %ndhra &radesh, though the para teachers 3ere supposed to "e gi!en training $or 00 days "e$ore they start, it 3as $ound that in si6 districts the training ranged $rom only three to se!en days ):%5 'eport %ndhra &radesh, *002+. #!erall the amount and 7uality o$ academic support pro!ided to para teachers "y the monitoring personnel is lo3 on "oth 7uantity and 7uality )5o!inda and Josephine, *001< Geclerc7 *00*+. %s mentioned already, para teachers do not ha!e a regular jo", "ut ha!e $i6ed term contracts )lin/ed to the academic year+. (he argument o$ placing them on contract is that this 3ould act as an incenti!e to per$orm "etter ).uthilleul, *009+. (heir commitment and lo3er a"senteeism rates )3hen o"ser!ed+ can indeed perhaps "e attri"uted to the impermanence o$ their contract and it is "elie!ed that placing them on permanent contracts 3ould ma/e them indistinguisha"le $rom regular teachers )Mehrotra, *001, *002+. In practice, ho3e!er, there is hardly any $rame3or/ $or, or practice o$, per$ormance appraisal and most para teachers get their contracts rene3ed ).uthilleul, *009+. Moreo!er, their lac/ o$ jo" security can also decrease moti!ation and lead to a"senteeism, as has "een reported "y Kremer et al, *001. (he lo3 3ages can "e percei!ed as un$air and may e!en $orce para teachers to ta/e up secondary employment ),ennell, *001< 5o!inda and Josephine, *001< Geclerc7, *00*< Sharma, 1999+. (he creation o$ a separate cadre o$ para teachers has led to a di!ersi$ication o$ the primary teacher status )5Lttelmann .uret, *000+. It has "een argued that the creation o$ multiple layers o$ teachers 3ith !arying ser!ice conditions can ha!e a demorali;ing impact on the entire teaching $orce. (he National :ouncil $or (eacher -ducation )*002+, $or instance, o"ser!ed that the trend o$ recruiting para teachers has led to F$urther degradation o$ the status o$ school teachers, thus diluting the identity o$ a teacher as a pro$essionalB )*002@19+. (eachers unions, on the 3hole, are against para teachers and ha!e demanded the a"olition o$ the scheme. :oncerns are also e6pressed a"out the demand $rom para teachers to "e integrated in the mainstream. (his 3ould de$eat the !ery purpose o$ this lo3 cost solution and might contri"ute to a $urther 3ea/ening o$ the teacher cadre )&'#,- (eam, 1999+. In conclusion, there is little dou"t that in some regular as 3ell as alternati!e schools, the para teachers ha!e had some positi!e e$$ects. (here is e!idence that in some cases, their a"senteeism rate is less than that o$ regular teachers. %s .r?;e and Sen )*00*+ ha!e pointed out, it 3ould there$ore "e un3ise to completely dismiss this solution. Iet, on the other hand, in order $or the scheme to 3or/ 3ell, a more su"stantial in!estment 3ould "e needed $or pro!iding training and guidance )Mehrotra and ,uc/land, *001+. (he impact o$ para teachers on the moti!ation and pro$essional status o$ regular teachers also remains an important concern. It remains there$ore unli/ely that the hiring o$ para teachers 3ill turn out to "e a simple $i6 $or teacher a"senteeism in the long run, e!en though it may "e cost e$$icient in the short run )Kremer et al, *001< 'ogers et al, *001+. 0 ,. *A. #( C#"C-%SI#"

=e started the paper 3ith a description o$ $our di$$erent styles o$ pu"lic management E the hierarchist, the egalitarian, the indi!idualist and the $atalist approach E "ased on 4oodBs cultural theory o$ pu"lic management. %$ter a discussion o$ the implications o$ these styles $or addressing the pro"lem o$ teacher a"senteeism, 3e ;oomed in on three ne3 policies and schemes that are meant E among other things E to address the 11

pro"lem o$ teacher a"senteeism. (ogether 3ith the more con!entional solution )increasing monitoring and inspection+ these constitute $our alternati!e approaches, each $itting one o$ the management styles. =e ha!e sho3n that none o$ the solutions discussed has "een really success$ul in addressing teacher a"senteeism. It has "ecome clear that, in order $or the strategies to 3or/ 3ell, certain preconditions ha!e to "e $ul$illed. (he creation o$ local le!el management "odies that 3ould hold the teachers accounta"le )an egalitarian solution+, $or instance, re7uires that the mem"ers o$ these committees are su$$iciently a3are and empo3ered to stand up against malper$orming teachers. In other 3ords, there should "e a le!el playing $ield. (he !oucher system )a solution $itting the indi!idualist style+ re7uires that there are multiple suppliers and that there is a larger "ody that /eeps chec/ing on 7uality. In more general terms, competition should "e ruly )Moore, *000+. (he recruitment o$ para teachers )analysed here as an e6ample o$ the $atalist approach+ re7uires that the ad hoc remedy has a legitimacy and that it triggers the right /ind o$ e$$ects. Digure * summarises these preconditions o$ the !arious management styles and the e6tent to 3hich these are reali;ed in the case o$ addressing teacher a"senteeism in India.
