1 FCE 346 - TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING I (45 HRS). a) Principles and objectives of transportation. b) Modes of transportation.

c) Role of transportation in society, economic, social, political and environmental. d) Introduction to traffic Engineering. e) Traffic regulations. f) Traffic survey procedures and data collection. g) Traffic volume, speed and concentration. h) Vehicles, driver and pedestrian characteristics. i) Road safety. Road user psychological traits. j) Highway capacity and level of service. k) Introduction to urban and regional planning. Practical works - Traffic volume and speed surveys. 2 REPORT TITLE CONTENTS Chapter Description Page 1 THE TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM 8 1.1 Definition and Scope 8 1.1.1 Fixed Facilities 8 1.1.2 Flow Entities and Technology 8 1.1.3 Control System 8 1.1.4 Transportation Demand 9 1.2 Transportation System Classification 9 1.2.1 Classification Schemes 9

1.2.2 Major Transportation Subsystems 9 1.2.3 Private and Public Transportation 10 1.2.4 Urban Transportation Systems 10 1.3 The Nature of Transportation Engineering 11 1.4 The Systems Approach in Transportation Engineering 12 1.5 Transportation Policymaking 13 1.6 Movement and Transportation 14 2 CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS 16 2.1 Elements of Transportation Systems 16 2.2 The Role of Government 19 2.2.1 Governmental Participation 19 2.2.2 Instruments of Governmental Involvement 19 2.3 Tools and Applications 20 2.4 The Role of Transport in Society 20 2.5 Introducing Comprehensive Transport Planning 21 2.5.1 Redefining the Objective 21 2.5.2 The 'Carrot' and the 'Stick' 21 2.5.3 Comprehensive Planning 22 2.5.4 The Transportation Study 23 2.6 Transportation Systems, Hierarchies, and Classification 24 3 2.6.1 Traffic Classification Systems 24 2.6.2 Road Classification Systems 26 (a) Rural road systems 26 (b) Urban road systems 29

3 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING 33 3.1 Definition 33 3.2 Growth of the Subject of Traffic Engineering 33 3.3 Functions Traffic Engineer 33 4 SPEED, JOURNEY TIME AND DELAY SURVEYS 35 4.1 Definitions 35 4.2 Use of Speed, Journey Time and Delay Studies 35 4.2.1 Methods of Measuring Spot Speeds 36 4.2.2 Direct-Timing Procedure for Spot Speed Determination 36 4.2.3 Radar Speed Meters 36 4.2.4 Photographic Method and Video Camera Method 36 4.2.5 Methods for Measurement of Running Speed and Journey Speed37 (a) Moving Observer Method 37 (b) Registration Number Method 37 (c) Elevated Observer Method 37 5 VEHICLE VOLUME COUNTS, CLASSIFICATION AND OCCUPANCY 38 5.1 Need for Vehicle Volume, Classification and Occupation Counts38 5.2 Vehicle Classification Error! Bookmark not defined. 5.3 Types of Counts 38 5.3.1 Short term and long term counts 39 5.3.2 Method Available for Traffic Counts 39 5.3.3 Vehicle Occupancy Surveys 40 5.4 Origin-Destination Survey 40 5.4.1 Survey Methods 41 5.4.2 Checking the Accuracy of O-D Survey Data 41

5.4.3 Presentation of Results 41 6 TRAFFIC REGULATION 43 6.1 Basic Principles of Regulation 43 6.1.1 Need for regulation of traffic 43 6.1.2 Scope of traffic regulations 43 6.1.3 Traffic laws 43 4 6.2 Regulation of Speed 44 6.2.1 Need for regulation of speed 44 6.2.2 General principles governing application of speed limits 44 6.2.3 Speed limits in urban areas 45 6.2.4 Speed limits in rural areas 46 6.2.5 Problem of Small Villages along Rural Highways 46 6.2.6 Speed limits for different types of vehicles 46 6.2.7 Speed limits at nights 47 6.2.8 Criteria for application of speed limits of 50, 65, 80 and 100 kph 47 6.2.9 Enforcement methods and instruments for detection of speed violators 50 6.2.10 Speed zoning 50 (a) Speed zoning at horizontal curves 50 (b) 17-2-10-3. Safe speeds at intersections 51 6.2.11 Speed laws 54 6.2.12 General effect of speed limits 54 6.3 Regulation of Vehicles 55 6.3.1 Vehicle Registration 55 6.3.2 Construction and equipment of vehicles 55

6.3.3 Control of Transport Vehicles 56 6.3.4 Insurance 56 6.4 Regulations Concerning the Driver 56 6.4.1 Licensing of the Driver 56 6.4.2 Physical Fitness 56 6.4.3 Age of Drivers 57 6.4.4 Disqualification and endorsement of Licence 57 6.4.5 Offences and Penalties 57 6.5 Regulations Concerning Traffic 57 6.5.1 Cycles 57 6.5.2 Motor Cycles and Scooters 58 6.5.3 Rules for Pedestrian Traffic 58 6.5.4 Rules for animal vehicles 58 6.5.5 Rules for animal on streets 58 6.6 General Rules Concerning Traffic 59 6.6.1 "Keep to the left" rule 59 6.6.2 Overtaking rules 59 6.6.3 Turning rules 59 6.6.4 Priority rules at intersection 60 6.6.5 Hand signals 60 6.6.6 Rules intended to promote pedestrian movement on footways 60 6.7 Parking Regulations 61 6.7.1 Need for parking regulations 61 6.7.2 Types of regulations that are normally imposed. 61 5

6.7.3 Restrictions on loading and unloading of commercial vehicles. 61 6.7.4 Exclusive parking spaces for taxis 61 6.7.5 Reservation of curb space for bus stops 61 6.7.6 Restrictions on parking near intersections 61 6.7.7 Limitations on curb parkingdesignation of parking places along the curb 62 6.7.8 Peak hour parking prohibitions 62 6.7.9 Parking control by fees 62 6.8 Enforcement of Regulations 62 6.8.1 Importance of enforcement and punishment 62 6.8.2 Goals and objectives 62 6.8.3 Machinery for enforcement 62 6.8.4 The police 63 6.8.5 The courts 63 7 ROAD USER AND VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS 65 7.1 Human Factors Governing Road User Behaviour 65 7.1.1 Human body as a complex system 65 7.1.2 Vision 65 7.1.3 Hearing 65 7.1.4 Perception, intellection, emotion and volition 65 7.2 Pedestrian Characteristics 66 7.3 Vehicle Characteristics 66 8 ROAD SAFETY 67 8.1 Introduction 67 8.2 Elements of Road Safety 67 8.3 A Simplified Framework 69

8.4 Collection of Accident Data 72 8.4.1 Introduction 72 8.4.2 Requirements of accident records 72 8.4.3 Standard definitions 72 8.4.4 Standard accidents reporting forms 73 8.4.5 Collision diagrams and collision diagram 73 8.5 Statistical Methods for Analysis of Accident Data 74 8.6 Road and its Effect on Accidents 74 8.7 The Vehicle 76 i. fewer in number, 76 6 ii. less serious to other road user 76 iii. less severe to vehicle occupants 76 8.7.1 Braking system 76 8.7.2 Vehicle lighting system 76 8.7.3 Vehicle body-its features 76 i. the shape and dimensions of the driver's seat 76 ii. arrangement of dials on the dash board 77 iii. positioning of controls in relation to the driver's seat 77 iv. visibility of the driver from the seat 77 v. noise levels in the vehicle 77 vi. concentration of carbon monoxide inside the vehicle. 77 8.7.4 Tyres 77 8.7.5 Vehicle inspection and maintenance 77 8.8 The Driver 77

8.8.1 Drivel-judgment, skill and emotional make-up 77 8.8.2 Age of drivers 78 8.8.3 Sex of the drivers 78 8.8.4 Martial status 78 8.8.5 Training of drivers 78 8.8.6 Alcohol and drugs and the driver 79 8.8.7 Fatigue 79 8.8.8 Use of crash helmets 79 8.8.9 Use of safety belts 80 8.9 Skidding 80 8.10 Speed in Relation to Safety 80 i. The distance needed to bring a vehicle to a stop increases as the speed increases. 80 8.11 Weather and its Effect on Accidents 81 8.12 Pedestrian Safety 81 8.12.1 Seriousness of the pedestrian safety problem 81 8.12.2 Trends in pedestrian accident pattern 81 8.12.3 The road and its influence on the pedestrian accidents 82 8.12.4 Pedestrian footways 83 8.12.5 Time and its influence on pedestrian accidents 83 i. Dark period of heavy traffic usually cause frequent pedestrian accidents. This normally corresponds to the evening rush hour traffic in winter. 83 ii. Pedestrian accident rates are high during weekdays when the traffic flow is heavy. 83 iii. Special rush days such as Christmas have large number of accidents. 83 8.13 Cyclists 84 7 8.14 Motorcycle and Scooter Riders 85

8.15 Parking and its Influence on Accidents 86 8.16 Traffic Management Measures and Their Influence in Accident Prevention 86 8.17 Legislation, Enforcement, Education and Propaganda 86 8.17.1 Legislative measures that are possible 86 8.17.2 Enforcement 87 8.17.3 Education 87 8.17.4 Propaganda 88 8.18 Cost of Road Accidents 88 8 1 THE TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM 1.1 Definition and Scope A transportation system consists of fixed facilities, flow entities, and the control system that permit people and goods to overcome the friction of geographical space efficiently in order to participate in a timely manner in some desired activity. This definition helps to focus on the breadth of transportation engineering and to delineate the purpose and scope of this introductory text. It identifies the functional components of a transportation system (the fixed facilities, the flow entities, and the control system) and encapsulates the fact that transportation provides the connectivity that facilitates other societal interactions. 1.1.1 Fixed Facilities Fixed facilities are the physical components of the system that are fixed in space and constitute the network of Links (e.g., roadway segments, railway track, pipes) and nodes (e.g., intersections, interchanges, transit terminals, harbours, and airports) of the transportation system. Their design, which has traditionally been within the realm of civil engineering, includes soil and foundation engineering, structural design, the design of drainage systems, and geometric design, which is concerned with the physical proportioning of the elements of fixed facilities. Although related, geometric design is different from other aspects of design (e.g., structural design, which is concerned with the strength of structures to withstand efficiently the expected forces or loads). 1.1.2 Flow Entities and Technology Flow entities are the units that traverse the fixed facilities. They include vehicles, container units, railroad cars, etc. In the case of the highway system, the fixed facilities are expected to accommodate a wide variety of vehicle types ranging from bicycles to large tractor-trailer combinations.

1.1.3 Control System The control system consists of vehicular control and flow control. Vehicular control refers to the technological way in which individual vehicles are guided on the fixed facilities. Such control can be manual or automated. Proper geometric design of the fixed facilities must incorporate characteristics of the vehicle and vehicular control system. These include driver characteristics (e.g. time a driver takes to perceive and react to various stimuli) for highway facilities 9 where the "vehicles are manually controlled. Similar but more precisely definable response times exist in the case of automated systems. The flow control system consists of the means that permit the efficient and smooth operation of streams of vehicles and the reduction of conflicts between vehicles. This system includes various types of signing, marking, and signal systems and the concomitant rules of operation. 1.1.4 Transportation Demand Transportation systems are constructed to serve people in undertaking their economic, social, and cultural activities. Transportation demand is derived, or indirect, meaning that people normally travel in order to accomplish something else, for example, to go to school, to work, to shop, or to visit with friends. By the same token, workers get into the morning and evening rush hours because their work schedules require it. Transportation engineers are concerned with accommodating these societal activities by providing efficient ways to satisfy the population's needs for mobility. The word efficient stands for the balancing a variety of often conflicting requirements, including cost considerations, convenience, protection of environmental quality, and protection of individual rights. Transportation engineers often cooperate with other professionals, including economists, planners, and social scientists. 1.2 Transportation System Classification 1.2.1 Classification Schemes Transportation .systems can be categorized in several ways. E.g. according to technology, function or type of service, ownership or responsibility for implementation and operation, etc. 1.2.2 Major Transportation Subsystems The transportation system is further categorized into four major subsystems according to the medium on which the flow elements are supported commonly referred to as modes. The term mode is also used to make finer distinctions between the various means of travel, e.g. driving alone and forming car pools are sometimes considered to be different modes. The four major subsystems are 1. Land transportation: a. Highway; b. Rail 10

2. Air transportation: a. Domestic; b. International 3. Water transportation: a. inland; b. Coastal; c. Ocean 4. Pipelines: a. Oil; b. Gas; c. Other Pipelines differ from the other three subsystems in that they are suited only for freight transportation and they do not employ vehicles. The water transportation subsystem consists of inland, coastal, and ocean transportation. The air transportation system uses aircraft that are supported by stationary or rotary air foils. This subsystem may be conveniently divided into domestic and international services. It is predominantly used for passenger transportation and carries only a miniscule amount of freight, usually confined to specialized items such as mail and valuable commodities. The land transportation subsystem is further subdivided into its highway and railway components because of their fundamental technological differences and their networks are spatially separated. 1.2.3 Private and Public Transportation Transportation services are also classified as either/or hire (public) or not-for-hire (private) services. These terms refer to their availability to the general public and to private parties, and not to their ownership. E.g. a city bus system may be owned either privately or publicly. In either case, the service provided is public transportation because the system is available for use by the general public. For-hire systems are further classified into contract carriers and common carriers. Contract carriers stand ready to provide service to the public under individual contractual arrangements. Common carriers, on the other hand, generally offer scheduled service and are open to all members of the public willing to pay the posted fare. The terms mass transportation or mass transit usually refer to the common carriage of passengers. Taxis, car rentals, and certain other individually arranged services belong to the category of contract public transportation. 1.2.4 Urban Transportation Systems The intercity or urban distribution of freight is predominantly accomplished by the highway subsystem using vans and trucks of various sizes. The major movements within urban areas are related to the travel undertaken by people. Water-based urban transportation is found in only a few cities, and air transportation is unsuited for urban travel. 11 Thus the means of travel available for urban passenger transportation are in the main land-based and include private transportation (walking and private motor vehicles) and various public transportation services, of which some are highway-based (i.e., regular city buses), others are not (e.g., urban rail transit systems). Rapid transit refers to all exclusive right-of-way systems. To clarify other technological differences, modifiers such as heavy rail, light rail, fixed guide way, further discussion of specific technologies that belong to these overlapping categories may be found in the technical literature. 1.3 The Nature of Transportation Engineering Transportation engineering is a multidisciplinary area of study. The profession carries a distinct societal responsibility. Concepts drawn from the fields of economics, geography, operations research, regional

planning, sociology, psychology, probability, and statistics, together with the customary analytical tools of engineering, are all used in training transportation engineers and planners. Figure 1-3 illustrates, in a general way, the interdisciplinary breadth and the depth of involvement of transportation engineering. Figure 1-3 Conceptual Outline of Interdisciplinary Training for Engineering Students (Khisty, 1981; Wegman and Beimborn, 1973). The upper-left part of this figure traditionally represents the "soft" side of transportation engineering, and the lower-right side, representing pavement design, bridge engineering, and drainage, may be looked on as the "hard" side of transportation. However, there is no definite demarcation between the two. 12 1.4 The Systems Approach in Transportation Engineering The systems approach represents a broad-based and systemic approach to problem-solving that involves a system. It is a problem-solving philosophy used particularly to solve complex problems. A system is a set of interrelated parts, called components, that perform a number of functions in order to achieve common goals. System analysis is the application of the scientific method to the solution of complex problems. Goals are desired end states. Operational statements of goals are called objectives; these should be measurable and attainable. Feedback and control are essential to the effective performance of a system. The development of objectives may in itself involve an iterative process. Objectives will generally suggest their own appropriate measures of effectiveness (MOEs). An MOE is a measurement of the degree to which each alternative action satisfies the objective. Measures of the benefits forgone or the opportunities lost for each of the alternatives are called measures of costs (MOCs). MOCs are the consequences of decisions. A criterion relates the MOE to the MOC by stating a decision rule for selecting among several alternative actions whose costs and effectiveness have been determined. One particular type of criterion, a standard, is a fixed objective: the lowest (or highest) level of performance acceptable. In other words, a standard represents a cut off point beyond which performance is rejected (Cornell, 1980). With reference to communities, we often find a set of irreducible concepts that form the basic desires and drives that govern our behaviour. To these desires, the term values is assigned. Values form the basis for human perception and behavior. Because values are shared by groups of people with similar ties, it is possible to speak of societal or cultural values. Fundamental values of society include the desire to survive, the need lo belong, the need for order, and the need for security. A policy is a guiding principle or course of action that is adopted to progress toward an objective. Evaluating the current state of a system and choosing directions lor change may be considered as policymaking. Steps in System Analysis 1. Recognize community problems and values. 2. Establish goals. 3. Define objectives. 4. Establish criteria. '^^IIIJIIPP^

