(I) Word Classes and Phrases So far we have distinguished four major word classes: NOUN (N), VERB

(V), A !E"#$VE (Adj) and A VERB (Adv)% &e can use these word classes to define four of the five 'inds of (hrases which occur in English sentences: ()) N*+N ,-RASE (N,) A (hrase (a grou( of words) which has a N*+N as its head: a student; the charming student; that grotty little first year English student; that grotty little English (.) VERB ,-RASE (V,) student with green hair; a pint of Boddingtons A (hrase which has a VERB as its head: guzzle; has guzzled; has been guzzling; is;

might have been; yawned; had been yawning (/) A !E"#$VA0 A (hrase with an A !E"#$VE as its head: ,-RASE (Adj,) (1) A VERB$A0 despicable; absolutely despicable; as despicable as possible A (hrase with an A VERB as its head:

,-RASE (Adv,) quickly; too quickly; too quickly for comfort $n addition, we need one more (hrase t2(e: (3) ,-RASE (,,) A (hrase which consists of a (re(osition with a up the road; down his throat; round the grotty student's ear

,RE,*S$#$*NA0 Noun ,hrase joined to it:

(II) How we make sentences &e can join words from the major word classes together to ma'e ver2 sim(le sentences: )% !ohn 4 hit 4 5ar2 (N V N) .% 5ar2 4 hit 4 !ohn (N V N) $n fact, the words in these two sentences are reall2 one6word (hrases and so reall2 have the structure N, V, N,% &e can join other, longer, (hrases together to ma'e sentences which are a 7it more interesting: /% #he student 4 had 7een 2awning (N, V,) 1% #hat grott2 little English student with green hair 4 has gu88led 4 a (int of Boddingtons

(N, V, N,) 3% #hat grott2 little first 2ear English student 4 is 4 a (int of Boddingtons (N, V, N,) #he head word of a (hrase is its most im(ortant word% -owever, we can also see that the la7els we have (rovided so far give sentences ()) and (.) a7ove (John hit Mary and Mary hit John) the same descri(tion when the2 mean ver2 different things% $n ()), !ohn does the hitting and 5ar2 is hit, and in (.), 5ar2 does the hitting and !ohn is hit% Similar comments a((l2 to sentences (1) and (3)% So, we need an additional set of la7els to characterise how the (hrases join together to ma'e these sentences% Remem7er, 7oth 5ar2 and !ohn are N*+NS% But in John hit Mary, !ohn is the S+B!E"# (S) and 5ar2 is the *B!E"# (*), whereas in Mary hit John it is the other wa2 round% #o (arallel the distinction 7etween N*+N on the one hand and S+B!E"# and *B!E"# on the other, we also need a la7el to distinguish the VERB word class from its sentence element role% &e use the term ,RE $"A#*R for this (ur(ose%

(III) Types of predicator ,redicators are at the core of English sentences, and to understand how sentences wor' we have to recognise that there are 9*+R 'inds of ,redicator, which 2ou can see in the following sentences% #hese are #RANS$#$VE, $N#RANS$#$VE and LIN IN! (redicators% ()) Mary hit John hit is a #RANS$#$VE (redicator hit is a ver7 which re:uires an o7ject as well as a su7ject% $t usuall2 descri7es an action directed from one (artici(ant to another% Notice how deviant Mary hit seems% (.) he student yawned yawned is an $N#RANS$#$VE (redicator yawned also e;(resses an action, 7ut unli'e hit, it does not re:uire an o7ject after it% Notice how deviant he student yawned the apple seems% (/) hat student is utterly despicable hat student is a member of the Monster !aving "oony #arty $n 7oth of these cases is is a LIN IN! ver7 is lin's together the su7ject Noun ,hrase that student with another Noun ,hrase or an Adjective ,hrase which e;(resses some attri7ute or role of the su7ject%

(I") There are fi#e ma$or elements which can make %p a simple sentence& r S,*"A<< S = S+B!E"# A Noun ,hrase which refers to the entit2 which is the to(ic of the sentence (what the sentence is a7out), and if the (redicator of the sentence is a d2namic ver7, the su7ject is the >doer> of the action% +suall2 comes ,= ,RE $"A#*R * = *B!E"# first in the sentence, 7efore the ,redicator% A Ver7 ,hrase which e;(resses the action4(rocess or relationshi( in the sentence% A Noun ,hrase which refers to the entit2 which is the reci(ient of the action4(rocess% *nl2 occurs with transitive "= "*5,0E5EN# ,redicators% +suall2 comes after the ,redicator% A Noun ,hrase or Adjective ,hrase which normall2 comes after a lin'ing ,redicator and e;(resses some attri7ute or role of the S+B!E"#% Sometimes it e;(resses an attri7ute or role of the *B!E"#% A = A VERB$A0 Almost alwa2s comes after the ,redicator% An Adver7ial, ,re(ositional or Noun ,hrase which usuall2 s(ecifies some condition related to the ,redicator, e%g% when, where or how some action occurred% $t is 72 far the most mo7ile of the sentence elements, and can occur in man2 different (ositions in a sentence (the other four sentence elements are much more fi;ed)% $ts most normal (osition is at the end of the sentence, however% -ence the ordering S6,6*6"6A

