KERNAN, Victor. Eight Tragedies of Shakespeare. London and New York: Verso, 1996. Shakespeare and ra!ed"# $pp.

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ra!ic dra)a )*st +e in so)e sense an atte)pt at interpretation o, the h*)an condition and h*)an destin". -t is one that, in a sec*.ar ,or) o, per)anent /a.*e, has ,orced itse., on )en in a ,ew ti)es and p.aces on.".# $p. %9( 0e was certain." not writin! 1tra!i&co)edies2, a .a+e. then co)in! into ,a/or and si!ni,"in! as a r*.e a )ed.e", a throwin! to!ether o, serio*s and .i!hter scenes, with .itt.e p*rpose +*t to a/oid )onoton". -n Shakespeare we ha/e instead, 3*ite o,ten, a dra)atic ,*sion o, the two, which is a.so a socia. interwea/in!, an interchan!e o, ,ee.in!s +etween hi!her and .ower, when indi/id*a.s are ,o*nd in *nacc*sto)ed p.aces: a 4anish prince in a !ra/e"ard, a 5ritish kin! o*t on the )oors, an E!"ptian r*stic in a pa.ace.# $p. %9( 1 ra!ed"2 was a ter) )ore i)pressi/e than precise. 6hen we hear o, 1the tra!edians o, the cit"2 in Hamlet, we are hearin! o, actors $7(. heir +ein! co)p.i)ented with this honori,ic tit.e shows at .east that tra!ed" was reco!ni8ed as the hi!hest pinnac.e o, dra)a, e/en i, to a !ood )an" spectators it )a" ha/e )eant not )*ch )ore than +.ood&and&th*nder, windin! *p with a pi.e o, corpses. E/er" co))*nit" needs o*t.ets ,or its )ore .aw.ess i)p*.ses, and En!.and and London, with their )ani,o.d tensions, were ,indin! the) at e/er" .e/e. down to +ear&+aitin! and witch&h*ntin!. $7( A writer o, 19:; cited +" Li." +. <a)p+e.. $:( )a" ha/e co)e as near as an"one to a de,inition accepta+.e to )ore sophisticated readers o, his ti)e: tra!ic e/ents sprin! ,ro) e=or+itant a)+ition, !reed, se.,&wi.., destr*cti/e to 1a.. estates2. 0e )eant in short the sin known to the >reeks as hubris. his has so)e considera+.e re.e/ance to a.. Shakespeare2s tra!edies. he" ,o..owed on ,ro) his En!.and 0istories, where po.itica. a)+ition was the do)inant )oti/e, and was taken ,or !ranted as s*ch. Shakespearian tra!ed" is 1rooted in histor"2, as ?r"e sa"s $Fools 1;(.# $p. '@( A.. his !reat characters are shaken inward." +" contendin! passions, as we.. as o*tward." +" hosti.e ,orces. he" )a" reach, or ,ear the" are nearin!, the +rink o, )adness.# $p. '1( Now he was enterin! on a period o, .i,e when he co*.d, in those da"s, +e reckoned an o.d )an. -n the tra!edies he had opport*nities to concentrate his ,ee.in!s a+o*t it and dispe. the)A this )a" ha/e had a hi!h therape*tic /a.*e. 0e was co)in! to ter)s with the depart*re o, his own "o*th. -n a.. kinds o, wa"s, whate/er the cathartic or p*r!ati/e *ses o, tra!ed" ,or an a*dience, the" )*st +e ,e.t ,irst o, a.. +" the creator who ,rees hi)se., o, dark /isitants +" c.othin! the) with /isi+.e shapes. Si)*.taneo*s." he is in i)a!ination p*r!in! societ" o, its dark ,orces. 6hate/er is o/er&entan!.ed with self in his sensations is i))o.ated with the destr*ction o, hero and /i..ain, or hero&/i..ain.# $p. '1( A.. the tra!edies are concerned with p*+.ic as we.. as pri/ate happenin!s. $7( Each o, the dra)as )akes its contri+*tion to o*r conceptions o, what !en*ine tra!ed" isA their )ost pro)inent co))on ,eat*re, apart ,ro) their poetr", is the interwea/in! o, p*+.ic and pri/ate the)es. A Shakespearian tra!ed" is 1a /ision o, .i,e2, as L. <. Kni!hts said, and what )atters is 1o*r i)a!inati/e response to the whole play2 $%19, c,. Kni!ht, Imperial Theme :9(. En!.ish tra!ed" had di/erse rootsA one was the o.d )ora.i8in!, se)i&re.i!io*s dra)a $see 0*nter, 1 radition o, ra!ed"2(. $7( Kin!s )*st rei!n /irt*o*s.", and respect the .aws, or hea/en wi.. p*nish the). here is no di/ine ri!ht ,or the) to she.ter +ehind. Shakespearian tra!ed" ,aces the sa)e wa".# $p. '%( Lea/is showed )ore insi!ht when he said that tra!ed" raises *s a+o/e se.,&centred e)otion to 1a kind o, pro,o*nd i)persona.it"2 $cited +" Sa.in!ar, B%(. his process o, *ni/ersa.i8in! cannot +e eas" to p*t into words, in/o./in! as it does the who.e )o.ec*.ar interconnection +etween indi/id*a. and societ".# $p. '%( 5rad.e" 3*oted a dict*) o, 0e!e.2s that tra!ed" since the >reeks had +eco)e pri)ari." s*+Cecti/e, with co..ecti/e concerns in the +ack!ro*nd at )ost $Poetry :6&:(.# $p. ''(

