"Posts" Perspectives on Anti-Oppressive Education in Social Studies, English, Mathematics, and Science Classrooms Author(s): Kevin K.

Kumashiro Source: Educational Researcher, Vol. 30, No. 3 (Apr., 2001), pp. 3-12 Published by: American Educational Research Association Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3594468 . Accessed: 20/02/2014 20:08
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"Posts"
in

Social

Education Perspectives on Anti-Oppressive Studies, Mathematics, and English,

Science

Classrooms

by KevinK. Kumashiro
traditions surprising, giventhatwritingswithinpoststructuralist often troublelanguageas a way to troubleknowledge(re)production (Ellsworth,1997), and often refuseto name concrete as "strategies thatwork"(Kumashiro, 1999a).Nonethepractices oppressive education-especially poststructuralist perspectiveseducational research hasproducedandconless, anti-oppressive for socialstudies, andscienceclassrooms. The mathematics, English, tinues to producea wealthof culturaland conceptualresources authorfocuseson two maintheoretical constructs: unknowability, for educators to use in rethinking theirpractices and imagining andlooking andresistance, crisis, multiplicity, beyondthe known; forms of anti-oppressive educationthat have, until now, been andresignifying the self.Implications forteachereducation conclude unexplored. The "posts" offerinsightful writings,in particular, to challenging the article. ways to complicatemany approaches oppression thathavealready committed gainedpopularity amongeducators to change. In this article,I address the question,"What couldit meanfor Educational researchers haveshedmuchlight on the multiple educators within the 'core to teach in and contradictory different forms of as disciplines' anti-oppressive ways oppression(such While drawingon insightsfroma rangeof critical,mulracism,classism,sexism,and heterosexism) ways?" play out in schools, on anti-oppressive as well as on the variousapproaches edthat educatorscan use to ticultural, feminist,andqueerperspectives workagainstoppression I focus on the as I for a ucation, 2000b, (seeKumashiro, primarily "posts" writings suggestspesummary cific implicationsfor socialstudies,English,mathematics, of these approaches). While such insightsarehelpfulfor thinkand science In I about the classrooms. the usefulness of nature and of two ing differently particular, explore dynamics schooling,they do not always leadto changes in practice. main In my experiences theoretical from constructs the unknowwork"posts" writings: andpracticing teachers in K-12 schools, ingwithstudentteachers ability,multiplicity,and looking beyondthe known;and resisI commonlyhearcomplaintsthat research and theoryon antithe self.Implications forteacher edtance,crisis,andresignifying education education that worksagainstoppresucationconcludethisarticle.Giventhe scopeof thisanalysis and (or, oppressive into practice, the "posts" the limitationsof space, my discussionsof the implicationsof sion) aredifficultto translate especially as andpostcolonialist) reeachtheoretical construct foreachof the different (such postmodernist, are poststructuralist, disciplines searchand theories.I also hearcomplaintsthat theirpriorityas the usefulbrief,but I believethey will demonstrate necessarily teachers is to teachtheirsubjects, to meet the required standards nessof "posts" to teachers and teachereducators, as perspectives within the "coredisciplines," and that the taskof changingopwell as areas wherefurtherresearch is needed. shouldnot fallon them(Kumashiro, I should note, as problematic as is expectingthat oppression 2000a).Researchers pression have noted similarcomplaintswithin the educationalresearch does not play out in our classroomsis expectingthat we now curricuknow the effectiveway to changeit. There is no panacea,and community,such as complaintsthat "reconceptualist" lum theorizingis "totally irrelevant to practice" even my explorations in this articleneed to be treatedas tools (Wright,2000) or that researchers should engagein research,not activismfor that, while changing our practices,must themselvesbe consocialjustice(Berliner,1997). Most notableis perhaps I use stantlyreworked. my terminology. to and engaging in anti-oppressive educaClearly, the term "Other" to referto those groupsthat are traditionally committing tion is anuphillbattleforresearchers in higher education andpracin society, that is, that are otherthan the norm. I marginalized in K-12 schools.Evenif we acknowledge titioners thatresearch is believemy analysis extendsto manydifferentgroupsin society, or always haspoliticaleffects(Richardson, 1997), but I illustrateOthernessprimarilywith groups targetedby always political and even if we committo addressing the oppressions thatarealI usethe term"queer" racism, classism, sexism,andheterosexism. in out what remains is the arschools, to waysand already refer to who are inplaying people gay,lesbian,bisexual, transgender, duoustaskof re-thinking ourpractices basedon writingsthatare in becauseof their tersexual, questioning,or otherways"queer" often difficultto understand andimplement.This shouldnot be sexualidentityor sexualorientation.I agreethat the appropriation of "queer" by many GLBTIQssignifiesa rejectionof norEducational Vol.30. No. 3, pp.3-12 Researcher, mativesexualities and genders andan act of politicalsignificance
APRIL 2001I

Whatcouldit meanfor educators within the "coredisciplines" to teachinwaysthatchallenge forms of oppression? Thisarticle multiple the of various on antiexplores implications "posts" perspectives

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(Capper,1999; Tierney& Dilley, 1998), althoughI acknowledge that the termcontinuesto invokea historyof bigotryand while the term hatred,even among GLBTIQs. Furthermore, can the "queer" highlight interrelationship among sex, gender, in press), andsexuality (Butler,1993) andevenrace(Kumashiro, it can also erasegender differences(Wieringa& Blackwood, differences 1999) andracial (Rosales,1999). I saythis not to dismisstheselimitations, but rather to makeexplicitthateverypractice makessome changespossible,and others,impossible; they work againstsome forms of oppressionand lie complicitwith that work (forall stuothers.My goal is not to name strategies all but rather, to emdents,in allsituations, against oppressions), of the to oppression, phasize partiality anyapproach challenging and the need to constantlyreworktheseapproaches. Unknowability, Multiplicity, and Looking Beyond the Known