(") What phrases will we find in each of the sentence elements' S * , " Noun ,hrase Noun ,hrase Ver7 ,hrase Adjective ,hrase or Noun ,hrase

Adver7 ,hrase or ,re(ositional ,hrase or Noun ,hrase

("I) What re the most common (con#entional) orderin(s of the sentence elements' S , 5ic' 4 laughed S , * 5ic' 4 ate 4 the student S , " 5ic' 4 is 4 cra82 S , A 5ic' 4 laughed 4 m2steriousl2 S , * A 5ic' 4 ate 4 some more students 4 on #hursda2 S , * " #he rest of the students 4 voted 5ic' 4 maniac of the 2ear S , * * #he students 4 gave 4 5ic' 4 his 7us fare to the as2lum Notice that unusual orderings are deviant and so (roduce foregrounding% "onsider, for e;am(le: (i) "ra82 5ic' is% (ii) 5ic' on #hursda2 some more students ate%

How to identify elements of simple sentences ?o through the following (rocedure ste( 72 ste(: )% 9ind the VERB &hat form@ (single Ver7 or V,) $s there onl2 one@ $s there more than one@ ,ic' out the V, which descri7es the action4(rocess4state of the S+B!E"# 0a7el this the ,RE $"A#*R (,) .% 9ind the S+B!E"# of the main ver7(s) (the (erson or thing doing the action of a Ad2namicA ver7): the #*,$" of the sentence% &hat form@ (single Noun or N,) 0a7el this the S+B!E"# (S) $5,*R#AN# N*#E: #he remaining elements will now 7e *, " or A% "-E"B BA"B #* #-E ,RE $"A#*R% $s it transitive, intransitive or lin'ing@ #he 'ind of (redicator governs what sentence elements can come ne;t% /% $9 #-E ,RE $"A#*R $S #RANS$#$VE (a) 9ind the *B!E"# of the main ver7(s) (the reci(ient of the action of the main ver7) &hat form@ (N or N,) Brac'et the word or (hrase and la7el it *B!E"# (*)

(7) $9 #-ERE SEE5 #* BE #&* *B!E"#S as in e%g% S , *i *d *ur landlad2 4 coo's 4 us 4 strange dishes% S , *i *d #he student 4 sent 4 5ic' 4 (oison (en letters% *ne is the direct *7ject (*d) and one is the indirect *7ject (*i) Cou can test for an $N $RE"# *7ject: "an 2ou (ut to or for in front of it@ (e%g% for us, to 5ic')A S , *d *i *ur landlad2 4 coo's 4 strange dishes 4 for us % S , *d *i #he student 4 sent 4 (oison (en letters 4 to 5ic'% 1% $9 #-E ,RE $"A#*R $S 0$NB$N? (e%g% BE, SEE5, A,,EAR, BE"*5E, 0**B, etc%) 9ind the "*5,0E5EN# element: (the unit of structure which s(ecifies or descri7es the S+B!E"# (or, occasionall2, the *B!E"#) in more detail) $S $# SE,ARA#E 9R*5 #-E S *R * $N #-E SEN#EN"E@ &hat form@ (Noun or N, , Adjective or Adj,% "an 2ou re(lace the (hrase with a single Adjective@) $9 SE,ARA#E 9R*5 S or *, 7rac'et the word or (hrase and la7el it "*5,0E5EN# (") 3% $9 #-E ,RE $"A#*R $S $N#RANS$#$VE, the onl2 other element which can occur in a sim(le sentence is an A VERB$A0% But A VERB$A0S can also occur with 7oth transitive and lin'ing ,redicators% 9ind the A VERB$A0 element: oes the unit of structure s(ecif2 or descri7e the nature of the action4(rocess in more detail@ oes it function ver2 li'e an A VERB@ (See &*R "0ASS "-E"BS-EE#) "an it easil2 7e moved to different (arts of the sentence@ &hat form@ (Noun, N,, Adver7, Adv,, ,,) Brac'et the word or (hrase and la7el it A VERB$A0 (A) Cou now have the main elements of an2 sim(le sentence% &hat a7out odds and ends that donAt fit in@ Cou ma2 find an2 of the following:

D "*N!+N"#$*NS: &ords (or short (hrases) lin'ing one sentence to another (or (art of a sentence to its main 7od2): e%g% and, 7ut, therefore, however, neither, 7ecause, since, so that, for, as though, if %%% then, either %%%% or, etc% Brac'et and la7el them cj% D V*"A#$VES, as in: 5ic', (ut that student down, sweetheart< Brac'et and la7el voc% D $N#ER!E"#$*NS, as in: -ell, 5ic', isnAt it a7out time 2ou ate that student, for heavenAs sa'e@ Brac'et and la7el them int% $t is (ossi7le that 2ou will have left some things left outside 7rac'ets or unla7elled% "hec' to see if the2 can 7e included with an2 other element% $f there are still some unla7elled words or (hrases left, mention them in the seminar for discussion% NB $f 2ou want to read u( more thoroughl2 on as(ects of grammar we suggest 2ou read (ages 3E 6 EF of 0eech, -oogenraad and euchar English ?rammar for #oda2%