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Creativity, Culture Contact, and Diversity

Alfonso Montuoria; Hillary Stephensona a California Institute of Integral Studies, San Francisco, California, USA Online publication date: 06 May 2010

To cite this Article Montuori, Alfonso and Stephenson, Hillary(2010) 'Creativity, Culture Contact, and Diversity', World

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World Futures, 66: 266285, 2010 Copyright C Taylor & Francis Group, LLC ISSN: 0260-4027 print / 1556-1844 online DOI: 10.1080/02604021003680503

CREATIVITY, CULTURE CONTACT, AND DIVERSITY

ALFONSO MONTUORI
California Institute of Integral Studies, San Francisco, California, USA
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HILLARY STEPHENSON
California Institute of Integral Studies, San Francisco, California, USA Recent trends in the understanding of culture contact, with concepts such as hybridization, cosmopolitanism, and cultural innovation, open up the possibility of a new understanding of human interaction. While the social imaginary is rich with images of conict resulting from culture contact, images of creativity are far rarer. We propose the creation of an extensive research project to document cultural creativity, starting with obvious examples in the arts, and expanding into all areas of life in order to counteract the present conictual images and develop a social imaginary with positive attractor images that can guide to greater creativity. KEYWORDS: Attractor image, complexity, creativity, culture, domination, essentialism, hybridization, identity, interaction, social imaginary.

The great difculty is thus considering the unity of the many and the multiplicity of the unity. Those who see the diversity of cultures tend to overlook the unity of mankind; those who see the unity of mankind tend to dismiss the diversity of cultures. Edgar Morin

The scope of the discourse of cultural diversity spans the globe and encompasses much of the twentieth century. Adding additional perspectives requires the examination of some of the existing dominant frameworks related to cultural diversity. It also necessitates addressing the way the underlying assumptions and the contexts out of which these frameworks arose, and how they have shaped the focus and parameters of cultural diversity theory and research. THE MELTING POT In the years following the American Revolution, the image of the United States as a great melting pot offered a romantic vision of a country where the multiple cultural identities and practices of the thousands of immigrants that ooded the

Address correspondence to Alfonso Montuori, California Institute of Integral Studies, San Francisco, CA, USA. E-mail: alphonsomontuori@earthlink.net 266

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United States would melt together to form a new distinct, homogenized, and unied American identity and culture. The term itself was popularized by the famous 1908 play by Israel Zangwill (18641926) entitled The Melting Pot, in which Zangwill, a British-born Jew, portrayed America as Gods crucible, the great melting pot where all the races of Europe are melting and reforming! (Wortham 2001, 5). Despite its idyllic image, the melting pot concept was rooted in a strong fear and distrust of cultural pluralism, a belief in the supremacy of white, Anglo-Saxon, Protestant American culture, and an investment in the attainment of cultural homogeneity through processes of coerced assimilation. Although it has been widely critiqued and discredited in more recent times, it remains part of the popular American consciousness and vocabulary, and has signicantly inuenced the attitudes, assumptions, and practices related to cultural diversity in the United States. While in theory the melting pot refers to the blending or fusion of different cultural groups, in practice it manifested as an effort to promote assimilation and conformity to White, Protestant, Anglo-Saxon American values, ideals, and culture through a process called Americanization. As Anne Wortham (2005) explains:
When it became apparent during the decades before World War I that immigrants were not giving up the ways of their origins as the price of assimilation and were not mixing together in the great crucible to form the new American, the melting-pot idea as a natural laissez-faire process was abandoned. At the turn of the twentieth century, the policy of coerced assimilation, known as Americanization, was inaugurated. Public schools, patriotic societies, chambers of commerce, womens clubs, public libraries, social settlements, and even industrial plants were enlisted to divest the immigrant of his foreign heritage, suppress his native language, teach him English, make him a naturalized citizen, and inject into him a loyalty to American institutions. (7)

The Americanization movement manifested most strongly in the public education system between 1900 and 1930 and was shaped through the discourse of social science and educational theorists such as Frances Kellor and E.P. Chubberley, both of whom advocated for the controlled, intentional indoctrination and assimilation of immigrants into adopting a distinctly American culture and identity (Kraver 1999). Cultural homogeneity was the goal. The establishment of White, Protestant, American identity as a cultural norm also meant that successful assimilation to American culture, and therefore a degree of upward mobility, was open to White European immigrants in a way it never would be to people of non-European descent. The question of the viability of the melting pot concept has been located in a debate between cultural assimilation versus cultural pluralism. The Americanization campaign taught us that cultural diversity is something to be feared, managed, and controlled, and efforts to put the concept of the melting pot into practice have left a residue of assumptions about cultural diversity as a source of conict and contention that continue to permeate popular U.S. attitudes about cultural difference.