The "Problem "ofPartiality

All studentscome to school with partialknowledges.In some waystheymaynot knowmuchaboutmarginalized groupsin soeven the thatknowlbut when do know about Other, ciety, they a a of is often and edge mis-knowledge, knowledge stereotypes learned the and so from families, media, myths peer groups, forth. The school curriculum often does little to addressthese partialknowledges.For example,when U.S. historycurricula focus on politicalleaders,militaryconflicts,and industrialinand perspecventors,they areincludingthe voices,experiences, tives of only certaingroupsin society, namely, the privileged. Leftsilencedor pushedto the marginsaresuch topicsas immigration,the gendereddivision of labor,and civil rightsmovements that can revealthe rolesthat the Otheredin societyhave playedin U.S. history.Anyon (1979), for example,tells us that U.S. historytextbookscelebrate the achievements of industrial inventorsbut fail to discussthe practices and effectsof laborexresearchers Additional ploitationon the workingclasses. point to in the curriculum waysthatothergroupsaresimilarly privileged throughthe selectiveinclusionand exclusionof material, groups suchasmales(Minnich,1990),WhiteAmericans (Asante, 1991), and heterosexuals (Lipkin,1995). Compoundingmattersis the recognitionthat the structureof the social studiescurriculum, not justits content,is problematic. Moreandmorehistorians are voice belongsin writtenaccountsof hisarguingthat narrative tory, by which I mean, signsthat the authorwrote the text and constructeda particular version of history belong in the text continueto silence (Cronon,1992). However,historytextbooks the narrative or authorial voice (Paxton,1999). This lackof authorialvoice impliesthatthe accountbeingtold is objectiveand consists 1997); it impliesthat "history" impartial(Richardson, of facts,not readings or interpretations of events;and given the selectiveinclusionand exclusionof materials, it colludesin the of hegemonicversionsof history(Paxton,1999). privileging The privilegingof certaingroups occurs not only in social studiesclassrooms, but alsoin scienceclassrooms thatpurport to be teachinga "neutral" As Letts(1999) pointsout, what subject. we havecome to call "science" has beencritiqued fromfeminist, and even queerperspecantiracist, postcolonial,poststructural, tives. Such critiquesinclude the notion that "real" sciencehas come to be defined as only the science that originatedin the
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"Western" (or, White) world (Harding,1994; Lee, 1999). Not long ago, only men were consideredcapableof thinkingscien1989). Throughouthistoryand even today, tifically(Battersby, science asks only certainquestions, and as a result, is used in ways that primarilybenefit certain racialand socioeconomic groupsin society(Harding,1994). Dependingon what it finds (or choosesnot to find) and publicizes(or choosesnot to publicize), sciencecan have differentpoliticaland materialconsequenceson differentpopulations,justifyingthe privilegingof of others, as happened certaingroupsand the marginalization with the AIDS epidemicwhen the sciencecommunityrefused to devote significanttime and resourcesuntil the "problem" diseaseto a virusthat can spread changedfrom an African/gay America(Treichler,1988). Sciencecan normalto mainstream ize only certainways of being, such as when it talksabout sex/ the notion that genderin dichotomousterms,thus reinforcing andnothingelse,despitethatsigthereareonlymalesandfemales of humanbeingsand otherlivingbeingsin the nificantnumbers naturalworld are intersexed(Kessler,1998; Letts, 1999). Even educatorshelp maintainthe privilegingof certain progressive in that studentsthink"scientifgroups societywhen theyrequire and "sci1992). Clearly, (Ellsworth, ically," objectively, rationally ence"is alwaysand alreadyimplicatedin challengingand contributingto differentformsof oppression. Mathematicsis no different.Historically,mathematicshas and imperialism beena tool of colonialism (Bishop,1990). This has an underthat mathematics should not be surprising, given of control": and mathematizing quantifyingnature lying "logic and time and spacearewaysfor humansto controlnot only naas, in part, the ture, but also society, since defining "reason" think allows certain to "mathematically" people (i.e., the ability others(Fleener, their control over to extend "mathematical" ones) to be a transoften mathematics 1999). Furthermore, purports truths that about the a reflects parentlanguage-i.e., language is transparent natural world-even thoughno language (Shulman, 1996). Different languagesmake possible different ways of making sense of the world (Macedo, 1991). Not only is any languageencodedwith culturallyspecificand genderedmeananduse ings (Shulman,1994), but so too do peopleunderstand of mathematics the languages differently dependingon the culturalcontextor situation(Bishop,1994;Powell& Frankenstein, is a way of 1997). Therefore,indirectly,teachingmathematics culturalnormsand values(Shulman,1994). teachingparticular Yet, as students,we do not often learnthat ours is but one of out there;we do not learnthat our many mathematics/sciences certainwaysof thinksystemof mathematics/sciences privileges often ing; and we do not learnways that mathematics/sciences address certainsocialproblemsand not others,perhapsbecause differentgroupshave yet to occupy positions in math/science to with the authority to askthemand the resources communities follow through(Harding,1994). materimostcommonlycritiqued forteachingpartial Perhaps Bithe "canon." alsareEnglishclassrooms thatinsiston teaching asesbasedon class,race,gender,sexuality, andothersocialmarkers often play out in the curriculumwhen the authors and of the literature of middle characters beingreadconsistprimarily classorwealthy, White,male,andheterosexual people(PalumboLiu, 1995; Schmitz,Rosenfelt,Butler, & Guy-Sheftall,1995;

