|ca! a|cui inc cti!

cncc
ArislolIe (Arislol. IoI.).
| back lo lo j
|ca! a|cui inc cti!cncc
ArislolIe (Arislol. IoI.).
|ca! a|cui inc cti!cncc
ArislolIe (Arislol. IoI.).
Ocncs Hcnc
Sunnarq.
|nirc!uciicn.
G|cssarq.
|nsiruciicns jcr rca!ing
passagcs.
Passagcs. Ocning inc Ciiq
Siaic.
Passagcs. Ocning inc
Ciiizcn.
Passagcs. Ocning inc
Sqsicn cj Gctcrnncni.
Passagcs. Ocning
Ocnccracq.
Passagcs. Tqpcs cj
Ocnccracq.
Passagcs. Crcaiing
Ocnccracq.
Passagcs. Prcscrting
Ocnccracq.
Passagcs. Ocsircqing
Ocnccracq.
Sc|cciitc Bi||icgrapnq.

|n!cx cj Ciiaiicns
Gcncra| |n!cx

Ocncs Hcnc
Dmos CIassicaI Alhenian Democracy a Sloa IubIicalion
| Iink coIors: Demos + IxlernaI Source + Cilalion lo Ividence+ Word TooIs j
seclion viev + home
Democracy in lhe IoIilics of ArislolIe
Tncnas |. Mariin, uiin Ncc| Sniin c jcnnijcr |.Siuari, c!iiicn cj ju|q 26, 2003
(Scciicn 1 cj 13)
Sunnarq
Ancienl Greek democracy has reguIarIy
auracled lhe auenlion of modern oIilicaI
scienlisls as arl of lhe discussion of lhe lheory and raclice of
democralic syslems of governmenl. y far lhe mosl imorlanl ancienl
lexl for lhis discussion is lhe Pc|iiics of ArislolIe. Sludying vhal
ArislolIe has lo say aboul democracy in lhe Pc|iiics is chaIIenging for
severaI reasons. Iirsl of aII, his remarks on lhe sub|ecl are sread videIy
lhroughoul lhis exlended vork. The chaIIenge is furlher increased by
lhe discursive characler of ArislolIe's argumenls in lhe Pc|iiics, vhich
for one lhing mix discussions of lheorelicaI rinciIes for syslems of
governmenl vilh observalions aboul acluaI Greek slales of ArislolIe's
lime (and before il). IinaIIy, lhere is lhe slrong ossibiIily lhal lhe
lradilionaIIy acceled order of lhe eighl ooks or chalers of lhe
Pc|iiics is nol lhe order in vhich ArislolIe meanl his argumenls lo be
resenled.
(Scciicn 2 cj 13)
|nirc!uciicn
The goaI of lhis arlicIe is lo rovide one ossibIe aid for lhose
vishing lo meel lhis chaIIenge. Il lherefore oers a series of loicaI
headings under vhich seIecled assages reIevanl lo lhe sludy of democracy in lhe Pc|iiics are
rearranged. Thal is, under each loic lhe assages are Iisled nol in lhe order in vhich lhey
occur in lhe Pc|iiics, bul are inslead arranged in an order lhal auemls lo suggesl conneclions
in lhoughl belveen ArislolIe's various remarks on democracy. The assages are arahrased
ralher lhan lransIaled vord for vord, aIlhough lhe arahrases of lhe shorler excerls
aueml lo slay as cIose lo lhe Greek vording as is raclicaI. Since lhe arahrased assages
are meanl lo serve as |uming-o oinls for consideralion of lhe fuII lexl of lhe Pc|iiics, each
assage has an aclive Iink lo lhe fuII lexl of lhe Pc|iiics. A gIossary of Greek lerms and a very
seIeclive bibIiograhy of recommended rinl readings are aIso incIuded.
Since lhe aroach adoled for lhis sile rearranges lhe order of
maleriaI on democracy from lhe Pc|iiics, il necessariIy removes each
assage from ils conlexl in order lo suggesl conneclions in lhoughl lhal mighl nol be easy lo
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P|ci cn a Map
Uniled Slales.
Uniled Kingdom.
gras vhen lhe lexl is read seriaIIy from beginning lo end. This disIacemenl of lhe assages
suggesls an inlerrelalion of lhe conneclions in ArislolIe's lhoughl on democracy in lhe
Pc|iiics. The olenliaI danger of lhis melhod, of course, is lhal reading excerled and
arahrased assages vilhoul considering lheir fuII conlexl can be seriousIy misIeading. Il
musl be slrongIy emhasized, lherefore, lhal reading lhe Pc|iiics lhoroughIy from beginning
lo end (and more lhan once!) is lhe onIy vay lo lry lo undersland fuIIy ils comIex and
inlervoven argumenls. Wilh lhis caulion hrmIy in mind, users can consider lhe arrangemenl
of excerled assages as a guide lo furlher sludy of ArislolIe's reeclions on ancienl Greek
democracy.
In lhe environmenl rovided by eIeclronic ubIicalion, aII readers can immedialeIy confronl
our imIied inlerrelalion vilh lhe underIying evidence and oer suggeslions for
imrovemenl by eIeclronic resonse lo lhe aulhor and conlribulors. In lhis vay lhe
coIIaboralive vork lhal roduced lhis arlicIe can conlinue as a schoIarIy conversalion on a
vide scaIe.
(Scciicn 3 cj 13)
G|cssarq
Ivery aueml has been made lo be consislenl in lhe lransIalion of cruciaI Greek lerms, such
as pc|is, bul lhe exibiIily of meaning of some of lhem makes absoIule consislency imossibIe.
The foIIoving lransIalions are used as consislenlIy as ossibIe:
IoIily for pc|iicia vhen ArislolIe uses lhe vord in ils arlicuIar sense lo indicale ruIe by lhe
many in vhal he dehnes as lhe siraigni or correcl syslem of governmenl of lhis lye. (y
conlrasl, he refers lo ruIe by lhe many in a diverging and lhus erroneous syslem as
democracy.) (See lhis vord in seIeclions from ArislolIe, courlesy of lhe Ierseus DigilaI
Library, see lhis vord in aII Ierseus lexls.)
Syslem of governmenl for pc|iicia vhen ArislolIe uses lhe vord
in ils generic sense, vhich is convenlionaIIy lransIaled inlo IngIish
as conslilulion. (This dearlure from convenlion is lo avoid lhe
olenliaI ambiguily of lhe lerm conslilulion, vhich as a famiIiar lerm in lhe Uniled Slales
loday is usuaIIy laken lo mean a formaI, vriuen documenl rescribing lhe slruclure of
governmenl. The conslilulions of ancienl Greek cily-slales vere oflen nol vriuen dovn, a
lradilion found loday, for examIe, in lhe Uniled Kingdom.) (See lhis vord in Ierseus
seIeclions from ArislolIe, see lhis vord in aII Ierseus lexls.)
Diverging syslem of governmenl for parck|asis. The diverging syslems are lyranny,
oIigarchy, and democracy, vhich are lhose syslems lhal diverge (parck|ainc) from lhe lhree
slraighl syslems of governmenl (crinai pc|iiciai), vhich are kingshi, arislocracy, and oIily.
(See parck|asis in Ierseus seIeclions from ArislolIe, see parck|asis in aII Ierseus lexls. See
occurences of crincs vilhin hve vords of pc|iicia in Ierseus seIeclions from ArislolIe, in aII
Ierseus lexls.)
IxceIIence for arcic, vhich is convenlionaIIy lransIaled virlue. IxceIIence in lhe Greek
sense can and oflen does erlain lo elhicaI quaIilies and moraIily, bul il can aIso erlain lo, for
examIe, hysicaI slrenglh or courage. (See lhis vord in Ierseus seIeclions from ArislolIe, see
lhis vord in aII Ierseus lexls.)
| back lo lo j
|ca! a|cui inc cti!cncc
ArislolIe (Arislol. IoI.).

P|ci cn a Map
erIin.
Iarlnershi for kcincnia, IileraIIy a sharing or laking arl in a lhing vilh olhers. (See lhis
vord in Ierseus seIeclions from ArislolIe, see lhis vord in aII Ierseus lexls.)
GoaI for ic|cs, IileraIIy end, urose. (See lhis vord in Ierseus seIeclions from ArislolIe,
see lhis vord in aII Ierseus lexls.)
MuIlilude for p|cincs, vhich can aIso mean ma|orily or, by exlension, democracy. (See
lhis vord in Ierseus seIeclions from ArislolIe, see lhis vord in aII Ierseus lexls.)
IeoIe for !cncs, vhich can aIso, by exlension, mean democracy. (See lhis vord in
Ierseus seIeclions from ArislolIe, see lhis vord in aII Ierseus lexls.)
(Scciicn 4 cj 13)
|nsiruciicns jcr rca!ing passagcs
|npcriani injcrnaiicn cn |inks
The Iinks from each assage are lo lhe fuII lexl of lhe Pc|iiics in bolh
an on-Iine Greek lexl and an accomanying IngIish lransIalion
mainlained by lhe Ierseus DigilaI Library al Tufls Universily.