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POSTCOLONIALISM As European immigrants to the United States were facing institutionalized Americanization, peoples of the newly independent third world were grappling with the legacies of European colonial rule and struggling for independence. Out of this context arose postcolonial theory or postcolonial studies, in which issues of culture are examined in a context of resistance and opposition to European cultural imperialism and the dynamics of dominance and marginalization that emerged during colonial rule and persisted post-independence. It can be difcult to dene the boundaries of postcolonial studies in that it is rooted in the independence struggles of colonized nations of South Asia and Africa, and yet has been institutionalized within the U.S. academy. Postcolonial studies cross multiple disciplines and have been at times intertwined with multiculturalism and ethnic studies in the United States, although the elds are not synonymous (Loomba et al. 2005). Some of the primary concerns of postcolonial scholars have been to examine the impact of imperialism and colonization on the culture and identity of the colonized, to assert the voices (or at least issues) of the formerly colonized into the dominant discourses on culture and politics, and in general to challenge the dominant epistemologies of European colonial powers as they were forced on the colonized. Edward Saids seminal work Orientalism (Said 1978) has been credited with launching colonial discourse, and therefore the postcolonial theories that followed (Williams and Chrisman 1994). Said examines the representation and misrepresentation of the peoples and cultures of the colonized East by Western forces of imperialism and colonization. Said not only challenged the entrenched and deprecatory construct of the Orient in Western consciousness, but invited further exploration into the relationship between culture and imperialism (Williams and Chrisman 1994). Indeed, much of what has arisen out of postcolonial discourse in relation to culture and cultural difference focuses on the process by which colonized or oppressed peoples re-claim and re-dene their cultural or racial identity as a form of resistance to that oppression. In his widely read Black Skin, White Masks, Franz Fanon (1967) examines the construction of the colonized Other. Speaking of Black people and alluding to Fanons insight, Hall writes: Not only, in Saids Orientalist sense, were we constructed as different and other within the categories of knowledge of the West by those regimes. They had the power to make us see and experience ourselves as Other (1990, 394, emphasis in the original). The process by which colonized or formerly colonized people may come to consciousness of their internalization of an identity as the Other is one of the markers of postcolonial discourse. The focus on the very construction of a cultural identity, and the re-dening of this identity as an act of resistance to imperialism and oppression, is one aspect that denes postcolonialisms treatment of issues of cultural diversity. Postcolonial discourse emphasizes cultural identity as a positioning, an aspect of ourselves that has been constructed in part through forces of imperialism and colonization and that therefore marks our position in relation to those forces (Hall 1990). The focus

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is not so much on issues of cultural pluralism or an acceptance of diversity, but rather what options or strategies might be available to the colonized in their efforts to engage with and navigate the dominant or imperial culture (Ashcroft 2001). MULTICULTURALISM AND IDENTITY POLITICS Just as postcolonial thought arose out of the liberation struggles of colonized peoples, multiculturalism arose in conjunction with the politics of the 1960s Civil Rights era in the United States and was strengthened by the shift toward cultural pluralism, or the embracing and valuing of the co-existence of distinct and eclectic cultural identities and groups. As marginalized racial and ethnic groups, women, and gay and lesbian communities gained greater access to and visibility in educational and workplace institutions, multiculturalism emerged as a proactive effort to increase inclusivity and equity in the public sphere. In this way, the term diversity took on a distinct connotation of that which works against discrimination based on ones racial, ethnic, cultural, class, gender, or sexual identity. Multiculturalism also developed as an academic discourse through the creation of womens and ethnic studies departments such as Chicano Studies, Black Studies, and Asian-American Studies that sought to bring the social movements of the 1960s and 1970s into the university classroom. While not separate from academic discourse, the multiculturalism that arose as a practice outside the academy is often criticized for being too essentialist in its treatment of cultural identities, shallow in its tendency to conate ethnicity, race, and culture, and passive in its avoidance of the issues of power, privilege, and oppression that shape relationships between racial and ethnic groups. As author Alicia Rodriguez writes:
There is a stark contrast between the traditional multicultural education scholarship based on identity politics that has been translated into elementary and secondary educational practices in relatively innocuous ways and the more contentious translations of multiculturalism that have been developing in higher education institutions in the wake of a sort of second wave of identity politics in the late 1980s and 1990s. The former has perpetuated relatively mainstream, heavily essentialistic constructions of cultural identity in the project to further diversity, equity, unity, and self-esteem in school settings while the latter theories of identity have remained at the academy and have not trickled down, so to speak, to pre-university settings. (2)

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These efforts to further diversity, equity, and unity have come in the form of diversity initiatives in educational and other professional settings. Cultural competence training has emerged and been championed as a necessary aspect of preparing professionals, in elds ranging from health and human services to education to multinational corporations, to not only tolerate growing diversity in the workplace, but actively engage in organizational diversity efforts (Kulik and Roberson 2008). In their review of corporate diversity training initiatives from 1964 to the present, Anand and Winters (2008) examine the different phases through which

