MASTER'S THESIS

Assessment of a Connection of a Bridge by Full-Scale Testing

Julia Elhag 2014

Master of Science in Engineering Technology Civil Engineering

Lule University of Technology Institutionen fr samhllsbyggnad och naturresurser

MASTERS THESIS

Assessment of a connection of a bridge by full-scale testing

Julia Elhag Lule 2013

Division of Structural and Construction Engineering Department of Civil, Environmental and Natural resources Engineering Lule University of Technology 971 87 Lule

PREFACE

PREFACE
This report is the final part of my civil engineering education at Lule University of Technology at the division of Structural and Construction Engineering. The work was conducted between June and November 2013 at the department of Civil, Environmental and Natural resources Engineering. I would like to thank my supervisor, Thomas Blanksvrd for guidance and counseling along the way. I would also like to thank Peter Collin for input to the work, the staff at the laboratory, Mohammed Salih for having patience with me during the set-ups. Finally, I would like to thank the people who have been supporting me along my education; my family and my closest - I'm lucky to be surrounded by such wonderful people in my life.

Lule, January 2014 Julia Elhag

ABSTRACT

ABSTRACT
In the beginning of the 20th century there was an expansion of the infrastructural network due to the evolvement of the industry. This expansion included a series of new railway bridges being built and those bridges were designed according to the traffic situation at the time. Many of the bridges are still in use today and as the traffic volume is continuously increasing, replacing of the bridges due to undercapacity would be expensive. Therefore, it is of interest to investigate the capacity of the bridges to determine their viability. Critical parts in bridges are details which cause stress concentrations and discontinuities in the geometry such as connections. The longitudinal and transversal beams in floor-systems of old bridges are often connected through their webs by double-angle plates. These connections are designed only to take shear forces since the beams are assumed to be simply supported. The longitudinal beams are in fact continuous and the assumption that they are simply supported is therefore wrong. A simply supported beam would mean no support moments but a high field moment whereas a fixed beam would mean that there would exist support moments and lower field moments compared to a simply supported beam. If the field moments are proven to be reduced compared to what the beams are designed for, it would mean that there would be end moments acting on the supports which would indicate that the beams would have a certain level of constraint. End moments mean an extra stress on the connections and it would mean that they would be subjected to forces they are not designed to take. The purpose of this thesis is to investigate if the stringers of an old riveted steel truss bridge are not simply supported by doing a case study. An old railway bridge was monitored during loading with strain gauges, LVDTs and a photometric device, the displacements and strains were measured and analyzed to determine the stresses, moments and as a result of that, the level of restraint. The magnitude of the field moment for the stringers in the bridge proved to be somewhere in between a simply supported and a fixed beam which means that the connections between the floor-beams and the stringers are subjected to both shear forces and moments.

SAMMANFATTNING

SAMMANFATTNING
Den industriella utvecklingen under 1900-talets frsta hlft innebar en utbyggnad av det infrastrukturella ntverket. Denna utveckling innefattade att en rad nya jrnvgsbroar byggdes och sedan den berknade livslngden fr en bro r ca 120 r anvnds mnga av de broarna n idag. Broarna som byggdes under den industriella expansionen designades med hnsyn till de krav som fanns d men eftersom det sker en stndig kning av bde trafikintensitet och trafikvolym mste broarnas kapacitet kontrolleras s de hller fr de krav som stlls p broar idag. Kritiska delar av broarna r delar som skapar oregelbundenheter i geometrin och spnningskoncentrationer till fljd av dessa, ssom frband. Golvsystemet i gamla broar bestr ofta av lngsgende och tvrgende balkar i ett rutsystem som r sammanbundna i liven genom vinkelpltar. Dessa frband r designade fr att endast ta skjuvkrafter eftersom lngbalkarna antas vara fritt upplagda vid dimensionering. De lngsgende balkarna r i sjlva verket kontinuerliga ver flera std och antagandet om att de r fritt upplagda r drmed felaktigt. En fritt upplagd balk saknar stdmoment men har ett relativt hgt fltmoment medan en fast inspnd balk har stdmoment men lngre fltmoment i jmfrelse med en fritt upplagd balk. Kan det bevisas att en balk har lngre fltmoment n vad den dimensionerats fr betyder detta att balken ven br ha stdmoment, vilket tyder p att det finns en viss inspnningsgrad. Stdmoment innebr att frbanden utstts fr en extra pfrestning som de ej r dimensionerade fr att ta hand om. Mlet med detta examensarbete r att underska om frbandet mellan lng- och tvrbalk tar moment genom en fallstudie av en gammal stlfackverksbro med nitade frband. Frskjutningar och tjningar mts under lastning med tjningsgivare, lgesgivare och en fotometrisk mtutrustning och resultaten analyseras sedan fr att ta fram spnningar, moment och drefter inspnningsgrad. Fltmomenten i lngbalken visade sig ligga ngonstans mellan det teoretiskt berknade fltmomentet fr en fritt upplagd balk och en fast inspnd balk, vilket innebr att frbandet mellan lng- och tvrbalk r utsatta fr bde moment och tvrkrafter.

CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS NOMENCLATURE ............................................................................................................................. IV 1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................ 1

1.1 Background .................................................................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Problem discussion ..................................................................................................................................................... 1 1.3 Objectives and Purposes ........................................................................................................................................... 2 1.4 Limitations ..................................................................................................................................................................... 3 1.5 Method ............................................................................................................................................................................. 3

2. FATIGUE........................................................................................................................................... 6
2.1 Stress conditions and definitions .......................................................................................................................... 7 2.2 Whler .......................................................................................................................................................................... 10 2.3 Palmgren-Miner ........................................................................................................................................................ 11 2.4 Deformation induced fatigue ............................................................................................................................... 12 2.5 Fatigue calculations according to Eurocode ................................................................................................... 12 2.5.1 Damage equivalent factor .................................................................................................................................................. 12

3. CONNECTIONS ............................................................................................................................ 17
3.1 Welded connections ................................................................................................................................................ 17 3.1.1 Welds and fatigue .................................................................................................................................................................. 18 3.1.2 Hot-spot approach ................................................................................................................................................................ 19 3.2 Riveted connections ................................................................................................................................................ 22 3.2.1 Forces in rivets ....................................................................................................................................................................... 22 3.2.2 Rivet nomenclature .............................................................................................................................................................. 23 3.2.3 Shear ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 24 3.2.4 Tension ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 24 3.2.5 Failure of rivets ...................................................................................................................................................................... 25 3.3 Double angle connections ...................................................................................................................................... 28 3.4 Welded cover-plates ................................................................................................................................................ 30 3.5 Connection detail category ................................................................................................................................... 31