(igure 1: Preconditions for Management Styles !reconditions for #emedies to Wor$ 4ierarchical authority percei!ed as legitimate 5oal o$ mutuality and participation shared "y all participants Ge!el playing $ield 'uly competition %!aila"ility o$ multiple suppliers %d hoc or parallel solutions should "e accepted (hey should also trigger the right e$$ects %re these Conditions #ealized in the Case of %ddressing Teacher %&senteeism in India' No, not al3ays )not discussed in the paper+ No No No Not yet al3ays No Ies, sometimes

4ierarchist -galitarian Indi!idualist Datalist

(o conclude, there are three points 3e 3ould li/e to stress. Dirst, since the reali;ation o$ these preconditions is essential $or the strategies to 3or/, they should recei!e much more serious attention. (he $atalist approach is a "it di$$erent here E a$ter all, it is "ased on the idea that there is a large degree o$ unpredicta"ility anyho3 E "ut $or the other three it can "e concluded that, in order to allo3 the strategies to ha!e the desired e$$ects, a lot o$ e$$ort has to go into the reali;ation o$ the preconditions. In $act, it ma/es no sense to introduce the strategies 3ithout concurrent e$$orts to change the social and institutional en!ironment in the necessary direction. (he hierarchist approach re7uires an en!ironment that is percei!ed as legitimate. (his dra3s our attention to se!eral dimensions o$ good go!ernance, such as e$$iciency, rule o$ la3, accounta"ility, transparency and responsi!eness. 5i!en the e6tremely une!en le!el playing $ield that e6ists in much o$ India, any strategy "ased on the egalitarian management style should come 3ith simultaneous initiati!es to address the e6isting social and economic ine7ualities. In the case o$ local le!el management committees, this 3ould mean serious in!estments in training and empo3ering committee mem"ers )o$ten people 3ho do not "elong to socially dominant groups+ to stand up against mal per$orming schools and teachers. %n indi!idualist approach re7uires real choice and also the impro!ement o$ a regulatory system. (his means that the introduction o$ a !oucher system should "e accompanied "y initiati!es to reali;e these re7uirements. 1*

(he $ul$ilment o$ these preconditions is certainly no guarantee o$ success, "ut 3ithout their )progressi!e+ reali;ation it is nai!e to e6pect the strategies to ha!e much result at all. Second, a com"ination o$ strategies could perhaps 3or/ "etter than relying on just one strategy. In $act, the most success$ul e$$ort to address teacher a"senteeism that 3e came across in our re!ie3 in!ol!ed a com"ination o$ the hierarchist approach )intensi$ication o$ inspection through the use o$ cameras+ and the indi!idualist approach )income incenti!es and disincenti!es+ ).u$lo and ,anerjee, *002+. Dinally, all the management approaches imply strategies that Fact onB teachers rather than Fact 3ithB them. It might 3ell "e that this is the %chillesB heel o$ all approaches. (hey are all premised on the idea that teachers need to "e disciplined "y e6ternal $orces. None o$ these approaches ta/es the pro"lems, e6periences and interpretations o$ the teachers themsel!es as