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corporate diversity initiatives have passed. Early efforts that focused on compliance with non-discrimination laws and the assimilation of women and minority groups (meaning people of color) gave way to trainings focusing on building knowledge of and sensitivity toward women and different racial groups, as well as developing skills in responding to increased diversity. This shift was due in part to the work of Roosevelt Thomas, considered to be a pioneer in the diversity training eld. Thomass concept of diversity management emphasized the connection between business success and the developing of concrete skills and practices to address diversity issues in the workplace (Thomas in Johnson 2008, 409). Corporate diversity training during the late 1980s through the late 1990s ranged in style and content from more intense, confrontational trainings with a social justice focus, to more watered-down versions (Anand and Winters 2008). The more contentious multicultural academic discourse referenced by Rodriguez as a second wave of identity politics shifts the primary focus of diversity discourse and practice to the examination of current and historical experiences of oppression, discrimination, cultural appropriation, and the systemic power relationships between groups. Under this more critical framework of diversity, the social, economic, and political context of ones ethnic, racial, cultural, and other social identities is emphasized and theorized. This form of multiculturalism has revealed itself prominently in feminist discourse and critical race theory (CRT), primarily through the voices of women of color feminist writers and activists who emphasized the importance of recognizing what critical race theorist Kimberl e Crenshaw calls the difference that difference makes (as cited in Chen 2007, 1), or the way the intersection of racial, ethnic, and cultural identities in a context of White supremacy and patriarchy shape the ways women can engage and respond to diversity with and among each other (Chen 2007; Rodriguez 2000). Authors such as Trinh T. Minh-ha, Audre Lorde, bell hooks, Patricia Hill Collins, and Gloria Anzald ua have asserted the marginalized voices and experiences of women of color, but also shed light on the construct of outsider (Hill Collins 1986) and mestiza (Anzald ua 1987) identities and experiences, marking one of the points at which postcolonialism and multiculturalism intersect. If the era of Americanization stressed cultural sameness, the multiculturalism and identity politics that have emerged since the latter half of the twentieth century in the United States have located issues of diversity in the deconstruction of difference. This focus on the role of systemic structures of dominance and marginalization, as well as the sometimes less contentious embracing of cultural pluralism through cultural competence and diversity training, continue to largely dene the scope of research and discourse on cultural diversity.

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COSMOPOLITANISM Although cosmopolitanism as a concept is not new, the recent focus on contemporary forces of globalization has brought fresh perspectives to this discourse. Cosmopolitanism as a term itself has multiple meanings. Waldron (in Benhabib 2006) sketches out three distinct aspects of the term:

CREATIVITY, CULTURE CONTACT, AND DIVERSITY For some, [cosmopolitanism] is about the love of mankind, or about duties owed to every person in the world, without national or ethnic differentiation. For others, the word . . . connotes the uidity and evanescence of culture; it celebrates the compromising or evaporation of the boundaries between cultures . . . and it anticipates a world of fractured and mingled identities. For still others . . . cosmopolitanism is about order and norms, not just culture and moral sentiment. (83)

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Emphasizing this love of mankind, Appiahs cosmopolitanism offers us the chance to become citizens of the cosmos (2006, xiv), bound by a sense of shared humanity, mutual obligation to one another, and appreciation of human difference. Cosmopolitanism in this sense invites us, without rejecting connections rooted in cultural identity and practice or grasping at universalism, to nd connection through, within, and beyond cultural diversity. Appiah makes arguments for embracing the cross-cultural contamination (2006, 111) of beliefs, ideas, and practices, and asserts the capacity of human beings to nd common ground amid the multiple truths of vastly different cultural practices and ideas. Theories of cultural hybridization further explore the cultural uidity emphasized in some cosmopolitan discourse. Chan describes hybridization as the process of adaptation, fusion, and transformation that occurs when different cultural groups interact. Rather than a linear focus on the degree to which, for example, an immigrant group either takes on the cultural norms of the dominant culture or gives up some of their own, hybridization is the assertion that when different cultures interact, both cultures, to varying degrees depending on factors of number and dominance, experience what Chan calls a collision or mutual entanglement of the self and other (2002, 194) that results in a cultural change in both groups. Chan discusses hybridization as a process of potential innovation in cultural identity and expression with opportunity for integration and harmony amid the sometimes difcult or troubling process inherent in cross-cultural interaction. He does so while acknowledging that the power relationship inherent in minoritymajority relationships between groups may create an outsider identity for those in the minority in which this group risks denigration, rejection, or discrimination, thus marking the negative aspects of hybridization. Still, Chans assertion that cultural difference or pluralism need not be abandoned in order to make way for a cosmopolitan world offers a decidedly optimistic view of cultural diversity. There are some, however, who caution against the celebration of cosmopolitanism as a vision for a more unied, global community without thoroughly taking into account the political and economic forces of globalization. Cheah (2006) questions the degree to which cosmopolitanism as an institutionally grounded global political consciousness is possible given the uneven character of global capitalism (491). In other words, to be a citizen of the cosmos, as described by Appiah, suggests a kind of global solidarity can arise as a result of an increasingly globalized world. However, Cheah cautions: The world is undoubtedly interconnected and transnational mobility is clearly on the rise. But this does not inevitably generate meaningful cosmopolitanisms in the robust sense of pluralized world political communities (492). The different lifestyles and motivations of the globetrotting