4. MONITORING METHODS/BRIDGE MANAGEMENT ........................................................ 33

CONTENTS
4.1 Bridge assessment .................................................................................................................................................... 33 4.2 Bridge inspection ...................................................................................................................................................... 33 4.3 Field testing ................................................................................................................................................................ 33 4.3.1 State of the art ........................................................................................................................................................................ 34 4.4 Monitoring/Strain measurements ..................................................................................................................... 37 4.4.1 Strain gauges ........................................................................................................................................................................... 37 4.4.1.1 Bonded foil strain gauges ......................................................................................................................................... 38 4.5 LVDT .............................................................................................................................................................................. 39 4.6 Optical measuring devices - ARAMIS ................................................................................................................. 41 4.6.1 Hardware .................................................................................................................................................................................. 42 4.6.2 Software .................................................................................................................................................................................... 42

5. LOADS ............................................................................................................................................ 44
5.1 Load path ..................................................................................................................................................................... 44 5.2 Load distribution ...................................................................................................................................................... 45 5.2.1 Direct Load Model ................................................................................................................................................................. 45 5.2.2 Lever Rule Model ................................................................................................................................................................... 46 5.3 Traffic loads ................................................................................................................................................................ 46 5.3.1 Fatigue load model according to BRO 2004 .............................................................................................................. 46 5.3.2 Traffic loads according to Eurocode 1 ......................................................................................................................... 47 5.3.2.1 Dynamic factors ............................................................................................................................................................ 49

6. CASE STUDY ................................................................................................................................. 51

6.1 Bridge structure ........................................................................................................................................................ 51 6.2 Material properties .................................................................................................................................................. 55 6.3 Geometries and stresses ........................................................................................................................................ 56 6.3.1 Cross-sectional properties ................................................................................................................................................ 56 6.3.2 Fatigue stress according to Eurocode .......................................................................................................................... 60 6.4 Testing procedure .................................................................................................................................................... 61 6.4.1 Preparations ............................................................................................................................................................................ 62 6.4.1.1 ARAMIS ............................................................................................................................................................................. 62 6.4.1.2 LVDTs ................................................................................................................................................................................ 66 6.4.1.3 Strain gauges .................................................................................................................................................................. 69 6.5 Loading ........................................................................................................................................................................ 71

7. RESULTS ....................................................................................................................................... 75
7.1 ARAMIS ......................................................................................................................................................................... 75

ii

CONTENTS
7.1.1 Cyclic loads ............................................................................................................................................................................... 76 7.1.2 Static loading ........................................................................................................................................................................... 79 7.2 Strain gauges .............................................................................................................................................................. 81 7.3 LVDTs ............................................................................................................................................................................ 82

8. ANALYSIS ...................................................................................................................................... 84
8.1 Moment and shear force calculations ............................................................................................................. 84 8.1.1 Moments calculated by the measured strains .......................................................................................................... 84 8.1.2 Theoretic moments and shear forces ........................................................................................................................... 85 8.2 Level of restraint ....................................................................................................................................................... 94 8.3 Displacements, stresses and strains .................................................................................................................. 96

9. DISCUSSION ...............................................................................................................................100 10. CONCLUSIONS ........................................................................................................................104 FUTURE RESEARCH .....................................................................................................................104 REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................................105 APPENDIX A ...................................................................................................................................110 APPENDIX B ...................................................................................................................................123 APPENDIX C....................................................................................................................................234

iii

NOMENCLATURE

NOMENCLATURE
Denotation Definition Strain Deformation Stress E M W Young's modulus Moment Bending resistance Minimum stress Maximum stress Mean stress Stress amplitude Stress range R Stress ratio Tensile strength of steel Yield strength of steel Slope of the linear relation between the logarithm of the stress range and the number of loading cycles Constant depending on detail category Stress amplitude Number of loading cycles Detail category Constant Amplitude Fatigue Limit at N=5*106 Cut-off limit at N= 108 n The number of times each stress range occurs Total damage Partial damage Resulting equivalent stress range Damage equivalent factor Equivalent stress range Safety factor for fatigue actions Factor accounting the span length Factor accounting the traffic volume and the function of the structure type Pa Pa Pa Pa Pa % Pa Pa Pa Pa % % Pa Pa iv

Unit % m Pa Pa Nm

S N

NOMENCLATURE Factor accounting for the design working life of the structure Factor accounting the influence for more than one load on the structure Ratio between two loaded tracks The stress range in the structural detail created by the LM71 train on track 1 The stress range in the same structural detail created by the LM71 train on the two tracks considered. Percentage of crossings Maximum damage equivalent factor value Yield stress Membrane stress of a weld Shell bending stress of a weld Non-linear stress peak of a weld Nominal stress Hot-spot stress Mean stress Geometric stress concentration factor p Pitch Back pitch Diagonal pitch t d Plate thickness Rivet hole diameter Rivet shank diameter Cover plate thickness Rivet clamping force Shearing load capacity of a rivet Allowed shear stress in a single lap joint Diameter of rivet hole when calculating for shear Number of rivets in a row Tearing capacity of a plate Tensile capacity of a joint Area of the plate to resist tensile forces, where the rivet rows are situated Area to resist crushing Allowable bearing/crushing stress of a rivet % Pa Pa % Pa Pa Pa Pa Pa Pa Pa m m m m m m m N N Pa

Pa N

Pa
v

NOMENCLATURE Crushing strength of a joint Area to resist margin shear Permissible shear stress of a plate Capacity against margin shear Rate of change in resistance for a strain gauge K R e Gauge factor Resistance Voltage Factor to increase or decrease the impact of traffic loads Partial safety factors for load combinations Dynamic factor Determining length according to BVS 583.11 V m Pa N % N

vi

INTRODUCTION

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND
The industrial development during the first half of the 20th century has led to an expansion of the infrastructure. A series of new railway bridges were built to meet the increasing demands on the infrastructural network (Al-Emrani et al (2009)). Many of those bridges are still in use since the required service life of bridges is normally 100 years or more and traffic development during such a long period is hard to predict (Troive (1998)). In Europe, more than 35 % of the existing railway bridges are more than 100 years old and 50 % of them have reached an age of over 50 years (Olofsson et al (2004)).The traffic loads and the traffic volume is continuously increased and instead of replacing the existing bridges, it is of interest to investigate the capacity of the existing bridges since there are both economic and environmental profits to be made by avoiding having to replace fully functional bridges(AlEmrani et al (2009)). Existing bridges have to be assessed in order to investigate whether they are still viable or not. The analytical methods used in original designs of older bridges were often based on conservative assumptions, meaning that there ought to be more capacity in the bridges than they are originally designed for (Mehrkar et al (1996)). If an assessment of a bridge would indicate that the capacity of the bridge is insufficient, there are four alternatives to deal with the problem (Carlsson et al (2008)): Replacement of the bridge Reinforcing the bridge Limiting the highest allowable axle loads Proving by another analytical method that the capacity is of the bridge is sufficient

To replace all bridges that are close to reaching their service life would be too expensive and time consuming because of the quantity of old bridges today. Reinforcement of bridges is also a question of cost. At some railways, limiting the axle loads is not an option and it is therefore of importance to identify the critical parts of bridges in use and investigate the capacity of those (Larsson (2009)).