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Sumara,1993). By learningaboutonly certaingroupsand perspectivesin society, studentsare not learningabout alternative andidentitiesof andthe contributions, experiences, perspectives are not students and not such Others, by learning knowledge, and exthe have. Silence they already troubling (mis)knowledge of the "hidden clusionaresignificant curriculum" (Jackson, parts 1968; Jackson,Boostrom, & Hanson, 1993) being taught in thatsanctionsthe partial and opschools-a hiddencurriculum in and schools already society. pressive knowledges In response,many educators havecalledfor diversityand an inclusive, multiculturalcurriculum.Unfortunately,educators as if adding,say,women often stop after"adding on"differences here and Latinas/os theresolvesthe problem.There areat least two reasonswhy mere inclusion cannot solve "the problem." First, countlessdifferencesexist in society (such as differences lanbasedon race,class,gender,sexuality,religion,[dis]ability, makintersections of these differences), guage,bodysize,andthe Second,even if impossibleto be fully "inclusive." ing it literally alldifferences couldbe namedandincluded,the veryactof namin contradictory couldoperate ways. ing andincludingdifference For example,we mightwonder,what does it meanto addJews, or to addqueers,or to add the workingpoor?In fact,what does it mean to "be"any of the things being added? Who counts as the "different"? do we expecttheirvoicesto By adding,say,BlackAmericans, to racialdifferences (hooks, 1994)?If so, arewe adding "speak" is specifically andsolelytheir only thosepeoplewhosedifference race(andnot also,say,theirgender,sexuality, or disability) and, in the process, ignoring what it means for Black American women or BlackAmericanqueersor disabledBlackAmericans also to be Black (but to be Blackin perhapsa differentway)? Does Blackness, in otherwords, takeon normative(or, regulatory) qualities within the inclusive curriculumjust as it has within Blackliberationmovements(Cohen, 1996)?Activistsat the intersections of oppressions havelong argued that,ironically, activistmovementsfunctionjust as mainstream identity-based societydoes in excludingits own margins(Powell, 1999), such as feminist movementsand women who are of color (McKay, 1993), or antiracistmovementsand people of color who are queer (Conerly, 1996), or queerrightsmovementsand queers who arefemale(Blackwood & Wieringa,1999). Addingdifference is problematic is itselfnormative. when the "difference" exceedssingular sinceidenYet,"difference" always categories titiesarealready What it meansto be a multipleand intersected. womanis already normative 1992), just racially (Higginbotham, as what it means to be masculineis alreadyheteronormative racialidentitiessuchasAsianAmer(Kimmel,1994). Similarly, ican identities are alreadygendered,such as with Orientalist of AsianAmericans in the mainstream U.S. imaginastereotypes tion (Okihiro, 1994), and arealready such as heterosexualized, when AsianAmericancommunitiesreify"traditional Asianvalues"thatarecenteredon heterosexist familialroles(Kumashiro, 1999b). It is a problem,then, to speakof identitiesalwaysand which not only deniesthe incarnations, only in theirseparate(d) of identities, but more importantly, already-intersectedness masksthe already-privileged statusof certainidentities.In parallowsonly certainidentities ticular,treating identityas singular to count as authentic,only certainones to matterwhen learning

aboutwhatit meansto be of thatgroup.This shouldnot be surhavemeaningonly because they are prising,giventhat identities definedin oppositionto an Other (Butler,1993). Authenticity To saywhoweareand of the non-authentic: the existence requires to say who we are not whatwe arefocusingon is simultaneously on.The namingof difference, and whatwearenot then, focusing canserve or inclusivecurricula, whetherin activistcommunities who a less to describewho a group is, and more to prescribe to be. groupought failsto changethatwhich the focuson difference Furthermore, that norm. is not-different, the namely, Althougha curriculum aims for inclusionmay succeedin teachingthat the differentor as the norm,it doesnot necthe Otheris as normalor important the "normal" and de-center the definition of essarily change very the White Amerinorm" (Ellsworth,1992), namely, "mythical identitiesthat are tradican, male, middle class, heterosexual aboutdifferences will be in tionallyprivileged society.Learning the colored lenses norm, as by already accomplishedthrough or in to contrast with about Others when we learn comparison does not this difference meansis, adding the Self. What really changeteachingand learningpracticesthat affirmour senseof normalcy.And perhapsthis is exactlywhy schools continue to we desireteachingand learnteachin oppressive ways;perhaps lenses(Doll, 1998; Morris,1998). Pering throughnormalized in waysthataffirm andconhapswe desireteachingandlearning firm our sense that what we have cometo believeis normalor in society is reallythe way things are and are supcommonsense Imagineconstantly posedto be. Afterall,imaginethe alternative: arereallysocial and "whowe are" that"whatis normal" learning constructsmaintainedonly throughthe Othering,the marginalization,the silencingof otherpossibleworldsandselves.Imagine constantlylearning,in otherwords,of our own complicity with oppression. we resistanti-oppressive pracMy point, here,is that perhaps tices becausethey troublehow we think and feel aboutnot only A good exampleis the refusalof the Other, but also ourselves. many academicsto engagewith queertheory.As Fuss (1991) the existenceof tellsus, sincethe definitionof "straight" requires the of heterosexuality and sincethe privileging requires "queer," it means to what of other effort sexualities, any change Othering to be queerrequires simultaneously changingwhat it meansto identities.Our desire be straight. So, too, with allotherbinaried to teachandlearnaboutthe Otherin traditional waysis a desire difto maintainsomesenseof identityandnormalcy. Therefore, ferenceis not merelysomethingwe haveyet to learn,but somewe (subconsciously) thing thatwe desirenot to learn,something will disruptthe what We resist resist(Britzman, 1998). learning use to makesenseof the worldand frameworks we traditionally laterin this ourselves.(I will returnto this notion of resistance article.) The Paradox ofAddressingPartiality with schools,then, is not merelythat only cerThe "problem" tain voicesareincluded.Sincewe can neverhearall voices,such a viewof the "problem" of curriculum leadseitherto a falsesense of hope, as in, "Ican solve this by includinga representative selection of voices"(asif representatives can everspeakfor the dias in, "Ican versitythat is in anygroup),or to a senseof despair, APRIL2001 5I