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businessman and the transnational migrant worker may prove to be barriers to the creation of a global political consciousness or the development of a shared sense of global humanity. Further challenging the relative optimism set forth by theories of cosmopolitanism and cultural hybridization, Huntington argues that our age of globalization will result in conict, and that the primary source of this conict in the twenty-rst century will be cultural. Culture, he argues, exists beyond just individual or group identity but as part of a broader category of group membershipcivilizationand that the locus of future conict will be between boundaries of different civilizations (Huntington 1993). Huntington asserts that regardless of different claims to heterogeneous individual, regional, or even nation-state membership, civilizations, which encompass more than these sub-groups, are dened based on shared values that have developed over centuries. As the world becomes smaller, he argues, the cultural differences embodied in civilizations will inevitably clash. Regardless of how optimistic one is about the possibilities of cosmopolitanism, in relation to issues of cultural diversity it is apparent that the discourse circles around some of the same issues of conict or tension. The very need of some scholars of cosmopolitanism to assert that increases in cross-cultural contact will bring positive opportunities for global solidarity or the development of a global consciousness, points to the legacies of contention and conict that have marked the lived experience and discourse of cultural diversity for many years. BEYOND CONFLICT Reviewing the literature, it is clear that cultural diversity is heavily situated in contexts of contention and conict. The focus on such questions as whether cultural assimilation is necessary or harmful, or the debate over what will be gained or lost as diverse groups interact point to the heavy focus on diversity in the context of international contexts of colonization, domination, and oppression. Without denying these histories or their importance in conversations on cultural diversity, we can wonder if all the cases of interaction across difference in the social imagination are those of conict, assimilation, and oppression, whether it may be hard for people to imagine cultural diversity as something other than contentious. It also may be easy then to overlook the way diversity functions in other contexts beyond just identity politics or the battle lines of clashing civilizations. Even those theorists who suggest a more positive or optimistic possibility in cultural diversity are often situating their arguments in response to dominant assumptions of conict. What other lessons about human interaction across difference can be learned? Perhaps important discoveries about the nature and experience of cultural diversity await in the unexamined, growing edges of human interaction in the context of creativity.
The great difculty is thus considering the unity of the many and the multiplicity of the unity. Those who see the diversity of cultures tend to overlook the unity of mankind; those who see the unity of mankind tend to dismiss the diversity of cultures. Edgar Morin

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CREATIVITY AND DIVERSITY The worlds history is not simply the story of one continuous battle between different cultures, even though our history books have historically done their best to make it appear that way. In fact, in the age of globalization, of planetary culture (Thompson 1986, 1987, 1989; Morin and Kern 1999), there is a movement that does not see culture contact and diversity only in light of wars, appropriation, and oppression, and under the broader umbrella of domination, but recognizes the exchanges, hybridizations, and indeed the creativity of culture contact and human diversity (Hobson 2004; Niederveen Pieterse 2004; Laplantine, de Villanova, and Verm` es 2003; Laplantine and Nous 2001). Our fundamental premise in this article is that the discourse of diversity and culture contact would benet from focusing on the creativity and the innovations that have emerged as different groups have interacted. If the only way culture contact and diversity are framed is in terms of domination, and in terms of the identity of individual cultures, then its surely very unlikely that we will have models of creative interaction to draw on in order to conceptualize the possibility of interactions that do not involve either domination or submission. We therefore begin by sketching out the role of three key dimensions underpinning the present discourse and point toward the need for conceptual changes and the creation of a social imaginary (in media as disparate as history books and movies) that provides attractor images of creative interaction among cultures. By attractor images we mean images (in the broad sense of the word, not restricted to the visual sense) that orient a cultures thinking and feeling about a topic. When asked about what comes to mind with the word creativity, in the United States the responses have historically been individual geniusesPicasso, Einstein, and so on. These attractor images of creativity largely dene the discourse with its focus on the lone genius, the characteristics of the individual genius, and so on (Montuori and Purser 1995). Until recently, the concept of group creativity was considered an oxymoron in the United States (Montuori and Purser 1999). Part of the problem was that, despite their existence in the culture, in the form of musical and theater groups, R&D labs, citizens groups, and so on, there were no images of group creativity. The individualist focus of the United States, and the media in particular, promoted the notion of the lone creative individual. An increasing awareness of the activities of creative groups, with stories about creative collaborations, software teams, and so on, is now making inroads in the culture so that the notion of creative groups is not so foreign (Sawyer 2006; Amabile 1996, 1998; Alter 2003). In this article we have argued that the emphasis on conict and identity in the discourse on diversity acts as such an attractor image. When asked about diversity, the response is predominantly (although not exclusively, of course) to focus on the history conict, the importance of avoiding conict, and of recognizing and respecting individual groups. But the images of creative interactions between groups are few and far between. They simply do not exist with anything like the depth and pervasiveness of images of conict.

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In the same way that images are now emerging of creative groups, couples, collaborations, and so on, through industry and the arts, we are proposing enriching the social imaginary with a plurality of ways of conceiving of diversity, also a source of incredible creativity, and the historical evidence to draw on is considerable. The history of exchanges, contaminations, explorations, inuences, and so on is remarkable. A few examples below, in no particular order, will give an idea of the range and richness of the stories. In the popular mind we associate the potato with Ireland and Germany, and classic dishes such as pizza and spaghetti with tomato sauce with Italy, but we have to remember the journey of the potato and the tomato to Northern Europe and the Mediterranean after 1492, and the remarkable role of global trade in the development of cuisines by providing them with the vegetables and other essentials that we now think of as central to their identity. Chili peppers were not introduced to Chinese cuisine until the sixteenth century, and Indian cuisine was also chilifree until that time. After Columbus there was a veritable transformation in the worlds cuisines, and these exchanges alone are enormously complex, intricate, and fascinating (Sokolov 1993). In the history of music, the birth of jazz alone offers an immensely rich opportunity, with its hybridization of European and African instruments and traditions. The harmonic complexity of European music and the rhythmic complexity of African music, on American soil, led to the development of a new and unique musical tradition that, among other things, restored the value of improvisation to music in the West after it had been eliminated around 1800 with the emergence of the genius composer and copyright (Goehr 1992). The ongoing hybridizations in world music provide an endless resource of examples. Political theories have traveled the globe and both capitalism and communism, which originated in Europe, have undergone transformations in Asia, where they have been adapted to local cultures to a greater or lesser extent. The same remarkable transformations and hybridizations can be traced in Buddhism, for instance, as it traveled from India to Tibet, China, South-East Asia and Japan, and eventually to California. In each of these regions new interpretations, approaches, and traditions were formed. In the United States and Europe, the popularity of complementary forms of medicine, and in particular Chinese Medicine, is growing rapidly. Integrated healing approaches are becoming increasingly popular, echoing Deng Xiao-Pings famous dictum that it does not matter what color a cat is as long as it catches mice. Another extremely rich resource is the story of multicultural cities and regions that have been the source of creativity where widely diverse groups have co-existed peacefully and creatively, such as Andalusia before the expulsion of the Arabs from Spain and the Mediterranean as a whole, which owes its cultural fertility to the extensive exchanges between diverse peoples on three continents. All these enormously important and creative exchanges require much greater attention and emphasis. Polak (1973) has argued that without an image of the future, a culture is adrift. At this point, we do not have images of the future that depict a desirable future where cultures interact creatively. If anything, the attractor images presented