1.2 PROBLEM DISCUSSION

The iron ore line "Malmbanan", transporting iron ore from northern Sweden to the coast of Norway, has had an increase of the axle loads from 25 tonnes to 30 tonnes per axle (Olofsson et al (2004)). One of the bridges along Malmbanan is the bridge over Rautasjokk, which is a steel truss bridge with riveted connections. The old bridge over by river, situated adjacent to the border between Norrbotten and Vsterbotten County in the vicinity of Lngtrsk, is a structure identical to the one over
1

INTRODUCTION Rautasjokk. The old bridge crossing by river was designed for an axle load of 25 tons. It has now been replaced to allow higher axle loads and the old bridge is now to be studied. New riveted structures have not been built in decades, which also means that less attention has been paid to the fatigue lives of the existing riveted structures in service today (Al-Emrani (2002)). Failure due to fatigue starts with fatigue cracks and fatigue crack initiation is the most critical in areas which contain flaws and stress concentrations. Connections and other details cause discontinuities in structures, making the connections subject to stress concentrations. As girders, diaphragms, beams, stringers etc must be structurally connected in some way, the level of stress concentration in these details needs to be examined (W.Ryan et al (2006)). Floor-systems in older bridges are typically designed as grid structures that consist of longitudinal and transverse elements consisting of stringers and floor-beams. The beams are connected through their web plates by riveted double-angles (Kumar Goel (2006)). Connections between floor-beams and stringers are known to be particularly prone to fatigue (Righihiotis et al (2010)). Since these connections are designed only to take shear forces and it has been proven that the beams are not simply supported, it is of interest to investigate how much bending the connection takes (Moreno (2013)).

1.3 OBJECTIVES AND PURPOSES

The purpose of this thesis is to investigate the fatigue behavior of a riveted and welded connection between a floor-beam and a stringer in a steel truss bridge with the objective to determine the amount of bending the connection takes. The beams are continuous but the connections are designed as if they were simply supported i.e. with zero moment at the supports. The riveted connections are not free to rotate in the plane of the stringer axis and is thus not simply supported. It is therefore of interest to investigate the level of constraint since the beams have properties somewhere in between a simply supported and a fixed beam as seen in the bottom image in Figure 1.

INTRODUCTION

Figure 1, Moment diagrams for simply supported, fixed and semi-rigid beams

1.4 LIMITATIONS
Only the connections between floor-beams and stringers will be considered in this thesis. Ambient conditions affect the fatigue life of a steel specimen. Low temperatures, for example have a negative effect on the fatigue life (Nussbaumer et al (2011)). In this thesis, influence from temperature and environment will not be considered, neither will effects of degradation such as corrosion, coatings and other time dependant effects.

1.5 METHOD
To get a better understanding and a greater insight into the research area, a literature study is made, focusing on fatigue in general and on welded and riveted connections. In order to find literature, databases such as Google Scholar, Google and Scopus are used. Since a structured observation is made on a real bridge and the data format is numerical, the approach is quantitative (Mack et al (2005)). To be able to continue using existing bridges it is necessary to prove either that the structural capacity is higher than assumed in the design codes or that a failure is ductile enough so that it is detected in time. To prove this, the time dependency of materials, known size effect of the tensile strength and detailing has to be investigated and that is why a field test of an older structure will give the most accurate results (Vogel (1996)). Since there will be measurements made on a real bridge and existing theories will be used for
3

INTRODUCTION assessment, the research strategy will be a case study. Testing will be made using hydraulic jacks that will induce the load. For measurement of deflections, LVDTs and an optical testing device will be used and strain gauges will measure the strains. Material properties together will the actual measured strains will give results regarding the stresses in the structure. Results from the testing will thereafter be analyzed and discussed. Stress is load applied to a unit area and stresses are always accompanied by strain since the stresses produces a deflection or deformation which is referred to as a strain. By measuring the deformations in the connection, shown in Figure 2, the strain is computed according to eq. (1) and the strain will be given in %.

P
L

Figure 2, deformation of a specimen

(1)

With known material properties, the stresses in the connection can be calculated as the stresses are proportional to the strains according to Hooke's law (eq.(2)) as long as the elastic limit or proportional limit is not exceeded. The relation between stress and strains have been experimentally tested for numerous materials and the stress-strain relation for a typical steel material with elastic- and plastic regions and proportional limits specified is displayed in Figure 3.

Figure 3, graphical relation between stress an d strain for a typical steel (Kyowa)

(2)
4

INTRODUCTION

Where E is the Young's modulus of the material. So if the Young's modulus of the material is known, strain measurements enable calculations of the stress induced by a known applied force. With the stress calculated and the cross-sectional geometry known, the moment can be calculated according to eq, (3).

(3)

To decide the level of constraint, we consider the end moment of a fixed beam as . The end moment for the stringers in this study are referred to as M. To determine the level of constraint, , we simply calculate the ratio of M over according to eq. (4). (4)

FATIGUE

2. FATIGUE
Fatigue is "the tendency of a member to fail at a stress level below its yield stress when subject to cyclical loading" (W.Ryan et al (2006)). Even though the phenomena fatigue has been studied for over 200 years, fatigue is till the far most common reason of failure in structures of metallic materials. (Eriksson (2006)).There are two types of fatigue, low cycle fatigue (up to 10 000 load cycles) and high cycle fatigue ( 10 000 load cycles) (Nussbaumer et al (2011)) .The main acts of load induced fatigue are: Initiation of microscopic-sized cracks Crack propagation from microscopic to macroscopic size as a result of a huge amount of loading cycles. An accumulating damage of the material around the crack, which size increases by each loading cycle. The crack propagation is followed by a sudden increase of crack growth speed which eventually leads to failure when the cracks reach their critical size and the fatigue strength of the specimen has been reached (Boardman (1990)). The geometry of the structural detail determines the crack propagation speed and the crack location. Sharp geometrical changes effect the stress flow and creates stress concentrations. Fatigue can be cyclic and regular or completely stochastic. Fatigue cracks can take form at elastic load levels and damages due to fatigue are initially at a very local extent. The crack is opened because of the elastic deformation of the structure and is therefore easiest to detect during loading. When the residual cross-section is plasticized, the crack will be permanently opened. At this stage, the structure is usually close to failure (Eriksson (2006)). Fractures can be ductile or brittle. Brittle failures come sudden and without a warning and an example of a brittle failure is shown in Figure 4. A ductile fracture is to prefer since these failures are preceded by distortions which give a visual warning of the upcoming fracture, a ductile failure is shown in Figure 5 (W.Ryan et al (2006)).