Iassages are ciled, foIIoving lhe mosl recise slandard form of
reference lo lhe Pc|iiics, as a four-digil number foIIoved by lhe Ieuer a or b (lhal is, 1253a,
1274b, and so on) lo indicale a arlicuIar seclion of lhe vork. The recise Iocalion of lhe ciled
assage vilhin a seclion is indicaled by lhe Iine numbers lhal foIIov lhe cilalion of lhe
seclion. (This reference syslem is derived from lhe Greek edilion of lhe Pc|iiics ubIished by
ImmanueI ekker in erIin in 1831.)
Tuc crucia| uarnings
Iach seclion (e.g., 1253a, 1274b, elc.) is resenled as conlinuous lexl. The Iine numbers
foIIoving lhe seclion designalion are indicaled in lhe on-Iine Greek lexl in muIliIes of hve,
vhiIe lhe corresonding Iine numbers in lhe accomanying IngIish lransIalion aear every
lvenly Iines in brackels, bul lhe Iine divisions as reresenled in your Web brovser may nol
corresond exaclIy lo lhis numeralion.
Since, for lechnicaI reasons, lhe Iinks musl go lo lhe hrsl Iine of a seclion and lherefore usuaIIy
nol lo lhe hrsl Iine of lhe ciled reference ilseIf, lhe arlicuIar Iines referred lo may aear
ralher far dovn from lhe beginning of lhe seclion. In some cases, lhe arlicuIar Iines may be
far enough from lhe beginning of lhe seclion lhal lhey viII nol be on lhe screen vhen lhe
seclion is hrsl disIayed, and il viII lhen be necessary lo scroII unliI lhey aear. IIease be
sure lo nole lhe recise Iine number vilhin lhe seclion lo vhich you are Iinking before
foIIoving lhal Iink so lhal you can Iocale lhal Iine by scroIIing.
|nirc!uciicn ic inc grcups cj cxccrpic! passagcs
The hrsl lhree grous of excerled assages rovide conlexl for lhe remaining grous. The
hrsl of lhe lhree concerns eIemenls of lhe dehnilion of lhe ancienl Greek cily-slale (pc|is) in lhe
Pc|iiics because ArislolIe's discussion of democracy erlains lo lhis lye of oIilicaI slale. The
nexl grou concerns lhe dehnilion of lhe cilizen because il look cilizens lo conslilule a syslem
of governmenl in lhe cily-slale, of vhich democracy vas one. The lhird concerns lhe
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dehnilion of dierenl syslems of governmenl in lhe cily-slale, eseciaIIy lhe nolion lhal
democracy is, in ArislolIe's viev, a diverging syslem of governmenl. The remaining grous
of assages concern democracy ilseIf. In lhe arahrases of lhe assages, square brackels | j
indicale ediloriaI addilions lo lhe ancienl lexl.
The lexl of lhe Pc|iiics is convenlionaIIy divided inlo eighl ooks, vhose roer order is
disuled. These book divisions do nol aear in lhe conlinuous lexl lo vhich lhe assages are
Iinked. Ior lhose vho vish lo correIale lhe assages ciled beIov lo lhe book in vhich lhey
aear, lhe foIIoving Iisl indicales lhe division of seclions in lhe books as lradilionaIIy
numbered. Since lhe Iinks go lo lhe beginnings of seclions, lhey viII nol go lo lhe arl of lhe
seclion al vhich a arlicuIar book begins. Ior examIe, ook 4 begins al 1288b10, bul lhe Iink
goes lo lhe beginning of 1288b, from vhich oinl il is necessary lo scroII forvard lo reach Iine
10.
ook 1 1252a1 lo 1260b24
ook 2 1260b27 lo 1274b28
ook 3 1274b32 lo 1288b6
ook 4 1288b10 lo 1301a15
ook 5 1301a19 lo 1316b27
ook 6 1316b31 lo 1323a10
ook 7 1323a14 lo 1337a7
ook 8 1337a11 lo 1342b34
(Scciicn 5 cj 13)
Passagcs. Ocning inc Ciiq Siaic
1253a: 2-3: Human beings are, by nalure, crealures vho Iive in a cily-slale (pc|is). |The same
remark occurs al 1278b19.j 1274b: 33-34: Il is a disuled queslion vhal exaclIy lhe cily-slale is.
1279a: 21: A cily-slale is a arlnershi of lhe free.
1255b: 16-20: RuIe in a cily-slale is lhe ruIe of lhose vho are free and equaI. This is nol lhe
same as maslery, vhere one is a sIave and lhe olher is a ruIer.
1276b: 1-2: A cily-slale is a arlnershi of cilizens in a syslem of governmenl.
1252a: 1-7: Ivery cily-slale is a kind of arlnershi, and every arlnershi is crealed for lhe
sake of somelhing good. IoIilicaI arlnershi, vhich is caIIed lhe cily-slale, aims al lhe mosl
aulhorilalive good of aII.
1275b: 17-21: Given lhe dehnilion of a cilizen in 1275a: 22-23, a cily-slale is a muIlilude of such
ersons Iarge enough for seIf-suciency of Iife.
1252b: 29-30: The cily-slale comes inlo being for lhe sake of Iiving, bul il exisls for lhe sake of
Iiving veII (ic cu zcn). |This hrase imIies more lhan vhal is usuaIIy meanl by Iiving
veII in IngIish, vhich is lo say being roserous. The Greek hrase imIies above aII a Iife
Iived in accordance vilh exceIIence (arcic). Living a roserous Iife is nol necessariIy in
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P|ci cn a Map
conicl vilh lhis nolion bul is cerlainIy nol lhe rinciaI imIicalion of Iiving veII in Greek.
See lhe nexl assage.j
1280b: 29-1281a8: A cily-slale is cIearIy nol |usl Iiving logelher in a shared lerrilory for muluaI
defense and lhe exchange of goods. Il is ralher a arlnershi among househoIds, cIans, and
viIIages for Iiving veII, for lhe sake of a fuIIy deveIoed and seIf-sucienl Iife. Those vho
conlribule mosl lo a arlnershi of lhis sorl have a grealer arl in lhe cily lhan lhose vho are
equaI or grealer in freedom or famiIy, bul unequaI in oIilicaI exceIIence, or lhose vho ouldo
lhem in veaIlh, bul are ouldone in exceIIence.
1278b: 21-25: The goaI or urose (ic|cs) of lhe cily-slale cerlainIy encomasses hysicaI
exislence and survivaI, bul il is aIso more lhan lhal, nameIy, Iiving hneIy (ic zcn ka|cs).
1280b: 6-8: The cily-slale lhal is lruIy a cily-slale musl be concerned vilh exceIIence (arcic).
1323b: 30-34: The besl cily-slale is hay and acls hneIy. Il is imossibIe for lhose vho do nol
do hne lhings lo acl hneIy. There is no hne aclion of man or cily-slale aarl from exceIIence
and lhinking.
1253a: 37: }uslice is a lhing of lhe cily-slale.
1282b: 16-18: The oIilicaI good is |uslice, and |uslice is lhe common advanlage.
(Scciicn 6 cj 13)
Passagcs. Ocning inc Ciiizcn
1275a: 22-23: A cilizen dehned in simIe lerms is someone vho can arliciale in |udging
|lhal is, serve as a |uror in lhe courl syslemj and in governing |lhal is, serve in ubIic oce,
vhich here means nol |usl magislracies bul aIso serving in lhe assembIy and on lhe counciI in
syslems of governmenl lhal have lhese inslilulionsj.
1275b: 5-7: The dehnilion of cilizen |usl given in 1275a: 22-23 aIies eseciaIIy lo democracy
and ossibIy, lhough nol necessariIy, lo olher syslems of governmenl because dierenl
dehnilions vouId aIy in dierenl syslems.
1275a: 2-5: Who is enlilIed lo be a cilizen` No agreemenl exisls, someone vho vouId be a
cilizen in a democracy vouId oflen nol be a cilizen in an oIigarchy.
1278a: 8-25: In lhe besl cily-slale, craflsmen (|anausci) viII nol be aIIoved lo be cilizens, since
lhey are nol reaIIy abIe lo Iive freeIy, because lhey are nol free from necessary lasks |lhal is,
lhey have lo do hysicaI vork for a Iivingj and lherefore do nol have lhe lime lo devole
lhemseIves lo lhe aclivilies in vhich exceIIence is manifesled. This does nol mean lhal lhey
are oor, craflsmen in facl can be rich, bul lhey sliII have lo engage in making lhings vilh
lheir ovn hands, |an aclivily seen as demeaning by cilizens in lhe sociaI eIilej.
1278a: 26-29: In many syslems of governmenl, cilizens are IegaIIy dravn from lhe ranks of
foreigners |lhal is, bolh of lheir arenls do nol have lo be cilizensj. In some democracies,
cilizens need onIy have a cilizen molher, and even iIIegilimale chiIdren (ncinci) can be cilizens
in many Iaces.
1275b: 35-37: CIeislhenes of Alhens made cilizens of melics
Alhens.
| back lo lo j
|ca! a|cui inc cti!cncc
(Arislol. IoI.).
(Arislol. IoI.).
ArislolIe (Arislol. Nic. Ilh.).
ArislolIe (Arislol. Nic. Ilh.).
|residenl foreignersj, vho had been foreigners or sIaves, foIIoving
lhe exuIsion of lhe lyranls from Alhens |near lhe end of lhe sixlh cenluryj.