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that there neverrectifythis problem." We need to acknowledge in the voices are silenced first is a reason certain why place(Scott, 1993). The problem,in otherwords,is alsothatwe often desire voices,we desirethe silencingof Others,and only certain hearing we desirethe continuationof normalized teachingand learning practices. Why arethese desiresa problem? Any assemblyof voices inThe tells an directly story. sum (i.e., the story)will alunderlying will always exbe than its ways greater parts(or,moreaccurately, ceedwhatthe individual voicessayexplicitly). And the storythen frameshow we makesenseof what it is we arelearning,and of how it is ourlearnings relateto whatwe already knowandto who we think we are.Some storiesreinforce hegemonicframeworks for thinking about and acting in the world, others challenge them, and still othersdo both. Thus, storiesalwayshavepoliticaleffects(Richardson, 1997);andthe inclusionof moreanddifferentvoiceswill tell not a "truer" story,but a differentone, one with differentpolitical implications(Scott, 1993). What this meansis, the desireto teachand learnin only certain waysstems from a desire(perhaps a subconscious one, perhapsnot) to use only certainstories-especially the storieswe havetraditionally used-to makesenseof the world and ourselves. And since the traditional storiesarethe ones thatdefinenormalcy(i.e., arethe desireexactlywhat is harmfulto hegemonicones),we ironically ourselves. It is easyto adddifference in a waythatcomto the curriculum plieswith hegemony.As Spivak(1990) tells us, the inclusionof in Englishcurricula "ethnicliterature" can reflectan objectification of difference, wherewritersand literary criticsof color, by ironmakingpeopleof colorinto objectsof (new)investigations, to a "neworientalism" or new formof colonialicallycontribute ism. In fact, historically, the formationof "ethniccanons"(i.e., of color)arguably a commodificareflects greatworksby writers in politicalcorrectness, tion of difference, a typeof currency since callsforinclusiongrewasmuchout of the desireforchangeasthe desireto appeasethe discontented(Palumbo-Liu, 1995). Capitalist structures and colonialistideologiesdo permeateEnglish curricula and can constitutetheirunderlying "story." often However,the underlying storycanchange.Forexample, absentfromlessonson whatmanycall the SecondWorldWaris the any discussionof the role women played in transforming workforcein the United States;of the persecution of queersin Nazi Germany Jewsand othertargeted alongside groups;and of the forcedrelocation Americans, manyof them U.S. ofJapanese in the westernUnited citizens,to internmentcampsprimarily States.Such a unit indirectlytells a certainstoryabout the war, somethinglike the following:The Nazis were evil for persecuting the innocentJews,the United Stateswasthe forceof good in the faceof this evil, the men in the United Stateshelpedsavethe Americans werenot heroes, world,andwomen/queers/Japanese in this event.Werea teacher to tryto cover victims,or otherwise more perspectives, the unit could expandto includewomen's, queers',and Japanese Americans'voices. But if the expansion restsat saying"theseother groupswere also there,and now we have the full story,"such a move does not reallychange "the story,"at least the story of the United States.And that is the problem.We often expectthat more voices addedto the same closerto tellinga "truth" aboutWorld storyget the curriculum
RESEARCHER 61 EDUCATIONAL

when all perspecWarII because we assumethattruthis learned reminds us thatknowltivesaretold. Haraway however, (1988), situations and social and is shapedby partial situated, edge always identities that color the lens which we always through personal or morevoicesinto of different come to know.The juxtaposition a curriculum doesnot get us closerto a truth,but it cangivea difa differentframework for thinking,identifying, ferent "story," and/oranti-oppressive and actingin oppressive ways. The importanceof inclusion, then, lies not merely in its of perspectives, but also in its abilityto changethe broadening the unit and its politicaleffect. of curricular underlyingstory a storythat says"theUnited Stateswas Ratherthan perpetuate the notion that the United the force of good" (and perpetuate Statesis the big brotherto the world,the placeof freedomand a meritocracy), the unit now can teachaboutthe righteousness, of racism(againstits own citizens) United States'perpetuation and homophobia(whenit put queersfrom Nazi concentration campsright backinto prisons),and perhapstell a storyof how "the United Statesacted in contradictory ways."Ratherthan a a storyof how pawe tell now that men, might story privileges triarchal divisionsof laborboth influencedand were influenced in otherwords,not only by the war.The inclusivecurriculum, it can tell moreaboutwomen, queers,andJapanese Americans; of the United States'role in simultacan also changenarratives neously challengingand contributingto variousoppressions. in a different to be inclusive Werethe curriculum way(withvoices from voices different from differentgroups, people within the one another),the underlying samegroup,voicesthatcontradict in storywould change yet otherways. Such an insight can lead studentsto ask such questionsas, "Whatstoryabout the United Statesdoes the presenceof these voices (and the absenceof Other voices) tell us?When we add What knowledges differentvoices, how does the story change? of voices do differentconfigurations and identitiesand practices Which stories Whichstories the statusquo? makepossible? justify of certaingroupsand identitiesin challengethe marginalization As studentslearnaboutdifferences, they can alsoconsociety?" stantlyreflecton waysin which whattheylearnmakesdifferent identities,and practices possible.In this way, antiknowledges, As educatorsand students oppressiveeducationis paradoxical: useknowledgeabout differencesto complicatecurrentworldtrouble viewsandidentities andpractices, theycansimultaneously the wayswe teachand learn that new knowledgeby questioning it, the storiesthey tell (or silence), and the politicalviews and they makepossible(or close off). practices educationinvolvesconstantlylooking beyond Anti-oppressive what it is we teachand learn.This can happenwhen "adding" of Othersto socialstudiescurricula, but it can also experiences happenwhen adding contributionsand practicesof Others to As Harding(1994) tellsus, whatwe mathand sciencecurricula. in the mathsand sciences"arecaused havecome to call "truths" and the opby socialrelationsas well as by nature's regularities erationsof reason" (p. 353). So, just as therearesocial,political reasons consistsof only whatwe havecome to call why "history" and "science" history,so too is therea reason why "mathematics" consistof only whatwe havecome to call mathematics and science. We desirehearingonly certain("scientific") storiesabout theworldin orderto affirmourknowledges, identities,andprac-