Figure 4, brittle (shear) failure of a bolt

FATIGUE

Figure 5, ductile failure of a plate

The fracture behavior is determined by temperature, loading rate and level of constraint. Cold temperatures, high loading rates and highly constrained specimens increase the risk of brittle failure in details prone to fatigue (W.Ryan et al (2006)).

2.1 STRESS CONDITIONS AND DEFINITIONS

The number of load cycles required to initiate a crack is the fatigue-crack-initiation life and the amount of load cycles required to propagate the crack size to critical is called the fatiguecrack-propagation life. The sum of the fatigue-crack-initiation life and the fatigue-crackpropagation life is the total fatigue life (W.Ryan et al (2006)). The initiation phase can represent a large proportion of the total life, especially regarding high cycle fatigue (Andersson (2009)). The pattern of the fracture surface describes the loading history of the specimen. On the surface, striations occur and the specimen develops one striation distance per loading cycle for loads above a certain threshold value (Eriksson (2006)). To characterize the fatigue the fatigue cycle, a few parameters are introduced: is the minimum stress is the maximum stress If If 7. the load is vibrant/pulsating and repeated ( , See b), Figure 7. )., see a), Figure

the load is referred to as alternating or completely reversed (

I.e. if and have the same sign the load is pulsating. If they have different signs the load is alternating (Nicholas (2006) ). c) in Figure 7, an alternating tensile stress is displayed and d) in Figure 7 displays a stress alternating between a compressive and tensile value (Boardman (1990)). Stress conditions and definitions (Boardman (1990)):

FATIGUE The mean stress, cycle: m , is the average of the maximum stress and the minimum stress in one (5)

The range of stress, stress:

, is the difference between the maximum stress and the minimum (6)

The stress amplitude,

is defined as half of the range of stress: (7)

The stress ratio, R is the ratio of the minimum and maximum the stress: (8) Definitions above are displayed in Figure 6.

Figure 6, definition of stresses, tensile residual stresses (Nussbaumer et al (2011))

FATIGUE

Figure 7, load cycle notations (http://www.asminternational.org/content/ASM/StoreFiles/06181G_Sample.pdf)

Tensile forces give a high contribution to fatigue and compressive forces cause less damage than tensile forces (Eriksson (2006)). A fatigue critical member in a steel bridge is a steel member in tension, or with a tension element, whose failure would cause a portion of the bridge to collapse (W.Ryan et al (2006)). In the normal case, without any impact from environment and temperature, the life length of a specimen rarely depends on the frequency or wave shape of the loading. Life length substantially depends on the number of load cycles, independent of the shape of the sine waves (Eriksson (2006)). In the standards, there is a fatigue limit at 108 load cycles. At stress ranges below the constant amplitude fatigue limit (CAFL) shown in Figure 8, cyclic loading can be applied a large number of times (> times) without reaching fatigue failure, meaning a fatigue life
9

FATIGUE tending to infinity (Nussbaumer et al (2011)). As the fatigue strength of steel is roughly proportional to fu, high strength steel have better fatigue properties than soft steels, but this does not apply for welded sections. Surface and environment affects the fatigue properties of a steel specimen and ideal conditions would be highly polished rods in vacuum (Eriksson (2006)). Fatigue cracking rarely occurs in base material and is most common to start in a detail, from welds or connections (Nussbaumer et al (2011)). Geometric imperfections give stress concentrations. A crack results in a large stress concentration and the stress concentration is the most intense at the tip of the crack. Every change in the shape of a body gives a local increase of stress. Local plastic deformation limits stress concentration at static loading. At varying loading, the most affected area is deformed plastic varying in tension and compression. With this type of loading, damage is accumulated in the material and fatigue cracks eventually appears (Eriksson (2006)). There is no reliable non-empirical formula for determining the number of load cycles before fatigue cracks are initiated. High strength steels are more sensitive to sharp changes in geometry than softer steels (Eriksson (2006)).

2.2 WHLER
One of the earliest to address the topic fatigue was August Whler (Nicholas (2006)). Whler came to the conclusion that the stress range ( ) is the most important parameter when it comes to fatigue. (Eriksson (2006)).For a given detail there is a linear relation between the logarithm of the stress range and the number of loading cycles with the slope 1/m. Different details are assigned different constant values ( ) depending on its geometric properties and what kind of structural detail it is (Al-Emrani (2002)). The results of fatigue testing are often plotted as , or the stress amplitude (S) versus the number of load cycles (N), to fracture using a logarithmic scale for N. The curve is referred to as an S-N-curve (Stress-Number-curve) or a Whler curve (Boardman (1990)). The relationship between the logarithms of the stress range and the number of loading cycles is: (9) or (10) The three main variables controlling fatigue performance of structural steel details are thus the stress range, the number of loading cycles and the properties of the structural detail. The slope constant of all fatigue-design curves is m=3 up to five million load cycles. At five million load cycles, the Constant Amplitude Fatigue Limit (CAFL) is fixed (Al-Emrani (2002)). For
10

FATIGUE constant amplitude stress ranges over or equal to the CAFL, the fatigue life is infinite. All curves are parallel and each curve is characterized by , which is the value of the fatigue strength at load cycles in MPa (Nussbaumer et al (2011)). Figure 8 displays fatiguedesign curves by Eurocode 3. Point 1 in the image displays the detail-category factor C, point 2 displays the CAFL and point 3 displays the cut-off limit at N=108 cycles.

Figure 8, fatigue strength curves for normal stress range from Eurocode 3. Numbers of curves indicate detail catecory (Zamiri Akhlaghi (2009))

The fatigue curves are based on experimental trials and include effects of expected crack location, imperfections, residual stresses, stress directions, welding procedures, detail geometry and stress concentrations due to the detail geometry, metallurgical conditions and local stress concentrations because of the shape of the weld (Nussbaumer et al (2011)).