1283b: 42-1284a4: The cilizen in common arIance is lhe erson vho has a share in ruIing and
being ruIed, in lhe besl syslem of governmenl |nameIy, a oIily, on vhich see under
Dehning Syslems of Governmenlj a cilizen is bolh abIe and viIIing lo ruIe and be ruIed in
accordance vilh a Iife Iived vilh exceIIence as ils aim.
1277a: 26-27: The exceIIence of a cilizen consisls of being abIe lo ruIe and be ruIed veII.
1277b: 13-18: The good cilizen musl have abiIily and knovIedge concerning bolh ruIing free
men and aIso being ruIed. A good cilizen musl ossess moderalion and rudence (scpnrcsqnc)
and |uslice (!ikaicsqnc) vilh resecl lo ruIing.
1276b: 28-29: The lask of cilizens is lhe reservalion (scicria) of lhe arlnershi lhal is lheir
syslem of governmenl. |AIso under Ireserving Democracyj
(Scciicn 7 cj 13)
Passagcs. Ocning inc Sqsicn cj Gctcrnncni
1323a: 14-16: To seek oul vhal is lhe besl syslem of governmenl, il is hrsl necessary lo dehne
vhal is lhe mosl desirabIe Iife.
1323b: 1-4: Living haiIy, vhelher for human beings il comes from en|oymenl or from
exceIIence or from bolh, exisls for lhose ersons excessiveIy adorned vilh characler and
urose bul moderale in lhe acquisilion of exlernaI goods.
1295a: 25-1295b: Like lhe besl Iife, lhe besl syslem of governmenl is
conducled in accordance vilh exceIIence. If exceIIence is lhe mean,
as argued in lhe Niccnacncan |inics |for examIe, al 1101a: 14-16j,
lhen a Iife and a syslem of governmenl lhal is in lhe middIe is
besl. A cily-slale has lhree eIemenls in ils ouIalion: lhe rich, lhe oor, and lhose in lhe
middIe. The oIilicaI arlnershi lhal is consliluled from lhose in lhe middIe is lhe besl.
1293a: 35-42: In addilion lo lhe four syslems of governmenl lhal |olherj eoIe usuaIIy bring
u in discussing syslems of governmenl (nameIy, monarchy, oIigarchy, democracy, and
arislocracy), lhere is a hflh one caIIed oIily (pc|iicia), vhich is aIso lhe lerm used lo mean
syslem of governmenl in generaI or in a generic sense. This hflh syslem of governmenl is
somelimes overIooked in discussions of lhe lyes of syslems of governmenl since il does nol
come inlo exislence very oflen.
1289a: 26-28: As vas eslabIished reviousIy in lhe hrsl book of lhe Pc|iiics, lhere are lhree
slraighl or urighl |and lherefore correcl and goodj syslems of governmenl (crinai
pc|iiciai): kingshi, arislocracy, and oIily.
1265b: 26-28: The syslem of governmenl caIIed oIily is midvay belveen democracy and
oIigarchy.
1293b: 33-37: IoIily is, lo ul il simIy, a mixlure of oIigarchy and democracy. The kinds of
oIilies lhal lend lovards democracy are cuslomariIy referred lo by lhe name of oIily, vhiIe
lhose lhal lend lovards oIigarchy are caIIed arislocracies.
1307a: 15-16: The syslems of governmenl incIining more lovard oIigarchy are caIIed
arislocracies, vhiIe lhose incIining more lovard lhe muIlilude (p|cincs) |vhich can aIso mean
democracyj are caIIed oIilies.
1297b: 22-25: As cily-slales increased in size and grev slronger in lhe heavy-infanlry |ncp|iicj
seclion of lhe cilizen body, more men gained a share in lhe syslem of governmenl. Ior lhis
reason vhal are nov caIIed oIilies vere reviousIy caIIed democracies.
1279a: 37-39: When lhe muIlilude governs according lo lhe common advanlage, lhen lhis
syslem of governmenl is caIIed by lhe lerm aIso used lo designale syslems of governmenl in
generaI, nameIy, oIily.
1288a: 12-15: The muIlilude suilabIe for a oIily is one caabIe of miIilary service lhal has lhe
naluraI abiIily lo ruIe and be ruIed in accordance vilh Iav lhal dislribules oces lo veaIlhier
cilizens on lhe basis of meril.
1307a: 5-8: IoIilies and arislocracies are undone by diverging from lhal vhich conslilules
|uslice in lhe lvo dierenl syslems of governmenl, |vhich is nol necessariIy lhe same lhing in
each syslemj. The slarling oinl in a oIily is vhen democracy and oIigarchy have been nol
mixed arorialeIy |IileraIIy, hneIyj.
1275b: 1-3: Diverging and erroneous syslems of governmenl are necessariIy subsequenl, nol
rior lo correcl |slraighlj syslems.
1279b: 4-10: There are lhree syslems of governmenl diverging from lhe lhree slraighl
syslems: lyranny diverging from kingshi, oIigarchy diverging from arislocracy, and
democracy diverging from oIily. Iach diverging syslem (parck|asis) is slruclured lo oerale
lo lhe advanlage of lhe ruIer(s), for examIe, democracy is ruIe lo lhe advanlage of lhe oor.
None of lhe diverging syslems aims al lhe rohl of every lye of cilizen in common.
1289a: 28-1289b5: Of lhese lhree diverging syslems of governmenl, lyranny is lhe vorsl
(vhich is lo say lhe furlhesl from oIily), oIigarchy lhe nexl vorsl, and democracy lhe mosl
moderale.
1279a: 17-21: WhiIe slraighl syslems of governmenl are concerned vilh lhe common
advanlage according lo vhal is quile simIy |usl, diverging forms of governmenl are lhose
lhal in error serve lhe inleresl of lhe ruIer(s). Diverging forms of governmenl lend lo have an
eIemenl of desolism, because a cily-slale is a arlnershi of lhe free.
1290a: 13-29: Some eoIe cIaim lhal, |usl as lhere are lvo main kinds of vind or of musicaI
harmonies, and lhe olher vinds and harmonies are regarded as divergences from lhese, lhere
are aIso lvo sorls of syslems of governmenl, ruIe by lhe eoIe and oIigarchy. On lhis viev,
lhe, oIily diverges from democracy and arislocracy diverges from oIigarchy. ul il is beuer
lo osluIale inslead lhal lhere are slraighl syslems of governmenl and syslems of
governmenl diverging from lhem.
1259a: 39-1259b10: The ruIe lhal a husband has over his vife, a free erson, is lhe same sorl of
ruIe lhal exisls over free ersons in a oIily. Since lhe maIe is more hl lo ruIe by nalure, he
viII ruIe conlinuousIy in lhe househoId, unIess he is somehov unnaluraI. In conlrasl, vhen
| back lo lo j
cilizens are equaIs and do nol dier, lhen lhe roIes of ruIer and ruIed viII aIlernale.
1325b: 7-8: Ior lhose vho are aIike, lhe hne and lhe |usl is |lo ruIe and be ruIedj in lurn, for
lhis is equaI and aIike.
1282b: 10-13: Since Iavs aIign vilh lhe syslem of governmenl, lhe Iavs of slraighl syslems of
governmenl are necessariIy |usl, bul lhose of diverging syslems are necessariIy nol |usl.
1309a: 36-39: }uslice and lhe exceIIence associaled vilh il are nol lhe same in dierenl syslems
of governmenl.
1309b: 19-35: Diverging lyes of governmenl faiI lo ay auenlion lo lhe middIe. Inslilulions
suilabIe lo a cerlain lye of governmenl can be lhe dovnfaII of lhal lye of governmenl if lhey
become loo exlreme. }usl as a nose |on a slaluej can sliII be aeaIing lo Iook al if il diverges
from lhe slraighlness lhal is beaulifuI bul can become nol even a nose if an arlisl ushes il loo
far in lhe direclion of lhe exlremes, so, loo, a syslem of governmenl such as democracy lhal
diverges from lhe besl syslem can sliII be adequale if il is nol ushed lo an exlreme.
1287b: 39-41: There is no such lhing as a erson being naluraIIy hued for any of lhe diverging
syslems of governmenls, for lhey have come inlo being conlrary lo nalure (pnqsis).
(Scciicn 8 cj 13)
Passagcs. Ocning Ocnccracq
1294a: 11: Ireedom is lhe dehning rinciIe of democracy.
1317a: 40-1317b13: The underIying rinciIe of democracy is freedom, and il is cuslomary lo
say lhal onIy in democracies do men have a share in freedom, for lhal is vhal every
democracy makes ils aim. There are lvo main asecls of freedom: 1) being ruIed and ruIing in
lurn, since everyone is equaI according lo number, nol meril, and 2) lo be abIe lo Iive as one
Ieases.
1280a: 7-11: }uslice as underslood in democracy is equaIily, bul lhis considers onIy arl of
vhal is |usl, lhe same is lrue of lhe nolion of |uslice in oIigarchy.
1330b: 19-20: A IeveI Iocalion is suilabIe for a democralic cily-slale, an acrooIis for an
oIigarchy or a monarchy.
1321a: 5-14: A muIlilude (p|cincs) has four divisions: farmers, craflsmen, merchanls, and
Iaborers. There are four |divisions of lhe ouIalionj usefuI for lhe miIilary: lhose vho ovn
horses |cavaIrymenj, heavy-armed infanlry |hoIilesj, Iighl-armed infanlry, and lhose vho
rov varshis in lhe navy. Lighl-armed infanlry and rovers are vhoIIy democralic |seclions
of lhe cilizen bodyj.