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by Huntington and others point exactly the other way. The creation of attractor images through documentaries, movies, novels, and scholarly research that revisit our past, framed now as a history of conicts, as a history that also recognizes the ability of the human spirit to create together with others, often in the most dire circumstances, and thereby to create a new future of creative collaboration, lies at the heart of our proposal. CHANS TYPES OF CULTURE CONTACT Chan discusses ve possible processes in culture contact: essentializing, alternating, converting, hybridizing, and innovating (Chan 2002, 2005). This categorization provides an interesting and useful entry point to differentiate different understandings of, and approaches to, culture contact and diversity, and articulate their underlying assumptions. Essentializing assumes cultures are fundamentally closed systems (Wilden 1980; Morin 2008). The closed systems contain essences that dene the nature of any culture, nation, or ethnicity. Essentialism is a core underlying assumption of the rst three forms of culture contact Chan outlines. Alternating occurs when there is shifting between identities. For instance, an immigrant passing in a dominant culture context assumes one identity, and then reverts to the identity of origin at home. Conversion means assimilation into a dominant culture (e.g., into the melting pot) and giving up ones original identity. Hybridizing is the rst process that goes beyond the closed system, essentialist model. Chan calls it a mutual entanglement and it suggests that both systems are open systems. This is popularly seen in fusion cuisine, fashion, world music, and so forth. The relationship goes beyond either/or. At a very basic level, this might involve adapting the cuisine of the homeland to the conditions of the new culture: different produce, different possibilities, and the evolution of different tastes. Italian-American food, while retaining some of the same ingredients and dishes from Italy, has changed considerably over the years, and is now based on an aesthetic that is arguably very different from what one might nd in Italy today, in the same way that the values and political and religious views of Italian Americans have been shown to be different from those of Italians in Italy (Barron and Young 1970). As Chan points out, on an existential level hybridizing is common in the everyday practices of immigrants. Chan movingly addresses the issues confronting migrant persons and the complexity of their lives and identities (Chan 2002, 2005). He points out the emergent ethnicity of many migrants today in the context of hybridization, and the existential stress it can involve. Central to that stress are fundamental issues of identity: personal identity and national identity, issues of belonging, of betrayal, change, history, and geography. It is not uncommon for some migrants, particularly rst-generation migrants, to feel like they are neither sh nor fowl, having left their culture of origin behind, but never fully accepted in their new culture. One key factor here is that in the traditional essentialist view, what is valorized is unity, not diversity. In other words, one is either fully A or
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fully B. Being both A and Bboth American and Chinesedoes not amount to more in this view, but less. One is diminished by interaction. While essentialist views seem to have dominated the discourse, it is becoming increasingly clear that human beings are all, in the words U.S. President Obama used to describe himself, mutts. Claims of ethnic or racial purity are deeply problematic, with no factual basis. The same applies to claims of owning or belonging to a land. They are ultimately based on the use of an arbitrary cut-off point in time and space beyond which one cannot look (Bocchi and Ceruti 1997, 2002). Beyond that point (and likely before it, although not in the nationalistic histories) there are inevitable migrations, interactions, contaminations, hybridizations. And while we respect the importance of individual cultures and attachment to land, what is more problematic are claims of purity, and the claims to homogeneity, with their all-too-frequent concomitant ethnic cleansing. If we view identity not as given but as created in a historical process, then any culture can trace its roots further and further back, and its origins to the birth of humanity in Africa. Chan also raises the potential of a fth possibility, Innovating. At this point, Chan suggests that Innovating is the most speculative form of cultural contact. Innovating involves, among other things, hybridity, cosmopolitanism, metissage, and creativity. Chan addresses the difculties and complexities of such a perspective. Innovating is, in our view, most compatible with a focus on the centrality of creativity and interaction. We explore some of the specic areas where further research might assist in the development of this innovation, and steps toward educating for this view of culture contact. Humanitys history is full of cultural contacts that have led to cultural innovations (Appiah 2006; Bateson 1994; Berry and Epstein 1999; Chambers 1994; Collins 1998; Florida 2002; Hobson 2004; Thompson 1986). Examples range from the Renaissance to the birth of jazz to the development of new hybrid forms of spiritual and religious practices such as those found in new religious movements. The story of Buddhism is an example in its journey from India to China to Japan and then California. As Edward Said (1993) has written,
the history of all cultures is the history of cultural borrowings. Cultures are not impermeable. Culture is never just a matter of ownership, of borrowing and lending with absolute debtors and creditors, but rather of appropriations, common experiences, and interdependencies of all kinds. (261)