2.3 PALMGREN-MINER
The Palmgren-Miner's rule stems from the assumption of linear damage accumulation. The total damage, is the sum of a series of partial damages. When = 1 is reached, failure occurs. The partial damages are represented by the ratio of and . is defined as the times each stress range occurs and the number of load cycles to failure is referred to as (Nussbaumer et al (2011)):

11

FATIGUE (11)

The Palmer-Miner rule does not take the order of loading into account, but the equation together with suitable safety factors is reliable enough to be used for design (Nussbaumer et al (2011)). The Palmgren-Miner's rule is not exact but it will, in most cases, give a safe fatigue life estimation. For situations with high mean stresses combined with repetitive stress releases, the rule can overestimate the fatigue life (Larsson (2009)).

2.4 DEFORMATION INDUCED FATIGUE

Appears in the weaker of two connected parts in a structure (for example a stiff primary beam connected to a less stiff secondary beam in a structure will force its deflection upon the secondary beam). The phenomena is most commonly noticed in railway bridges with riveted connections. The life length of the structure decreases in proportion to the number of axles but in the cube of the axial pressure, meaning that doubling the load will decrease the life length to 1/8 (Eriksson (2006)).

In approximately 90 % of all reported damage cases for steel- and composite bridges, the damages are deformation induced (Al-Emrani et al (2009)).

2.5 FATIGUE CALCULATIONS ACCORDING TO EUROCODE

2.5.1 DAMAGE EQUIVALENT FACTOR
When controlling a structure that is going to be subjected to a load history, the procedure is complex and the engineer needs knowledge about the loads that are going to act on the structure during its lifetime. Assumptions have to be made and the damage accumulation calculations follow those assumptions. To simplify the work, the concept of fatigue damage equivalent factor was introduced. First, real traffic and displacement is modeled over the structure. Thereafter, the corresponding stress history is deducted and the resulting stress range histogram is calculated. Then the resulting equivalent stress range, is calculated and compared with the detail category. The procedure is explained in Figure 9.

12

FATIGUE

Figure 9, Damage equivalent factor (Nussbaumer et al (2011))

The resulting stress range is though not representative of the fatigue effect on the bridge due to real traffic and must be corrected with a damage equivalent factor, , in order to achieve a value that corresponds to the equivalent stress range, (Nussbaumer et al (2011)). (12)

13

FATIGUE The recommended value for the factor is 1,0 (Eriksson (2006)). In the Eurocodes, the procedure splits the factor into four different partial factors in order to take more parameters into account: But where: 1 is a factor accounting the span length as shown in Figure 10 and Figure 11. 2 is a factor accounting the traffic volume and the function of the structure type as shown in Figure 12. 3 is a factor accounting the design working life of the structure, which is calculated according to (14): (14) (13)

4 is a factor accounting the influence for more than one load on the structure calculated according to (15) . Eurocode only deals with bridges with two tracks loaded at the same time

(15) Where

- the ratio between two loaded tracks - the stress range in the structural detail created by the LM71 train on track 1 - the stress range in the same structural detail created by the LM71 train on the two tracks considered. p - percentage of crossings max is the maximum damage equivalent factor value, which is a function of the structure type. For Railway bridges, the limiting value is bound by the CAFL, , and can be calculated according to (16) before it tends to 1,4 (Nussbaumer et al (2011)) (16)

14

FATIGUE

Figure 10, partial damage equivalent factor 1 for road and rail bridges as a function of the critical influence line length L (Nussbaumer et al (2011))

Figure 11, damage equivalent factor 1 for railway bridges (Nussbaumer et al (20111))

15

FATIGUE

Figure 12, damage equivalent factor 2 for railway bridges (Nussbaumer et al (2011))

After calculating the different - factors,

can be calculated by breaking it out in eq. (12)

16

CONNECTIONS

3. CONNECTIONS
Parts in structures need to be connected in some way and there are different ways to connect these joints, for example bolting, riveting and welding. In this chapter, welding and riveting will be first be described since these are the connection methods used in the double angle and cover plate connection to be analyzed in this thesis.

3.1 WELDED CONNECTIONS

Welds are metal parts connected and joined together by heating of the surfaces to a fluid, plastic state with or without addition of a filler (weld) material. The parts to be joined are referred to as the base material and the filler material is referred to as the weld. The whole connection is referred to as the weldment. There are four common types of welds; groove welds (butt welds), plug welds, fillet welds and tack welds. (Tamboli (2009)).

Figure 13, groove weld (W.Ryan et al (2006))

Figure 14, fillet weld (W.Ryan et al (2006))

17

CONNECTIONS

Figure 15, plug weld (W.Ryan et al (2006))

Figure 16, tack weld (W.Ryan et al (2006))

3.1.1 WELDS AND FATIGUE

Welds are designed for fatigue strength and the fatigue limit for non welded or affected material is approximately 0,5fu (Eriksson (2006)). The load concentration is the biggest at the weld toe, which is the boundary between the weld and the base material (Nussbaumer et al (2011)). Even weld edges give moderate stress concentrations and fatigue cracks are often initiated at the weld toe where intrusions are common. In non-penetration welds, stress

18

CONNECTIONS concentrations appear at the root of the weld. If cracks are initiated at the root of these types of connections, they grow outwards through the weld (Eriksson (2006)). When subjected to fatigue loading, welds have some characteristic properties which differ from the base material. The amount of load cycles before crack initiation is reduced in a weld compared to the amount of load cycles required to initiate a crack in a base material (Nussbaumer et al (2011)). The majority part of the life time of a base material is the initiation period whilst the initiation period takes up an insignificant part of the life time of a welded material (Eriksson (2006)). A welded connection does not have to carry or transfer any outer load to give a stress concentration, the connection is not a defined unit, like a rivet in a riveted connection, but an integrated part of its surroundings. Residual stresses are stresses which do not depend on outer loads (Eriksson 2006)). All welding result in high built-in residual tension stresses (W.Ryan et al (2006)). Tension in one area is compensated by compression in another area. The heat source used when welding gives a thermal deformation (expansion when heating, shrinking when cooling) in the material. When heated, the specimens are deformed plastically closest to the weld and during cooling, remaining tensile stresses are forced because of the shrinking (Eriksson (2006)). When subjected to a varying cyclic outer stress (0 ), the longitudinal stress in the weld will vary between the yield stress, , and . If the stress is compressive (0 to ), the stress in the weld will vary between the yield stress and the maximum stress. This means that for a given nominal stress with a stress range , the stress in the weld will vary between and independent if the stress is compressive or tensile. At stresses near the yield limit, fatigue can occur even at pure nominal compressive loading and the fatigue strength of a welded connection only depends on the stress range of the outer load. Therefore, design of welded connections can be based on the nominal stress range and the design S-N-curve can be used independent on the of the applied load (Eriksson (2006)). The size of the residual stresses in the weld depends on material properties. For soft steels, the yield limit of the welds is stronger than the base material. For mid-strength steels, weld and base material will be about the same strength and for high-strength steels, alloying materials are needed to achieve evenly strong weldments. (Eriksson (2006)).