1278b: 8-12: The syslem of governmenl of a cily-slale is lhe arrangemenl of ils various
inslilulions, eseciaIIy lhose having aulhorily. In a democracy, lhe eoIe (!cncs) have
aulhorily.
1281a: 40-1281b6: Thal lhe muIlilude (p|cincs) shouId have aulhorily ralher lhan lhose vho are
besl and fev in number |is a defensibIe osilionj. Iven lhough none of lhe many is
individuaIIy a man of exceIIence, neverlheIess lhey can be beuer vhen lhey are aII logelher,
|usl as a dinner lo vhich many eoIe conlribule can be beuer lhan one furnished from a
singIe source. Wilh each of lhe many having a arl of exceIIence and inleIIigence, vhen lhey
|oin logelher lhey become Iike a singIe erson.
1286a: 28-37: Any one man |of lhe manyj may be inferior |lo a man of exceIIencej, bul lhe cily-
slale is made u of many men. }usl as a meaI done by many is beuer lhan a singIe and simIe
one, for lhis reason a mass (ochIos) can |udge many lhings beuer lhan any one man. In
addilion, lhal vhich is many is Iess IikeIy lo be corruled. So, aIlhough an individuaI's
|udgmenl can be corruled vhen he is overcome by anger or some olher emolion, il is
dicuIl for aII lo become angry and make erroneous |udgmenls simuIlaneousIy. If aII lhe men
are good men and good cilizens, lhey are Iess corrulibIe lhan one man. ul lhe muIlilude
musl be free men and do nolhing conlrary lo Iav, excel in cases vhere lhe Iav necessariIy
faIIs shorl.
1281b: 23-36: Whal aulhorily shouId beIong lo lhe muIlilude (p|cincs) of free cilizens, vho are
nol rich and have nol a singIe cIaim lo exceIIence` They shouId nol have a share in lhe highesl
oces because lheir in|uslice and imrudence vouId make lhis unsafe. Slales are unslabIe,
hovever, lhal are hIIed vilh lhose vho have no share of oIilicaI over and are oor.
Therefore, il is Iefl for lhem lo share in lhe deIiberalive and |udiciaI funclions of governmenl
|nameIy, lhe assembIy and lhe courlsj. Ior vhen lhey have aII come logelher, lheir ercelion
|of oIilicaI issuesj is sucienl, and vhen lhey are mixed vilh lhe beuer cilizens, lhey
benehl cily-slales.
1282a: 25-32: In some syslems of governmenl, aulhorily is given lo lhe eoIe (!cncs) over
greal mauers, such as overseeing lhe audils of lhe conducl and accounls of magislrales and
choosing lhem, for lhis over is given lo lhe assembIy. Thus, cilizens of vhalever age and
required lo meel onIy a Iov hnanciaI requiremenl can arliciale in lhe assembIy and
deIiberale |on oIilicaI issuesj and serve in lhe courls, vhiIe lhose meeling a high hnanciaI
requiremenl serve as lreasurers and generaIs |lhe chief civic magislralesj and in lhe highesl
magislracies.
1279b: 18-19: Democracy is vhen lhose vho do nol ovn much roerly, bul are oor, have
aulhorily in lhe syslem of governmenl.
1279b: 20-1280a6: The dehnilions of democracy and oIigarchy according lo vhelher lhe many
or lhe fev have aulhorily in lhe syslem of governmenl aear robIemalic if one suoses
lhal il mighl haen lhal lhe ma|orily in a slale vere veaIlhy or lhal lhe oor vouId be fev
in number bul sliII have aulhorily. In facl, il is onIy a conlingenl faclor vhelher lhe fev or lhe
many have aulhorily in a slale. The reaI dierence belveen democracy and oIigarchy is
belveen overly and veaIlh. Wherever lhe ruIers, vhelher lhey be a minorily or a ma|orily,
ove lheir over lo veaIlh, lhal is an oIigarchy. Wherever lhe oor ruIe, lhal is a democracy.
UsuaIIy, vhere lhe ruIers hoId over by veaIlh, lhey are fev, bul vhere lhe oor ruIe, lhey
are many, because fev men are rich bul aII are free |if lhey are cilizens in a cily-slalej, and
veaIlh and freedom are lhe grounds on vhich lhe lvo grous Iay cIaim lo governmenl.
1290a: 30-1290b2: Democracy is nol necessariIy onIy vherever lhe muIlilude has aulhorily.
OIigarchy is nol necessariIy vherever a minorily has over over lhe syslem of governmenl. If
lhe ma|orily of a cily-slale vere veaIlhy and had aulhorily, nobody vouId caII il a
democracy, |usl as if a smaII grou of oor men had conlroI over a Iarger rich ouIalion,
nobody vouId caII il an oIigarchy. Ralher, democracy is vhen every free cilizen has aulhorily
and oIigarchy is vhen lhe rich have il.
1290b: 17-20: Democracy is vhen lhere is a ma|orily of free, oor men vho have aulhorily lo
ruIe, vhiIe oIigarchy is vhen il is in lhe hands of lhe veaIlhy and veII-born, vho are a
minorily.
1328b: 32-33: In democracies, everyone has a share in everylhing.
1297b: 37-1298a33: There are lhree arls lo aII syslems of governmenl for vhich a good Iav
maker musl lry lo hnd lhe besl arrangemenl: deIiberaling aboul mauers common lo aII,
magislracies, and lhe |udiciaI syslem. Il is democracy vhen aII lhe cilizens can deIiberale
aboul everylhing, for lhe eoIe seek lhis kind of equaIily. There are dierenl vays of doing
lhis. One vay is by laking lurns ralher lhan aII logelher. Anolher is lo have aII cilizens meel
logelher bul onIy for lhe eIeclion of magislrales, Iav making, decIaralions of var and eace,
and audils of magislrales, bul lo have aII olher mauers decided by magislrales chosen from
lhe enlire cilizen body eilher by eIeclion or by Iol. Anolher is |usl Iike lhis, excel lhe
magislrales are chosen lo lhe exlenl ossibIe by eIeclion from lhose vho are knovIedgeabIe.
A fourlh vay is vhen aII cilizens meel lo deIiberale on aII mauers, vhiIe lhe magislrales
render onIy reIiminary decisions, nol hnaI ones. The so-caIIed hnaI lye of democracy |on
vhich see under Tyes of Democracyj, lhe lye of democracy lhal is anaIogous lo dynaslic
oIigarchy and lyrannicaI monarchy and exisls nov |in ArislolIe's limej, is arranged in lhis
fourlh vay.
1317b: 17-41: The foIIoving arrangemenls are usuaIIy considered consislenl vilh democracy:
1. IIeclion lo aII oces from among aII lhe cilizens.
2. RuIe of aII over each and of each over aII in lurn hIIing magislrales by Iol, or al Ieasl
lhose nol requiring knovIedge and lechnicaI skiII nol having a hnanciaI requiremenl for
hoIding magislracies, or al Ieasl lhe smaIIesl ossibIe requiremenl.
3. The same erson nol reealing lhe same magislracy, or onIy rareIy, excel for miIilary
oces.
4. Having lhe lerms of magislracies be shorl, vherever ossibIe.
5. Choosing |urors from aII cilizens lo ad|udicale aII mauers, or mosl mauers, eseciaIIy lhe
mosl imorlanl ones.
6. The assembIy having aulhorily over aII mauers or lhe mosl imorlanl mauers, vhiIe
magislrales have aulhorily over none, or as fev as ossibIe.
7. Iroviding ay for aII service in governmenl, or for aII funclions lhal exercise aulhorily.
8. Making no dislinclions according lo a cilizen's birlh, overly, or occualion no ubIic
oces heId for Iife.
1294b: 3-4: Democracy aIIovs men lo arliciale in lhe assembIy vilh eilher no roerly
quaIihcalion or a smaII one.
1297a: 35-38: To romole democracy, one can use lhese IegisIalive devices: roviding
aymenl for lhe oor for auending lhe assembIy and for |ury service and nol Ievying hnes on
lhe rich for nol arlicialing.
P|ci cn a Map
Sarla.
P|ci cn a Map
Sarla (in lexl as Sarlan).
P|ci cn a Map
Sarla.
P|ci cn a Map
Sarla (in lexl as Sarlan).
1301a: 11-12: The democralic vay lo arrange a |udiciaI syslem is lo have aII |uries dravn from
aII lhe cilizens and hear aII cases.
1294a: 39-40: In a democracy lhe oor receive ay for serving on |uries and lhe rich are nol
enaIized for faiIing lo serve.
1323a: 6-9: Having a counciI oversee lhe eIeclion lo magislracies lhal carry aulhorily is
democralic.
1300a: 31-34: Il is democralic for aII cilizens lo seIecl magislrales from aII cilizens by eIeclion
or by Iol or by bolh melhods.
1299b: 24-27: In a democracy, magislracies are hIIed from lhe ranks of lhe free, vhiIe in an
oIigarchy from lhe rich and in an arislocracy from lhe educaled.
1294b: 7-10: Democracy hIIs magislracies by Iol and does nol require men lo ossess a
minimum amounl of veaIlh lo be eIigibIe lo serve.