the starting point. ,ased on our o3n $ield3or/, 3e ha!e come to reali;e that many teachers are themsel!es also !ery critical a"out their "eha!iour, lac/ o$ commitment and a"senteeism. Moreo!er, they ha!e sensi"le things to say a"out the reasons that ha!e made them less moti!ated )Mooij, *008+. (his made us reali;e that 3hat is primarily needed is not a management approach that acts upon teachers, "ut an attitudinal change that regards teachers not only as part o$ the pro"lem, "ut also as part o$ the solution E and thus as one o$ the essential actors to "e in!ol!ed in the $ormulation and implementation o$ any remedy. References ,alasu"rasu"ramanian, S, Sanjay Kumar and , J Koppar )*000+ F&rimary -ducation in 'ural %reas an alternati!e modelB, *conomic and +olitical ,eekly 08)01+@ 0900 02 ,ennell, &aul )*001+ Teacher -otivation and Incentives in .ub-.aharan /frica and /sia. ,righton@ Kno3ledge and S/ills $or .e!elopment &rogram. ,ose, Sumit and %nne Haugier :hatterjee )*001+ +rimary *ducation in India Today0 Is decentrali1ation the way out2 in %nne Haugier E :hatterjee )ed.+ *ducation and 3emocracy in India Ne3 .elhi@ Manohar :lar/e, &rema and Jyotsna Jha )*002+ F'ajasthanBs -6perience in Impro!ing Ser!ice .eli!ery in -ducationB, in Hi/ram :hand )ed+ 4e-inventing +ublic .ervice 3elivery in India-.elected Case .tudies. &p **9 29. Ne3 .elhi@ Sage &u"lications and =orld ,an/ :omptroller and %uditor 5eneral o$ India )*002+ /udit 4eports $Civil"-Uttar +radesh /ndhra +radesh Chattisgarh Himachal +radesh 5harkhand 6arnataka -aharashtra 7rissa 4a&asthan +un&ab Uttaranchal and ,est 8engal for the year #99:-9;. .r?;e, Jean )*000+ F:omments on Mahal, Sri!asta!a and SananBs &aper in Jean Jac7ues .ethier )ed+ <overnance 3ecentrali1ation and 4eform in China India and 4ussia. &p *>1 >>. ,oston@ Klu3er %cademic .r?;e, Jean and %martya Sen )*00*+ India0 3evelopment and +articipation. :larendon &ress, Gondon and Ne3 .elhi .u$$lo, -sther and %"hijit ,anerjee )*002+ F%ddressing %"senceB, 5ournal of *conomic +erspectives *0)1+@ 11> 0* .uthilleul, Iale )*009+ =essons learnt in the Use of Contract Teachers-.ynthesis 4eport. &aris@ International Institute $or -ducational &lanningC8N-S:# 10

Dy$e, %lec )*00>+ F(he 8se o$ &ara teachers in .e!eloping :ountries@ (rends and ImpactsB, =or/ing &aper M *9*, IG#. 5ene!a@ International Ga"our #$$ice 5hosh, %run )199*+ F-ducation $or %ll (he Dinancing &ro"lemB, *conomic and +olitical ,eekly *>)11+@2>9 80 5opinath 'eddy, M and 5. ,ha!ani )$orthcoming+ N:ommunity &articipation in -ducational %dministration@ (he 'ole o$ Hillage -ducation :ommittees in %ndhra &radeshO. )mimeo+ 5Lttelmann .uret, 5a"riele )*000+. The -anagement of primary teachers in .outh /sia-a synthesis report. &aris@ International Institute $or -ducational &lanningC8N-S:# 5o!inda, ' )*009+ F%n argument $or School ,ased ManagementB, paper presented at the Second National Gearning :on$erence %utonomous and %ccounta"le (eacher $or Kuality -ducation, ,angalore )** *1 #cto"er *009+ 5o!inda, ' and I Josephine )*001+ +ara-teachers in India0 / 4eview . Ne3 .elhi@ National Institute o$ -ducational &lanning and %dministration 5ro!er, Shuchi and Nishu 4arpreet Singh )*00*+ F(he Kuality o$ &rimary -ducation@ % :ase Study o$ Madurai and Hillupuram .istricts in (amil Nadu, IndiaB, 4ar!ard 5raduate School o$ -ducation, 4ar!ard 8ni!ersity. 