3.1.2 HOT-SPOT APPROACH

The hot spot approach is a method based on geometrical stresses (Al-Emrani et al (2009)). The method was mainly developed for welded connections but it does not take local stresses near the weld toe into account. It is still a new method and has not been used as wide as the nominal stress method. The method is suited to be used in situations when fatigue design or fatigue assessment of a detail is required and the detail is not a standard details to be found in tables provided by the design code, for complex details where a clear definition for the
19

CONNECTIONS nominal stress cannot be made or when modeling a component with a detailed FEM-model (Zamiri Akhlaghi (2009)). The method is appropriate to use if the fluctuating principal stress mainly acts transverse to the weld toe or in situations when the nominal stress is hard to estimate because of geometric and/or loading complexities and the approach is only possible to use for fatigue failures starting from the weld toe (Aygl (2012)). Both macroscopic effects (stress concentrations) and microscopic effects (weld shape, weld type, flaws etc.) are taken into account. Macroscopic effects are included in the calculated geometric stress range and the microscopic effects are taken into consideration in a set of hot spot S-N curves given in EN 1993-1-9 annex B (Nussbaumer et al (2011)). The resulting geometric stress is calculated and is thereafter compared to the fatigue strength according to Whler curves corresponding to the current connection type (Andersson (2009)). The notch effect of the weld has an impact on the stress distribution through the thickness of a plate near the weld toe. Since the notch stresses are higher than the nominal stresses in the weld toe, see Figure 17, they control the fatigue cracking of plates (Zamiri Akhlaghi (2009)).

Figure 17, stress through the plate thickness at the weld toe (Zamiri Akhlaghi (2009))

From the non-linear stress distribution in Figure 17, three stress components are recognized; the membrane stress ( ), the shell bending stress ( ) and the non-linear stress peak ( ). The membrane stress is constant throughout the thickness and equal to the average stress and the shell bending stress distribution is zero in the mid plane and linear through the thickness of the plate. What remains of the stresses is the non linear stress peak, which is in self-equilibrium and which depends on size and form of the weld and weld toe (Zamiri Alhlaghi (2009)). The stresses at a weld toe that is about to crack are shown in Figure 18, where the increase of stress at the plate surface near the weld toe can be explained by two different factors. The first factor is the change of macro geometry, which is a stress raiser near the weld toe. The second factor is the local geometry of the weld, which results in a notch stress (Zamiri Akhlaghi (2009)).

20

CONNECTIONS

Figure 18, variation of stresses perpendicular to weld toe near the weld toe before fatigue cracking has occurred (Zamiri Akhlaghi (2009))

Since the geometry of the weld is not known in the design phase, the idea of the hot spot approach is to exclude the non-linear notch effect from the structural stress, which is included in the S-N curves. Only the two linearly distributed stress components build up the structural hot spot stress ( ) (Zamiri Akhlaghi (2009)): (17)

When using the hot spot method the fatigue critical points, referred to as the "hot spots", i.e. the points where fatigue stress can be determined using the method, are recognized by for example a FE-analysis of the specimen (Aygl (2012)). Thereafter, the identified hot spotpoints are examined using the hot-spot approach (Zamiri Akhlaghi (2009)). When determining the hot spot stress using furmulas, the nominal stress, , is multiplied with a geometric stress concentration factor which depends of the detail analyzed according to (18) (Nussbaumer et al (2011)). (18) where is the geometric stress concentration factor is the nominal stress value from the detail

21

CONNECTIONS In case of complex geometries and loadings, a combination of basic load cases is used (Nussbaumer et al (2011)): (19)

3.2 RIVETED CONNECTIONS

Until the 1930's, riveting was the most common joining method in Sweden, thereafter it was gradually replaced by bolting and welding. Many of the riveted bridges built before the middle of the last century are still in service (Al-Emrani (2002)). The riveting procedure is performed according to the following steps (Al-Emrani (2002)): Rivet holes are drilled and aligned One rivet head is pre-formed on one side of the rivet, see Figure 19. Rivet is heated to approximately 1000 C and inserted into rivet hole Second rivet head is produced by hammering or squeezing the free end of the rivet

Figure 19, rivet inserted into rivet hole before second head is formed (Unit 3 (2013)).

3.2.1 FORCES IN RIVETS

The diameter of a rivet before it is driven is known as the nominal diameter. The rivet hole is usually made about one millimeter larger than the undriven rivet in order to allow an increase of the rivet diameter after it has been driven. 1,5 mm for rivets with diameters 24 mm and 2 mm for rivets with diameters >24 mm (Kumar Jain et al (2005)). When the rivet cools down, it will shrink longitudinally as well as radially, a shrinkage which will be restricted by the connected plates (Larsson (2009)). The connected plates will then be subjected to compression stresses through their thickness, a compression stress that will be counterbalanced by a residual tensile force in the rivet shank, as shown in Figure 20. The rivet clamping force will in turn create radial and circumferential compressive stresses adjacent to the rivet hole, which in their turn are balanced by circumferential tensile stresses at a distance from the rivet hole (Al-Emrani (2002)). If there is no outer force applied, the clamping force from the rivet acting on the plate and the contact force from the plate acting on the rivet will be equal (Larsson (2009)).
22

CONNECTIONS The rivets in stringer-to-floor-beam- connections are expected to have a lower clamping stress since these connections are constructed on-site with conditions that often results in faults (Kumar Goel (2006)).