1273b: 12-13: Il is more democralicindeed more oIily-Iikelo have a Iarger number of
eoIe hoId ubIic oce and nol lo have one erson hoId muIliIe magislracies
simuIlaneousIy, if lhe cily-slale is nol smaII.
1287a: 4-5: There can be an oce of generaI (siraicgia) vilhoul Iimil of lime in aII syslems of
governmenl, even in a democracy.
1300a: 6-7: Il is nol democralic, bul arislocralic, lo have a magislrale lo oversee chiIdren, or
one lo oversee vomen, or any olher one lo exercise lhis sorl of oversighl. Ior il is nol ossibIe
|as raclicaI mauerj lo revenl lhe vives of oor men from going oul of lheir homes |because
lhey have lo vork oulside lhe home lo earn money lo heI suorl lheir famiIiesj.
1294b: 19-39: Many lry lo laIk aboul Sarla as a democracy because
il has many democralic eIemenls in lhe arrangemenl |of ils syslem
of governmenlj. Ior examIe, lhe chiIdren of rich and oor are raised and educaled in lhe
same vay. So, loo, aduIls eal and dress lhe same vay, vhelher rich or oor. As for lheir lo
lvo oces, one is eIecled by lhe eoIe |lhal is, ordinary cilizensj, and lhe eoIe can be
eIecled lo lhe olher. Olhers caII Sarla an oIigarchy because il has oIigarchic eIemenls aIso.
1271a: 32-37: The Sarlan common messes vere inlended lo be a
democralic inslilulion, bul lhey did nol vork oul lhal vay.
Iveryone is required lo conlribule |lo lhe shared meaIsj, bul some of lhem are loo oor lo do
so. The very ooresl cannol easiIy share in lhe common messes, yel lhis is lhe anceslraI
dehning rinciaI of lheir syslem of governmenl. Thus lhe very oor do nol have a share in il.
1265b: 35-1266a2: Some see democralic eIemenls in lhe syslem of
governmenl al Sarla. Some of lhese lhink lhe board of overseers
(cpncrs) is democralic because il is dravn from aII lhe cilizens. Olhers, hovever, caII lhe board
lyrannicaI and lhink lhe syslem of governmenl is run democralicaIIy lhrough lhe common
messes and lhe resl of lhe everyday vay of Iife al Sarla.
1270b: 13-17: Since lhe Sarlan board of overseers is loo overfuI,
lhe kings musl aueml lo vin lheir suorl. This has done
| back lo lo j
addilionaI in|ury lo lhe syslem of governmenl, vhich has changed from arislocracy lo
democracy.
1284a: 3-37: A man vho is cIearIy suerior in exceIIence lo aII lhe resl of lhe cily-slale vouId
be Iike a god among men. Democralic slales insliluled oslracism lo banish such men for a
hxed amounl of lime lo revenl lhem from laking over lhe cily-slale because lhey vere
reeminenl in lheir veaIlh, lheir Iarge number of suorlers, or some olher source of oIilicaI
slrenglh.
(Scciicn 9 cj 13)
Passagcs. Tqpcs cj Ocnccracq
1289a: 8-10: MuIliIe lyes of democracy haen lo exisl, desile some eoIe saying lhere is
onIy one lye. |The same remark occurs al 1289a: 22-25, 1291b: 15-16, and 1316b: 36.j
1317a: 22-33: There are lvo reasons vhy lhere are severaI dierenl lyes of democracy: lheir
ma|orilies or eoIes are of dierenl kinds (for examIe, farmers as oosed lo craflsmen
or Iaborers), and lhey can have dierenl combinalions of lhe inslilulions lhal make lhem
democralic.
1289a: 22-23: The same Iavs cannol be advanlageous for every lye of democracy.
1291b: 30-1292a13: |This assage aears lo Iisl hve lyes of democracy, bul lhe nexl lvo
assages Iisl onIy four.j
The hrsl lye of democracy is arlicuIarIy based on equaIily,
vhere neilher lhe rich nor lhe oor has re-eminenl aulhorily, bul bolh are simiIar |in
lheir aulhorilyj. SliII, since lhe ma|orily ruIes and lhe eoIe viII be in lhe ma|orily,
lhis is a democracy.
Anolher lye is vhen cilizens have lo meel a hnanciaI assessmenl lo quaIify for service
in ubIic oces, bul lhe amounl is Iov and any cilizen ossessing lhe required amounl
can have a share.
Anolher lye is vhen anyone vhose cilizenshi is nol oen lo disule |because lhey are
descended from a famiIy of cilizens vhose cilizenshi has never been queslioned`j can
have a share, and lhe Iav ruIes.
Anolher lye is vhen absoIuleIy everyone, so Iong as lhey are cilizens |and even if lhey
became cilizens in a seciaI vay, such as being made cilizens in oIilicaI revoIulion, and
did nol inheril lheir cilizenshij, can have a share in ubIic oces, and Iav ruIes.
Anolher lye is lhe same in lhe olher vays |as in lye no. 4`j bul lhe muIlilude ruIes, nol
Iav. This haens vhen decrees |assed by lhe muIliludej have aulhorily ralher lhan
lhe Iav having aulhorily. Here demagogues arise, and lhe muIlilude becomes a
monarch.
1292b: 22-1293a12: |There are onIy four lyes of democracy Iisled in lhis assage.j
One lye of democracy is vhen farmers and lhose ossessing
a moderale amounl of roerly have aulhorily. They govern lhemseIves in accordance
vilh Iav because lheir vork Ieaves lhem IiuIe Ieisure lime. They lherefore meel in lhe
P|ci cn a Map
Ahylis (in lexl as
Ahyleans).
assembIy onIy as absoIuleIy necessary |lo make decisions on mauers nol covered by lhe
code of Iavj. A share |in lhe syslem of governmenlj is oen lo anyone as soon as lhey
meel lhe hnanciaI assessmenl sel by Iav. They cannol be al Ieisure |for ubIic service in
governingj unIess lhere is ubIic revenue |lo subsidize lheir arlicialionj.
A second lye is vhen anyone vhose cilizenshi is beyond queslion by his descenl is
enlilIed lo have a share bul onIy lhose vilh Ieisure |for ubIic service in governingj
acluaIIy have a share. The Iavs ruIe because lhere is no ubIic revenue.
A lhird lye is vhen aII vho are free are enlilIed lo a share in lhe syslem of governmenl,
bul lhey do nol in facl lake arl for lhe reason reviousIy slaled. Therefore, Iav
necessariIy ruIes.
A fourlh lye is lhe Iasl lye lo arise in cilies. Since cilies have become far Iarger lhan
before and have ubIic revenue from vhich lo ay subsidies for ubIic service, everyone
is nov abIe lo arliciale. Iven lhe oor have lhe Ieisure for ubIic service lhanks lo lhe
aymenls. Their rivale business and aairs are nol an imedimenl for lheir ubIic
service, bul such lhings are an imedimenl for lhe rich, vho lherefore frequenlIy avoid
service in lhe assembIy or lhe courls. In lhis vay lhe muIlilude of lhe oor vins
aulhorily over lhe syslem of governmenl, nol lhe Iavs.
1296b: 24-31: Where lhe quanlily of lhe muIlilude of lhe oor is so Iarge as lo overbaIance lhe
quaIily of lhe rich, according lo lhe formuIa |usl exIained |in lhe lexl receding lhis assagej,
lhere democracy srings u naluraIIy. Whal lye of democracy il is viII deend on vhal lye
of ouIalion is reeminenl. Ior examIe, if il is a muIlilude of farmers, lhen il viII be lhe
hrsl lye of democracy il is lhe hrsl kind. If il is a muIlilude of craflsmen and vage-earners,
lhen il viII be lhe hnaI lye, and so on vilh lhe lyes in belveen.
1318b: 6-1319a3: There being four lyes of democracy, lhe besl is lhe hrsl in lhe arrangemenl
reviousIy menlioned |nameIy, in 1292b22-1293-1293a12, as Iisled abovej. This lye of
democracy has a muIlilude lhal is moslIy farmers or herders, vhose vork kees lhem loo
busy lo meel frequenlIy in lhe assembIy. They do nol vish lo serve in oces, vhere lhere is
no greal rohl in il. Iveryone viII eIecl magislrales and conducl audils of lhem and serve in
lhe courls, bul lhose eIecled lo oce viII meel hnanciaI assessmenls or, if lhere is no such
requiremenl, viII be caabIe eoIe.
1319a: 4-19: This is lhe besl democracy because of vhal sorl of
eoIe (!cncs) il has. If one vouId Iike lo inslilule a farming !cncs,
one shouId Iook lo lhe Iav of lhe Ahyleans, vho divide lheir IiuIe
amounl of Iand inlo very smaII Iols so lhal everyone, even lhe oor, has enough Iand lo meel
lhe hnanciaI requiremenl for sharing in cilizenshi.