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tices.This is not to saythatwhatwe now know in mathematics and scienceis not important, or hasnot been immenselyhelpful in improvingour lives-on the contrary,our knowledgehas been veryhelpfulin manyways.But just as thereis much more to learnwithinwhatwe call (Western) mathematics and science, so too are there alternative know to in the world and act ways other mathematics sciences. and through If science and mathematicsclassroomshave traditionally taughtscienceand mathin only certaincontextsand attempted to answer only certainquestions,then studentscan be invitedto learnsciencesand mathsin differentcontexts(Frankenstein & Powell, 1994), and use sciencesand maths to answerdifferent kinds of questionsand solve differentkinds of problems,especially problems relevantto their own lives (Ladson-Billings, 1995). They can even use sciencesand mathsto (con)testprior scientific/mathematical findingsthathavebeenusedto privilege and marginalize differentgroups(suchas findingsthat perpetuate stereotypes). are classrooms Also, if scienceand mathematics centeredon approaches to scienceand math that claim universality (despite their necessarypartiality),then students might (such as criticallyrespondby exploringalternative approaches that chaos and contradiction the and imposapproaches explore of what is sibility of totality), and seek not an understanding but an of what do math/science, exploration different approaches to math/science makepossibleand impossible in termsof understandingthe worldand addressing different problems(Fleener, 1999; Shulman,1996)? To put it another way, mathematicsand sciences can be what is beinglearned taughtin waysthat constantlylookbeyond andwhatis already known.As with teachingsocialstudies,educatorscan approach the teachingof mathsand sciencesin paradoxicalways:simultaneously learn new knowledge,while crilearn tiquing the veryways we come to know; simultaneously about the contributionsof science and math, while exploring waysthatscienceandmathhaveclosedoff further learning, privand in the process,contributed ileged only certainknowledges, to oppression. Educators canteachstudentsto be not only mathematicians and scientists,but also math criticsand sciencecritics (Harding,1994), just as we teachstudentsto be socialcritics andhistorians) andliterary critics(not only (not only sociologists readers and writers). In English classrooms,since curriculaoften face problems with the politicsof representation of inclu(andthe difficulties As I already sion), studentscanlearnto readtextsin critical ways. can be problematic if stunoted, includingdifferentliteratures dents readthe texts as merelya way to get to know differences. Sinceno text (suchasa novel)on, say,NativeAmericans canever reflect all voices within Native American communities, the knowledgewe gain from any text will alwaysbe partial(Butler, meansthat,inevitably, the textwill reflect 1997). Suchpartiality the realities of some peoplebut miss those of others;it will representthe voicesof some groupsbut silencethose of others;and in doing so, it will challengesome stereotypes while reinforcing others. Using texts as ways to know Others will alwayswork in contradictory againstoppression ways.This is alsotruewhen we acknowledge thattextscan nevertell the "whole" story,since even texts used to tell "representative" storiesare problematic when we expect that they actually"tell"us about difference.

Texts arenevertransparent mediathatgiveus accessor entryto a different are of what reality. They always partial re-presentations it is they tell us about. My argument,here, is not unlike postof research thatpresentqualitative modernistcritiques write-ups data in the form of block quotations(Richardson, 1997). Interif voices as are "literal (Britzman, they representations" preting and stable"mirrors" of reality(Scheurich, 1995) or transparent the historyandcontextin whichthe textwasand 1995) obscures still is being produced,and tends to conflatetellings of events with the actualevents(Fine, 1994). Thereis alwaysa difference betweenthe text/tellingand the objectof the telling. is probFurthermore, using textsas waysto know difference not merelythattextshavesilences, lematicwhenwe acknowledge silences.Justas I earlier but that they havenecessary arguedthat identitieshavemeaningbecause of whattheyarenot (i.e.,whom of whatthey they exclude),so too do textshavemeaningbecause leaveunsaid(Marshall, The unsaid is what 1992). givesthe said its meaning.U.S. literature, for example,neverhas to explicitly privilegeWhitenesssince what is unspoken(though still presdoes much to accomplish this shadow," ent), namely,the "Black such task(Morrison, conventional of as 1992).Yet, readings texts, their that look at of universal texts themes, meanings readings (e.g., the intentionsof the writers, and the development of the characconnections to the texts(suchassimters)or thatlook at personal ilaritiesbetweenthe readerand the characters, and the reader's about how have the could ended treat differently) story opinions what is saidin the text as its reality, as the embedded"meaning" failto treatascentral to of the text (O'Neill, 1993). Suchreadings whatis unsaid(aswellaswhatwe donotwantto say), theiranalysis how both the saidandthe unsaidconstitute the underlying story, and how the effectsof thatstoryareoftenhegemonic. curricula need Justas socialstudies,science,and mathematics to look beyondwhatis beingrepresented, so too do Englishcurtextshavedifricula.In particular, sincedifferent waysof reading ferent effects,studentscan learn to read texts in multiple and ways.This can be done on two levels.First,stuanti-oppressive dentscanlearnto readforsilences andthe effectsof thosesilences of a text (Ellsworth, on the "meaning" rather 1997). Forexample, than ask,"Whatdoes this noveltell us about,say,queeryouth?" teacherscan ask, "Whatquestionsdoes this novel raiseabout of queeryouth does this novel queeryouth?Which stereotypes which In general,what is and ones does it challenge? reinforce, in not said this novel about queeryouth, and how do those silences makepossibleand impossibledifferentways of thinking about queeryouth, abouthomophobia,about the reader's own sexualidentities,and about change?" Educatorscan teach that of textsis exactlywhat makestextsusefulfor antithe partiality education. oppressive Second,studentscan learnto examinetheir desireto readin to reading in otherways,and waysandtheirresistance particular can do so with the understanding thatsome reading are practices desiredbecausetheyaremorecomforting(thoughmoreoppressive) than others (Morris,1998). For example,besidesasking, "Whatdoes this text tell us about,say,WhiteAmerican working classes?" teachers also can ask, "Whataredifferentwaysto read this text, what different knowledgesabout White American workingclassesdoes each readinggive, and perhapsmost imlearn to read about White portantly,why do we traditionally