4irschman, %l"ert #. )19>0+ -6it, Hoice and Goyalty. 'esponses to .ecline in Dirms, #rgani;ations and States. 4ar!ard 8ni!ersity &ress, :am"ridge etc. 4ood, :hristopher )1998+ The /rt of The .tate0 Culture 4hetoric and +ublic -anagement. Ne3 Ior/@ #6$ord 8ni!ersity &ress Indiresan, & H )*002+ F=hy not -ducation HouchersAB column in 8usiness =ine #nline -dition, *> No!em"er *002. Jha, Jyotsna, K , : Sa6ena and : H ,a6i )*001+ -anagement +rocesses in *lementary *ducation0 / .tudy of *'isting +ractices in .elected .tates in India0 Ne3 .elhi@ -uropean :ommission -ducation &rogramme #$$ice Kingdon, 5eeta 5andhi and Mohd Mu;ammil )*001+ F% &olitical -conomy o$ -ducation in India (he :ase o$ 8&B, *conomic and +olitical ,eekly 02)0*+ 009* 20. Kremer, Michael, Na;mul :haudhury, Je$$rey 4ammer, Karthi/ Muralidharan and D 4alsey 'ogers )*001+ Teacher and Health Care +rovider /bsence0 / -ulti Country .tudy. Mimeo@ =orld ,an/ Kremer, Michael, Karthi/ Muralidharan, Na;mul :haudhury, Je$$rey 4ammers and D 4alsey 'ogers )*009+ F(eacher %"sence in India@ % SnapshotB, 5ournal of the *uropean *conomic /ssociation 0 )* 0+ 298 2>. Kremer, Michael, Karthi/ Muralidharan, Na;mul :haudhury, Je$$rey 4ammers and D 4alsey 'ogers )*002+ FMissing in %ction@ (eachers and 4ealth =or/ers %"sence in .e!eloping :ountriesB, 5ournal of *conomic +erspectives *0)1+@ 91 112 Kumar, Krishna, Manisha &riyam and Sadhna Sa6ena )*001+ FGoo/ing ,eyond the Smo/escreen@ .&-& and &rimary -ducation in IndiaB, *conomic and +olitical ,eekly 02)>+@920 8 Gauglo, Jon )1999+ FDorms o$ .ecentrali;ation and (heir Implication $or -ducationB, Comparative *ducation 01 )1+@ 9 *9 Ge!in, 4enry )*00*+ F% :omprehensi!e Drame3or/ $or -!aluating -ducational HouchersB, *ducational *valuation and +olicy /nalysis *1 )0+@199 >1 Geclerc7, Drancois )*00*+ F(he Impact o$ -ducation &olicy 'e$orms on the School System@ % Dield Study o$ -5S and other &rimary Schools in Madhya &radeshB, :S4 #ccasional &aper. Ne3 .elhi@ :entre de Sciences 4umaines Majumdar, Mana"i and Jos Mooij )$orthcoming+ *ducation and Ine)uality in 11

India. 'outledge, Gondon Mehrotra, Santosh )*001+ F'e$orming &u"lic Spending on -ducation and Mo"ilising 'esources@ Gessons $rom International -6periencesB, *conomic and +olitical ,eekly 09)9+@ 98> 9> Mehrotra, Santosh )*002+ F'e$orming -lementary -ducation in India@ % Menu o$ #ptionsB, International 5ournal of *ducational 3evelopment *2)0+@*21 >> Mehrotra, Santosh and &eter ,uc/land )*001+ FManaging School (eacher :osts $or %ccess and Kuality in .e!eloping :ountries@ % :omparati!e %nalysisB, *conomic and +olitical ,eekly 02)19+@ 192> >9 Ministry o$ 4uman 'esource .e!elopment )M4'.