The history of the world is in this view already a history of cultural creativity. But the dominant view of cultures is precisely, as Said suggests, that they are these impermeable essences. This closed system essentialist view blinds us to the creative role of interactions, because in an essentialist view the interactions either threaten the essence or appear as opportunities to expand the essential features of a culture. This has led to a focus on the achievements of individual cultures, and the appropriation of what were in most cases relational achievements that emerged out of interactions between cultures by individual cultures in the name of one single culture.

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Developing a broader understanding of cultural interaction requires a minimum of three shifts in our fundamental assumptions: going beyond a view of human interaction based exclusively on domination; acknowledging the fundamental role of creativity in life; learning to think in a non-essentialist way that accounts for human complexity. CHALLENGING THE FUNDAMENTAL ASSUMPTIONS OF ESSENTIALISM, INTERACTION, AND DOMINATION
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We need a kind of thinking that relinks that which is disjointed and compartmentalized, that respects diversity as it recognizes unity, and that tries to discern interdependencies. We need a radical thinking (which gets to the root of problems), a multidimensional thinking, and an organizational or systemic thinking (Morin and Kern 1999). Essentialism is closed system thinking (Wilden 1980). The essence is a characteristic of a thing independent of interactions and context (Morin 2008). Thinking that views individuals and cultures as open systems recognizes the constitutive role of interactions and context. Closed systems are fundamentally static and equilibrium oriented. Open systems, because of the perturbations caused by the interactions, experience disequilibrium, and ongoing processes of re-organization. With an essentialist, closed system perspective it is simply not possible to conceive of transformative change and innovation. In the essentialist view, identity is static and given. A closed system has no signicant interaction with its environment. Relationships and interactions are not constitutive and constructive in a closed system view. Interaction can only be viewed from the perspective of domination. In the twenty-rst century, these assumptions may appear somewhat shocking. but we must not forget their strong historical roots, as demonstrated in the following passage:
The Laws of God operate not through a few thousand years, but through eternity, and we cannot always perceive the why or wherefore of what passes in our brief day. Nations and races, like individuals, have each a special destiny: some are born to rule, and others to be ruled. And such has ever been the history of mankind. No two distinctly-marked races can dwell together on equal terms. (Nott and Gliddon 1855)

In this classic of scientic racism we see a basic set of assumptions that is in the work of scholars like Huntington. Creativity and innovation are not in the realm of imagination because any deviation from the pre-established identity can only be in the form of pollution. Not innovation, but dominationexpanding the right essenceis the only possible outcome, as Nott and Gliddon made so clear in their articulation of their position. Along with domination, racist rhetoric is full of the language of degeneration, pollution, and so on. Likewise, Aristotelian essentialism precluded any form of evolution, because forms where xed and given. In an Aristotelian/Aquinian perspective, one could similarly speak of a fall, but not of evolution (Bocchi and Ceruti 2002).

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A new way of thinking is needed, a way of thinking that recognizes the inherent complexity of life seen as an ongoing, relational, creative process. From a complexity perspective, identity, whether individual or cultural, is not one homogeneous whole but a unitas multiplex, a unity in diversity (Morin 2008). We are not one thing, but a plurality of complex interactions. These interactions occur within any given system, and between the system and its environment. Morin has articulated the need for complex thought in an effort to counteract the prevalence of reductive and disjunctive thought that cannot account for relational, processual, interactive complexity. Reduction and disjunction, two characteristics of Morins simple thought, in the context of identity means reduction to a clear and distinct identity, free of all other inuencesthe myth of purity (Bocchi and Ceruti 1997)and one that can be separated from the other through a logic of either/or. In moments of crisis this becomes the logic of us against them, you are either for us or against us (Montuori 2005). It is not until we get to Hybridizing and particularly Innovating in Chans categorization that we move from the essentialism of cultural and personal identity as closed systems that are static and unchanging to an open systems view that is more processual and relational. In this view, any identity, and any culture, involves a process of construction and creation (Wagner 1981). Creativity and innovation are not occasional events, in this view, but the very nature of life itself (Bocchi and Ceruti 2002; Ceruti 2008). Innovating might then involve a more conscious process of identity construction, a creative dialogue between tradition and change. This process can be found most explicitly in the arts, where creativity is the essential frame of the activity, but it is also increasingly being found in the emergence of tribes, groups with shared interests that gather either physically or in cyberspace and craft their own identities through common interests and rituals, ranging from tattooing to video games to social justice or events such as Burning Man (Godin 2009).