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O'Neill (1993) American workingclassesin only certainways?" tells us that such an approachto teachingliterature-that is, as culturalcriticism-looks beyondany false teachingliterature notion that therearemeaningsembeddedin texts. It refusesto is not to what is saidin the text.To readcritically limit learning as O'Neill critical that to read texts say things. Instead, merely is to asksuch questionsas, "Whatare suggests,to readcritically of charHow areparticular of thistext? readings possiblereadings of race, issues are How cultural or acters marginalized privileged? of different or readings texts? gender,class, religionproducedby how do thesealterfor this and What arepossibleendings story, of text?" nativesshiftpossiblereadings the readcontrastwith traditional Such criticalreadingpractices This of our sense normalcy. that end up repeating ing practices involves exis not surprising since teachingas culturalcriticism of commonsense interpretations litplicitlytryingto readagainst erature. And that is exactlywhat makesthis processdifficult.As in I arguedearlier,we often desireto teach/learn/read/identify traditionalways and these desiresform a cycle:Just as how a andlife identities influenced is greatly reader reads by the reader's iden1988), so too arethe waysa reader (Haraway, experiences tifiesand makessenseof the worldinfluencedby how the reader we areinvested & Davis, 1998). Not surprisingly, reads(Sumara in readingin particular waysin orderto maintainour own sense We can of self. This investmentis what educatorscan address. overcometheir desireto readin traditionalways, help readers and be open to readingin waysthat bringaboutchange. how the "posts" In this section,I havedescribed writingssugand that embrace to unknowability gest approaches teaching of and on in embark education, multiple ways knowing, paradox look beyondwhat is alreadyknown. I have concludedby sugto anti-oppressive educationcongestingthat such approaches front significantforms of resistanceto differenceand change among students.In the next section, I explorewaysthe "posts" theseresistances. writingssuggestaddressing Resistance, Crisis, and Resignifying the Self thataimsto changestudentsand socieducation Anti-oppressive andsociety thewaysstudents ety cannotdo so withoutaddressing resistchange.As I discussedin the previoussection, people do not often desirelearning aboutour own complicitywith oppression, andwhenwe do learnsuchthings,the processis rarely easy (Ellsworth,1997; Felman, 1995; Luhmann,1998; Pitt, 1998). Learningabout oppressionand unlearning(Britzman,1998) can be learnedis normaland normative whatwe had previously learningthat the verywaysin whichwe upsetting.In particular, can be a very thinkand do thingsis notonlypartialbutoppressive (Felman, 1995), and discomfortingprocess,a form of "crisis" is not thus, is not what we typicallydesire. Yet, "education" something that involves repeatingwhat one alreadyknows. involves education different, Rather, learning something learning thatdisrupts one'scommonnew, learning something something senseview of the world.The crisisthat resultsfrom unlearning, education. anddesirable then,is a necessary partof anti-oppressive By implication,learningto overcomeone's desirefor the comand expeof normative identities, knowledges, fortingrepetition of unto desire the discomforting riences involves process learning to learnthrough crisis. desiring learning. Desiringchangeinvolves
78 RESEARCHER EDUCATIONAL

in somosteasilyforeseeable throughcrisisis perhaps Learning of wherecritical(Freire, cialstudiesclassrooms 1995) discussions becomecentralto the curricuand oppressions socialdifferences of stereoforexample, the harmfulness thatcritique, lum. Lessons can of institutionalized histories the invisible and oppression types the andacknowledging one'sown prejudices involveconfronting of one's own practices(such as when we unintenharmfulness or complywith institutionalized stereotypes tionallyperpetuate can be emoThese processes consciousness-raising oppression). in and time and can space the curricurequire tionallyupsetting with crisisbeforeproceeding lum to workthroughthe resulting the moreacademicpartof the curriculum 1999a). (Kumashiro, Furthermore, workingto bringabout changein oneselfas well as in society can be very laborintensive,and may need to be a andrare andnot onlyin isolated thathappens year-round process moments.Change(of the studentandof society)cannothappen in predictable,controllablelessons:Studentsare neverexactly who we think they are,they nevercome from exactlywherewe Antithinkthey do, and they neverrespondexactlyas expected. not an is education easy, rational,straightforward oppressive contributeto adcan actually otherwise process,and pretending ditional forms of oppression(Ellsworth,1992). Therefore,an educationthatexpectscrisisforboth studentand anti-oppressive wherestudents a spacein the curricula to create need teacher may can enterand work throughcrisisin ways unforeseeable by the teacher. is often not crisis, whathappensin classrooms Unfortunately, for both stucomfort and and not change,but rather, repetition classin studies social This case not is the teacher. and dent only for example,essaysare often asrooms. In Englishclassrooms, to showwho theyareorwhattheyknow. signedto allowstudents and literary The problemis that,as with research texts,the writare never of students of, in this re-presentations transparent ings are All words and and souls. their minds themselves, texts, case, of if the use were not even And writingsas partial, they partial. are or what of who the students or demonstrative representative to of the the limits they know writing process bring potential in the aboutanti-oppressive changein the writer(and,arguably, can not be Richardson As reader aswell). (1997) suggests, writing textuwe to (where try re-present something only representative (wherethe processof writingbrings ally),but also performative in the writer),which meansthatwritingcan be aboutdifference and moreaboutchange. lessaboutrepetition(i.e., retelling) in whichstuinstructors In manyEnglishclasses, assignessays the coveredin class,or synthesize dentsareto explainthe theories or connectthe readings/ or critiquethe readings/texts, readings, Forsuchassignments, livesor observations. textsto the students' for evaluation(i.e., signs that the student"gotit" the standards suchasthe mainpoints or "didwell")areoftensignsof repetition, thataresupported of the readings or critiques of the readings, by other writings, or connections to personallives that draw on usedto makesenseof theirlives frameworks studentshaveearlier in additionto the contentof the or observations. Furthermore, in the structure of the essay.In essay,repetitionis often required when they engagein "academic" areconsidered essays particular, forms of citation, of invoking the authorityof someone who writ"well areconsidered (Zenger,1999), andessays spokeearlier ten" when they adhereto alreadyexisting models of what is