5. Design alternative actions to achieve steps 2 and 3. 6. Evaluate the alternative actions in terms of effectiveness and costs. 7. Question the objectives and all assumptions. 8. Examine new alternatives or modifications of step 5. 9. Establish new objectives or modifications of step 3. 13 10. Repeat the cycle until a satisfactory solution is reached, in keeping with criteria, standards, and values set. A simplified system analysis process is shown in Figure 1-4. Figure 1-4 The System Analysis Process. 1.5 Transportation Policymaking Engineers and planners also recognize that most transportation issues can be characterized by great size, breadth, complexity, diversity, cost, and uncertainty. An example of a transportation system model is shown in Figure 1-5. It consists of inputs, such as land, labor, and capital, fed into three subsystems: (1) the physical subsystem, (2) the activity subsystem, and (3) the human subsystem. 14 Figure 1-5 Transportation System Model: Transportation Processor (NHI, 1980). The physical subsystem consists of vehicles, pavements, tracks, rights-of-way, terminals, and other manufactured or natural objects. The activity subsystem includes riding, driving, traffic control, and so on. These activities interface with the human subsystemindividuals and groups of people who are involved with the physical and activity subsystems. Outputs from the system include the movement of people and goods and improvement or deterioration of the physical environment. 1.6 Movement and Transportation The reason that people and goods move from one place to another can be ex-plained by the following three conditions: (1) complementarity, the relative attractiveness between two or more destinations; (2) the desire to overcome distance, referred to as transferability, measured in terms of time and money needed to overcome this distance and the best technology available to achieve this; and (3) intervening opportunities to competition among several locations to satisfy demand and supply. How people and goods move from an origin to a destination is a matter of mode choice (a person might choose to take the bus downtown rather than use her car), depending on such attributes as time, speed,

efficiency, costs, safety, and convenience. A simple connection between land use and transportation is shown in Figure 1-6. 15 Figure 1-6 Land Use/Transportation Cycle. Land use is one of the prime determinants of movement and activity. This activity, known as trip generation, will dictate what transportation facilities, such as streets and bus systems, will be needed to move traffic. When such additional facilities have been provided, the system will naturally have increased accessibility. A change in accessibility will determine the change, if any, in the value of land, and this change may affect the way the land is currently used. If such a change does occur (e.g., a residential neighborhood changes to a commercial area), the trip generation rate (e.g., the number of trips per acre of land) will change and a whole cycle of changes will result. This cyclical process illustrates the fundamental interconnection of transportation and land use. 16 2 CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS 2.1 Elements of Transportation Systems The physical plant of most transportation systems consists of four basic elements: 1. Links: the roadways or tracks connecting two or more points. Pipes, beltways, sea-lanes, and airways can also be considered as links. 2. Vehicles: the means of moving people and goods from one node to another along a link. Motorcars, buses, ships, airplanes, belts, and cables are examples. 3. Terminals: the nodes where travel and shipment begins or ends. Parking garages, off-street parking lots, loading docks, bus stops, airports, and bus terminals are examples. 4. Management and labor: the people who construct, operate, manage, and maintain the links, vehicles, and terminals. Transportation systems can be evaluated in terms of three basic attributes: 1. Ubiquity: the amount of accessibility to the system, directness of routing between access points, and the system's flexibility to handle a variety of traffic conditions. 2. Mobility: the quantity of travel that can be handled. The capacity of a system to handle traffic and speed are two variables connected with mobility. 3. Efficiency: the relationship between the cost of transportation and the productivity of the system. Direct costs of a system are composed of capital and operating costs, and indirect costs comprise adverse impacts and unquantifiable costs, such as safety. Table 1-1 summarizes the basic characteristics of major transportation modes. 17 TABLE 1.1 Overview of Major Transportation Systems System

Ubiquity Mobility Efficiency Mode Passenger Service Freight Service Highways Very high: land owners have direct access to a road or street. Direct routing limited by terrain and land use. Speeds are limited by human factors and speed limits. Capacity per vehicle is low, but many vehicles are available. Not high as regards safety, energy, and some costs. Truck Negligible Intercity, local, farm to processing and market centers. Small shipments; containers Bus Intercity and local Packages (intercity) Automobile Intercity and local Personal items only Bicycle Local: recreational Negligible Rail transport Limited by large investment in route structure. Also constrained by terrain.

Speed and capacity can be higher than for highway modes. Generally high, but labor costs may result in low cost efficiency. Railroads Mostly < 300 miles and suburban commuters Intercity. Mostly bulk and oversized shipments; containers Rail transit Regional, intracity None Air transporlt Airport costs reduce accessibility. Excellent opportunity for direct routing. Speeds are highest, but capacity per vehicle is limited. Fairly low as regards energy and operating costs. Air carriers Mostly > 300 miles and across bodies of water High-value freight (no bulk) on long hauls; containers General aviation Intercity; business, recreation Minor Water transport Direct routing and accessibility limited by availability of navigable waterways and Low speed. Very high capacity per vehicle. Very high: low cost, low energy use. Safety varies. Ships Cruise traffic. Ferry service Bulk cargos, especially petroleum; containers

Barges None Bulk cargos, especially 18 safe ports. petroleum; containers Hovercraft Ferry service Minor Continuous-flow systems Limited to few routes and access points. Low speeds. High capacity. Generally high: low-cost energy use. Pipelines None Liquids, gases, and slurries on short and long hauls Belts Escalators and belts for short distances Bulk materials handling, mostly < 10 miles Cables Lifts and tows for short distances in rough terrain Materials handling in rough terrain Source: Homburger and Kell, 1988. 19 2.2 The Role of Government

2.2.1 Governmental Participation A characteristic of human social organizations is the establishment of a "government," which - in an impartial sense - may be deemed as consisting of the rules of conduct, the collective decision-making processes, and the means of enforcing the rules that attempt to impart social and economic order and to maintain the cohesiveness of a society. The specific actions that a government takes at any given time as well as the method by which it chooses to implement those actions reflect the contemporary value system of the society it represents. Conceptually, there exist* a continuum of governmental forms ranging from anarchy (i.e., complete lack of governmental intervention in the affairs of people) to totalitarianism (i.e., complete control by government). Actual governmental structures lie somewhere between the two extremes. 2.2.2 Instruments of Governmental Involvement In rough outline, the typical ways by which the government intervenes in the market place to accomplish objectives that, in its representational role, it finds to be in the public interest include

Soft promotion refers to attempts by the government to encourage or to discourage certain situations without legally requiring them. (An advertising campaign favouring car-pooling aimed at reducing rushhour congestion and obviating the need for costly highway construction or as a strategy to reduce energy consumption is an example of soft promotion.) Regulation refers to those government actions that place legal requirements on individuals and firms to satisfy the public interest. (Transportationrelated examples of regulation include the establishment of automobile bumper standards to reduce fatalities, automobile air-pollution-emission standards to improve environmental quality, and engineefficiency standards to conserve energy. Other examples include the regulation of airline route structures to ensure the availability of service to all and the regulation of the rates that trucking companies can charge their customers.) 20 Investment involves me financial support, public financing, or even public ownership of various systems or services. (Subsidies to privately owned bus companies to ensure service to mobility-disadvantaged groups, public ownership of highways lo maintain a comprehensive level of accessibility, and participation in the construction of airports and harbours are but a few examples of investment actions) 2.3 Tools and Applications The typical program of study in transportation engineering includes the basic sciences, mathematics, and computer programming. The subject matter of those courses of study stresses the basic tools

needed for work in the field of engineering. Transportation engineers employ models to study and analyze the systems of concern. A model may be defined as the representation of a part of reality. Static models represent the structure of a system, whereas dynamic models also incorporate a representation of the system's process, that is, the way in which it changes over lime. 2.4 The Role of Transport in Society Transport plays a very important role in general development of the country, especially economic development. In a developing country, the goal of industrial development can only be achieved through an efficient transportation system of wide and varied nature. Social, cultural and political institutions as well as the life of the people can be enriched through an efficient transportation system. Transportation aids in the exploitation of natural resources like minerals, water, resources, forest and agricultural resources. The transportation systems in common use around the world comprise distinct services such as railways, roads, shipping, inland water transport, airlines, ropeways and pipe lines. Advance transportation planning is necessary in order to achieve proper coordination between the modes of transportation; special emphasis has to be laid on 21 2.5 Introducing Comprehensive Transport Planning Every year the number of vehicles using the roads increases, yet the road network is not keeping pace with the growth of traffic leading to increased congestion. At the same time, there is increasing public opposition to the construction of new roads - which in most cases, almost inevitably, are environmentally undesirable. This apparent impasse is to some extent due to a misconception of the real objective. The need is not for the provision of bigger and better roads to cope with more and 'more vehicles. 2.5.1 Redefining the Objective The real objective is the movement of people and goods - not necessarily the movement of vehicles. Having redefined the objective the problem changes too. People can be moved by car or by public transport - they could even walk, but this is increasingly unlikely for other than short distances! For some movements the car is ideal, for others the bus or other mass transit mode is preferable. Comprehensive transport planning is about the optimization of the balance between the uses of these modes. For inter-urban travel the flexibility of the car is a major advantage. For leisure trips in urban areas too, this flexibility is important and the destinations of leisure, and other non-work, trips are often widely spread in both space and time, reducing their impact on congested streets. It is for the journey to work that public transport is most appropriate. The journey from home to work occurs in a short peak period each morning and is, of course, largely repeated in reverse each evening. Many trips terminate in relatively few locations - the town centre, the industrial area, etc. As car occupancies average around 4 persons and buses can carry at least ten times more people per length of road lane, a partial remedy is clear. Some trips from home to work must be attracted, or diverted, to public transport.

2.5.2 The 'Carrot' and the 'Stick' Bus travel, however, is not popular with commuters, because services are too often unreliable, slow, and uncomfortable and crowded, whereas a car is at least thought to be convenient and reliable. The change of mode must therefore be induced. This requires the use of both 'the carrot' and 'the slick'. First, 'the carrot' - bus services must be improved, in reliability, in frequency and in convenience. Bus priority measures of one form or another can usually do a lot to meet these requirements. 22 But the carrot alone is nor enough, the car will still be preferred, so 'the stick' - restraint measures must be applied. This means making the use of the car less attractive, by providing fewer parking spaces at higher cost, by closing streets to cars, or just by allowing congestion to take effect. Perhaps even, at some later date differential road-use pricing or supplementary licensing could be applied, although there are operational problems in both cases. The movement of goods in urban areas however is not something which can readily be transferred to other transport modes. The lorry is here to stay. But the 'juggernauts' engender much of the emotional outcry in many areas, most notably in residential streets in towns and small villages on through-routes. Here, palliate measures may be appropriate - directing large lorries onto certain preferred routes, providing lorry parks in non-residential areas, or even perhaps, providing 'trans-shipment' depots outside town areas. However, no matter what is done to induce people to change their travel mode, or goods vehicles to change their routes, there will eventually still be congestion on many roads. Before new roads are built, it is plain that the existing road system should be used as fully as possible. And this means, among other things, using roads for movement instead of for parking. Other typical traffic-management measures to improve on the use of existing roads, to move people rather than vehicles, might include some or all of the following: -area roads - bus-only lanes etc. -way systems

-turn bans -hour urban clearways. After consideration of all of these however, and the application of appropriate measures - which form the basis of the relatively short-term management aspects of urban planning - there will still be a need for some new roads. And these have to be planned. 2.5.3 Comprehensive Planning Transport planning for a county - not Just town or rural area in isolation, but both together - must be comprehensive, and based on financial realism (there is NEVER enough money). The roles of public

transport, private car restraint, traffic management measures, and new road construction need to be fully integrated to derive the best use of the inevitably limited resources. A transport plan is developed as a complete package of projects and policies, conceived as a unified whole. It should be implemented comprehensively in across-the-board stages in accordance with a carefully conceived, financially realistic, annual programme, derived in turn from a longer programme. 23 Outside the urban areas, less important inter-urban and other rural roads are often planned on the basis of simple growth factors. 2.5.4 The Transportation Study In larger urban areas, the medium-term planning of future transport systems is usually based on a transportation study - sometimes called a land-use transportation study because of its fundamental reliance on the relationships between land use and travel demand. A transportation study is basically a computer-dependent mathematical process, founded on present-day observation, whereby future travel patterns can be predicted. In essence, the transportation study process consists of: a) Surveying the present-day travel habits of people living and/or working in the specified area, b) Developing mathematical formulae which, given details of household structure, income, car ownership, etc. in the study area, can reproduce present-day travel patterns as surveyed. The formulae (or 'models') in their simplest form are basically: i) trip-end prediction - determining how many trips leave a zone e.g. a group of households, ii) Trip distribution - determining the destination of these trips, iii) Modal split - determining the mode of travel - car or bus, iv) Assignment - determining the actual roads used, c) Using these formulae, together with predicted values for future population, incomes, etc. to predict future travel patterns, d) Comparing the merits of alternative transport systems to accommodate the predicted movements. SUMMARY a) The objective of comprehensive transport planning is the optimum movement of people and goods. b) Particularly for the journey to work, public transport could be more efficient than the private car - but is less attractive. c) To induce greater use of public transport the system needs to be improved and restraint applied to the use of the private car. 24 d) County transport planning should be done on a comprehensive basis, developing integrated packages of public transport, private car restraint, and the optimum use of both existing and new roads. e) In

larger urban areas, transport planning is usually based on a transportation study - a means of predicting future travel movements. f) The preferred strategy, which is not just a collection of unrelated schemes, is best developed by optimization from a range of integrated possible packages. g) The final choice of strategy is a political matter. 2.6 Transportation Systems, Hierarchies, and Classification The classification of transportation modes into different operational systems or functional classes is useful in understanding the complexity of the total transportation system. The classification system adopted for transportation covers

These help to distinguish both the functional and hierarchical characteristics of the elements of the road transportation systems. 2.6.1 Traffic Classification Systems Two classification systems are used for road traffic as follows: a) Functional classification systems b) Loading classification systems The Functional Classification Systems classifies traffic according to its major functions. Traffic is further sub-divided into Motorised Transport (MT) and Non-motorised Transport (NMT) traffic. MT traffic includes vehicles which derive their motive power from a motor (engine) and include all categories of motor vehicles/cycles. On the contrary, NMT traffic derives its power from either human or animal effort and include pedestrians, pedal cycles and carts. Functional classification of traffic includes (but not limited to) the categories listed in the table below. 25 Categories Description A. Motorised Traffic Passenger vehicles Motor cycle/Scooter Car (sedan, special wagon) Jeep/4-wheel Drive Taxi/minibus Large bus Goods vehicles

Pick-up Light goods (3.5t unladen weight) Medium goods (2-axle, >3.5t) Heavy goods (3, 4-axle) Articulated/draw-bar trucks B. Non-motorised Traffic Pedestrian Pedal cycle Cart (Human/animal drawn) Loading classification systems are concerned with the characteristic design loading as derived from the projected traffic demand for commercial vehicles. This is normally expresses in expected repetitions of equivalent standard axles (ESA) over the selected design period. A standard axle weighs 8160kg and the value for ESA is computed against this loading as follows: Where L = measured axle load N = exponential factor, varies with axle load. Kenya adopted 4.5 Typical load classification systems are tabulated below: Kenya RDM-III Materials and Pavement Design for New Roads UK Road Note 13 (Pavement Design for Roads in Tropical and Sub-tropical Countries) Class ESA x 106 Class ESA x 106 T1 25 60 T1 <0.3 T2 10 25 T2 0.3 0.7 T3 3 10 T3 0.7 1.5