+ )*002+ /nnual 4eport #99:9;.Ne3 .elhi@ .epartment o$ -lementary -ducation and Giteracy, 5o!ernment o$ India. Mooij, Jos )*008+ N&rimary -ducation, (eachersB &ro$essionalism and Social :lass@ %"out Moti!ation and .emoti!ation o$ 5o!ernment School teachers in IndiaO International 5ournal of *ducational 3evelopment Hol. *8, pp. 908 9*0 Mooij, Jos and Jenni$er Jalal )$orthcoming+ N&rimary -ducation in .elhi, 4ydera"ad and Kol/ata. 5o!ernance "y 'esignation, &ri!atisation "y .e$aultO. In@ Stephanie (a3a Gama 'e3al and JoPl 'uet )eds+ The Changing <overnance of Indian -etropolises in the #999s. / Comparative .ector 8ased .tudy . 'outledge, Ne3 .elhi Moore, Mic/ )*000+ N:ompetition =ithin and ,et3een #rgani;ationO in 'o"inson, .orcas, (om 4e3itt and John 4arriss )eds.+ -anaging 3evelopment. Understanding Inter-7rgani1ational 4elationships. Sage &u"lications in association 3ith the #pen 8ni!ersity, Gondon etc., pp. 89 111 Muralidharan, Karti/ )*002+ F&u"lic &ri!ate &artnerships $or Kuality -ducation in IndiaB, .eminar, Issue M929, Septem"er *002 Muralidharan, Karti/ and Michael Kremer )*002+ +rivate and +ublic .chools in 4ural India .Mimeo@ 4ar!ard 8ni!ersity. Narayan, Krishna )*00>+ Innovative +ublic -anagement .trategies to /ddress the +roblems of Teacher /bsenteeism and +oor >uality in 4ural <overnment primary .chools in India. % 'esearch &aper in &artial Dul$ilment o$ the 'e7uirements $or #"taining the degree o$ Masters o$ %rt in .e!elopment Studies, Institute o$ Social Studies, the 4ague, *00> National 8ni!ersity o$ -ducational &lanning and %dministration )N8-&%+ )*00>+ 3istrict Information .ystem for *ducation $3I.*"0 -a&or ?indings #99:-9;. Ne3 .elhi@ N8-&% National :ouncil $or (eacher -ducation )*002+ 3raft Curriculum ?ramework for Teacher *ducation Ne3 .elhi@ N:(- and N:-'( Noronha, %njali )*000+ F(he :ommunity In :harge@ Shades o$ -6perience $rom Madhya &radeshB, in ' 5o!inda and 'ashmi .i3an )eds+ Community +articipation and *mpowerment in +rimary *ducation. Ne3 .elhi@ Sage &u"lications. &andey, Saroj )*002+ F&ara teacher Scheme and Kuality -ducation $or %ll in India@ (he &olicy &erspecti!es and :hallenges $or School -$$ecti!enessB, 5ournal of *ducation for Teaching0 International 4esearch and +edagogy 0*)0+@ 019 01 &articipatory 'esearch in %sia )&'I%+ )*00*+ +rimary *ducation and +anchayati 4a& Institutions. .o3nloaded $rom 333.pria.org. &lanning :ommission )*002+ Towards ?aster and -ore Inclusive <rowth-/n /pproach to the !!th ?ive @ear +lan A3raftB . Ne3 .elhi@ &lanning :ommission, 5o!ernment o$ India 19

&o3is, ,enjamin )*000+ N5rass 'oots &olitics and FSecond =a!e o$ .ecentralisationB in %ndhra &radeshO. *conomic and +olitical ,eekly Hol. 08, No. *2, pp. *21> ** &ratham 'esource :entre )*002+ %nnual Status o$ -ducation 'eport )'ural+ *009. Mum"ai@ &ratham. &ratham 'esource :entre )*00>+ %nnual Status o$ -ducation 'eport )'ural+ *002. Mum"ai@ &ratham. &ratichi 'esearch (eam )*00*+ N(he .eli!ery o$ &rimary education. % Study o$ =est ,engalO. Introduction "y %martya Sen. &ratichi )India+ (rust. &ritchett, Gant and Harad &ande )*002+ FMa/ing &rimary -ducation 3or/ $or IndiaBs 'ural poor@ % proposal $or -$$ecti!e .ecentrali;ationB, Social .e!elopment &aper M 99 South %sia Series. =ashington .:@ =orld ,an/ &'#,- (eam )1999+ +ublic 4eport on 8asic *ducation in India. Ne3 .elhi@ #6$ord 8ni!ersity &ress. 