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stuwriting."By learningto be "goodwriters," "goodacademic that were into constructed dents are necessarily subjects being In sayingthis, I do in academia. by "standards" predetermined not advocate all academic essaywritingsincedifferabandoning ent types of writing assignmentsaccomplishdifferentthings. the privilege of certainways However,I do suggestinterrupting of writingas we troublewhat it meansto write.Writingassignmentscannotbe limitedto what teachers know, that is, already if will not be the properacademic essay.Writing anti-oppressive stories or adhere to limited it is alwaysforced to repeatand frameworks of what it meansto learn. thataskstudentsto reflecton This appliesevento assignments Miller(1998) critiques theirown lives,namely,autobiographies. in their classthe ways many educatorsassignautobiographies a rarooms,noting that "tellingone's story"not only presumes tional developmentof a singularsubjectfrom ignoranceto enmodelas "the the developmental but alsoprivileges lightenment, and untellable.Such a story,"makingotherstoriesunthinkable stomodernistuse of autobiography merelyrepeats already-told and ries, "reinscribes alreadynormalizedidentity categories," of seeingoneselfin waysneitherthe stuforecloses the possibility dent northe teacher couldhavepredicted. Instead,Millerargues thatautobiography shouldengagenot in repetition(andmirror(andmakstories),but in resignification ing the already-familiar to both the studentand andunnatural, ing one'sstoryunfamiliar ask whereteachers the teacher).Can we imaginean assignment stories? studentsto writein waysthattroublethe already-familiar Can we imaginean assignment wherethe productis less imporwhere tantthanthe process? And, canwe imaginean assignment studentsare helped to resistrepeatingtheir and their teachers' knowledges,identities,and practices,and to engagein the disknowledges,identities,and comfortingprocessof resignifying like can practices? reading, be aboutchanging"whowe Writing, and but such a move cannotcome about "how are," things are" if we insiston repeating the samestoriesof whatit meansto "do" a writingassignment or to "be"an Englishstudent. and sciences.One commonsense So, too, with mathematics view of when a studenthas "learned" math and scienceis "that from the foundationshave become 'obvious'and disappeared view; one is able to take the basic axiomsfor grantedand use them correctly and unselfconsciously" (Shulman,1996, p. 449). Studentshave learnedmath and science,in otherwords,when as do othermatheand scientifically they think mathematically maticians mathand scienceis aboutenand scientists.Learning gagingin the repetitionof "doingmath"and "doingscience." And not surprisingly, Eurogiven the colonialist,patriarchal, natureof (Western)mathematics and centric,and heterosexist definitionsof"good teachers" and "effecscience,commonsense tivemath/science education" thatcenteron suchviewsof"learnmath/science" effortstowardsequityin eduhinder actually ing cation (Secada,1995). Teachingin commonsensewayscannot help but maintainsocialinequities. If educators areto contest the properdomainsof mathsand sciences,and critiquethe ways they arealreadycomplicitwith to requirethat all stuoppression,then it seems contradictory dents acquirecertainstandards of knowledgeabout and skills within what we currently call math and science.Meetingstandardsis, like manyformsof essaywriting,a practice of repetition

knowledge),a practicethat closesoff predetermined (repeating whathasyetto be known(bybothstuof learning the possibilities focuseson only how we aldent and teacher). Meetingstandards and math and "do" science, ignoresthe otherpossibilities ready assumesthat teachers standards of doing. Furthermore, meeting andlearning. of teaching canknowandcontrolthe processes Yet, a of undeal involves tells as Ellsworth us, (1997) great teaching we canknow who our students We cannot are, fully knowability. what not controlwhattheylearn,we cannotknowwith certainty it is they actually learn,andwe cannotevenbe certainthatwhat to learn.To we wantthem to learnis whatis in theirbestinterest is to of the acknowledge unknowability teaching acknowledge cannotsayaheadof time whatwe want studentsto that teachers learn,what we will do to get them there,and how we will then formatforlesson if theygot there-which is a popular determine planning. Therefore,maths and scienceseducationcannot be considerto be aboutonly givingstudentswhat we traditionally andskills.Suchan emand scientificknowledges mathematical phasis on official knowledge (Apple, 1993) closes off antiforchange.I do not advocate abandoning possibilities oppressive but I do in how we currently "do"math/science, all instruction of current the privilege waysof doing. suggestinterrupting can recognizethat differentcomAt the veryleast,educators munities and cultural groups develop different practicesfor not only culworkingwith numbersand thinkingnumerically, but also cultural around the turalgroups world, groupswithin in difchildren the UnitedStates,includingethniccommunities, ferentage groups,and professional groups(D'Ambrosio,1985; Nelson-Barber (Street,2000) & Estrin,1995). The "numeracy" being taught in mathematicsand science classrooms,then, is to calculating, solving,predicting, only one of manyapproaches and scimathematics An and so forth. anti-oppressive modeling, ence classroomcan teach in ways that drawon Delpit's (1986, 1988) theoryof the cultureof power:Teacherscan learnwhere students are coming from, build from students'own cultural and makeconnectionsbetweenwaysstudentsare proficiencies, and waysthey need to be numerate/ numerate/scientific already scientific to succeed in mainstreamschools and society (Lee, mathand scienceeducationcannotclose 1999). Anti-oppressive off the "properdomain"of maths and sciences with a set of storiesaboutwhat really"is"math and science. already-known is to make studentsinto who we already To aim for standards know we want them to be, and that is problematicwhen our knowledgeis alwayspartial. educationworks againstcomIn summary,anti-oppressive monsenseviewsof what it meansto teach.Teachersmust move notionsof whatit meansto teach,and beyondtheirpreconceived studentsmustmove beyondtheircurrent conceptionsof whatit reinvolves education meansto learn. constantly Anti-oppressive examiningand troublingthe formsof repetitionthatplayout in one's practicesand that hinder attemptsto challengeoppresthan andworkingthroughcrisisrather sions.It involvesdesiring that andmasking it. It involvescontestingthe standards avoiding currentlydefine education in the disciplines.And it involves for who we areand can be. imaginingnew possibilities Implications for Teacher Education Littlehas What does this all mean for the trainingof teachers? teacher beenwrittenaboutanti-oppressive educationthatmakes
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needsto be done on theories.More research use of these"posts" when teachers what happensin classrooms try to do this work, in this article suchassecondnot in discussed including disciplines and the on how to prearts; education, physical language learning, fieldof antiin on the and how to these teachers teach ways; pare look to itself can continue research educational beyond oppressive datasources, whatit already theories, knows,suchasby exploring silencedor marginalized. thatremain andresearch methodologies in theories the Nonetheless, explored this articledo suggest least areasof teachereducation:infor at three implications forlessonplanning,and structionin academic areas, preparation in of student First,instruction teachingexperiences. supervision edfor anti-oppressive The samesuggestions areas. the academic andscienceclassucationin socialstudies,English,mathematics, education in rooms in K-12 schools apply to anti-oppressive level.In otherwords,for stusimilarclassrooms at the university to teach in anti-oppressive dent teachers,preparation ways involvesreceivingthe sametype of instructionfrom theirprofesas theirfuturestudentswill receive sors (in the core disciplines) In highereducafrom them. The barriers, here,aresubstantial. the traditional of tion, signs "knowing" discipline-such ashigh in jourgrades courseworkand publicationsin peer-reviewed nals-are often equatedwith an abilityto teach the discipline. in how to teach,much Professors receive do not normally training lessin how to teachin anti-oppressive ways,andnot surprisingly, and modelsof forcommonsense, by relyingon pastexperience, mer instructors, professors generallyteachwhat is traditionally teacher ways.An anti-oppressive taught,and do so in traditional to in educationprogram may need trainprofessors the coredisways,but at the veryleastit ciplinesto teachin anti-oppressive to constantly"lookbeyond"the offican teachstudentteachers cial knowledgebeing taughtin theircollegecourses. As studentteachers aretaughtdifferently, they can alsobe asthe sametype sesseddifferently, bywhichI meantheycanreceive and fromcertification of assessments fromtheirprofessors agencies that theirfuturestudentswill receivefromthem. Forexamcanstudentteachers to teachmathematics, ple, when preparing not be evaluated basedonly on how well they areableto repeat what currently such as its theorems, constitutes"mathematics," its terminology, math"alsoconand its applications. "Learning sistsof (continually) developingthe abilitiesand desiresto look known,such as to see what is madeposbeyondwhat is already sible by other forms of mathematics.Currentnationalcalls to ensureonly that test the discipline-based knowledgeof teachers canengagein repetition, anddo littleto reflectanyabilteachers teacheredways.Anti-oppressive ity to teachin anti-oppressive ucation involves teaching student teachersnot only to think but alsoto thinkaboutmathematics differently. mathematically, on how The secondimplication of the "posts" theoriescenters learnto planlessons.As I argued to help studentteachers earlier, makingit literteachinginvolvesa greatdeal of unknowability, ally impossibleto fully know who our students are and how teachersaffect them with what they teach. Recognizingunto the trafroma rigidadherence knowability requires departing ditionalmodel of teachingin which teachersthink in termsof what theywill do what theywish to achieve(i.e., the objective), and whatwill tell to achievetheirobjectives(i.e., the activities), them how well they have achievedtheir objectives(i.e., the asRESEARCHER 11o EDUCATIONAL