1319a: 20-38: Nexl besl lo having a muIlilude consisling of farmers is lo have a herding
eoIe. The herding cIass have slrong bodies and disosilions hl for miIilary service. The
olher sorls of muIliludes from vhich democracies are consliluled are far vorse. Ior
craflsmen, merchanls, and Iaborers Iead Iives devoid of exceIIence, and lhey are aIvays in lhe
markelIace and in lhe cily and lhus abIe lo auend assembIies. Il is easier lo creale a good
democracy in a Iace vhere lhe heIds of lhe cily-slale are Iocaled al some dislance from lhe
cily and lhe muIlilude musl dveII oul in lhe counlry |lo vork in lhe heIds and are lhus nol
easiIy abIe lo come lo lhe urban cenler lo auend meelingsj. Iven vhere lhere is a crovd of
merchanls, assembIies shouId nol be heId vilhoul lhe muIlilude from lhe counlry.
P|ci cn a Map
Alhens.
P|ci cn a Map
Leucas.
| back lo lo j
1319b: 1-32: The hnaI lye of democracy, in vhich everyone is in
lhe arlnershi, is nol easy for every cily lo mainlain, nor is il easy
for lhis lye lo endure because ils Iavs and ils habils are nol veII comosed. Demagogues
exand ils cilizen body by aIIoving in lhose of iIIegilimale birlh or born lo onIy one cilizen
arenl. If lhe rabbIe grov loo numerous, lhey creale disorder and can rovoke lhe nolabIe
members of lhe ouIalion lo resislance againsl lhe democracy. This lye of democracy is
made slronger by inlroducing inslilulions lo mix everyone u logelher, as CIeislhenes did al
Alhens. This lye of democracy romoles disorderIy Iiving, vilh a Iack of conlroI over
vomen, chiIdren, and sIaves, and a loIeralion for everyone Iiving as he Ieases, for lhe many
refer Iiving Iike lhis lo Iiving vilh rudence and moderalion.
1298b: 13-19: The democracy loday considered lhe mosl democralicnameIy, lhe lye in
vhich lhe eoIe (!cncs) has aulhorily even over lhe Iavsarranges lhings lo serve ils ovn
advanlage in lhe deIiberalive body: lhey ay lhe oor lo auend.
1305a: 28-32: A change from anceslraI democracy lo lhe nevesl democracy can occur. If lhe
eoIe eIecl lhe magislrales and lhere is no minimum hnanciaI requiremenl, lhen lhose eager
for oce acl as demagogues lo accomIish lhis and give lhe eoIe aulhorily over lhe Iavs.
1266b: 21-24: The syslem of governmenl al Leucas became
excessiveIy democralic vhen oces vere no Ionger hIIed according lo lhe eslabIished
minimum roerly requiremenl based on oId aIIolmenls of Iand |bul inslead lhe
requiremenl vas Ioveredj.
1312b: 4-6: The hnaI lye of democracy is a lyranny.
1313b: 32-41 The hnaI form of democracy has characlerislics of lyranny: vomen dominale in
lhe househoId so lhal lhey can denounce lheir husbands, sIaves Iack disciIine, and auerers
demagoguesare heId in honor. The eoIe vish lo be a monarch.
1295b: 39-1296a5: Il is besl for cilizens in a cily-slale lo ossess a moderale amounl of veaIlh
because vhere some have a Iol and some have none lhe resuIl is lhe uIlimale democracy or
unmixed oIigarchy. Tyranny can resuIl from bolh lhese exlremes. Il is much Iess IikeIy lo
sring from moderale syslems of governmenl.
1311a: 15-16: Taking afler democracy, lyranny makes var on lhe nolabIes in lhe cilizen body.
1276a: 12-14: Some democracies, Iike lyrannies, resl on force and are nol direcled lovard lhe
common advanlage.
1277b: 1-3: In some Iaces in lhe oId days, before lhe deveIomenl of uIlimale democracy,
craflsmen vere barred from oce.
1312b: 35-38: UIlimale democracy, Iike unmixed and hnaI oIigarchy, is reaIIy a lyranny
divided |among a muIlilude of ersonsj.
(Scciicn 10 cj 13)
Passagcs. Crcaiing Ocnccracq
1286b: 11-22: When lhere came lo be many men aIike in lheir exceIIence, lhey ceased lo ul u
P|ci cn a Map
Islros.
P|ci cn a Map
Tarenlum.
Argos.
Alhens.
P|ci cn a Map
Alhens.
Iersia.
P|ci cn a Map
Iersia.
SaIamis.
Alhens.
Syracuse.
ChaIcis.
Ambracia.
| back lo lo j
vilh kingshi and inslead, seeking somelhing shared, eslabIished a oIily. As lhey became
|moraIIyj vorse and began lo make a rohl from common aairs |or resourcesj, oIigarchies
arose, for lhey made veaIlh somelhing honorabIe. Then lhese oIigarchies changed hrsl inlo
lyrannies, and from lyrannies inlo democracies. Ior by aIvays bringing over lo ever fever
eoIe in search of base rohl, lhey made lhe muIlilude slronger, vhich auacked |lhe
ruIer(s)j, and democracies arose. Nov lhal cily-slales have become even Iarger lhan before, il
is nol very easy for any syslem of governmenl bul a democracy lo come inlo exislence.
1301a: 28-31: |RuIe by lhej eoIe deveIoed because lhose vho are equaI in vhalever vay
suose lhal lhey are quile simIy equaI |in aII vaysj. Since lhey are aII free in Iike manner,
lhey lhink lhey are quile simIy equaI.
1292b: 11-14: Il haens lhal a syslem of governmenl may nol be democralic in lerms of ils
Iavs bul is sliII governed democralicaIIy on accounl of lhe habil and ubringing of lhe
cilizens.
1296a: 22-36: When lhere is faclionaI slrife belveen rich and oor because lhere is nol a slrong
middIe |in lhe cilizen bodyj, lhe conicl Ieads lo eilher democracy or oIigarchy, deending
on vho vins. Once lhe hghl is decided, lhe viclors do nol eslabIish a shared or equaI syslem
of governmenl, ralher, lhey eslabIish one lo lheir ovn advanlage.
1305a: 37-1305b11: Mislrealing lhe eoIe can Iead lo lhe overlhrov
of oIigarchy and lhe eslabIishmenl of |lhe ruIe ofj lhe eoIe, as al
Islros.
1303a: 1-10: A syslem of governmenl can be changed inlo a
democracy vhen lhe size of lhe muIlilude of lhe oor increases, as
occurred al Tarenlum, Argos, and Alhens.
1273b: 35-1274a15: Some eoIe say lhal SoIon did avay vilh an
excessiveIy unmixed oIigarchy |al Alhensj and ended lhe
ensIavemenl of lhe eoIe (!cncs), lhus founding lhe anceslraI
democracy, vhich had a mixlure of oIigarchic, arislocralic, and democralic eIemenls. In facl,
vhal he did vas lo creale |lhe ruIe of lhej eoIe by founding courls vhose |uries vere
dravn from lhe enlire cilizen body. Laler Ieaders conlinued |lo increase lhe over of lhe
eoIej, Ieading lo lhe resenl |more democralicj democracy. Il reaIIy vas nol SoIon's
inlenlion for lhis lo haen. ul because lhe eoIe vere lhe source of Alhenian navaI
slrenglh in lhe vars againsl Iersia, lhey began lo have high asiralions |for oIilicaI overj
and lo choose unvorlhy demagogues as Ieaders vhen sociaIIy more reseclabIe cilizens
oosed lhis deveIomenl.
1304a: 17-34: Changes lovards democracy (or anolher lye of
governmenl) can come aboul vhen a magislracy or some arl of
lhe cily-slale grovs in over. This Ied lo grealer democracy al
Alhens afler lhe var vilh Iersia, vhen lhose vho roved in lhe eel
became lhe cause of lhe viclory al SaIamis and of lhe Ieadershi
|over ils Greek aIIiesj lhal Alhens earned from ils navaI slrenglh.
So, loo, al Syracuse, ChaIcis, and Ambracia lhe eoIe sel u democracies afler lheir
arlicialion in bauIe vas lhe cruciaI eIemenl enabIing lheir cily-slale lo be viclorious in var.
(Scciicn 11 cj 13)
Passagcs. Prcscrting Ocnccracq
1276b: 28-29: The lask of cilizens is lhe reservalion (scicria) of lhe arlnershi lhal is lheir
syslem of governmenl. |AIso under Dehning lhe Cilizenj
1309b: 35-37: The Iavmaker and lhe oIilicaI man musl knov vhal kind of democralic
inslilulions reserve and vhal kinds deslroy democracy.
1308a: 11-16: The equaIily lhal suorlers of democracy seek is |usl and advanlageous for
eoIe vho are aIike. Where lhere are many eoIe in governmenl, IegaI ruIes of a democralic
casl are advanlageous, such as Iimiling lerm in oce lo six monlhs so lhal everyone vho is
aIike can have a share in hIIing ubIic osls.
1321a: 1-2: Democracies are generaIIy reserved by having a Iarge cilizen body.
1326b: 2-7: A cily-slale musl be ouIous enough lo be seIf-sucienl, bul loo Iarge a slale
cannol be a cily-slale because il is nol easy lo have a syslem of governmenl in il. Il is loo Iarge
lo be eecliveIy managed miIilariIy, and no heraId can shoul Ioud enough |lo conducl lhe
assembIy meelings of a Iarge ouIalionj.
1296a: 13-16: Democracies are more secure lhan oIigarchies and more enduring since lhey
have more middIe eoIe vilh a grealer share in |oIilicaIj rerogalives.