T4 13 T4 1.5 3.0 T5 0.25 - 1 T5 3.0 6.0 T6 6.0 10 T7 10 17 T8 17 - 30 26 2.6.2 Road Classification Systems Roads are generally classified from their functional aspects. They have two basic traffic service functions which, from a design standpoint, are incompatible. These are: a) to provide traffic mobility between centres and areas b) to provide access to land and properties adjoining the roads Roads are grouped into Urban and Rural road systems Over the course of time many roads have become multi-functional, i.e. they now act as (a) Carriageways for through vehicular traffic, (b) Access ways to frontage properties, (c) Routes for public transport; (d) Parking spaces for vehicles, (e) Passageways for pedestrians and cyclists, and (f) Corridors for the location of water/sewerage/gas/electrical services. (a) Rural road systems A major feature of the car-oriented transport plans of the 1950s in the United States was their clarification and prioritization of die transport functions served by various types of road. In essence they divided roads into three main functional groups: 1. Arterial roads which are primarily for longer-distance

high-speed through-vehicle movements and, hence, provide minimal access to adjacent frontages 2. Local roads and streets whose main function is to provide for frontage access and, thus, whose design and traffic management is intended to discourage through traffic 3. Collector roads, i.e. the 'middle' group, which are intended to provide for both shorter through-vehicle movements and frontage access. Arterial roads are subdivided according to whether they are limited access (e.g. freeways) with no direct frontage access whatsoever, major arterials (e.g. expressways) which have small amounts of frontage access, and minor arterials which have more frontage access. Local streets are generally subclassified according to the land use that they serve, e.g. residential, commercial, and industrial streets. Collector roads are described as major or minor, depending upon their relative amounts of through and access service. An illustration of a functionally classified rural highway network is shown in Figure 1-9. 27 Figure 1-9 Schematic Illustration of a Functionally Classified Rural Highway Network (AASHTO,2001). Figure 1-10 shows a functionally classified suburban street network Figure 1-10 Schematic Illustration of a Portion of a Suburban Street Network (AASHTO,2001). 28 In Britain non-urban roads are described according to function as being either primary routes or secondary roads. Primary route, distinguished by direction signs with a green background, are mainly trunk roads (which include most motorways) and some local authority roads. In Kenya, roads are grouped into 5 main classes according to the major function in the network. A sixth category of special purpose roads is also in use based mainly on the source of funding and responsibility for maintenance. The Kenya road classification system is as follows: Main Class Description/Function (I) Primary Roads Class A : International Trunk Roads Linking international centres and crossing international boundaries or terminating at international ports Class B: National Trunk Roads Linking nationally important centres (Principal towns and urban centres) Class C: Primary Roads Linking provincial centres to each other or to higher class roads (urban and rural centres) (II) Secondary/Rural Access Roads Class D: Secondary Roads

Roads linking locally important centres to each other, to more important centres or to higher class roads (rural/market centres) Class E: Minor Roads Any road link to a minor centre (market/local centres) Special purpose roads R (Government access roads) Roads providing access to government facilities T (Tea) roads Roads in tea growing zones and maintained with funds from tea cess C (Coffee) roads Roads in coffee growing zones and maintained with funds from tea cess W (wheat) roads Roads in wheat growing zones and maintained with funds from tea cess L (adjudication/Settlement) roads Roads in settlement areas Classes A and B mainly provide mobility. Class E and below mainly provide access. C and D (for all practical purposes) have to provide both mobility and access, with emphasis on mobility for class C and access for class D. These roads are the most difficult to design as far as traffic safety and operation are concerned. 29 (b) Urban road systems A series of distinct travel movements are recognizable in most trips. On a highway system, for example, these movements are a main movement along a freeway, a transition to an arterial via a freeway offramp, then further movement along an arterial where traffic is distributed and later collected via a collector, finally accessing a terminal (a garage or on-street parking lot). Further movement of the passenger may be as a pedestrian on a sidewalk of a local street, and finally to his or her destination. Figure 1-8 shows this hierarchy of movement. The inadequacy of parts of the hierarchy to accommodate each trip movement is one of the reasons that systems fail or become obsolete. Figure 1-8 Hierarchy of Movement (AASHTO, 2001). Urban roads are designated ias

1. Primary distributors which are intended to serve a town as a whole by linking its business, industrial, and residential districts, 2. District distributors which feed traffic from the primary network to environmental districts (e.g. town centres or industrial estates, or large residential districts) but do not traverse them, and 3. Local distributors which allow traffic from the major distributors to penetrate environmental districts and. 4. access streets which provide access to homes, businesses, factories, etc Table 1.5 summarises the various functions and features of these urban roads; also included in this table are details regarding a class of street which has come to prominence in more recent years - the pedestrian street 30 31 Table 6.5 Hierarchical classification system for urban roads based on function Pedestrian streets Access roads Local distributors District distributors Primary distributors Predominant activities Walking; meeting; trading Walking; vehicle access; delivery of goods and servicing of premises; slow-moving vehicles Vehicle movements near beginning or end of all journeys; bus stops. Medium distance traffic to Primary Network; public transport services; all through traffic with respect to environmental areas Fast-moving long-distance traffic; no pedestrians or frontage access Pedestrian movement Complete freedom; predominant activity Considerable freedom with crossing at random

Controlled with channelised (e.g. zebra) crossings Minimum pedestrian activity with positive measures for their safety Nil; vertical segregation between vehicles and pedestrians Stationary vehicles Nil, except for servicing and emergency Some, depending on safety considerations Considerable, if off-road facilities not provided Some, depending on traffic flow conditions Nil Heavy goods vehicle activity Essential servicing and frontage deliveries only Residential-related activities only; other areas - delivery of goods and services Minimum through trips Minimum through trips Suitable for all HGV movements, especially through trips Vehicle access to individual properties Nil, except for emergency vehicles and limited access for servicing Predominant activity Some, to more significant activity centres Nil, apart from major centres, i.e. equivalent to local distributor level of vehicle flow Nil, apart from sites of national traffic importance Local traffic movements Nil, but may include public transport Nil Predominant activity

Some - only a few localities may be severed, and junction spacing is important Very little junction spacing will preclude local movements Through traffic movements Nil Nil Nil Predominant role for medium-distance traffic Predominant role for long-distance traffic Vehicle operating Less than 5 km/h; Less than 32km/h Subject to 48 km/h Subject to 48 or 64 More than 64 km/h 32 speeds/speed limits vehicles enter on sufferance (20 mile/h) with speed control devices (30 mile/h) limit but layout should discourage speed km/h (30 or 40 mile/h) limit within the built-up area (40 mile/h) depending on geometric constraints 33 3 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING 3.1 Definition The Institute of Traffic Engineers defines traffic engineering as: "that phase of engineering which deals with planning, geometric design and traffic operations of roads and streets and highways, their

networks, terminals, abutting lands, relationships with other modes of transportation for the achievement of safe, efficient and convenient movement of persons and goods." The definition contained in the Glossary on Traffic Engineering Terms of the PIARC is: "That phase of engineering which deals with the planning and geometric design of streets, highways and abutting lands, and with traffic operation thereon, as their use is related to the safe, convenient and economic transportation of persons and goods." The above definitions adequately illustrate the scope of the subject. 3.2 Growth of the Subject of Traffic Engineering Traffic engineering is a branch of engineering that has grown with the increase in traffic in recent years. As vehicular traffic began to increase, the congestion on the streets began to hamper the safe and efficient movement of traffic. Accidents, parking problems and environmental pollution began to be felt. It became necessary to give more attention to the operational characteristics of highway transportation and study the need for better geometric design, capacity, intersections, traffic regulations, signals, traffic signs, and roadway markings, parking facilities, design of bus stands and truck terminals and street lighting. The Traffic Engineer is expected to deal with the above specialised needs The profession of Traffic Engineering evolved mainly in America which experienced the high growths in automobiles. The now familiar three-colour light signals made their appearance in 1918. The Institute of Traffic Engineers was founded in 1931 and with this the profession was officially established and defined. Highway Engineering and Traffic Engineering are related subjects, and the latter can be deemed to be an offshoot of the former. Traffic Engineering is now recognized as a specialised branch. 3.3 Functions Traffic Engineer The functions of a Traffic Engineer include the following: 1. Collection, analysis and interpretation of data pertaining to traffic. [ Organise and implement various surveys and studies to collect data on traffic characteristics,] including (i) origin and destination survey, (ii) volume counts, (iii) speed, travel time and delay measurements, (iv) accident statistics, (v) parking characteristics, (vi) 34 pedestrian behaviour and use of streets, (vii) capacity studies and (viii) economic analysis for traffic facilities. 2. Traffic and transportation planning. [Preparation of traffic and transportation plans to ensure a safe, orderly and fully integrated transportation system]. This phase is concerned with the land usetransportation relationship and travel characteristics. 3. Traffic design. [Geometric design of highways and streets], includes inter-section design, schemes for grade separated inter-changes, design of off-street and on-street parking facilities and design of terminal facilities for trucks and buses. In geometric design, the functions of the highway engineer and the traffic engineer overlap.

4. Measures for operation of traffic. [For efficient and safe operation of traffic], the traffic engineer has to take recourse to a number of measures such as: (i) Legislation and enforcement - for regulation of the driver, vehicle and road. (ii) Management measures e.g. one-way streets, prohibited turnings at junctions and tidal flow arrangements, exclusive bus lanes etc. to maximise use out the available street facilities. (iii) Measures for regulation of parking of vehicles. (iv) Traffic control devices, e.g. traffic signs, traffic signals, pavement markings and channelization techniques, for safe and efficient flow of traffic. 5. Administration. [Organise and administer various programmes to secure safe and efficient traffic in towns and cities]. Close association with legal and administrative framework of the citys department dealing with education, legislation and enforcement measures. 1-4. Organisation of the Traffic Engineering Department With the growth of the vehicular traffic on the roads, it is increasingly realised that the organizational set-up designed to deal with the attendant problems of growing traffic has to be a separate unit under competent traffic engineers. The need for such a unit exists at the National and city levels. 35 4 SPEED, JOURNEY TIME AND DELAY SURVEYS 4.1 Definitions Speed is the rate of movement of traffic or of specified components of traffic and is expressed in metric units in kilometres per hour (KPH). 1. Spot speed is the instantaneous speed of a vehicle at a specified location 2. Running speed is the average speed maintained by a vehicle over a given course while the vehicle is in motion. i.e. Running speed = Distance / Running time = Distance / (Journey time delay) 3. Journey speed (or overall travel speed) is the effective speed of a vehicle between two points. Thus: Journey speed = Distance / Total journey time (including delays) 4. Time-mean speed is the average of the speed measurements at one point in space over a period of the time. It is the average of a number of spot speed measurements. 5. Space-mean speed is the average of the speed measurements at an instant of time over a space. 4.2 Use of Speed, Journey Time and Delay Studies Spot speed measurements are required for:

ic elements such as horizontal curvature, vertical profile, sight distances and super-elevation.

peed and accidents -and-after studies of road improvement schemes

Journey speeds and delays are required:

ate congestion, capacity, level of services in a network

36

of traffic control devices 4.2.1 Methods of Measuring Spot Speeds The methods available for measuring spot speeds can be grouped into: (a) Those that require observation of the time taken by a vehicle to cover a known distance. These are further classified into long base and short base. The long base methods commonly used are: (i) Direct timing, (ii) Enoscope and (iii) Pressure contact tubes. Short-base method uses vehicle detectors over a short distance. (b) Radar speed meter which automatically records the instantaneous speed (c) Photographic method Factors to be considered while selecting the site for the survey are: 1. The purpose for which the data are required. E.g. in accident pattern studies 2. Minimize the influence of the study team and equipment on the vehicle speeds. 3. Generally straight, level and open sections of highways 4.2.2 Direct-Timing Procedure for Spot Speed Determination

Two reference points are marked on the pavement at a suitable distance apart and an observer starts and stops and accurate stop-watch as a vehicle crosses these two marks. From the known distance and the measured time intervals speeds are calculated. Large errors are likely due to parallax. 4.2.3 Radar Speed Meters These meters work on the Doppler principle. The instrument is set up near the edge of the carriage way at a height of about 1m, above the ground level. The speeds of vehicles in both directions can be observed by this method. The device has been extensively used for traffic engineering studies as well as for enforcement by traffic police. 4.2.4 Photographic Method and Video Camera Method Time-lapse camera photography can be used to determine the speeds of vehicles in crowded streets. Photographs are taken at fixed intervals. 37 Images by video cameras can also be used. 4.2.5 Methods for Measurement of Running Speed and Journey Speed The methods commonly used for measuring running speed and journey speed are: (i) Moving observer method (ii) Registration number method (iii) Elevated observer method. These methods are described in detail in the following sections. (a) Moving Observer Method The speed and flow can be obtained by travelling in a car against and with the flow, and noting down the journey time, the number of vehicles met with from the opposite direction, and number of vehicles overtaking the test vehicle. Preferably even two cars are required, each carrying a driver and three observers. One observer in the car counts opposing traffic, another carries a journey log prepared in advance. The log records the traffic counts and times at predetermined points en-route, together with stopping and starting at intersections. Advantages of the method

journey time. Hence it is economical in manpower.

ons, delays, parked vehicles etc. (b) Registration Number Method

Observers are stationed at the ends of a measuring section, about 0.5 1.0 km long. The time and registration number of the vehicles entering and leaving the section are noted using synchronized watches. (c) Elevated Observer Method Observers stationed on top of an elevated building 38 5 VEHICLE VOLUME COUNTS, CLASSIFICATION AND OCCUPANCY 5.1 Need for Vehicle Volume, Classification and Occupation Counts The volume of traffic using a road system, also termed as flow, is expressed in vehicles per hour or vehicles per day. When the traffic is composed of a number of types of vehicles, it is the normal practice to convert the flow into equivalent passenger car unit (PCUs), by using equivalency factors. The flow is then expressed as PCUs per hour or PCUs per day. It is important to know the vehicular volume using a road network in order to compute the current efficiency of the system and the quality of service offered to the road users. Traffic forecasting is an important step in the transportation planning process if traffic flow data are available over the past number of years, the rate at which traffic flow has increased in the past can be easily determined. A reasonable indication of the future traffic growth rate is obtained by extrapolating the past trends into the future. The annual vehicle-kilometres of travel for a road section, as used accident studies, can be computed using data on the average annual flow and the length of the highway. The structural design of the road pavement requires data on the number of commercial vehicles using the road. Though more accurate analysis demands data pertaining to the axle load spectrum and repetitions, the number of commercial vehicles using the road will itself be a good guide in pavement design. The programming of the maintenance needs of a highway is often based on the traffic using the road. Traffic regulatory and control systems are designed on the basis of accurate vehicle flow data. The design of signals and road junctions are possible only if, among other things, the vehicle flow data are available. The ultimate aim of travel is to transport people and goods. 5.2 Types of Counts The three common levels of measurement of vehicle flow are: (i) Average annual flow, expressed in vehicles per year. (ii) Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT), expressed in vehicles per day. (iii) Hourly flow, expressed in vehicles per hour. The average annual flow measurement is useful for estimating the total travel on a road system and for determining the gross annual revenues from road users. In accident statistics the total annual vehicle-kilometres forms the usual basis for comparison. The A.A.D.T., which is 1/365th of the total annual flow, is a common measure of flow utilized in geometric standards for highways, improvement of existing facilities and standards for pavement design and maintenance. If the flow is not measured for all the 365 days, but only for a few days the average flow is known by the term ADT, Average Daily Traffic. 39

Short term variations occurring in the course of a day and especially the peaking situations in the morning and evening rush hours are needed for design of traffic control systems and complicated intersections. 5.2.1 Short term and long term counts The duration of the counts depends upon the purpose for which the data are needed and the financial and man-power resources at the command of the traffic engineer. Sometimes it is only necessary to measure the flow for a short term, say an hour; at other times the flow may be measured for an intermediate period such as a full day of twenty-four hours; in some situations, the count may extend for a duration of a full week; and lastly, the count may be a continuous and regular affair. 5.2.2 Method Available for Traffic Counts The methods available for traffic counts are listed below: (a) Manual methods (b) Combination of manual and mechanical methods (c) Automatic devices. (d) Moving observer method. (e) Photographic methods. Manual Methods The advantages of manual methods and situations where these are to be preferred are: a) Details such as vehicle classification and number of occupants can be easily obtained. b) The data can be collected giving the breakdown of traffic in each direction of travel. c) Specific vehicular movements at a junction can be noted and recorded. d) Manual methods enable any unusual conditions obtaining at the time of the count to be recorded. e) In developing countries, sophisticated automatic devices are not indigenously produced. f) Pilferage and vandalism often prevent the use of costly equipment in remote rural areas, and in such cases manual methods are the only solution. g) Even if automatic devices are used, it is often necessary to check the accuracy of these devices periodically and manual methods serve this purpose. h) Data accumulated by manual methods are easy to analyse. i) Manual methods are suitable for short-term and non-continuous counts.