Shakespeare2s prota!onists are ,*.." de/e.oped as indi/id*a.s, +*t not c*t o,, ,ro) the socia. who.eA a co)p.e= one +eca*se Shakespeare, .i/in! on a +order.ine o, histor" +etween pre&ind*stria. and capita.ist, co*.d )ake *se o, pro)ptin!s ,ro) +oth.# $p. ''( A tra!ic ,i!*re in Shakespeare is a.wa"s endowed with ad)ira+.e 3*a.ities, +*t is entrapped into *ndertakin! actions that !o a!ainst the !rain, or e.se, +" rash actions o, his own, .ettin! .oose conse3*ences he is *na+.e to contro.. 0is passions are not his own so.e.", +*t we.. *p ,ro) the socia. condition, or, )ore distinct.", o*t o, the conditions )en co..ecti/e." ,or!e ,or the)se./es at a !i/en ti)e.# $p. ''( 0is was an a!e o, endin!s and +e!innin!s, an o.d order chan!in! and "ie.din! p.ace to new D +*t not tran3*i..", pain.ess.", as enn"son wo*.d ha/e wished.# $p. ';( A.tho*!h we know his En!.and to ha/e +een ,*.. o, ,rictions and tensions, we do not o,ten see these pict*red in an" .itera. wa" in what he wrote. he" )a" stand o*t c.ear." eno*!h in the wa" his characters ta.k o, one another, or in co..isions $7( . 6hat is )issin!, in +oth 0istories and ra!edies, is the )idd.e c.ass, the )erchant +o*r!eoisie. <onse3*ent." we are shown no tra!ic c.ash +etween ,e*da. aristocrac" and the c.ass destined to s*pp.ant it.# $p. ';( -n co*rse o, ti)e thin!s so,tened into a )i.der war,are o, )anoe*/re, ne!otiation, skir)ish, .eadin! towards co)pro)ise $7(. S*ch socia. adC*st)ents were proper )atter ,or satirica. co)ed" $7(. 5*t the en/ies and ranco*rs ."in! +ehind the), a.on! with the hosti.it" o, +oth sides to the h*n!r" )asses, co*.d +e s*+.i)ated into tra!ed", a pict*re o, socia. who.e *nder stress within the )ind o, a Eac+eth $7(.# $p. ';( -t is a series o, ar)ed str*!!.es +etween ,e*da. ,actions that Shakespeare is concerned within the En!.ish 0istories. he" c*.)inate in the de,eat o, the )ore retro!rade, reca.citrant." ,e*da. part" +" the )onarch" and its a..ies D inc.*din! p*+.ic opinion. <.asses as we.. as nations and indi/id*a.s are +etra"ed +" what is ,a.se withinA the o/erthrown o, the +arona!e had to +e, as Shakespeare showed it, its own work, or the o*tco)e o, one o, its )e)+ers !rowin! power,*. eno*!h to red*ce the rest to s*+)ission.# $p. ';, '9( F*+.ic opinion co*nts in these p.a"s, e/en when no +o*r!eoisie is /isi+." in the ,ie.d. Shakespeare was increasin!." aware that the 6ars o, the Roses ca)e a+o*t not thro*!h ,orces arisin! within the do)inant c.ass in iso.ation, +*t in the con,i!*ration o, an entire societ", a.. o, whose interests were in so)e wa" a,,ected, so that the ,ate o, the who.e co))*nit" was at stake. Shakespeare had to appear, and no do*+t was, 1on this side ido.atr"2, an ad)irer o, the *dor re!i)e which co)p.eted the trans,or)ation o, a )edie/a. +arona!e into a se)i&)odern aristocrac". ?ro) other points o, /iew he can +e tho*!ht a s*rreptitio*s critic o, it, or o, the t"pes o, p*+.ic peop.e *nder the). -n his p.a"s the" show ,or the )ost part in a poor .i!ht. -dea.." or in the a+stract he )a" think an aristocratic )onarch" a !ood thin!, +*t *s*a.." the test&cases shown to *s are .ess ad)ira+.e.# $p. '9( -, dra)a spoke ,or the )an", the )an" )i!ht +e capa+.e o, ,indin! )eans o, their own to e=press their !rie/ances. En!.and, not on." London, was +eco)in! .iterate, and was an"thin! +*t inartic*.ate. A.. o/er the co*ntr", Ada) ?o= has shown .ate.", peop.e were )akin! known their dis.ike o, indi/id*a.s who )is*sed wea.th or power D s3*ires, pett" o,,icia.s, dishonest traders, +*.."in! parents D +" prod*cin! .a)poons, cr*de +*t te..in! satires in do!!ere. /erse, and disp.a"in! copies where/er the" co*.d +e seen.# $p. '9( Londoners had their own o.i!arch" to !r*)+.e a+o*tA an" despot or +*.." on the sta!e )i!ht t"pi," it ,or the). 6e )a" think o, a +o*r!eoisie as an *nseen presence, !ood or +ad, in the p.a"s. Aristocrac" itse., was +ein! reshaped +" the spreadin! co))ercia.i8ation o, .i,e, not a.wa"s ,or the +etter. $7( Fro,essiona. dra)a was /er" )*ch a prod*ct o, the new a!e, e/en i, with one ,oot sti.. .in!erin! in an o.der wor.d. he ha!!.in! o, the )arket was !oin! on a.. ro*nd it and its a*diences. -t cannot +e a s*rprise to co)e *pon sta!e characters showin! traits o, a )i=ed ori!in.# $p. '6(