Figure 20, rivet with clamping forces (Al-Emrani (2002))

3.2.2 RIVET NOMENCLATURE

There are different types of riveted joints. The arrangement when plates are riveted together simply by positioning the edges of the plates over each other and sealed by riveting is called a lap joint. When the plates are placed end-to-end and jointed through cover plates, they are referred to as butt joints. If there is only one row of rivets passing through the connected plates, the joint is single riveted and if there are two rows of rivets passing through the plates, the joint is double riveted. Dimensions and notations important in riveted joints are described in Table 1 below and displayed in Figure 21 (Unit 3).
Table 1 , rivet nomenclature

Dimension Pitch Back pitch Diagonal pitch Plate thickness Rivet hole diameter Rivet shank diameter Cover plate thickness

Description Center distance between two adjacent rivet holes in a row Center distance between two adjacent rivet rows Smallest distance between the centre of two rivet holes in adjacent rows of zigzag riveted joints Thickness of plates to be joined Diameter of rivet hole Diameter of the rivet shank Thickness of the cover plate

Notation p

t d

23

CONNECTIONS

Figure 21, different types of riveted joints: (a) Single Riveted Lap Joint; (b) Single Riveted Cover Butt Joint; (c) Single Riveted Double Cover Butt Joint; (d) Double Riveted Lap Joint; (e) Double Riveted Single Cover Butt joint and (f) Double Riveted Double Cover Butt Joint (Unit 3 (2013)

3.2.3 SHEAR
Riveted connections with normal clamping forces transfer moderate shear forces through friction between connected components. The magnitude of these shear forces depends on the clamping force in the rivet, the coefficient of friction between the connected plates and the deformation ability of the joint before the rivets and plates are put into bearing. Since there are a few uncertainties regarding the frictional shear resistance of riveted joints, the frictional shear resistance is commonly neglected in design.(Al-Emrani (2002)).

3.2.4 TENSION
Stringer-to floor-beam connections, amongst other connections, are places in bridges which are subjected to tensile forces. Tensile loaded riveted connections are greatly affected by the clamping force in the rivet. To reach an equilibrium, the initial tensile force in the rivet ( ) must be counterbalanced by compressive stresses in the connecting plates acting on a contact area. Since the stiffness of the plates is of greater magnitude than the axial stiffness of the rivet, the components of the connection will have different displacements in the self-equilibrated state (Al-Emrani (2002)). The stiffness of angles in double-angle connections determines the behavior of the connection subjected to bending. A stiff connection will have limited bending deformation of the outstanding legs, meaning that prying forces and bending in the rivets will be almost
24

CONNECTIONS absent (Larsson (2009)). For less stiff double-angle connections where the outstand legs are able to deform, prying forces will develop and additional axial and bending stresses are produced in the rivet due to the prying action (Al-Emrani (2002)). The magnitude of the clamping force in the rivet results in need of a higher load to separate the connected plates, meaning that the occurrence of prying will be delayed if the clamping force is increased. Connections with stiff outstanding legs are expected to have a higher clamping force than those with flexible outstanding legs (Al-Emrani (2002)). For a given applied load, an increase of the clamping force will result in a smaller increase of the axial force developed in the rivet (Kumar Goel (2006)). Tensile overloads of riveted connection may result in partial or total loss of the initial clamping force in the rivet due to local yielding of the rivet in tension, which will affect the fatigue performance of the connection. Reduction of the clamping force will increase the tensile stress range as shown in Figure 22 (Al-Emrani (2002)) .

Figure 22, demonstration of how the reduction in clamping force will increase the stress range of a connection (Al-Emrani (2002))

3.2.5 FAILURE OF RIVETS

In old riveted connections, rivet failure is very common (Haghani et al (2012)). There are different types of failure that can occur in riveted connections. The failures described below are calculated with a few assumptions. There is no consideration of bending of the rivets, friction between plate surfaces is neglected, the tensile loads are assumed to be equally distributed over pitch lengths, loads are equally distributed over all rivets in the joints, rivet holes are assumed not to produce stress concentrations, the plate is not weakened at the
25

CONNECTIONS hole due to an increase of diameter during formation of the second rivet head and the crushing pressure is assumed to be uniformly distributed over the rivet area (Unit 3 (2013)). When all rivets in one row shear off simultaneously, a shear failure will occur and the shearing load capacity of a rivet, , can be defined according to eq. (20), where is the allowable shearing stress in a single lap joint (Unit 3 (2013)). (20) where (21) If ,failure will occur.

If n defines the number of rivets in a pitch row, the shearing load capacity can be defined according to eq.(22). (22) For connections with two shearing planes, as in image b) in Figure 23, the allowed stress is 1,75 times the permissible shearing stress for single shear. The shearing load capacity for double shear is defined according to eq. (23) (Unit 3 (2013)). (23)

Figure 23, shearing of rivet. A) single shear, B) double shear (Unit 3 (2013))

26

CONNECTIONS

Figure 24, single riveted lap joint subjected to shear (Unit 3 (2013))

The plate is weaker in the area where the row of bolts is located. If the plate would tear, it would therefore be in the weakest area of the plate. The area to resist the tensile force is (Unit 3 (2013)): (24)

If the tearing capacity of the plate in tension is denoted , then the tensile capacity of the joint is defined according to eq.(25) with the condition that if P is the applied tensile strength per pitch length, then failure will occur if (Unit 3 (2013)). (25) Due to the compression of the rivet against the rivet hole, the of rivet or the inner plate surface may be crushed. The area to resist crushing is defined according to eq. (26) (Unit 3 (2013)): (26) The crashing strength of the joint is defined according to eq.(27) where is the allowed bearing/crushing stress of a rivet and n is the number of rivets in a pitch length (Unit 3 (2013)). (27) If , failure will occur.

There can be a shearing of the plate along the margin near a rivet hole as shown in Figure 25. The plate can shear along a-b and c-d and the area to resist the failure is expressed as in eq.(28) (Unit 3 (2013)): (28)

27

CONNECTIONS If the permissible shear stress of the plate is defined as (Unit 3 (2013)): , then the capacity against margin shear is (29) And if , then failure will occur.

Figure 25, shear of plate margin (Unit 3 (2013))

The fatigue strength of riveted connections are highly dependent on the bearing ratio, which is the ratio of nominal bearing stress of the rivet shank on the plate to the average netsection tensile stress in the plate. The bearing ratio is calculated according to eq. (30) for a single lap joint (Al-Emrani (2002)): (30)

Where b is the plate width and d is the rivet diameter. It has been shown that the fatigue strength of riveted connections decreases when the bearing ratio is increased, particularly for riveted connections with reduced or absent clamping force (Al-Emrani (2002)).

3.3 DOUBLE ANGLE CONNECTIONS

The main function of stringer-to-floor-beam-connections is to transfer the end reactions of the stringers to the floor-beams by shear action. The floor-beams and stringers in old bridges are commonly connected through their web by riveted double angles as shown in Figure 26. It is assumed that the rotational flexibility of these connections is enough to allow the end rotation of the stringer without developing an end moment, meaning that the assessment of the fatigue strength of these connections are made assuming that the connection is only affected by shear forces (Kumar Goel (2006)).