FROM DOMINATION TO CREATIVITY We have seen how the discourse of diversity and culture contact in the United States has focused largely on conict, because of the exclusionary nature of the essentialist, closed system view. The assumption that interactions are inevitably conictual is based on a dynamic of domination (Eisler 1987). A majority group might seek to create a homogeneous melting pot, and eliminate differences. This is the process Chan identies as converting, which negates one dominant culture in favor of another (Chan 2002, 2005). When the differences are visible because of such characteristics as skin color (racial differences) it might seek to keep the minority group at a safe distance (segregation, apartheid). The critique of the dominant majority, of the colonial heritage and its history of oppression, and the diversity trainings that, as Anand and Winters (2008) point out, can occasionally degenerate into attacks on the majority, mostly operate with the assumption of the inevitability of the paradigm of domination. Whether in the attempt to dominate

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or the effort to remove the domination of a dominant group, domination is still the central paradigm. Central to the domination paradigm is the view that interaction, whether in the form of culture contact or diversity, will inevitably lead to one culture to dominating the other. The interaction of different cultural groups inevitably leads to insurmountable differences, which can escalate to violent conict. This is a combination of beliefs about the nature of human nature, of identity, and of human interaction (Montuori 1989; Bernstein 2005; Eisler 1987). Underlying the focus on conict and contentiousness there are assumptions of static identity, and essentialist purity. Once the boundaries are so tightly drawn between self and other, Chan shows this essentializing leads to exaggerations, stereotypes, and prejudice (Chan 2002, 2005). It can also lead to a clash of cultures view, in which the coexistence of cultures is rejected in favor of an ongoing conictual clash that will, or should, lead to the ultimate domination of one culture (Bocchi and Ceruti 1997; Huntington 1998). In a hybridized planetary culture, identity is not a given. It is not an essence that is intrinsic to our nature. It is acquired during a historical process of interaction, contingencies, encounters, interpretations, rejections, conicts, and constructions (Appiah 2006). Identity is the result of an ongoing creative process that occurs within certain constraints (Bocchi and Ceruti 2002; Ceruti 2008). The challenges facing the outsiders, the marginals, the migrants, those individuals who do not belong to the majority culture are then transformed into challenges of creativity rather than being viewed as ultimately arising out of a decit, a lack that arises precisely because they are a minority. And indeed as Chan points out, outsiders and marginals are often associated with greater creativity (Stonequist 1961; Benet-Mart nez and Haritatos 2005; Benet-Mart nez, Lee, and Leu 2006). They stand outside the often homogenized conformity of the majority, and bring a plurality of perspectives to bear on their life. What is given in one country is not given or just the way things are in another country. The outsider, the migrant, therefore sees her or his world from at least two perspectives (Montuori and Fahim 2004). As Chan suggests, this can lead to alternating, an oscillation between two ways of being. Alternating can involve compartmentalizing ones identity, being one person in culture A and another in (sub-)culture B. But alternation also offers the possibility for bisociation, identied as a central component of creativity. Bisociation involves seeing a situation from two mutually exclusive perspectives, and bringing them together to form something new (Koestler 1990). This is the creativity of hybridization. The outsider can develop the creativity to bring together aspects of both cultures and create something new. Viewing creativity as central to the nature of life itself is parallel to taking what might be called a planetary view. This view extends time and space. As Ceruti points out, in the West the discoveries of deep space and deep time (in cosmology and paleontology and evolutionary theory) led to a challenge against essentialism in science, and the preformationist view that held all living creatures had been designed by God, and history, interaction, and contingency played no constructive role. Science has increasingly begun to outline the creative role of time through ongoing interactions, and that this web of interactions covers the

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entire planet (Ceruti 2008). Ultimately there is one place we can truly say we all belong to, what Edgar Morin calls Homeland Earth (Morin and Kern 1999). In his work on education, Morin has also started that it is imperative that in this planetary era we situate everything in a planetary context (Morin 2001). Indeed at this critical moment in humanitys history our education must valorize creativity and diversity. And yet, what we have seen is that neither creativity nor diversity are valorizedon the contrary, most educational institutions suppress creativity, and are still mired in a conictual view of culture contact and diversity (Aronowitz 2001; Abbs 2003; Montuori 2006).
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EXPANDING THE SOCIAL IMAGINARY In the mid-1980s, the research literature on creativity in the United States included hardly any research on creative groups. Likewise, the notion of a creative group was difcult to nd in the social imaginary. People found it difcult to think of a creative group. A band like the Beatles was typically thought of as the result of one individuals songwriting, not the interaction of four, and very plausibly ve, individuals (including producer/arranger George Martin). Group creativity was considered an oxymoron, because creativity was known to be something that happens exclusively inside one persons head (Montuori and Purser 1999). Twenty-ve years later, popular business magazines extol the virtues of hot groups, and there is a burgeoning research literature on creative groups (Sawyer 2006) as well as an increased emphasis on teams, whether in business or sports or entertainment. Now it is obvious that 25 years ago there were in fact also creative groups. The main difference is that the creative groups were not part of the social imaginary. Creative groups were not on peoples radar screen, as we might say colloquially. This meant most people did not see groups as a locus for creativity, and there was no research on the subject. In the same way that more relational forms of creativity were once not in the social imaginary, the U.S. social imaginary is struggling to see the creativity that is generated by diversity and culture contact. As we saw in the review of diversity in the United States, it is clear that although there are movements in the direction of highlighting the positive potential of diversity, an explicit link with creativity is still tenuous in the research literature, let alone in the social imaginary. It is much easier at this stage in history for any individual to enumerate the often horric clashes, ethnic cleansings, holocausts, and everyday examples of racism rather than examples of cultural creativity and collaboration simply because the latter, while central to humanitys history, have not received the same amount of attention. We can nd endless volumes on racism and prejudice and the holocaust, but we are hard pressed to nd scholarly research that celebrates the creativity of culture contact and diversity. Examples can be found in discussions of world music, for instance, but even then, the lens through which they are seen often privileges issues of appropriation and exploitation rather than exploring the dynamics of creativity. If the social imaginary provides us only with conictual images of cultural diversity, then we will be hard pressed to conceive of alternatives to conict. Diversity training, and more broadly, education for a pluralistic, diverse society,