1309b: 37-1310a6: To endure, a democracy, Iike an oIigarchy, needs bolh lhe rich and lhe oor.
A democracy lhal deslroys lhe veII-o becomes unslabIe. Where lhe eoIe have aulhorily
over lhe Iavs, demagogues lear lhe cily in lvo by hghling vilh lhe rich. Inslead, lhey shouId
do lhe oosile and aear lo seak on lhe behaIf of lhe rich.
1309a: 1-9: Il is democralic for aII lo be eIigibIe lo hoId ubIic oce. The oIicy of nol aIIoving
oce hoIders lo rohl from lheir oce viII mean lhal lhe oor viII nol desire lo hoId oce,
bul ralher lhey viII refer lo lend lo lheir ovn aairs. Thus, lhey viII become more
roserous by vorking, vhiIe lhe nolabIe and veaIlhy members of lhe cilizen body viII hoId
oce because lhey have no need lo earn money from ubIic service. In lhis vay lhe nolabIes
viII nol be governed by |usl anyone. olh grous viII lhen have vhal lhey vanl |and
lherefore lhe slale viII be slabIej.
1299b: 32-34: A counciI (|cu|c) vilh a Iarge number of members is suorlive of democracy
because il does reIiminary deIiberalion for lhe eoIe so lhal lhey can have lime for lheir
occualions.
1309a: 27-31: In democracy, as in oIigarchy, il is advanlageous lo give equaIily or recedence
in aII asecls of lhe governmenl excel lhe highesl oces lo lhal grou vhich has lhe Ieasl
share in lhe syslem of governmenl. In a democracy, lhal grou vouId be lhe rich.
1319b: 33-1320b17: To reserve a democracy, one shouId slrive nol for measures lhal viII
make il absoIuleIy as democralic as ossibIe bul ralher lhal viII reserve il for lhe Iongesl
lime. The foIIoving measures are recommended: any conhscalions of roerly imosed as
unishmenl in a IegaI |udgmenl shouId become roerly of lhe gods, nol of lhe ubIic, lo
revenl corrul courl |udgmenls meanl lo secure a dislribulion lo lhe ouIalion from lhe
conhscaled roerly, Iarge enaIlies shouId be imosed for frivoIous roseculions lo revenl
P|ci cn a Map
Sarla (in lexl as Sarlans).
harassmenl of lhe rich, if lhere are no |addilionaIj sources of ubIic revenues besides laxes |on
individuaIsj, conhscalions, and corrul courl |udgmenls lo ay subsidies lo lhe muIlilude for
auending lhe assembIy, lhen onIy infrequenl assembIy meelings and brief courl sessions
shouId be heId |lo minimize lhe need lo lake money from lhe rich lo ay lhe subsidiesj, if
lhere are |addilionaIj ubIic revenues, no surIus from lhem shouId be dislribuled lo lhe
oor, for lhis raclice slimuIales more demand for lhis sorl of dislribulion, al lhe same lime,
lhe muIlilude shouId be kel from becoming overIy oor, since lhis deveIomenl creales
vrelched |and lhus excessj democracy, money shouId be rovided from ubIic revenues lo
lhe oor so lhal lhey can acquire Iand for farming or Iearn a crafl and become beuer o over
lime, lhe rich shouId be laxed lo rovide ay |lo ordinary cilizens lo enabIe lhem lo auendj
necessary meelings, bul lhe rich shouId be reIeased from unnecessary ubIic service, lhe rich
shouId divide lhe oor cilizens among lhemseIves and lhen give lhem enough money |for
necessary looIs, elc.j so lhal lhey can slarl lo vork, magislracies shouId be chosen some by
eIeclion and some by Iol.
1309a: 14-20: In democracies, lhe rich shouId be sared and nol have lheir roerly or lheir
incomes redivided |for dislribulion lo lhe oorj. They shouId aIso be rohibiled from
sending money on exensive bul useIess sonsorshis of ubIic occasions (|iiurgics) such as
Ieading choraI grous for musicaI and dramalic feslivaIs or ocialing al lorch races, even if
lhey vanl lo ay for such sonsorshis.
1308b: 10-19: In aII syslems of governmenl no one is aIIoved lo become overIy greal |so as lo
lhrealen lhe slabiIily of lhe slalej. Acquiring greal rerogalives quickIy lends lo corrul
eoIe, for nol everyone can sland good forlune. Above aII, lhe Iavs shouId revenl anyone
from becoming eseciaIIy reeminenl in lhe over derived from his suorlers or his veaIlh,
if lhe Iavs cannol revenl lhis, lhen such ersons shouId be senl lo send lime abroad.
1308b: 31-33: Il is of lhe grealesl imorlance in aII syslems of governmenl lo have Iavs and lhe
resl of governmenlaI adminislralion so arranged lhal magislrales cannol rohl hnanciaIIy
from lheir oces.
1310a: 12-36: The grealesl lhing of everylhing lhal has been menlioned for reserving a
syslem of governmenl, aIlhough lhis is lhe lhing everyone sIighls, is roviding educalion in
accordance vilh lhe syslem of governmenl. Ior even lhe mosl benehciaI and videIy aroved
Iavs bring no benehl if lhey are nol going lo be incuIcaled lhrough educalion and lhe habils
of lhe cilizens. Iducalion aroriale for a democralic syslem of governmenl is nol lo be
guided by vhal brings en|oymenl lo lhe arlisans of democracy bul ralher by vhal makes il
ossibIe lo run a syslem of governmenl democralicaIIy. In lhe democracies lhal seem lo be lhe
mosl democralic, lhey do vhal is nol advanlageous because lhey dehne freedom badIy. Ior
democracy is lhoughl lo be dehned by lvo lhings: by lhe ma|orily having aulhorily and by
freedom. }uslice is lhen lhoughl of as equaIily, and equaIily as lhal vhalever lhe muIlilude
decides is vhal is aulhorilalive. Ireedom and equaIily are doing vhalever one vishes. So in
lhis sorl of democracy everybody Iives as he vanls and for vhalever goaI he craves. This is a
conlemlibIe lhing. Living according lo one's syslem of governmenl shouId nol be lhoughl of
as sIavery, bul ralher as reservalion.
1337a: 11-1337b3: Iveryone vouId agree lhal Iav makers shouId
make lhe educalion of lhe young a seciaI riorily. Cily-slales lhal
faiI lo do lhis in|ure lheir syslems of governmenl. The educalion musl suil lhe syslem of
governmenl, for lhis reserves il. Since a cily-slale has a singIe goaI (ic|cs), educalion musl, of
| back lo lo j
P|ci cn a Map
Cos.
Rhodes.
HeracIeia.
Megara.
Cyme.
necessily, be lhe same and be given lo everyone. Ils oversighl shouId be a ubIic mauer, nol
as il is nov, vilh everyone overseeing his ovn chiIdren's educalion rivaleIy and having
lhem laughl vhal he beIieves besl. Training for lhings lhal are shared shouId be a shared
aclivily done in common. The Sarlans mighl veII deserve raise on lhis score, since lhey,
more lhan anyone, devole eorl lo lheir chiIdren, and as a shared lask.
1260b: 15-20: Il is necessary lo educale vomen and chiIdren vilh an eye lo lhe syslem of
governmenl, if lhe slale is lo be vorlhy. Ior vomen make u haIf of lhe free ouIalion, and
from lhe chiIdren viII come lhe arlners in lhe syslem of governmenl.
1342b: 34: There are lhree dehning rinciIes for educalion: lhe middIe, lhe ossibIe, and lhe
aroriale.
1266b: 29-31: There is a grealer need lo IeveI eoIe's desires ralher lhan lheir roerly (by
IegisIalion redividing roerly hoIdings or Iimiling lhem), and lhis can be done onIy vhen
eoIe are sucienlIy educaled by lhe Iavs.
1313a: 41-1313b6: Iducalion, debale, and sociaI grous dedicaled lo inquiry and discussion
are enemies of lyranny, since lhey encourage inleIIigenl lhoughl and lrusl |among cilizensj.
1263b: 36-37: Since a cily-slale is a muIlilude, il is necessary lo use educalion lo make il inlo a
arlnershi and a unily.
(Scciicn 12 cj 13)
Passagcs. Ocsircqing Ocnccracq
1304b: 20-1305a7: The main cause of lhe overlhrov of democracies
is lhe oulrageous behavior of demagogues. y auacking |richj
roerly ovners lhey molivale lhem lo band logelher oul of fear,
and lhey aIso sur on lhe eoIe |lo lry lo bIeed lhe richj. In lhis
vay democracy has been overlhrovn al numerous Iaces: Cos, Rhodes, HeracIeia, Megara,
Cyme. This is more or Iess lhe vay democracies are deslroyed. To vin ouIar suorl,
demagogues roose un|usl lrealmenl for lhe nolabIes and lhus force lhem lo band logelher,
by making lhem give u lheir roerly for redivision, or by having lhem exend lheir
resources on ubIic service, or by sIandering lhem lo force conhscalions of lheir roerly.
1311a: 22-26: The same beginnings Iead lo lhe overlhrov of oIilies and monarchies aIike. Ior
lhose vho are ruIed auack monarchies on accounl of in|uslice, fear, and conleml.