'amachandran, Himala, Madhumita &al, Sharada Jain, Sunil She/har and Jitendra Sharma )*009+ F(eacher Moti!ation in IndiaB. ,righton@ Kno3ledge and S/ills $or .e!elopment &rogram. .o3nloaded $rom 333.a;impremji$oundation.org. 'ana, Kumar, Samanta/ .as, %mrita Sengupta and %"dur 'a$i7ue )*000+ FState o$ &rimary -ducation in =est ,engalB, *conomic and +olitical ,eekly 08)**+@ *199 21 'ao, Nirmala, Kai Ming :heng and Kirti Narain )*000+ F&rimary Schooling in :hina and India@ 8nderstanding ho3 Socio :onte6tual $actors moderate the role o$ the stateB, International 4eview of *ducation 19 )1 *+@ 190 >2 'io, Neiphiu )*009+ Speech 5i!en "y the :hie$ Minister, Nagaland at the 91 st Meeting o$ the National .e!elopment :ouncil, Ne3 .elhi, *> June *009 'o"inson, .orcas, (om 4e3itt and John 4arriss )eds.+ )*000+ -anaging 3evelopment. Understanding Inter-7rgani1ational 4elationships. Sage &u"lications in association 3ith the #pen 8ni!ersity, Gondon etc. 'ogers, 4alsey D, JosQ Gope; :ali6, Na;mul :haudhury, Je$$rey 4ammer, Nancy :Rrdo"a, Michael Kremer and Karthi/ Mularidharan )*001+ F(eacher %"sence and Incenti!es in &rimary -ducation@ 'esults $rom a National (eacher (rac/ing Sur!ey in -cuadorB, -6cerpt $rom the 'eport *cuador0 Creating a ?iscal .pace for +overty 4eduction-/ ?iscal -anagement and +ublic *'penditure 4eview. Holume *. &p 102 2*. 8'G@ http@CCsiteresources.3orld"an/.orgC.-:C'esourcesC0>91*J-cuador.(eacher.%"se nteeism.%ugust10.*001.pd$ Shah, &arth and :orinna ,raun Mun;inger )*002+ F-ducation Houchers@ 5lo"al -6perience and IndiaBs &romiseB, +olicy 4eview )1+, De"ruary *002. Ne3 .elhi@ :enter $or :i!il Society Sharma, 'ashmi )199>+ F.ynamics o$ Gearning (hree 'Bs in Madhya &radeshB, *conomic and +olitical ,eekly 0*)1>+@891 901 Sharma, 'ashmi )1999+ F=hat Manner o$ (eacher@ Some Gessons $rom Madhya &radeshB, *conomic and +olitical ,eekly 01)*9+@ 199> 120> Shi!a Kumar K, %nuradha .e, Jean .r?;e, Meera Samson and Shyamshree .asgupta )*009+, NB-ducation $or allB is the &olicy, "ut =hat is the 'ealityAB ?rontline Hol. *2, No. 2, March 11 *> Shu/la, Su"ir and &riti Joshi )*008" N:hapter 1@ IndiaO. In@ ,o" &hillipson )ed.+ =owCost +rivate *ducation. Impacts on /chieving Universal +rimary *ducation. Gondon, :ommon3ealth Secretariat (ooley, James and &auline .i6on )*000+ +rivate .chools for the +oor0 / Case .tudy from India. 'eading@ :$,( 'esearch and .e!elopment 12

Haidyanathan, % and & ' 5opinathan Nair )*001+ FIntroductionB in % Haidyanathan and & ' 5opinathan Nair )eds+ *lementary *ducation in 4ural India0 / <rassroots Ciew. &p *0 18. Ne3 .elhi@ Sage &u"lications. Hasa!i, % ', & 5 Hijaya Sherry :hand and Shailesh ' Shu/la )199>+ F,lueprint $or 'ural &rimary -ducation@ 4o3 Hia"leAB *conomic and +olitical ,eekly 0*)90+@ 0181 81 =illmore, Garry )*001+ F,asic -ducation as a 4uman 'ightB, *conomic /ffairs *1)1+@ 1> *1 =orld ,an/ )199>+ +rimary *ducation in India@ =ashington .:@ =orld ,an/ =orld ,an/ )*001+ 4esuming +un&abs +rosperity0 The 7pportunities and Challenges /head. =ashington .:@ =orld ,an/ =orld ,an/ )*002+ ?rom .chooling /ccess to =earning 7utcomes0 /n Unfinished /genda. =ashington .:@ =orld ,an/ Independent -!aluation 5roup.

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