The advantages of automatic devices and situations dictating their use are: a) Where a continuous and regular record of traffic flow is needed, the only alternative is to install automatic counters. b) Their use has been very wide-spread in the developed countries, where traffic engineering and transportation planning have attained a high degree of perfection. c) If counts of remote areas are needed, automatic devices are useful. d) Automatic devices usually yield data which are amenable to easy analysis by computers. The number of observers needed to count the vehicles in manual methods depends upon the number of lanes in the highway on which the count is to be taken and the 40 type of information desired. The equipment required includes a watch; Pencils, eraser and pencil sharpener; Supply of blank field datasheets; and Clip board. Combination of Manual and Mechanical Method An example of a combination of manual and mechanical methods is the multiple pen recorder. A chart moves continuously at the speed of a clock. Different pens record the occurrence of different events on the chart. Automatic Devices The automatic devices essentially consist of equipment for detecting the passage or presence of a vehicle (called detector or sensor) and another for recording the count. The sensor usually transmits some form of electric impulse which activates the accumulating register or recording chart. They are: i) Pneumatic tube (road tube) ii) Electric contact. iii) Co-axial cable. iv) Photo-electric. v) Radar. As regards whether the counting programme should be continuous or only for a short duration, here again the prime consideration is cost. At least a 7-day count once or twice a year would be all that one could think of in the developing countries. The Kenyan / U.K. practice is to measure the 7-day average flow for 16 hours (6 am-l0pm) in the month of August, in which month average travel demands have been found consistently to be at their highest. For observations taken during any other months, average adjustment factors are applied to convert them to their August equivalent. 50-Point traffic census in Kenya: One of the examples of organised planning and programming for regular traffic census in any country can be had in the 50-Point Traffic Census in Kenya.

5.2.3 Vehicle Occupancy Surveys

Vehicle occupancy surveys are easy to conduct for cars and motorised two-wheelers. The observers can note the number of occupants of every one of such vehicles by standing by the roadside. For buses, the occupancy can be determined by examining the ticket sales. An Indian Study, covering 640 buses for nearly two years, has concluded that the average occupancy of buses is 43 passengers, in addition to the driver and the conductor. 5.3 Origin-Destination Survey In a transportation study, it is often necessary to know the exact origin and destination of the trips and the number of trips made. Other information yielded by the O-D survey includes land-use of the zones of origin and destination, household characteristics of the trip-making family, time of the day when the journeys are made, trip purpose and mode of travel. 41 Origin is defined as the place where the trip begins and destination is defined as the place where the trip ends. Uses of O-D survey data are: (i) To determine the amount of by-passable traffic that enters a town (ii) To develop trip generation and trip distribution models in transport planning process. (iii) To determine the adequacy of a highway system and to plan for new facilities. (iv) To assess the adequacy of parking facilities and to plan for future. In the study of transportation problems of towns, big or small, it is usually necessary to define external cordon lines, which are imaginary lines at the boundary of the study area. In big towns, it may also be necessary to select some internal cordon lines, which may be concentric rings. For checking the accuracy of survey data, it may be necessary to have screen-lines, which are imaginary lines dividing the area into parts. 5.3.1 Survey Methods Some of the methods available for conducting an O-D survey: (a) Home interview survey (b) Road-side interview survey (c) Post-card questionnaire survey (d) Registration number plate survey (e) Tags on vehicles. 5.3.2 Checking the Accuracy of O-D Survey Data The data obtained from the home-interview survey is usually cross-checked with the data obtained from screen-line and cordon counts. 5.3.3 Presentation of Results O-D surveys yield a vast amount of data. To understand them it is necessary to present them in convenient tabular or pictorial form. The most convenient form is an 0-D matrix, in which the origin zones and destination zones are represented. The horizontal axis of the matrix represents the destination zones and the vertical axis of the matrix represents the origin zones. The zones may be further classified into internal and external zones if the survey covers both the internal and external zones. The number of trips is entered in the cells of the matrix. The matrix is represented below.

DESTINATION ZONES INTERNAL EXTERNAL 1 2 3 72 73 74 ORIGIN ZONES INTERNAL 1 23 42 EXTERNAL 72 73 74 In the above matrix T2-3 represents the number of trips originating in zone 2 and terminating in zone 3. The most popular pictorial representation is by means of a desire line chart. In this chart, the trips between any pair of zones are represented by a straight line connecting the centroids of the two zones and having a band width drawn to a suitable scale to represent the actual volume of trips. 43 6 TRAFFIC REGULATION 6.1 Basic Principles of Regulation 6.1.1 Need for regulation of traffic

The motor vehicle is a machine in the charge of a human being and this makes it necessary for the formulation of suitable regulations for safe operation of traffic and enforcement of these regulations. The regulations should have the following attributes:

so as to achieve safe and efficient movement of traffic and pedestrians, without unduly infringing upon the individual rights of the road users.

nd times.

The traffic engineer should be conversant with the principles of regulation. The design of streets and facilities and the safe operation of traffic are vitally connected with the Traffic Regulations. 6.1.2 Scope of traffic regulations Traffic regulations cover matters dealing with the control of vehicles, drivers and road users. The control of vehicles deals with the registration, weight, size, design, construction and maintenance. Driver regulations deal with the licensing and other aspects of operation of vehicles by drivers. Regulation of other road users deals with the rules regarding pedestrians, cyclists and motorcyclists. In Kenya, traffic is mixed in character, and this brings in the need to regulate the movement of animal drawn vehicles, bi/tricycles and hand carts. 6.1.3 Traffic laws Most of the countries have uniform traffic laws operating in all parts of the country so that the laws are understood consistently everywhere and are obeyed. In U.S.A., the Uniform Motor Vehicle Code serves as a pattern for the States to evolve their own system of traffic laws. Many States have laws in conformity with the Motor Vehicle Code, and some others have rules similar to those contained therein. The Uniform Vehicle Code has the following five Acts: Act I. Uniform Motor Vehicle Administration, Registration Certificate of Title and Anti-theft Act. Act II. Uniform Motor Vehicle Operator's and Chauffeurs Licence Act. Act III. Uniform Motor Vehicle Civil Liability Act. 44 Act IV. Uniform Motor Vehicle Safety Responsibility Act. Act V. Uniform Act regulating Traffic on Highways. In U.K., the Road Traffic Act 1972 provides the framework for rules regarding the traffic regulations. It is divided into the following parts: Part I. Principal Road Safety Provisions. Part II. Construction and Use of Vehicles and Equipment. Part III. Licensing of drivers of vehicles. Part PV. Licensing of drivers of heavy goods vehicles. Part V. Driving Instruction. Part VI. Third Party Liabilities. Part VII. Miscellaneous and General. In Kenya, The Traffic Act. 1993, provides the basis for regulating vehicles, drivers, other road users and traffic. It contains the following Chapters: Part l Preliminary. Part

II Registration of Vehicles Part III Licensing of Vehicles. Part IV Driving Licences . Part V Driving and Other Offences Related to the Use of Motor Vehicles. Part VI Regulation of Traffic Part VIA Designated Parking Places Part VIB Parking Elsewhere than Designated Parking Places Part VII Accidents Part VIII Suspension, Cancellation and Endorsement of Driving Licences Part IX Offences by Drivers of Vehicles Other than Motor Vehicles and Other Road Users Part X Miscellaneous Provisions as to Roads Part XI Public Service Vehicles Part XII General The act is applicable throughout Kenya. 6.2 Regulation of Speed 6.2.1 Need for regulation of speed High speeds are always associated with accidents. Regulation of speed is one of the means of ensuring safer travel. 6.2.2 General principles governing application of speed limits Speed limits selected should be 'realistic' so that they are not disregarded by the drivers. Hence they should be appropriate to conditions at site. Limits should be reviewed periodically based on accumulated experience and future needs. The limits should be related to the volume and character of traffic, the presence of pedestrians, the general features of the road and safety built into it and the development that has taken place along the road. 45 6.2.3 Speed limits in urban areas Speed limits in urban areas are governed by the type and volume of traffic. Chances of accidents are increased urban areas due to mixed traffic conditions, with NMT traffic (Pedestrians and cyclists) competing for space with MT traffic. Parking is also frequent along the streets, presenting another source of accidents. The need for speed limit under these conditions is clear. In UK, the principal urban limit is 30mph, though in some areas a limit of 40mph has been introduced. The definition of the urban area in UK is accepted as any area provided by street lighting. In the USA, the Uniform Vehicle Code prescribes an absolute speed limit of 30mph in any urban district. Many States observe speed limits of 25 to 30mph in residential districts and 20 to 25mph in business districts. In Kenya the traffic is mixed in character. The street pattern in many towns is characterised by narrow and winding access alleys with buildings abutting the carriageway. Pedestrian traffic is often heavy. The need for regulation of speed is paramount. The speed limits on urban traffic vary with the nature of congestion and the type of streets. Table 171 gives some general guidelines from a developing country 46 Table 171 Speed limits for different types of vehicles under mixed traffic condition Different categories of road and streets Speed limits in kilometres per hour

Group I Group II Light and Medium vehicle Heavy vehicles Major Roads of Arterial/Sub-arterial character mostly in open and thinly built-up areas 50 40 Roads with moderate traffic situated in semi-built-up areas. 40 30 Congested roads in built-up Areas. 30 20 6.2.4 Speed limits in rural areas On rural highways, the speed limits normally imposed are 80kph, 100kph and 110kph. The US Uniform Vehicle Code recommends a speed limit of 60mph for locations other than urban areas during the day time. In UK, certain rural sections of motorways used to have an upper speed limit of 70mph, till recently when the energy crisis forced the Government to reduce this. Single carriageway rural roads in U.K. operate on speed limits of 50mph or 60mph. 6.2.5 Problem of Small Villages along Rural Highways Small villages located along rural highways have peculiar safety problems. Since people may live on either side of the road, frequent crossing of the road by pedestrians is unavoidable. Speeding vehicles can cause hazardous conditions for these pedestrians. In such situations, the speed limits will have to be set based on accidents records and the extent of local traffic. Note: It may be preferable in the long run to re-route the road to bypass the villages as they grow into small towns. 6.2.6 Speed limits for different types of vehicles Limits for speed of different classes of vehicles are also important. In UK, on all purpose roads, vehicles which carry goods are subjected to a speed limit of 40mph and buses and coaches to 50mph. If trailers are towed, the speed limit is 10mph lower. On motorways, as a rule, no speed limits for vehicle classes

apply. A typical schedule of speed limits for different types of vehicles is given in Table 17-2. Table 17-2 Speed limits generally followed in Kenya/India for rural highways Classes of Vehicles Maximum 47 Speed k.p.h. 1. Vehicles without trailers (() Light motor vehicle or a motor cycle No limit (ii) Medium or heavy passenger motor vehicle 60 (in) Medium or heavy goods motor vehicle 60 2. Articulated heavy motor vehicle 50 3. Vehicle drawing not more than one trailer (i) Vehicle being a light motor vehicle, and trailer being two-wheeled having a laden weight not more than 800 kg 60 (ii) Vehicle being a light motor vehicle, and trailer having more than two-wheels or a laden weight more than 800 kg 50 (iii) Vehicle being a medium motor vehicle 50

(iv) Vehicle being a heavy motor vehicle 40 (v) Vehicle being a heavy motor vehicle used by the fire brigade 50 4. Any case not covered by above 30 6.2.7 Speed limits at nights Speed limits at nights are generally lower than during day time. This is obviously necessitated by greater risk hazards during night. In USA, the Uniform Vehicle Code recommends a speed limit of 55mph in rural locations during night time, as against 60mph during day time. 6.2.8 Criteria for application of speed limits of 50, 65, 80 and 100 kph Before selecting any particular speed limit, the following factors should be considered: (i) Speed of traffic. For selecting the speed limits, the 85th percentile speed of vehicles is normally selected (from speed studies) (ii) Road conditions. The geometry of the road (its width and layout), gradient, sight distance, street lighting, super-elevation, provision of proper signs and adequate safety measures for pedestrians are some of the road characteristics that should be studied before selecting the speed limit. (iii) Environment of the road. The extent of roadside development, the frequency and nature of access points, the presence of schools, playing fields, industry, housing estates etc. are some of the environmental conditions governing the speed limit. (iv) Traffic. The nature and volume of traffic dictate the selection of speed limits. (v) Accident rates. Past accident rates given positive indication of whether there is any necessity of posting any speed limits. The broad guidelines in Table 17-3 indicate the condition appropriate to the selection of speed limits . 48 Table 17-3 Guidelines for selection of speed limit Appropriate Speed (M.P.H.) (1) Speed of traffic (before limit is applied or altered) (2) Environment of road (3) Traffic composition (4) Character of road (5)

Casualty rate (6) 30 85th percentile speed of cars not greater than 37 M.P.H. (i) Built-up area on both sides (ii) Direct access from development on sides (iii) Presence of schools, recreational grounds and playing fields (i) High proportion of 2-wheeled vehicles (ii) Large number of pedestrians (i) Frequent junctions with visibility inadequate for speeds greater than 30 M.P.H. (ii) Pedestrian crossings (iii) Development close to footways Above 5 per million veh. Miles (average of last years for fatal, serious and slight injuries). 40 85th percentile speed of cars not greater than 47 M.P.H. (i) Built-up area as above (ii) Partially built-up, transition between built-up and rural (iii) Little or no frontage development (t) As above, but with more severe parking restrictions (ii) 2 - wheeled vehicles and pedestrians more numerous (t) Important radial or ring roads with well designed footpaths on both sides (ii) Footways provided roads of adequate capacity and well designed. (iii) Roads such as urban motorways where geometric design is based on 40 M.P.H. speed. (i) Above 3 per million veh. Miles for all types of injury. (ii) Above 1 per million veh. Miles for fatal injury. (iii) Above 1 per million veh miles for pedestrians and drivers two-wheeled vehicles. 50 85th percentile speed of cars not less than 40 M.P.H. and not greater than 57 M.P.H. (i) Rural roads less de-veloped than 40 (ii) But having above average casualty rates. (i) Application to single carriageway roads of two or three traffic lanes, not Fatal and serious casualty rate per million vehicle miles normally 49 Appropriate Speed (M.P.H.) (1)

Speed of traffic (before limit is applied or altered) (2) Environment of road (3) Traffic composition (4) Character of road (5) Casualty rate (6) Roads between sections having speed restrictions of 30 or 40 M.P.H. (ii) Urban or rural roads with little or no frontage development. (iii) Urban or rural roads with no frontage development usually carrying less than 4000 vpd. (ii) Dual or single carriageway roads such as by-passes. (iii) New roads such as urban motorways where geometric design is based on speed of 50 M.P.H. exceeding 1. 70 85th percentile speed of cars usually about or above 58 M.P.H. Little or no frontage development Dual carriageway or divided roads As above for 50 M.P.H. limits. 50 6.2.9 Enforcement methods and instruments for detection of speed violators For success of speed regulation measures, strict enforcement of law is needed. Motorists who violate the speed limit must be apprehended, given official summons or arrested, and penalties must be imposed. They should be tried before courts which are usually constituted to deal with traffic cases exclusively. One of the common methods of detecting speed violation is to follow the violator in an automobile or motor cycle. These vehicles are made conspicuous by marking them with a distinctive colour. The speedometers in the checking vehicles should be accurate and for this purpose should be calibrated frequently. Enoscopes and radar speed meters, described in detail under Chapter 3 have become very popular in recent times with the police authorities for detecting speed violation. For accurate and unbiased estimate of speed, they should be located so as not to be conspicuous to the drivers. 6.2.10 Speed zoning Speed zoning is the designation of various sections of highways for different values of safe speed limits. The limits are selected after careful consideration of various factors that are conducive for the safety of traffic, and are posted by signs. Some of the techniques and studies used to determine the proper speed

limits for speed zoning are (Ref. 9): (i) Complete engineering investigations. (ii) Study of accident frequency, (iii) Number of business establishments on street. (iv) Volume study (v) Speed study. (vi) Observation by police department. (vii) Width of street (viii) Pedestrian traffic volume. (a) Speed zoning at horizontal curves The safe speed at which a vehicle can negotiate a curve is dependent upon the radius of the curve, the value of the superelevation and the permissible value of the coefficient of friction. The following formula relates these factors: V2 = 127 R(e+f) ...(171) Where V= Speed in kilometres per hour R= Radius in metres e = Value of superelevation, expressed as a fraction f = Coefficient of friction. The values of/"recommended by AASTHO (Ref. 10) are given in Table 17-4. Table 17-4 Coefficient of lateral friction recommended by AASTHO Design speed K.P.H. 50 65 80 100 120 130 Maximum lateral friction 016 015 014 013 012 0-11 The Kenya/Indian Road Congress recommends a constant value of 0-15 (Ref. 11). 51 It is also possible to arrive at the speed on curve which drivers consider as a reasonable maximum. If speed data of vehicles are collected at the curve, the 85th percentile speed could be used as the safe speed for posting on the curve.