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will focus on conict avoidance and resolution, or the celebration of individual groups, such as Black History Month (Anand and Winters 2008). A clarication is in order before we proceed. We are not suggesting prejudice, racism, stereotyping, and so on should not be addressed, and the focus of education should only be on creative or positive, generative interactions. That would be equally detrimental, and lead to little more than happy talk. We also do not mean to downplay or reject the importance of highlighting histories of oppression, appropriation, and exploitation. We do want to point out that this is not the whole picture, and that without examples of creative interaction it will be much harder to envision what we could move toward rather than away from. The futurist Polak has made an important case for guiding images of the future, and it is in part to this strain of research that we refer (Polak 1973). We are also not proposing that individual cultures and minorities should not celebrate their histories and achievements. Our proposal would be complementary to existing approaches. It would focus on the development of images that show creative alternatives to racism and prejudice, and on the nature of interactions between different cultural groups, celebrating interaction and creativity. One way of doing this would be to collect the enormous and rich variety of what we might call positive attractor images of creative diversity and culture contact. This research can then inform the lives of citizens by showing them that they can draw on their own creativity, and on collaborative creativity to overcome problems, create new solutions, and create a world worthy of our aspirations. It is only when there is a constant exposure to examples of creative diversity, rather than an exclusive focus on prejudice, stereotyping, racism, and so on, that creative diversity will become more accepted. The historical complexity of personal and cultural identity can be shown to be a history of interactions, encounters, contaminations, exchanges, conict, and also creativity. Images of essence, of purity can be challenged by historical accounts that focus on interaction rather than essence, that view cultural encounters, interactions, and exchanges and changes not as a decit or weakness away from an essential ideal but as a positive, as an ongoing creative process. Images of creative culture contact and diversity abound in the arts, but also religion and spirituality, philosophy, science, and history. The time has come to explore the dynamics of planetary creativity. Where are the collections of examples of cultural creativity and diversity? What are the conditions that allow for this creativity to emerge? How can we illuminate this creativity to propose alternatives to conictual images of domination, and open up possibilities for new ways of relating? How can we make individuals and communities aware of the potential for creativity in their own lives? A whole world of research opens up as we look at our predicament through the lens of creativity. CONCLUSION In this article we have reviewed the discourse of culture contact and diversity and found it underpinned by a frame of domination. Starting with Chans ve types of culture contact we explored a variety of positions and perspectives on

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diversity. We critiqued essentialist perspectives that saw culture contact as an event involving two fundamentally closed systems for whom interaction can only involve a choice of domination or submission, and offered a perspective that is more relational, complex, and that focuses on the creative nature of interactions in culture contact. We proposed the importance of valorizing creative exchanges and interactions, outlined key conceptual obstacles to understanding the possibility of creative interaction, focusing in particular on essentialism and domination, and stressed the importance of seeding the social imaginary with images and stories of humanitys history of creative interactions, and an articulation of possible creative futures. We saw that Polak argued for the importance of images of the future. Morin (Morin and Kern 1999) has argued that we are experiencing a crisis of the future, lacking, in other words, compelling images of a desirable future. Morins central argument is that in a world becoming increasingly complexwith complex understood broadly here as more interconnected, interdependent, diverse, and adaptivea kind of thinking is needed that accounts for this complexity. We saw that in the United States images of creativity have tended to be reductive and disjunctive, focusing on eccentric lone geniuses and an either youve got it or you havent approach, at the expense of more complex, nuanced, relational frames, such as the ones emerging now (Montuori and Purser 1999; Barron 1995; Bateson 2001). The emergence in the social imaginary of group and specically relational creativity has helped shift the understanding of creativity, and is now being addressed in such popular books as Malcolm Gladwells Outliers (2009), Godins Tribes (2009), and Surowieckis The Wisdom of Tribes (2005), among others. The incredible boom in social networking has also perhaps inevitably led to a greater appreciation of interconnectedness, and again popular works such as Barabasis Linked (2003), and Capras The Web of Life (1996), present theoretical foundations for this shift in works of scientic popularization. The development of more complex ways of representing the worlds diversity, interrelations, and interdependence is a powerful artistic, theoretical, and practical challenge. Movies such as Babel and Crash have attempted to capture this complexity, and it is clear that these are just emerging efforts. An enormous creative task lies ahead of those who choose to view the world in a more complex way, valorizing creativity, collaboration, and complexity. It is a challenge that is truly transdisciplinary, drawing on the arts, the sciences, the social sciences, and the humanities, and must begin with a process of collection, documentation, and popularization of the innumerable examples of hybridity and cultural creativity that have made such a remarkable contribution to the human journey, and our emerging planetary culture. REFERENCES
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