This is not to saythatsuch a formatshouldbe abansessments). andundoned,but lessonplansneedspacefor the unpredictable of in the that controllable way knowingourstualways get things our objectives. dents and achieving to plan lessonsis not unlikelearning subjectmatter Learning in the core disciplines-both involve paradoxically using new to know. Student the we came while troubling ways knowledge of can learnto tailortheirlessonsto the individualities teachers of theirknowledge the partiality whilerecognizing theirstudents, theirlessonsas they of studentsand, thus, constantlyretailoring of theirstudents.Studentteachers searchfor differentreadings whilereccanlearnto planlessonsthatcenteron clearobjectives, in controllable of the waysand, ognizing impossibility teaching most their thus, constantly Perhaps rethinking implementation. on lessons can that learn student teachers reflecting importantly, It alsoinvolvesaskinvolvesaskingnot merely,"what 'worked'?" In what and this lesson make "what did possible impossible? ing, In so forth?" and it enable did crisis, change, ways repetition, can learnthat thereis no panacea, otherwords,studentteachers that thereis no one best way to teach,and that thereis no one In correctway to makesenseof what happensin the classroom. or lessons learn that even teachers can student fact, "proven" and in both act teachers "master" anti-oppressive oppressive a discipline,shouldnot to teach,aswith learning ways.Learning storiesaboutwhat it means be a mererepetitionof already-told to teachwell. This is what makesteachinga processthat never and is in constantneed of "working "works" through." centers on the sutheories of the "posts" The thirdimplication are There of student manyways teachingexperiences. pervision to observestudent teachers.For example,just as readersoften focussolelyon what is saidin, say,a novel,so too do supervisors often focussolelyon what is said,on what is explicit,on what is the subjectmatThe supervisor observes visiblein the classroom. and in to it correct ensure is order ter being taught appropriate. the responses of studentsin orderto asobserves The supervisor sess whetherthe lessonswere plannedthoughtfullyand impleobservesinteractionsin the mented effectively.The supervisor wherestudentsarebeing to record in order instances classroom to are or These importantobservations marginalized privileged. of these kinds make. However,when the supervisor privileges of one becomes the student observations, teachingexperience in the the official of disciplines, knowledge repetition: repeating of repeatingthe lesson plan as if teachingdid not involve unknowability,and of repeatingthe commonsenseview that opactsand interactions. pressionconsistsonly of observable of studentteachingexTherefore, supervision anti-oppressive andwhat involvesfocusingon bothwhatis said/visible periences is not said/visiblein the classroom.In addition to what is included in the curriculum,the supervisorcan ask the student and what teacheraboutwhat is not includedin the curriculum, In additionto whatocthosesilencesmaybe teachingindirectly. and how that matchedor did not match curredin the classroom can askthe the intentionsbehindthe lessonplan, the supervisor student teacherabout what did not occur in the classroom,or were aboutwaysstudents but wasnot intentional; whatoccurred addressedby the lesson, and ways studentswere missed;and about what learnings,interactions,insights,and changeswere madepossibleby this lesson,andwhatwasclosedoff. Finally,in

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that servedto marginalize or additionto the visibleinteractions can the ask the different student students, supervisor privilege teacheraboutways studentsor groupsor identitieswere being or privilegedin invisible,unobservable ways, inmarginalized that arise established only over throughpatterns cluding ways is no less importantthan the fortime. The hidden curriculum malone, andthus,anti-oppressive teacher educationinvolvesfoand of studentteachevaluations support, cusingobservations, as on what is much ing experiences being taught and learned as is and on what intentionally visibly being taughtand learned and unintentionally indirectly. The "posts"perspectiveson anti-oppressiveteaching and teachereducation resist offering utopian practices.They do, to troublingour own practices and however,suggestapproaches imaginingdifferentpossibilitiesfor teachingand learning.By of commonsense andtraurgingus to look beyondthe repetition dition that often helpsperpetuate multipleformsof oppression in schoolsandsociety,theyareableto offerinsightsthatcanhelp of all our students. improvethe educational experiences
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