(b) 17-2-10-3. Safe speeds at intersections The safe speeds at intersections are governed by factors such as the sight distance available and the type of traffic sign that is provided (STOP or GIVE WAY sign). The most common methods available for determining the safe speeds prescribed by some of the U.S. bodies are: (i) National Safety Council Method. (ii) American Automobile Association Method. (iii) American Association of State Highway Officials Method. (i)National Safety Council Method. The following figure represents the basis of the method: Fig. 17-1. Basis of National Safety Council Method of Speed Zoning. A and B are two vehicles, A travelling on the major or preferential street and B travelling on the side street. The view at the intersection is restricted due to the presence of an obstruction. Point C represents the potential collision point and CBA represents the visibility triangle. Since triangles CBA and DAE are similar, Da is taken as equal to the safe stopping distance of vehicle A travelling at a speed V K.P.H. plus a clearance of 5 m The braking distance is given by: Where d = braking distance in metres i; = speed in metres per second g = acceleration due to gravity, m/sec2 f = coefficient of friction V = speed in K.P.H. If f is assumed as 0-53, The safe stopping distance S is the braking distance plus the distance travelled in the perception reaction time, t seconds. 52 The values of t for various values of V are given in Table 17-4. Table 17-4 Perception-reaction time for different speeds V (K.P.H.) 0 20 40 60 80 100 t (seconds) 0-76 0-80 0-95 115 1-55

20 Where Va = Speed in K.P.H. of vehicle A. Assuming the vehicle length to be 7-3 m, the time required for vehicle A to clear the collision point, The same time is needed for vehicle B to travel a distance of Db5, since this vehicle should not get closer to the collision point than the clearance distance of 5 m. Equating both, The above method is applicable to streets intersecting at any angle, provided the measurements a and b are taken parallel to the paths of vehicles A and B respectively. (ii) American Automobile Association Method. The same principles as above are applied here, with the change that f is taken 0.50, the clearance distance is taken as 4-5 m and the perception reaction time uniformly taken 10 second. This gives: Assuming that Va is the legal speed limit, the speed of vehicle B can be calculated on the premise that the distance from B to the collision point should be equal to the safe stopping distance plus a clearance of 4-5 m. The above quadratic equation can be solved for Vb. (Hi) AASHO method (Ref. 13): In third method the coefficient of friction is taken as 0-4 and the perception reaction time is taken as 20 seconds. This gives: 53 Vb can be calculated from this quadratic equation. The use of the above methods can be illustrated by the following example. Problem 17-1. Assume Va = 60 K.P.H., a = 15 m, b = 20 m. Calculate the speed limit on minor street. Solution. By NSC Method, 54 6.2.11 Speed laws Speed laws vary from country to country and even in a country they vary from State to State. In U.S.A., for example, the following categories of law exist: (i) Those which require that the driver should drive at a speed which is safe and reasonable according to the existing conditions of the road, and the potential hazards that may be present on the road. The rule under these laws is called the Basic Speed Rule. (ii) Those which prescribe that the driver should drive at a safe and reasonable speed, but in addition provide that any vehicle speed in excess of a designated limit is deemed to be a violation of the basic speed rule. If any question is raised, the burden of proof falls upon the driver to prove that he was not travelling at an unsafe speed. The designated limit is called the prima facie speed limit. (iii) Those which prescribe an absolute limit above which it is always illegal to drive and below which it is always legal to drive irrespective of the conditions. (iv) Those which prescribe special speed limits in given zones, indicated by signs. 6.2.12 General effect of speed limits Though a large number of drivers disregard the speed limits, yet it cannot be denied that speed limits have an overall salutory effect (Ref. 15). They reduce the accident rate and bring down the number of those who drive at higher speeds. Special beneficiaries are the motor cyclists and pedal cyclists (Ref. 6). Speed limit is, therefore, a powerful tool in traffic regulation. 55 6.3 Regulation of Vehicles

The regulation of vehicles broadly covers the aspects indicated below: (i) Vehicle Registration (ii) Construction and equipment of vehicles. (Hi) Size, weight and loads of vehicles (iv) Lighting of vehicles. (v) Inspection of vehicles. (vi) Control of transport vehicles. (vii) Insurance. 6.3.1 Vehicle Registration Vehicle registration is a basic requirement and the data accumulated provides guidance to administrators, planners, traffic police, economists and traffic engineers on total number of vehicles in use, their different types and use, taxation, name of the owner and licence plate number. In Kenya/India, the vehicles registered in different States bear different licence plate numbers, and the identity of the State can be established by the alphabets preceding the number (Ref. 4). The practice in Kenya/India in regard to the colour of the letters and the background plate is as follow: (i) In case of transport vehicle. In black on a white back- ground. (ii) In case of temporary registrations - In red on a yellow back. ground. (Hi) In case of registration In white on red back-marks allotted to dealers. ground. (iv) In other cases. In white on a black back- ground. In U.K. a system is prevalent by which after the licence number a letter (A, B, etc.) is inserted which signifies the year of registration. Thus it is possible to find out the age of the vehicle when reading the licence plate number. 6.3.2 Construction and equipment of vehicles It is essential that the motor vehicles be constructed and equipped in such a manner as to promote safe and efficient traffic. For this purpose, the regulations usually cover the following aspects: (i) the width, height, length and overhang of vehicles and trailers; (ii) the diameter, width and condition of tyres of vehicles and trailers; (iii) the maximum unladen and laden weight of vehicles and trailers, and the maximum axle weight; (iv) seating arrangements in public service vehicles and the protection of passengers against weather; (v) brakes and steering gear (e.g., in Kenya/India it is necessary to have right hand steering control unless the vehicle is equipped with a mechanical or electrical signalling device); (vi) the use of safety glass; (vii) signalling appliances, lamps and reflectors; (viii) speed governors; (ix) the emission of smoke, visible vapour, sparks, ashes, grit, oil or pollutants; (x) noise caused by the vehicles; (xi) the use of trailers with motor vehicles; (xii) prohibiting the use of horns at specified locations; (xiii) the periodical testing and inspection of the vehicles. 56 In Kenya/India, the State Governments are empowered under the Motor Vehicles Act (Ref. 4), to make rules for the above purpose. 6.3.3 Control of Transport Vehicles In Kenya/India, under the Motor Vehicles Act (Ref. 4), the State Governments have been empowered to frame rules to govern the use of commercial transport vehicles. These rules are intended to grant permit for the plying of goods vehicles on specified routes and regions, having due regard to: (i) the advantages offered by the development of road transport; (ii) the desirability of co-ordinating road and rail transport; (ii i) the desirability of preventing the deterioration of the road system; and (iv) the

desirability of preventing uneconomic competition among motor vehicles. Similarly, the State Governments can grant permits for vehicles carrying passengers. The permits issued under this rule indicate the route or area of operation, the manner in which the vehicle is to be used (Stage carriage, contract carriage, private or public carrier etc.), the carrying capacity, schedule for trips etc. A system of National Permits for goods vehicles is prevalent in Kenya/India. Till recently, the number of such permits used to be limited, but it has now been decided to do away with such restrictions. 6.3.4 Insurance Most of the countries have laws requiring the vehicles to be insured against third party risks. The insurance is intended to cover liability in respect of death or injury to persons or damage to any property of a third party arising out of the use of the vehicle. In Kenya/India, the Motor Vehicles Act contains suitable provisions in this respect. 6.4 Regulations Concerning the Driver Regulations concerning the driver cover the following aspects: (i) Licensing of the driver (ii) Requirements of physical fitness (iii) Age of drivers (iv) Disqualification and endorsement of licences. 6.4.1 Licensing of the Driver Driving of a motor vehicle without the driver having a valid driving licence is an offence. The driving licence legally confers upon the driver the privilege to drive the vehicle. The licence is usually granted after the driver passes a test of competence. The Third Schedule of the Motor Vehicle Act, in Kenya/India prescribes the criteria that should be satisfied by determining the competence of the driver in a test. Among other things, the driver will have to demonstrate his ability in driving the vehicle and should be conversant with the general traffic rules and regulations. 6.4.2 Physical Fitness In Kenya/India, the following diseases and disabilities are deemed to absolutely disqualify a person from obtaining a licence: (i) Epilepsy (ii) Lunacy (iii) Heart disease likely to produce sudden attacks of giddiness or fainting 57 (iv) Inadequate perception (v) Deafness preventing the hearing of ordinary sound signals (vi) Inability readily to distinguish red and green colours (vii) Night blindedness. Persons suffering from Leprosy are ineligible to drive a Public Service Vehicle. 6.4.3 Age of Drivers In Kenya/India, the minimum age to drive a motor vehicle is 18 years and the minimum age to drive a transport vehicle is 20 years (Ref. 4). In U.K. the minimum age is as under (Ref. 3): Class of Vehicle

Age (i) Motor cycle or invalid carriage 16 (ii) Motor car 17 (iii) Trailer used primarily for work on land in connection with agriculture 17 (iv) Heavy locomotive, light locomotive, motor tractor or heavy motor car 21 6.4.4 Disqualification and endorsement of Licence Habitual drinking and dangerous driving render a driver to be disqualified from holding a driving licence. In Kenya/India, the Regional Transport Authority and the courts have the power to disqualify. Similarly, such authorities have powers to endorse upon the driving licence and particulars of the disqualification. 6.4.5 Offences and Penalties The drivers are expected not to drive at excessive speed and to avoid careless and dangerous driving. Failure to observe such safety precautions is deemed as an offence. Driving under the influence of liquor or drugs and driving when mentally or physically unfit are also punishable offences. The Motor Vehicles Act of Kenya/India lays down different punishment for different offences. 6.5 Regulations Concerning Traffic In Kenya/India, the traffic is mixed in character and consists of a motley of motorised vehicles (e.g., cars, buses trucks, tractors and trailers, scooters, motor-cycles, scooter-rickshaws and vans), animal drawn vehicles (bullock carts, horse-drawn vehicles and camel-carts), cycles, cycle-rickshaws and hand-carts. In urban streets, mixed traffic presents hazards and affects the capacity of the streets adversely. Any city

or town will have to, therefore, develop a system of rules to regulate such traffic and enforce them strictly. Some of the regulations that are possible are outlined here. 6.5.1 Cycles The following rules promote safety of cycle traffic (Ref. 20): (i) Cycling while under the influence of alcohol or drugs shall be considered an offence. 58 (ii) Riding of more than one person on a cycle shall be considered an offence. (iii) Wherever separate cycle tracks are provided, the cyclists shall ride on such tracks compulsorily. (iv) Not more than two cycles shall remain abreast except at separate cycle tracks. (v) Cyclists shall not use foot-ways. (vi) Cyclists shall not be allowed to be towed by any other vehicle. (vii) Where separate cycle tracks are provided, the cyclists shall keep to the extreme left of the carriageway. (viii) All cycles shall be provided with good brakes, night lamps, a red reflector at the rear and bells or horns. (ix) Cycles shall be parked only at designated places. 6.5.2 Motor Cycles and Scooters The following are some of the special provisions for regulating the safe movement of motor cycles and scooters: (i) Motor cycle and scooter riders shall wear compulsorily crash helmets. (ii) All motor cycles and scooters shall be provided with a rear view mirror. (Hi] All motor cycles and scooters shall have a screen provided on the rear wheel to prevent loose garments getting entangled in the spokes. (iv) Not more than one rider and a pillion rider shall be carried on a motor cycle or scooter. (v) A rider with a learner's licence shall not carry a pillion rider. (vi) A footrest shall be compulsorily provided for the pillion rider. (vii) The load projections on the sides shall be restricted to 0-5 m from the longitudinal middle of the motor cycle, on the front to about 0-6 m from the front wheel and on the rear to about 10 m from the roar wheel. 6.5.3 Rules for Pedestrian Traffic The following are some of the simple safety rules which the pedestrians should observe (Ref. 20): (i) Pedestrians shall obey the traffic signals and any violations shall be considered an offence. For example, crossing a street while the signal indicates red shall be an offence. (ii) Pedestrians shall use the footways wherever they are provided, the street being used only for crossing. (iii) Pedestrians shall cross the streets only at cross-walks wherever they are provided. (in) Where footways are not provided separately, pedestrians shall walk on the right hand side of the road facing traffic. 6.5.4 Rules for animal vehicles The following are some of the regulations that are possible for animal drawn vehicles: (i) The animal drawn traffic shall be prohibited from carrying long pipes, rods, bamboos etc. more than 5 metres in length. (ii) The height, length and width of loads shall be restricted to safe limits, depending upon the

size of the carriage. (iii) The animal drawn traffic shall invariably keep to the extreme left of the carriageway having mixed traffic. 6.5.5 Rules for animal on streets The following rules are some of those possible for regulating the animals on streets: 59 (i) Driving of animals such as camels and elephants on the busy streets shall be prohibited. (ii) Cattle in droves shall not be driven on busy streets at peak periods of traffic. (iii) Cattle in droves shall be accompanied by sufficient number of attendants to completely keep them under control. (iv) A horse rider shall keep to the extreme left of the carriageway as far as possible. (v) A horse rider shall not use the cycle tracks and footways. 6.6 General Rules Concerning Traffic In addition to the special regulations concerning the vehicles, drivers, speed and parking, there are some fundamental traffic laws which every road user must be conversant with. These laws are of a basic nature and are intended to be applied on a uniform basis throughout the country. 6.6.1 "Keep to the left" rule Kenya/India is one of the countries which still adhere to the "Keep to the left" rule. U.K. is another. Countries such as U.S.A. and Canada follow the "Keep to the right" rule. Though no inherent advantage can be claimed to either of the above rules, the majority of the countries in the world today follow the "Keep to the right" rule. Some of those following the "Keep to the left" rule are, therefore seriously considering changing over to the "Keep to the right" rule. Sweden is one of those that have switched on the "Keep to the right" rule recently. The argument in favour of adopting a uniform pattern throughout the world is that drivers travelling in different countries will have little difficulty if the rules of the road were the same every where and the motor vehicle industry need not manufacture two modelsone for internal consumption and the other for export. It is true that changing over from one system to the other is extremely costly, because of the need to modify the costly highway structures, signs, signal installations and road markings, and the changes that will be necessitated in the vehicle manufacturing industry. It is equally true, however, that if a change is deemed to be necessary, the earlier it is effected the better. This is especially true of developing countries, which are just at the threshold of the widespread use of the motor vehicle. According to the "King to the left" rule, the drivers must keep to the left and stay on the left side except when overtaking another vehicle or making a right turn. Keeping to the left is not however, required in one-way streets or multi-lane highways. 6.6.2 Overtaking rules Normal rules in countries with the left side rule prescribe overtaking on the right. When there are multiple lanes, this rule is not usually enforced. Where overtaking is prohibited by signs, the above rules do not apply.

6.6.3 Turning rules 60 Fig. 17-2. Correct left and right turning manoeuvres. In countries with the left side rule, left turning manoeuvres must be made from the lane nearest to the left hand side curb of the street and into the left lane of the street concerned nearest to the left side curb. Similarly, a right turning manoeuvre must be made from the lane nearest to the centre line of the street and into the left lane nearest to the centre line of the street concerned. The correct turning manoeuvres are indicated in Fig. 17-2. 6.6.4 Priority rules at intersection The usual rule at an intersection is that the vehicle which arrives at an intersection first has the right of way. When two vehicles arrive simultaneously at an intersection, priority is given to the vehicle on the right. At intersections where the STOP sign is installed on any arm, all vehicles approaching the intersection on that arm must first stop and only then proceed. 6.6.5 Hand signals In Kenya/India, the following rules exist for hand signalling: (i) Right turn. For turning to the right or for driving to the right in order to overtake another vehicle, a driver shall extend his right arm in a horizontal position outside of and to the right of his vehicle with the palm of his hand turned to the front. (ii) Left turn. A driver shall extend his right arm and rotate it in an anti-clockwise direction. (iii) Slowing dawn. A driver shall extend his right arm with the palm downward and to the right of the vehicle and shall move the arm so extended up and down several times. (iv) Stopping. A driver shall raise his right forearm vertically outside of and to the right of the vehicle, palm to the front. (v) Signal for allowing to be overtaken. The driver shall extend his right arm and hand horizontally outside of and to the right of the vehicle and shall swing the arm backwards and forwards in a semi-circular motion. 6.6.6 Rules intended to promote pedestrian movement on footways The following are some of the rules that are enforced to promote pedestrian movement on footways: (i) Prohibiting hawkers and peddlers from occupying footway space. (ii) Preventing abutting shopkeepers from erecting temporary structures, projections, platforms on the footways. 61 6.7 Parking Regulations 6.7.1 Need for parking regulations The phenomenal growth of motor vehicles in towns and cities has brought to the fore the problem of parking. Safety, comfort and convenience of road users, including all kinds of motorists and pedestrians, demand a proper and effective regulation of parking. It has often been said that proper parking policy is the key to the traffic problems of a town.