1301b: 26-29: IaclionaI conicl (siasis) eruls everyvhere on accounl of inequaIily, or al Ieasl
il does if no roorlion exisls belveen lhose vho are unequaI. In generaI, eoIe engage in
faclionaI conicl seeking equaIily.
1303b: 6-7: In democracies, lhe nolabIes cause faclionaI conicl because lhey have |onIyj an
equaI share in lhings even lhough |in lheir ovn eyesj lhey are nol equaI |lo everybody eIse
bul feeI suerior and lherefore feeI lhey shouId ossess more oIilicaI over, elc. lhan lhose
vhom lhey see as lheir inferiorsj.
1302a: 31-34: IaclionaI conicl is lhe resuIl of hghling lo gain rohl and honor and lo avoid
lheir oosiles, dishonor and enaIlies.
P|ci cn a Map
Rhodes.
P|ci cn a Map
Thebes.
Megara.
Rhodes.
P|ci cn a Map
Alhens.
Iiraeus.
| back lo lo j
P|ci cn a Map
IslanbuI.
1302b: 21-24: Iear causes faclionaI conicl, bolh vhen men fear
unishmenl for in|uslice lhey have commiued and aIso vhen lhey
fear being lrealed un|uslIy. Al Rhodes, for examIe, lhe nolabIes rebeIIed againsl lhe eoIe
on accounl of IegaI roseculions lhal vere being broughl againsl lhem.
1302b: 27-33: IaclionaI conicl occurs in democracies vhen lhe rich
feeI conleml for lhe disorder and anarchy |of lhe governmenlj, as
al Thebes and Megara foIIoving defeals in bauIe and on Rhodes
receding lhe rebeIIion |of lhe nolabIesj.
1302b: 15-18: IaclionaI conicl can arise vhen lhere is a erson or a grou vhose over
exceeds lhal of lhe cily-slale or ils governmenl. The inslilulion of oslracism came inlo being lo
revenl lhis.
1308b: 20-22: Since men's rivale Iives can Iead lhem lo seek lhe overlhrov of lhe syslem of
governmenl, a magislracy is needed lo oversee lhose Iiving againsl lhe common advanlage of
lhe cily-slale, for examIe, in a democracy lhose Iiving Iives disadvanlageous for democracy.
1303b: 7-12: Cily-slales somelimes faII inlo faclions on accounl of
lheir loograhy. Al Alhens, for examIe, lhe cilizens ones Iiving in
lhe Iiraeus |lhe harbor dislriclj are more democralic lhan lhose in
lhe urban cenler.
1302a: 8-13: Democracy is more slabIe and Iess rone lo faclionaI conicl lhan oIigarchy. In an
oIigarchy lhere are lvo lyes of ossibIe conicl, nameIy, conicl belveen lhe oIigarchs
lhemseIves and conicl belveen lhe oIigarchs and lhe eoIe. In a democracy, hovever, lhere
is onIy conicl belveen cilizens favoring democracy and cilizens favoring oIigarchy, as no
serious faclionaI conicl arises in lhe eoIe |lhal is, lhose favoring democracyj againsl
lhemseIves.
(Scciicn 13 cj 13)
Sc|cciitc Bi||icgrapnq
Trans|aiicn an! Ccnncniarq
Arisici|c, Tnc Pc|iiics. TransIaled vilh an inlroduclion by Carnes Lord. (Chicago, 1984). An
admirabIe lransIalion, remarkabIy cIose lo lhe Greek bul sliII very readabIe.
W. L. Nevman, Tnc Pc|iiics cj Arisici|c, 4 voIs. (Oxford, 1887-1902). A massive crilicaI
commenlary lhal has never been equaIed. See eseciaIIy his discussion of ArislolIe and Greek
democracy in voI. 4, ages xxxvi-Ixi.
|nicrprciaiitc Siu!ics
Iierre Aubenque, Arislole el Ia democralie, in |n!iti!u ci sccicic.
Iinucncc !Arisicic !ans |c ncn!c nc!iicrranccn. Acics !u Cc||cquc
!|sian|u| Pa|ais !c |rancc, 5-9 janticr 1986. ed. Thierry Zarcone (IslanbuI, 1988 Varia Turcica
X), . 31-38.
}onalhan arnes, ArislolIe and IoIilicaI Liberly, in Arisicic|cs Pc|iiik. Akicn !cs X|.
Sqnpcsiun Arisicic|icun. |ric!ricnsnajcn/Bc!cnscc 25.8-3.9.1987, ed. G. IaLig (Guingen, 1990),
ages 249-263, vilh commenls by R. Sorab|i, ages 264-76.
Morlimer Chambers, ArislolIe's 'Iorms of Democracy,' Transaciicns cj inc Ancrican
Pni|c|cgica| Asscciaiicn voI. 92 (1961), ages 20-36.
Abraham IdeI, Arisici|c an! nis Pni|cscpnq (ChaeI HiII, 1982), ages 325-328.
Chrisloh Iucken, Der arisloleIische Demokraliebegri und sein hislorisches UmfeId, in
Arisicic|cs Pc|iiik. Akicn !cs X|. Sqnpcsiun Arisicic|icun. |ric!ricnsnajcn/Bc!cnscc 25.8-3.9.1987,
ed. G. IaLig (Guingen, 1990), ages 277-291, vilh commenls by T. H. Irvin, ages 292-95.
Roberl A. GoIdberg, Ocnccracq an! jusiicc in Arisici|cs Pc|iiics, Universily of Toronlo
disserlalion, 1990, summary in Oisscriaiicn A|siracis 51 (1990-91) 1369A.
Andrev Linlou, ArislolIe and Democracy, C|assica| Quaricr|q 42 (1992), ages 114-128.
CIaude Mosse, egaIile democralique el inegaIile sociaIes. Le Debal a Alhenes au IVeme
SiecIe, Mciis 2 (1987), ages 165-176, 195-206 (es. ages 201-206 on lhe Pc|iiics).
R. G. MuIgan, Arisici|cs Pc|iiica| Tnccrq. An |nirc!uciicn jcr Siu!cnis cj Pc|iiica| Tnccrq (Oxford,
1977), ages 73-75, and ArislolIe's anaIysis of democracy and oIigarchy, in A Ccnpanicn ic
Arisici|cs Pc|iiics, ed. David Keyl and Ired D, MiIIer, }r. (IackveII, Oxford, 1991), ages 307-
322.
Osvyn Murray, Pc|is and Pc|iicia in ArislolIe, in Tnc Ancicni Grcck Ciiq Siaic, ediled Mogens
Herman Hansen (Coenhagen, 1993), ages 197-210.
Marlha Nussbaum, ArisloleIian SociaI Democracy, in Ii|cra|isn an! inc Gcc!, ediled R.
ruce DougIas (Nev York, 1990), ages 203-252.
}osiah Ober, ArislolIe's IoIilicaI SocioIogy: CIass, Slalus, and Order in lhe IoIilics, in |ssaqs
cn inc |cun!aiicns cj Arisicic|ian Pc|iiica| Scicncc, ediled Carnes Lord and David K. O'Connor
(erkeIey and Los AngeIes, 1991), ages 112-135.
Demelris Iaadis, II conceuo di democrazia in ArisloleIe, Oisccrsi 9 (1989), ages 326-340.
C. I. Iaageorgiou, Iour or hve lyes of democracy in ArislolIe`, Hisicrq cj Pc|iiica| Tncugni
voI. 11 (1990), ages 1-8.
David Ross, Arisici|c, 5lh edilion (London, 1949), ages 250-263.
ArIene W. Saxenhouse, |car cj Oitcrsiiq. Tnc Birin cj Pc|iiica| Scicncc in Ancicni Grcck Tncugni
(Chicago, 1992), ages 189-232 (ArislolIe: Diversily and lhe irlh of IoIilicaI Science).
IauI SchoIImeier, The democracy mosl in accordance vilh equaIily, Hisicrq cj Pc|iiica|
Tncugni 9 (1988), ages 205-209.
arry S. Slrauss, On ArislolIe's Crilique of Alhenian Democracy, in |ssaqs cn inc |cun!aiicns
cj Arisicic|ian Pc|iiica| Scicncc, ed. Carnes Lord and David K. O'Connor (erkeIey and Los
AngeIes, 1991), ages 212-233.
| back lo lo j
}. TouIoumakos, Oic inccrciiscnc Bcgrun!ung !cr Ocnckraiic in !cr k|assiscncn Zcii Griccncn|an!s
(Oic !cnckraiiscnc Arguncniaiicn in !cr Pc|iiik !cs Arisicic|cs) (Alhens, 1985).
seclion viev + home
When using lhis arlicIe as a resource, cile il lhus:
Thomas R. Marlin, vilh NeeI Smilh & }ennifer I.Sluarl, Democracy in lhe IoIilics of ArislolIe , in C.W. IackveII, ed.,
Ocncs. C|assica| Aincnian Ocnccracq (A. Mahoney and R. Scaife, edd., Tnc Sica. a ccnscriiun jcr c|ccircnic pu||icaiicn in inc
nunaniiics |vvv.sloa.orgj) edilion of }uIy 26, 2003. Conlacl: cvbsloa.org.
}uIy 26, 2003, Thomas R. Marlin, vilh NeeI Smilh & }ennifer I.Sluarl. This vork is Iicensed under a Crealive Commons
License.
Dmos CIassicaI Alhenian Democracy a Sloa IubIicalion