6.7.2 Types of regulations that are normally imposed. The following are the types of regulations that are normally imposed on parking: (a) Space controls (i) Restrictions on loading and unloading of commercial vehicles. (ii) Exclusive parking spaces for taxis. (iii) Reservation of curb space for bus stops. (iv) Restriction on parking near intersections. (v) Limitations on curb parking and designation of parking places along the curb. (6) Time Controls (i) Peak hour parking prohibitions. (ii) Parking control by fees. 6.7.3 Restrictions on loading and unloading of commercial vehicles. Commercial goods transport vehicles consume considerable space and hinder the free flow of traffic. The following rules can be enforced to regulate loading and unloading: (1) Making it necessary for the vehicles halting for the purpose of loading and unloading to draw up parallel to and alongside the curb and not athwart it or athwart a cross steel. (2) Restricting loading and unloading (i) Within an intersection area and 75 metres on either side; (ii) On a pedestrian crossing or within 6 metres on either side of it; (iii) Near corners, bends, safety zones, and also entrances and drive-ways of properties; (iv) On side walks and cycle tracks, and (v) Within 10 metres of a bus stop. 6.7.4 Exclusive parking spaces for taxis Taxis serve a great need to city traffic and deserve to be patronised in the matter of parking spaces by the curb side. Exclusively reserved taxi parking spaces are common in most of the progressive cities. 6.7.5 Reservation of curb space for bus stops Public transport is really the answer to the growing traffic dilemma in the cities. Designation of bus stops along the curb and prohibiting any other vehicle to use this space is a step in the direction of fostering of public transport. 6.7.6 Restrictions on parking near intersections Safety requirements demand the prohibition of any kind of parking within an intersection area and 75 metres on either side of it. Similarly, parking should be prohibited on a pedestrian crossing or within 6 metres on either side of it. Corners, bends, safety zones, 62 entrances and driveways of properties, side walks and cycle tracks are other locations where parking needs to be prohibited. 6.7.7 Limitations on curb parkingdesignation of parking places along the curb Control on the curb parking is the answer to the problems posed by congested streets. If judiciously applied, it can increase the capacity and speed of traffic to a large extent, apart from bringing benefits due to reduced accident hazards. For this purpose, parking places are designated at desired locations

alone, and no parking is permitted elsewhere. The measure is successful only if the streets are properly signed and the carriageway markings are adequate. 6.7.8 Peak hour parking prohibitions If parking is found to be undesirable only during the peak hours, prohibition only during the peak hours can be resorted to. Proper indication of the prohibited hours on the road signs is necessary. 6.7.9 Parking control by fees Regulation of parking by charging fees has the desirable effect of curbing long term parking while encouraging short term parking. The parking turnover is increased in the process. One method of collecting the charge is by installing parking meters. 6.8 Enforcement of Regulations 6.8.1 Importance of enforcement and punishment The ultimate benefit of regulatory measures, to the community depends upon the extent to which these laws are enforced and observed. The enforcement effort put in by the police authorities and the administration determines in a large measure the degree of observance of the rules. The nature and type of penalties for non-observance also has an effect on the degree of observance of the rules. Enforcement involves considerable deployment of police and administrative personnel and, by its very nature, is costly. If the resources are limited, it may be necessary to evaluate the cost of enforcement measures and weigh the same against the likely benefits (Ref. 17). In a developing country like Kenya/India, where a good proportion of the road users are not educated, enforcement measures should be given a high priority (Ref. 18). 6.8.2 Goals and objectives The major goals and objectives of traffic enforcement are: (i) To achieve safe and efficient movement of traffic and prevent accidents: (ii) To prevent violations of traffic laws. {iii) To take persuasive action to prevent road users from violating traffic laws. (iv) To punish those who violate traffic laws. Enforcement measures can be preventive or punitive. Education programmes and traffic engineering techniques are preventive whereas punishment for offences is punitive. 6.8.3 Machinery for enforcement 63 The machinery for enforcement usually consists of police, courts or traffic authorities. In some countries, the police or traffic authorities deal with minor offences and impose penalties directly. The courts are usually called upon to deal with more serious traffic offences. 6.8.4 The police

The police forces have a vital role to play in traffic law enforcement. In many major cities, the traffic police are a specialist wing of the police forces in view of the complicated and peculiar nature of duties involved. In U.K., a system of traffic wardens is in operation to assist the traffic police in enforcing the traffic laws and in dealing with minor police functions pertaining to control and regulation of moving and parking vehicles. The duties of the traffic police in enforcement are as below: (a) Preventive duties. (i) Control and direct the traffic flow so as to ensure safe movement; (ii) Supply information to the road users unfamiliar with the locality about the rules and regulations in force and their desired destinations. (iii) Investigate accidents and build up data on them. (iv) Intensive patrol in selected areas and accident prone locations to prevent recurrence of accidents. (v) Initiate road safety propaganda and education campaigns. (b) Persuasive duties. (i) Issuing written warnings for traffic offences; (ii) Issuing verbal warnings for minor offences, (c) Punitive duties. (i) Issuing summons to the offender whenever a traffic law violation takes place. (ii) Arresting a road user whenever the police have reasons to believe that the driver is endangering the lives of road users and property. Under the Motor Vehicles Act in Kenya/India, the police in uniform have powers to arrest without warrant whenever specific offences are committed. (iii) Imposing on-the-spot fines in minor offences to prevent the offenders being dragged unnecessarily to the courts. (iv) Assisting the courts in dealing with the offenders brought before them. (v) Seizing and detaining vehicles used unlawfully and without permits. (vi) Impounding false documents found in the charge of drivers. For the efficient discharge of the above duties, the police are provided with patrol vehicles, speed measuring devices and alcohol test devices. 6.8.5 The courts The courts have the final say in the matter of punishing the offenders. They interpret the law, assess the guilt and impose penalties. In Kenya/India, the Motor Vehicles Act prescribes the penalties for different traffic offences. For proper discharge of their duties, the Magistrates must have adequate knowledge of traffic laws and, in addition, should have specialized training to handle such offences. In this section the existing Kenya/Indian traffic laws will be examined and their shortcomings identified. 64 The advent and the increasing popularity of the motor vehicles in the thirties prompted the introduction of the Motor Vehicles Act in 1939. The Act, revised recently in 1988 is still the fountainhead of all traffic regulations in the country. Though the Act was framed with the best of intentions and has been amended from time to time to suit new requirements, the experience of the road user and the enforcement authorities in its working has been that the law is deficient in many respects. A brief discussion of the deficiencies will now be made. The Act was basically framed to codify the laws relating to Motor Vehicles. It is thus limited to only one of the constituents of traffic, namely, the motor vehicles, and is silent on the other important categories of road users, namely, the pedestrian, animal-drawn transport and cyclists. The rules and regulations concerning these categories of traffic are left to be framed by the local authorities. This gives rise to fragmented pieces of regulatory measures, often halfhearted and more often contradictory, locally in force in different parts of the country. There is a need for a unified traffic law covering all categories of road traffic and applicable throughout the country. Even as regards certain aspects of motor vehicles, the practice varies from one part of the country to

another. For example, the registered laden weight permitted on a truck of the same make and model is different in different States. The provision regarding periodic inspection of vehicles varies from one part of the country to another. The wide variation in laws in different parts of the country is not conducive to safety, since most of the road users do not have a clear conception of their obligations. In short, the Motor Vehicles Act has not been conceived keeping in view the various safety aspects. The stress is on regulation of motor vehicles and is certainly not on prevention of accidents. There is a need to examine all the traffic laws framed in the country and to arrive at basic uniform traffic laws applicable throughout the country, and to supplement the same by additional provisions to control traffic in municipal areas. This has been highlighted in the recommendations of an Expert Study Group which went into the whole question of traffic safety in Kenya/India recently (Ref. 19). The Kenya/Indian Motor Vehicles Act does not cover the safety aspect of roads by the Highway authorities. The result is often that the roads are dug up indiscriminately and adequate warning light and signs are not installed. Diversion of traffic on substandard roads causes serious accidents. The law does not make it mandatory for the highway authority to provide minimum safety precautions. A Highway Safety Code has now been brought out by the Kenya/Indian Roads Congress (Ref. 20). The Code covers all types of road users including pedestrians, cyclists, motor vehicle drivers and passengers of public transport vehicles. 65 7 ROAD USER AND VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS A road facility is designed for use by non-motorized traffic (pedestrians, cyclists, animal-drawn vehicles) and a variety of motorized traffic. Thus there is a great variation in the characteristics and behaviour of the users. Human factors that govern the behaviour of the driver, cyclist and the pedestrian affect significantly the design elements. The characteristics of the different types of vehicles will influence the geometric design elements of the highway and determine the safety of traffic using the road. 7.1 Human Factors Governing Road User Behaviour 7.1.1 Human body as a complex system The human body exhibits varied reactions to external stimuli. Human behaviour is studied under the following groups: 1. Physiological: Vision and Hearing 2. Psychological: Perception, Intellection, Emotion and Volition 7.1.2 Vision Road users (i.e. Pedestrians, cyclists and drivers) are able to use the road safely by seeing the road and traffic thereon and in evaluating the size, shape, colour, distance and speed of approach of various objects on the road. Safety of traffic depends upon the ability of the road users to see traffic lights, traffic signs, and vehicles on the road, safe gaps and safe crossing places. The drivers are able to cross, overtake, stop. Accelerate and decelerate their vehicles on seeing the road conditions, the traffic conditions and the environmental conditions affecting safe traffic movement. 7.1.3 Hearing

For safe driving, cycling and walking, sound is an invaluable aid. Horns can alert the road user. Similarly the sound of a nearing vehicle or the sound of skidding may alert the road user and avert an accident. 7.1.4 Perception, intellection, emotion and volition The psychological traits of a road user are extremely important to the engineer. The Important characteristics are important perception, intellection, emotion and volition, abbreviated as PIEV. The time taken for these processes is known as PIEV time. a) Perception: the process of perceiving the sensations through the eyes, ears, skin, nose and the brain. It is recognition of the sensations and becoming aware of the information transmitted. b) Intellection: the identification of the stimuli by the development of new thoughts and ideas. c) Emotion: the individual trait of the person governing his/her decision making process, d) Volition: the will to react to a situation, In highway design practice, the time that elapses between the perception of a danger by a road user and his decision to take action is an important consideration. In the 66 design of sight distances, the perception and brake-reaction time is used. The perception time is that time required for a driver to come to the realization that brakes must be applied. The brake reaction time is that time lag between the perception of danger and the effective application of brakes. The AASHO practice uses a combined perception and brake-reaction time of 2.5 sec. 7.2 Pedestrian Characteristics Speed of walk of pedestrians is needed for the design of traffic signals and other pedestrian facilities. The average walking speeds range from. 0.75 to 1.8m/s. For design of sub-way, footbridges and other facilities, the space required by a pedestrian is generally taken as an ellipse with a major axis of 0.6 m and minor axis of 0.45m. The spacing between pedestrians while walking is generally assumed to be 25m, which roughly corresponds to time headway of 2 sec. 7.3 Vehicle Characteristics A knowledge of the size and power performance of vehicles is necessary to determine the theoretical fuel consumption of vehicles and the geometric design elements such as grades. The vehicle engine power should be sufficient to overcome all resistance to motion at the speed of motion and to enable the vehicle to accelerate at any desired rate. The vehicle in motion encounters the following forces: 1. Rolling resistance 2. Air resistance 3. Grade resistance 4. Inertia forces during acceleration and deceleration. 5. Transmission losses. 67

8 ROAD SAFETY 8.1 Introduction The increase in the number of motor vehicles on roads created a major social problem - the loss of lives through road accidents. This concerns the traffic engineer since many highway features affect the safety of the vehicle and the other road users. Based on the statistics the traffic engineer must devise ways to reduce the accidents through better planning, design, construction, maintenance and traffic operation. The traffic engineer is also concerned about the regulation and management of traffic to ensure safer travel. Accident data supply valuable information to control, regulate and manage the traffic more efficiently. The cost of traffic accidents helps the traffic engineer in evaluating an improvement scheme aimed at reducing the accidents. Engineers and behavioural scientists have been working together for over 50 years to understand and design efficient person-machine systems. Their research has helped transportation engineers to understand how human beings (as vehicle operators, passengers, or pedestrians) interact with vehicles and the transportation facilities they use). 8.2 Elements of Road Safety It has been long recognized that the three main elements of the highway mode are the human element, the vehicle, and the environment. This recognition has provided safety engineers with a useful matrix, and details of this matrix are shown in Table 6-1, where these three elements are considered within the highway safety framework. 68 Table 6-1 Highway Safety Factors Precrash Crash Postcrash Human Training In-vehicle restraints worn Emergency medical Knowledge by driver and fitted in services Skill

vehicle Incident detection and Basic abilities assistance Motives and attitudes Vehicle Control system design Occupant protection Fire/fume control systems Comfort system design system Design for ease of Information systems Control system design emergency access design Repair capabilities Laws and enforcement Environment Geometries and Geometries and Geometries for ease of appurtenances appurtenances for emergency access

Enforcement system energy absorption and Debris control and Control system forgiving highway cleanup Weather and light Restoration of road and conditions traffic devices Road-surface conditions If the management of the system is to be conducted efficiently, all applicable factors need to be considered. For instance, drivers need to have proper and adequate training and knowledge of the highway mode before they drive a vehicle; in the event of a crash, the vehicle needs to have the proper restraints, such as seat belts and air bags; and emergency medical service should be available to victims in case of a vehicle crash. Similarly, the vehicle and the human-made environment ought to have certain attributes at all three stages - pre-crash, crash, and post-crash - as countermeasures to cope with the dilemma posed by accidents. First, a simplified framework of a model of the human-vehicleenvironment system is described. In subsequent sections, the human and vehicle characteristics are dealt with. These characteristics are important in themselves, in the sense that the traffic engineer should realize that in the case of human beings, it is not enough to work for the "average" driver or the "average" pedestrian, because of the wide range of abilities of the "average" driver and pedestrian. A similar dilemma can be recognized when dealing with vehicle characteristics. The transportation system at any one moment is used by motor vehicles ranging from the smallest car to a large combination truck. Hence, the traffic engineer is looking more at "limitations" than at "averages." 69 8.3 A Simplified Framework A simplified framework of a model that attempts to provide an understanding of the human-vehicleenvironment system is shown in Figure 4-1. Proper driver education imparts knowledge about the human-vehicle-environment interaction, develops driving skills, and positively affects the attitude of the would-be driver. It has the potential for creating safer driving practice, resulting in reduced accidents. The laws and their enforcement provide guidance and motivation for safer and efficient driver behavior. Laws, therefore, should be realistic and comprehensible to be effective. It has been demonstrated that

the mere existence of laws without effective enforcement is ineffective. The roadway/roadside environments include both the physical and ambient conditions, and the vehicle characteristics include the mechanical control system and information sources provided to the driver. The sensory field consists of many pieces of information that the driver uses. For example, the visual field consists of objects, lines, and edges. Similar inputs received through the hearing and smelling abilities, together with those perceived by the sense of touch, make up the sensory field. A broad meaning is attached to the term "driver personality," encompassing the physiological attributes, knowledge, skills, and habits of the driver. Figure 6-1 Human-Vehicle-Environment Operating System (FHWA, 1980) The driver decision process includes the classical chain of sensing, perceiving, analyzing, deciding, and responding. These activities are discussed later in this chapter. Finally, the vehicle response to the action taken by the driver is a function of vehicle characteristics and the roadway/roadside environment. 70 In summary, drivers have two functions in this system. First, they are using the system to move from one point to another in a certain period of time, taking into account safety, convenience, and comfort. They are also acting as the guidance and control system for the vehicle, which involves continuous "fine control" of the vehicle in terms of direction and speed. To do this, drivers must detect and select information from the general environment, including the highway geometry and translate the decisions into a set of actions on the vehicle. Through proper feedback, there is an intimate and continuous interaction among the highway geometries, the vehicle, and the driver. 71 72 8.4 Collection of Accident Data 8.4.1 Introduction Accurate and comprehensive accident data collection is necessary as the data serves to identify the basic causes of accidents and to suggest mitigation measures. Accident data has a number of uses broadly classified as follows:

the Motor Vehicle Administrator 8.4.2 Requirements of accident records

t be accurately defined.

8.4.3 Standard definitions The definitions of some terms used in Accident Reporting Forms are given below: Road accident. An accident (collision, overturning or slipping) which occurred or originated on a road open to public traffic resulting in either injury or loss of life, or damage to property, in which at least one moving vehicle was involved. Person killed Any person killed on the spot in the accident or whose death could be directly traced to the injury(ies) received. Fatal accident An accident in which one or more persons were killed. Grievously injured person. A person who received grievous injuries (in accident) such as fractures, concussions, internal lesions, crushing, severe cuts and lacerations, severe general shock requiring medical treatment and any other serious lesions requiring detention in hospital. Grievous injury accidents Accidents in which person (s) were grievously injured. Slightly injured persons Persons who have sustained only minor injuries/bruises/sprains. Minor injury accidents Accidents in which persons received only minor injuries/bruises/ sprains. Non-injury accidents Accidents in which no one was killed or injured. 73 Pedestrian Any road user other than a driver or passenger, e.g. persons in or operating pedestrian conveyance such as wheel chair without engine, push cart, or pulling a cycle etc. Driver Any person who drives a vehicle or rides a pack or saddle animal. Passenger Any person, other than a driver, who is in or on a vehicle. Motor vehicle Mechanically propelled vehicle including tractors and cycles fitted with an engine. Pedal cycles Two/three-wheeled pedal vehicle using human energy for its propulsion. Motor cycles A motor operated vehicle with two wheels more than 450 mm in diameter without pedal operations. Motorcar. A freewheeled self-propelled vehicle designed for the transportation of persons but limited in seating capacity to not more than 7 passengers. Motorcar (Taxi). A motorcar constructed, adapted, or used to carry not more than six passengers, excluding the driver for hire or reward. Autorickshaw. A motor operated vehicle with three wheels less than 450 mm in diameter without pedal operation. Scooter. A motor operated vehicle with two wheels less than 450 mm in diameter without pedal operation. Articulated vehicle. A unit made up of a road motor vehicle and a semi-trailer. Vehicle collisions are classified into: Head on collision, rear end collision, brush/sideswipe, right angled collision and/or right turn collision. Types of insurance covers include Comprehensive (Covering all risks) and Third party (which includes all types, other than comprehensive insurance. 8.4.4 Standard accidents reporting forms Almost all countries have prescribed accident reporting forms. These are generally classified as:

8.4.5 Collision diagrams and collision diagram A collision diagram is a schematic representation of all the accidents occurring at a particular location. It contains a large-scale map of the location and the paths of the vehicles and the position of the pedestrian involved in each of the accidents. A uniform system of symbols is used to identify the full details and nature of the accidents. The prime idea is to obtain enough information to interpret the cause of accidents. Collision diagrams should contain the following important features: (i) Geometric features of the location, giving the street width, shoulder width, etc; 74 (ii) Property lines; (iii) Footways and driveways; (iv) Separate cycle tracks; (v) Sight obstructions in the roadway; (vi) Traffic signs, signals and markings; (vii) Street lighting; (viii) Bridges, culverts, over/underpasses; (ix) Ditches along the roadway; and (x) Parking regulations. 8.5 Statistical Methods for Analysis of Accident Data The data gathered on accidents can be purposefully interpreted and used only if modern statistical methods are employed. A number of statistical methods are currently being applied in accident research include: (i) Regression methods; (ii) Poisson distribution ; (iii) Use of Chi-squared test for comparing accident data ; (iv) Quality control method Regression methods are based on the principle that the expected number of accidents, on a certain road system during a given time period, is linearly dependent on factors that are significant for the

determination of accident frequency. Some of the regression variables (independent variables) that could be considered are: (i) Two wheeled vehicles involved in personal injury accidents as a proportion of all vehicles involved. (ii) Estimated vehicle-mileage travelled in hours of darkness as a proportion of all vehicle-mileage. (iii) Injury accident on icy roads as a proportion of all injury accidents. (iv) Injury accidents of wet roads as a proportion of all injury accidents. (v) Estimated vehicle mileage (volume of traffic) (vi) Cost of safety improvements. The regression equation is easy to determine by the method of least squares. Poisson distribution is used to determine the probability of a driver causing an accident. It can also be used to determine the probability of accidents occurring in a given time span. Chi-squared distribution for comparing accident frequencies is useful when assessing the effectiveness of safety measures adopted at a particular location or stretch of road. Before and after data on accidents can be evaluated on statistical principles using the Chi-squared test 8.6 Road and its Effect on Accidents Prevailing road characteristics can contribute to the occurrence of accidents, and improvement to road conditions can mitigate on the number and severity of accidents. 75 It has been realised that safety can be built into the highways, including curve radii for safe speeds, and length of vertical curves. The following are typical design considerations The Vertical alignment vertical curves that blend with horizontal curves Sight distance (i) Safe stopping sight distance, and (ii) Overtaking sight distance Superelevation - the road should have adequate superelevation. Deficiency in superelevation can cause serious accidents. Carriageway width - a standard width for a two-way road should be 7m to cater for 2 lanes of traffic. Unfortunately, single lane roads have to be accommodated in many areas due to limited financial resources, and hence inherent danger during overtaking and crossing. Shoulders - are needed for parking stopped vehicles. Shoulders should be of adequate width and be maintained in good condition. Road signs/markings - When properly designed and maintained road signs inform the driver of need for caution and can avert many an accident. Similarly road markings such as centreline marking, stop line marking and pedestrian crossing marking can prevent accidents. Junction design - Elements of junction design such as turning radius, width at entry and exist and channelizing islands should receive proper attention. Improved visibility and staggered crossroads can reduce accidents. Channelization reduces the number of collision points and hence promotes safety. Pavement surface determine to a large extent the safety of a vehicle on curve or braking. The surface should have anti-skid properties even when the pavement is wet. Formation delineators and guardrails

Formation delineators with reflectors aid drivers on curves or high embankments. Guardrails and safety barriers prevent vehicles from going off the roadway in the event of loss of control. Narrow bridges and culverts Narrow bridges and culverts can cause very serious accidents, especially when the roadway is wide. Widening of such narrow structures should be undertaken if accidents are frequently caused at the location. Posting proper warning signs can also save ugly accidents. Median width A wide median prevents glare from opposite stream of traffic and promotes safety, but it is often difficult to obtain such a wide median and one has to do with 5 m or so. In extreme situations, widths as low as 1.2 m are also used. Street Lighting The importance of adequate street lighting for preventing road accidents needs no special emphasis. Good street lighting also reduces the severity of accidents. 76 8.7 The Vehicle Vehicles play a dominant role in road safety. One estimate puts that mechanical deficiencies cause about 5 per cent of all traffic accidents. The subject of vehicle safety is controversial: while on the one hand, the manufacturers maintain that the present day cars are safe provided they are run and maintained with care, the consumers argue that vehicles are the biggest culprits that cause serious accidents. Various aspects of vehicle design and maintenance are involved in making accidents i. fewer in number, ii. less serious to other road user iii. less severe to vehicle occupants 8.7.1 Braking system Brakes are needed to bring the vehicles to a stop whenever a driver comprehends immediate danger. A good braking system should achieve this objective without resulting in the driver's loss of directional control of the vehicle. The interaction between the tyre and the road surface governs largely the ultimate braking performance of vehicles, although factors such as the braking system itself are significant. 8.7.2 Vehicle lighting system The lighting system of the vehicle consists of headlights, side lamps, parking lights, rear lights, direction indicators and stop lamps. An efficient and reliable system of lighting the vehicle is desirable for averting accidents. The headlight should perform two functions: to provide a main beam for enabling the driver to see the road ahead for sufficient long distance and to provide a dipper beam which must avoid glare to the opposing traffic, while at the same time providing sufficient visibility to the driver. Glare is a serious problem when two vehicles approach each other and can blind the driver's vision. Rear lamps give indication to the driver following a vehicle about the presence of a vehicle in front of him. Their efficient design and functioning can avert front-to rear collisions. Direction indicators give adequate notice of the intention of the driver to turn or to stop. The usual types of direction indicators are the

flashing type. The position, type and colour of the indicators should be such as to be visible to the following drivers easily. The direction indicators are usually amber in colour, and preferably they should be mounted at the side of the vehicle approximately at the level of the driver's eye. 8.7.3 Vehicle body-its features In the design of motor vehicles for safe driving, an aspect that has been receiving increasing attention is the features and dimensions of the vehicle body. Factors that need to be considered are: i. the shape and dimensions of the driver's seat 77 ii. arrangement of dials on the dash board iii. positioning of controls in relation to the driver's seat iv. visibility of the driver from the seat v. noise levels in the vehicle vi. concentration of carbon monoxide inside the vehicle. Another controversial issue is the horsepower of the vehicle. While one group holds the view that high horse-powered vehicles cause more accidents, the other group contends that basically high horsepower vehicles are safer ones and what causes more accidents with them is their misuse. Excessive speeding is possible with high-powered vehicles and this probably contributes to more accidents. In such cases, speed governors are a great necessity. 8.7.4 Tyres Tyres are an important aspect of vehicle design for safety. The performance of tyres relative to puncture, blowouts, vulnerability to damage by sharp objects, braking and road surface characteristics are areas where considerable research has taken place. Skidding is a phenomenon that is governed by the interaction of the tyre, brakes, road surface, speed and the wetness of the road surface. 8.7.5 Vehicle inspection and maintenance Frequent inspection of vehicles and testing them is an important requirement. Such periodic tests identify the mal-functioning of the important parts and facilitate easy maintenance. Most important items that need periodic inspection are the brakes, lighting system and the steering mechanism. Additional features that could form part of routine inspection could be the tyres, suspension system and the windscreen. Legislative enforcement of an effective inspection system will yield good results in safety. Some countries have made it compulsory for testing the vehicle periodically, Kenya being one of them. The UK and some States in the U.S.A. have also provision for compulsory periodic testing. 8.8 The Driver

The driver is the key factor in most of the accidents. He is the human element in charge of the machine. He drives it, steers it, accelerates it, decelerates it, brakes it, and stops it. His behaviour influences and controls the vehicle while his behaviour itself is controlled by his personality, training and attitudes. Alcohol and drugs affect his driving capability profoundly and are of special significance for traffic safety. Age and sex of drivers have also been found to be important factors in safety research. The task of a driver is really taxing. During the course of his normal driving he has to overtake vehicles and be overtaken by some, perform numerous turning manoeuvres, comprehend dangerous situations as they present themselves at intersections, deal with a number of pedestrians who cross the streets at all sorts of odd places and must make many important decisions in a fraction of a second. It is these risks that a driver is exposed to which result in traffic accidents. 8.8.1 Drivel-judgment, skill and emotional make-up 78 When a driver perceives a danger, he immediately reacts to it. The time he takes to comprehend the danger depends upon his individual mental make-up and is called Perception time. Once the information is fed to him, some time must elapse before he can react to the stimulus. This time is called his Reaction time. The Perception time and the Reaction time vary from driver to driver. Some authorities also call the Perception and Reaction time as the PIEV time (Perception, Intellection, Emotion and Volition timesee Chapter 2). AASHO Policy assumes a perception time of 1.5 seconds and total perception and brake reaction time of 2.5 seconds for designing the sight distance. The reaction time for different events is also different. After having assessed the situation mentally, the driver is now ready to decide on the course of action. His individual sense of 'judgment' is built upon his experience of past driving, driver education and his estimate of his own capacity to perform. Different drivers take different degrees of risks, and age and sex of the driver has an important effect in this regard. By skill is meant the driver's capacity to control and manipulate his vehicle under situations he is called upon to deal with. His skill is partly inborn, but some skill is acquired out of training and experience. An interesting approach is to study the relation between the physiological or psychophysical make-up of a driver and his accident proneness. The Galvanic Skin Response (GSR) is one of the measurements suggested to determine the involuntary change in the electrical resistance of the skin. 8.8.2 Age of drivers It is generally observed that young drivers cause more accidents than would be caused by mature drivers with considerable driving experience. Similarly, old drivers also seem to cause more accidents than middle-aged drivers. The middle-aged group causes the least accidents, say 40-50 years. While inexperience is the cause of higher accident rate amongst the younger age group, physical illness leads to higher accidents amongst the older age group. 8.8.3 Sex of the drivers It is generally seen that males have more accidents and convictions than females, but when kilometredrives are taken into account this difference essentially disappears.

8.8.4 Martial status Generally speaking, married persons (both male and female) have been observed to be better drivers. 8.8.5 Training of drivers It can be appreciated that systematic training of drivers should have a profound effect on their driving behaviour and performance. Professional drivers of long-distance haulage trucks and public transport buses, after receiving classroom training and driving instructions, are known to have inculcated good driving habits. 79 Suitable legislation for ensuring that only fully qualified personnel give driving instructions should be welcomed. Special courses for those drivers who already hold a driving license, but have been summoned for infringing traffic regulations should be planned. The driving tests should be conducted with a view to prevent inept people from acquiring a license and to ensure that those who secure a license are reasonably competent to handle their vehicles and have learnt the basic principles of driving and traffic rules. 8.8.6 Alcohol and drugs and the driver The judgment and skill of a driver can be exercised only so long as his sensory faculties are functioning unimpaired. Alcohol and drugs are known to be positively dangerous in this respect. The alcohol consumed by a person enters into the blood stream soon after it is consumed. The actual amount of alcohol in the blood depends on a variety of factors such as the amount consumed, the weight of the person, the kind of alcohol, the time interval between the drink and the test and whether the alcohol was consumed when the stomach was empty or when it was full. The amount of alcohol in the blood can be measured by simple clinical tests by taking a sample of blood. A quicker, and equally reliable, test is to measure the proportion of alcohol in the breath; The "Breathalyzer" is one such apparatus. The blood-alcohol content at which the driver may be considered to be unfit to drive a vehicle is probably above 0.5 parts per 1000 by weight, which corresponds roughly to 50mg/100 ml. Many authorities around the world have laid down their own standards for the maximum blood alcohol content. In U.S.A. many states consider it a legal offence for a person to drive a motor vehicle if the blood alcohol content is 100mg/100 ml or more. In Norway and Sweden the limit is 50mg/100 ml. In U.K. the Road Safety Act, 1972 makes it a legal offence for a person to drive a motor vehicle if the blood alcohol content is 100 ml. Drugs, which have a profound influence on the central nervous system, cause changes in the behaviour of drivers to an appreciable extent. Drugs which fall into this category are hypnotics, tranquilizing agents, psychotomimetic drugs, stimulating agents and similar others. More research is needed to establish the actual role of such drugs in road accidents, although it is believed that because of the very nature of their action, these drugs can be dangerous. 8.8.7 Fatigue

When a driver is tired, due to long hours of driving, he suffers usually from a lack of concentration, so vital for road safety. His experiences when he is tired may be linked with illusions or hallucinations, and the results can be disastrous. Long and monotonously straight reaches of a road have been known to induce drowsiness and lack of vigilance. On the other hand, alignment with a good blend of straights and curvature tends to keep the driver alert. Loss of sleep causes drowsiness and lapses in attention. Limiting the continuous period of driving by regulations is one of the methods to prevent accidents in case of professional drivers. 8.8.8 Use of crash helmets Motorcyclists and pillion riders who are involved in an accident are prone to head injuries. Head injuries often cause fatality. Protection of the head against injuries is one of the ways of reducing fatalities. This can effectively be done by wearing a crash helmet, 80 which absorbs the energy in a crash and reduces the impact on the head to a safe level that can be withstood without any detriment to the safety. It has been indicated that wearing a protective helmet reduces by 30 to 40 per cent the risk of injury to that part of the head covered by the helmet. Wearing of helmets is now compulsory in most countries with national standards for helmets being available. 8.8.9 Use of safety belts When travelling at a high speed and being suddenly forced to apply the brakes, the driver may be thrown forward and hits the windscreen or the steering wheel. The car door may also open in an accident and the driver is thrown out of a vehicle causing him serious injuries. The safety belt is fastened to the seat and worn around the drivers body to restrain him from movement. Safety belts are known to have saved many lives. For successful functioning, such belts should be strong enough to bear the forces that will act on them. They should also be convenient and comfortable to wear. 8.9 Skidding When a driver moving at speed applies the vehicle brakes suddenly, the prime factor that governs the stability of the vehicle is the friction that develops at the tyre-pavement interface. If the friction that can be mobilized is greater than the decelerating force, the vehicle comes to a safe halt within a certain distance. If, however, the pavement is wet and slippery and the tyres bald, the friction that is developed is much smaller than the decelerating force, and the vehicle cannot be controlled by the driver. The wheels of the vehicle get locked due to sudden braking and skidding results if the frictional resistance offered is too low. In the U.S.A., the Skid Number (SN), which is 100 times the friction factor, denotes the skid resistance. 8.10 Speed in Relation to Safety It is generally known that the frequency and severity of accidents increase as the speed increases, due to the following factors:

i. The distance needed to bring a vehicle to a stop increases as the speed increases. ii. The minimum safe separation distance between vehicles increases with speed, and as many drivers db not maintain these distances, the risk of accident increases at greater speeds. iii. With higher speeds, the distance travelled during the driver's reaction time increases. iv. The skid resistance of wet roads decreases as the speed increases. v. When vehicles are approaching at fast speed, the judgment of the pedestrian can be less reliable. vi. Risk of tyre bursts is more at higher speeds. vii. Risk of mechanical failure due to fatigue and overheating is greater at higher speeds. 81 Whenever speed limits have been enforced, a sure reduction in the accident rate results. 8.11 Weather and its Effect on Accidents Elements of weather having an affect on accidents are: rain, snow or ice and fog. Rainwater causes the pavement to be slippery and can contribute to skidding accidents. Accidents tend to be more frequent under conditions of snow and ice. Slipperiness is the usual cause. Studded tyres, once thought to be the answer to such driving conditions, cause considerable damage to the road surface and tend to wear them. Fog is a dangerous condition to drive with because visibility can get reduced to just a few meters under thick fog. But the usual observation is that the traffic volume itself drops down under adverse fog conditions and people tend to drive carefully under such situa-tions. 8.12 Pedestrian Safety 8.12.1 Seriousness of the pedestrian safety problem A large number of road accidents involve pedestrians. In the U.S.A., two-thirds of road deaths are of car occupants, and less than one fifth are pedestrians. In Europe one-third are pedestrians and the remaining one-third are riders of two wheelers. In Delhi, the pedestrians constitute 46 per cent of the fatalities from road accidents. These figures indicate the seriousness of the pedestrian safety problem. 8.12.2 Trends in pedestrian accident pattern Age Age has a significant effect on the accident pattern involving pedestrians. Most of the research findings have concluded that children and the very old are more likely to be in greater risk than the other age groups. Sex The general conclusion is that women are more careful pedestrians than men. This is probably because men take greater risk in crossing roads at places other than those intended for pedestrians. Women, on the other hand, use the intended crossing places more frequently. Women have also been known to wait for more favourable gaps in vehicle stream when crossing than men. Social conditions Social status influences pedestrian behaviour. Under-privileged and low-income groups

tend to figure prominently in pedestrian casualties. Environmental and living conditions also influence accident rates. Driving experience If a person is known to have driving experience, his behaviour is expected to be more careful as a pedestrian. 82 Familiarity with the locality Not much evidence is available whether the accident risk is influenced by the pedestrian's familiarity with the locality. Knowledge of the location of the crossing points and rules about restricted turning movements and one-way streets should lead to lesser accident rate among local pedestrians than with outsiders. More research is needed to understand this aspect. The drunken pedestrian Many of the pedestrian accidents can be traced to the action of alcohol and drugs. 8.12.3 The road and its influence on the pedestrian accidents Geometric features of the road A divided carriageway width central verge is less accident-prone' than a two-way carriageway having the same number of lanes. This is because the pedestrian, when choosing a safe gap to cross, has only to reckon with unidirectional traffic in the former case. The greater the width of the road to be crossed, the greater is the risk of pedestrian accidents. One-way streets are safer than two-way streets for pedestrians. Design of intersections Many features of the intersection, whether signalized or other-wise, have an effect on pedestrian safety. Properly designed channelising islands, which also serve as pedestrian refuges, offer an advantage to the pedestrians crossing a road at the intersection. The location of the stop line and the pedestrian crosswalk at the intersection should be determined with a view to ensure safe pedestrian crossing. Pedestrian crossing design Many types of pedestrian crossings have been tried with varying degrees of success. They fall under the following categories: (1) Uncontrolled crossings (2) Controlled crossings A typical example of the uncontrolled crossing is the "Zebra" crossing introduced in 1951 in U.K. Fig. 18-8. Zebra crossing in U.K. This consists of a sufficient width of crosswalk painted with black and white longitudinal strips so as to be conspicuous to the drivers as well as the pedestrians. As soon as a pedestrian steps on to the striped crosswalk he has the right of way and all vehicles are required to stop legally. The design of these crossings is standardized in U.K. Apart from the striped zebra makings in black and white, the crossing consist of a zigzag area (about 19 meters on both sides) to increase the driver's visibility of the crossing, black-and-white beacon posts, yellow flashing globe and studs marking the limits of crossing. Uncontrolled crossings are normally provided where the vehicular traffic is not heavy. If the vehicular traffic it heavy, such crossings are likely to delay 83 the vehicles to a great extent. In such cases, signal controlled crossings should be thought of. The simplest form of controlled crossings is one controlled by policy or traffic wardens. The assistance rendered by such guides in allowing the school children to cross at safe places has increased the safety to a large extent. Signal controlled crossings are the safest of all. Many signal-controlled junctions provide a separate phase for pedestrians to cross, usually brought into operation by a push button installed on a signal post. A pedestrian phase of 10 seconds is commonly used. The inter-green period

can also be used for pedestrian crossings. Road lighting and vehicle lighting Both road lighting and vehicle lighting play an important role in ensuring that the driver observes clearly the pedestrian in the darkness. If the pedestrian himself wears light coloured dresses or reflecting materials, the perceptibility to the driver is vastly improved. 8.12.4 Pedestrian footways An adequately designed pedestrian footway goes a long way in segregating the vehicular and pedestrian traffic and affords a sense of safety and protection to the pedestrians. For being effective, the footways should be raised above the road level and must have a surface, which will attract the pedestrians to use it. Encroachments by hawkers and vendors must be prohibited. The minimum width of a footway should be 1.5 m. 8.12.5 Time and its influence on pedestrian accidents A study of the distribution of pedestrian accidents with reference to different times will generally reveal that: i. Dark period of heavy traffic usually cause frequent pedestrian accidents. This normally corresponds to the evening rush hour traffic in winter. ii. Pedestrian accident rates are high during weekdays when the traffic flow is heavy. iii. Special rush days such as Christmas have large number of accidents. 18-12-7. Study of pedestrian behaviour in crossing Speed of walk The rate of walking by pedestrians when crossing a street is an important consideration in designing pedestrian facilities. The average walking speeds range from 0.75 to 1.8 m per second. The rate assumed in the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices for timing pedestrian signals is 1.2 m per second. Some authorities recommend that walking speeds below 0-9 m per second should not be used. Choosing a safe gap in the traffic stream Every pedestrian who wishes to cross a road looks for a safe gap in the traffic stream. He rejects gaps, which are too short and thus too risky, and waits for a suitable gap, which he feels, would be safe for crossing. With a large gap, say 7 seconds, the pedestrian can cross a 6 m carriageway safely . If the gap is less than 4 seconds, he needs to hurry up. For a 2 seconds gap, he has to virtually run to avert being run over. 84 Pedestrian subways Pedestrian subways are provided where large connection of pedestrian flow occurs. The subways should be attractive, well lit and maintained. A gentle gradient of say 1 in 10 or flatter, should be provided for the ramps. The width of the subways should be sufficient to meet the peak pedestrian flows. Measures to increase pedestrian safety The earlier discussion on the causes of pedestrian accidents has already provided some of the answers to the pedestrian safety question. These and other safety measures are summarized below :

1. Segregation of pedestrians and vehicles by the provision of raised footways decreases the pedestrian accidents. 2. Provision of railing barriers on busy roads to channelise the pedestrian flow in safe direction and to prevent pedestrians jay walking has yielded good results in many Indian cities. 3. Special attention should be paid to mark the crossings. Black-and-white stripes are known to be particularly satisfactory. Proper signing will also help. Near schools, warning signs of children would be needed. 4. Provision of dual carriageways, wherever feasible, should be thought of. 5. Pedestrian refuges should be provided at junctions. 6. Where pedestrian traffic is very heavy at intersections, separate pedestrian phases should be provided at signals. 7. Pedestrian actuated signals of the PELICAN type have proved successful. 8. Zebra crossings can bring down the accident rate and are recommended for locations where the vehicular traffic is not heavy. 9. Over bridges and subways for pedestrians should be thought of where the pedestrian traffic is concentrated and heavy, especially near busy intersections and generators of pedestrian traffic such as railways stations and bus stands. 10. Complete protection to the pedestrian can be afforded by converting some of the busy streets In the shopping centers to Pedestrian Precincts. Encouraging results by this measure have been experienced in many cities in the world. 11. If one-way streets are being planned as part of traffic management, an incidental advantage is the reduction, in the accident rate. 12. Adequate street lighting and vehicle lighting measures ensure pedestrian safety. Special attention needs to be 'paid for lighting pedestrian crosswalks and junctions. Increased visibility of the pedestrians themselves can prevent many accidents. 13. Children near schools need special patrol or guides for crossing the streets. 14. Establishment of playgrounds for children to play results in fewer accidents in the streets. 15. A legislative measure to force pedestrians to walk facing the on-coming traffic can prevent many an accident. 16. Road safety education, especially for children, propaganda and enforcement of traffic rules and regulations deserve careful consideration.

8.13 Cyclists Cycles are a major mode of traffic in Indian towns and cities and even in the rural areas. Their number will continue to grow with rapid urbanization and rural prosperity. In the developed world too, cycles have suddenly become popular in recent times, mostly because of renewed interest in the environmental movement. Cycle consumes no 85 energy and occupies very much less space than an automobile. It makes no noise and emits no pollutants. An unhappy feature of the cycle is that a large number of accidents are associated with it. This is primarily because the vehicle itself offers no protection to the rider in the event of a collision with a motor vehicle. The types of accidents usually are collision and falls. The latter, though more common, are less serious. The usual causes for cycle accidents are: 1. Making improper turns. 2.Disregarding traffic signals, signs and markings. 3. Double-riding. 4. Improper maintenance of roads (pot-holes etc.) The ideal solution for preventing cycle accidents is to provide separate cycle tracks. The design criteria and guidelines for the provision of separate cycle tracks are given elsewhere. It is desirable that cycle traffic be governed by rules intended to promote safety. Some of the common rules adopted by many city authorities are: 1. Not more than two cycles shall remain abreast except at separate cycle tracks. 2. Cyclists should not use footways. 3. Cyclists should compulsorily use separate cycle tracks wherever they are provided. 4. Cyclists should not allow themselves to be towed by any other vehicle. 5. Double-riding shall not be allowed. ^ 6. Where no separate cycle tracks are provided, the cyclists shall keep to the extreme left of the carriageway. 7. All cycles should be provided with good brakes, night lamps and red reflector at the rear. 8.14 Motorcycle and Scooter Riders The number of motorcycle and scooters on the streets of Indian towns and cities is increasing enormously in the past years. This trend is likely to be repeated in many developing countries, where few can afford the luxury of a car, with the steep increase in the price of petrol. The rider of a motorcycle or a scooter is very much vulnerable to accidents because he is totally unprotected. A study in Delhi has estimated that the chances of fatality is fourteen times as great .for motor-cycle and scooter riders as for car drivers. Other regulatory measures aimed at safety of motorcycle and scooter riders are : 1. Compulsory provision of rear view mirrors. 2. Compulsory provision for a screen to cover the rear wheel so that loose garments (especially dhoties and sarees worn by Indians) do not get entangled in the spokes of the wheels. 3. Restricting the number of riders to the driver and one pillion rider. 4. Prohibiting a rider with a learner's license to carry a pillion rider. 5. Compulsory provision of a proper footrest for the pillion rider. 6. Restricting the speed of vehicles to a lower value when the rider is not wearing a crash helmet. 86 8.15 Parking and its Influence on Accidents

Parking of vehicles is one of the major contributors to accidents. Accidents can occur in the following ways: 1. Parking and un-parking manoeuvres can cause accidents to pedestrians/cyclists or to other motorists. 2. Opening of car doors on parking can suddenly cause a cyclist or a motorist to be involved in an accident.3. Pedestrians can appear from between parked vehicles or in front of a parked vehicle, unnoticed by a speeding vehicle. 4. Parking generally reduces the street space and increases the congestion, thereby indirectly causing accidents. There is no doubt that a suitable policy of regulating on-street parking will have a salutary effect on the accident situation. 8.16 Traffic Management Measures and Their Influence in Accident Prevention Some of the traffic management measures such as one-way streets and prohibited turns can minimize the accident causation considerably. One-way streets help to reduce accidents in the following ways: 1. The intersection conflict points are reduced-those between vehicles and other vehicles and those between Vehicles and pedestrians. 2. Head-on and sideswipe collisions are eliminated. 3. Head-light glare is eliminated. 4. Parking maneuvers tend to be less dangerous and obstructive when all vehicles are facing in the same direction. When left-turns are prohibited, a safer crossing for the pedestrians results. Right-turns involve the greatest degree of hazard and conflict to traffic, apart from causing reduction in junction capacity. Prohibition of right-turns can, therefore, result in a reduction in the hazard. 8.17 Legislation, Enforcement, Education and Propaganda It has been said that the three 'E's of road safety program are: Engineering, Education and Enforcement. Legislation and enforcement have brought in significant reductions in the accident rate. 8.17.1 Legislative measures that are possible A variety of legislative measures are possible and different countries have adopted different measures. Some of them are listed below: 1. To stipulate age limits for drivers. 87 2. To introduce penalties of fine, imprisonment, disqualification or endorsements on licenses for careless driving. 3. To enable police to check the drivers for their drunkenness and to impose suitable penalties. 4. To prescribe maximum hours of work for drivers of commercial vehicles and buses to prevent them from fatigue. o. To prescribe uniform road signs throughout the country and provide for penalties for the non-observance of the same. 6. To lay down rules for pedestrians when crossing streets

and to impose penalties for their non-observance. 7. To prescribe rules for cyclists. 8. To prescribe rules for motorcycle and scooter riders. 9. To prescribe rules for the maximum size and weight (axle loads) of vehicles. 10. To prescribe minimum standards for the design of vehicles. 11. To prescribe minimum standards for the inspection and maintenance of vehicles. 12. To prescribe rules for the regulation of mixed traffic. 13. To lay down rules for parking of vehicles. 14. To control the loading and unloading of goods by the curbside. 15; To prescribe speed limits and to provide for punishments for their infringements. 16. To make third-party insurance compulsory. 8.17.2 Enforcement Legislation by itself cannot achieve its objective unless it is enforced rigidly. Many motorists and other flout the laws road users, and unless cases of such offences are detected and the offenders brought to book, matters cannot be improved. The enforce-ment is in the hands of the Police Department in cooperation with the magistrates or special traffic courts. The police force should be adequately strengthened to deal with detection. The work of the police is rendered easy in certain cases of detection of offences, such as exceeding the speed limit, by mechanical aids. The Radar Speed measuring instrument can record the speed instantaneously from an inconspicuous position by the roadside. Breath analyzers can detect the drunken driver. Police patrols in vehicles equipped with wireless are of great help. 8.17.3 Education Road safety education occupies an important place in the prevention of accidents. School children who are particularly liable to accidents, can be easily imparted the necessary training in the school about the rules of the road and related safety aspects. Since the attitudes and personality of the children are in their formative stage, a lasting impression can be left in their minds -about the precautions. The society can reap the benefits when the children grow up and can expect them to be law-abiding citizens in observing the traffic laws. Training of professional drivers of commercial vehicles and buses and personnel of the armed forces can be of great value. Refresher courses for drivers can serve to educate them on the needs of traffic safety and how to use their motor vehicles in a safe and efficient manner. In the U.S.A., high-school driver education is an integral part of the curriculum for students approaching the legal driving age. Under this program, the potential drivers at a young age are imparted necessary instructions to learn fundamental driving skills and to achieve desirable traffic safety pattern. 88 8.17.4 Propaganda Propaganda and exhortation are powerful tools in a road safety campaign. The Slough Experiment in U.K. has proved the value of these. (Ref. 47) Propaganda and exhortation can be achieved in many possible ways. Some of those with proven value are: 1. Poster campaigns 2. Campaigns in local press 3. Short films exhibited on the television 4. Broadcasts in the radio 5. Use of imaginative and catching slogans.

8.18 Cost of Road Accidents In any exercise involving the economic appraisal of highway, traffic or transportation project, it becomes necessary to assess the cost of road accidents. A detailed consideration of this subject is covered elsewhere.