28

CONNECTIONS

Figure 26, Riveted double-angle connection between floor-beam and stinger on the bridge over by river

The stringer is not really simply supported but it is not rigid enough to be considered fixed at the supports either. It is in a semi-rigid state, requiring some rotational stiffness that partially restrains the rotation of the stringer ends, which will lead to the development of negative bending forces in the stringer ends as shown in Figure 27. The negative bending moments will subject the fasteners and double angles to load effects that are not considered in design of the connections (Haghani et al (2012)). The rotational stiffness of the double-angle connection is mainly a function of the stiffness of the outstanding legs of the angles and the gauge distance has shown to have a great influence on the behavior of the double-angle connections. The moment acting on the outstanding legs of the double angles will cause an out-of-plane distortion, shown in Figure 27, that will generate high flexural, non uniform stresses along the depth of the connection (Kumar Goel (2006)).

29

CONNECTIONS

Figure 27, Secondary bending of stringer-to-floorbeam connection (Haghani et al (2012))

3.4 WELDED COVER-PLATES

To increase allowable traffic loads and bridge spans, the moment capacity of the bridge needs to be increased. To increase the moment capacity of a steel bridge, it is possible to weld partial-length cover plates on the upper flange of the girders as shown in Figure 28. The ends of the cover-plates are the bridge details with the least fatigue strength and fatigue cracks are initiated at the weld toe, begins developing in the web and eventually propagates through the entire flange width as shown in Figure 29 (Haghani et al (2012)).

Figure 28, cover-plate on by bridge

30

CONNECTIONS

Figure 29, crack in welded cover-plate (Andersson (2009))

Eurocode 3 describes detail category classes between C=36 and C=56 depending on the thickness of the main plate, t and the thickness of the cover-plate, (mm). The categories are divided into two categories; and . The fatigue strength decreases with increasing plate thickness. If the slope of the connection is limited to maximum 1:3 as displayed in Figure 30,the connection class can be increased (Andersson (2009)).

Figure 30, cover-plate (Andersson (2009))

3.5 CONNECTION DETAIL CATEGORY

Connections are grouped into cross-section classes from which the corresponding Whlercurves can be calculated. The connection category is defined as the fatigue strength in MPa for at 2 million stress changes in Eurocode 3 it is denoted as (Andersson (2009)). In Figure 31 to Figure 33 the a few of the detail categories are illustrated.

Figure 31, detail category 160 - rolled or extruded products (Nussbaumer et al (2011))

31

CONNECTIONS

Figure 32, detail categories 36, 40, 45, 50 and 56 - welded cover-plates (Table 8.5 in EN 1993-1-9) (Nussbaumer et al (2011))

Figure 33, Detail categories for use with the hot-shot method (Table B.1 in EN-1993-1-9) (Nussbaumer et al (2011))

Testing of riveted truss girders have been conducted at different stress ranges by Helmerich et al, Zhou et al, Al Emrani, DiBattista, Mang and Brhwiler. The girders were tested for bending, tension and cantilever tests were made (Al-Emrani (2002)). By these tests and with the rivet clamping force, material properties, corrosion and hole preparing technique taken into account, it can be stated that a safe estimation of the fatigue life of riveted girders can be made using detail category C71. If the conceptual design provides high bearing stresses, detail category C63 is more suitable (Larsson (2009)).

32

MONITORING METHODS AND BRIDGE ASSESSMENT

4. MONITORING METHODS/BRIDGE MANAGEMENT

4.1 BRIDGE ASSESSMENT
When determining the condition of a bridge, a simplified structural analysis is first made using the original drawings and the information they provide. Thereafter, a site inspection follows to inspect the rate of the degradation. Small cracks are hard to detect visually and sometimes physical or advanced inspection techniques are needed, for example corrosion sensors, accelerometers, strain measurements, vibration measurement or measurement of loads (W.Ryan et al (2006)). Physical tests are made to investigate the strength of the materials in the bridge such as the strength of the steel and the Young's modulus. Sometimes improved analytical methods are used for assessment. (Mehrkar et al (1996)). To improve the understanding of the actual behavior of structures, monitoring of structures is necessary (Sustainable bridges). It is also of importance to monitor bridges to have an upto-date product model of the bridge with the right structural properties (Schlune et al (2008)). The design of the monitoring system has to be based on the bridge model and there are different types of monitoring systems that can be used (Sustainable bridges).

4.2 BRIDGE INSPECTION

Inspections are on-site examinations that are mostly non-destructive with the objection to investigate the present condition of the structure (Sustainable bridges). Inspections are planned and repeated in predetermined intervals (Schlune et al (2008)). Failure critical members in bridges should be inspected on a regular basis, on intervals that does not exceed twenty-four months. Inspections of steel bridges are primarily visual and the inspections include cleaning the area to be examined, brushing off paint if necessary and using of a magnifying unit (W.Ryan et al (2006)).

4.3 FIELD TESTING

Testing of a bridge is made to check and improve the simplified structural models and the analytical methods used. Testing can be done statically or dynamically. In a static test, the measured load is applied in predefined, fixed positions. Static tests are often used to examine the load distribution between main load-carrying members and support restrains (Schlune et al (2008)). Static loading can be performed in different ways (Young et al (2002)): Short-time static loading - Load applied gradually until failure occurs and total time to reach failure is a few minutes in testing. If in service, then the load is gradually increased to the maximum value end maintained at that top value for a certain time without being reapplied often enough for fatigue consideration. Long-time static loading - maximum load is applied gradually and, for testing, maintained for long enough to enable to predict the final effect. If in service, then the maximum load is maintained continuously or intermittently during the life of the loaded structure.
33

MONITORING METHODS AND BRIDGE ASSESSMENT Dynamic testing can be done by forced vibration testing or ambient vibration testing (Schlune et al (2008)). In repeated loading, a load or stress is applied and then wholly or partially removed or reversed repeatedly. When loading dynamically, the rate of change of momentum must be taken into account (Young et al (2002)). Analysis methods for bridge assessment according to the codes are often conservative leading to bridges being restricted even though their capacity is sufficient. By performing load testing, the engineer is given information that can be used for avoiding premature repairing or strengthening (Packham (1993)). Full-scale testing of a railway bridge is both complex and expensive. Therefore, the amount of bridges that are tested are limited to a few especially important cases each year (Pietraszek et al (1990)). Since stresses are accompanied by strains and strains are directly related to deflections, measurement of deflections are a common way to determine strains (Young et al (2002)).

4.3.1 STATE OF THE ART

Through the years, the need of knowledge about the effects of traffic on existing structures has led to a number of studies with associated load tests. Here is a brief synopsis of a few of them.
Mehrkar et al (1996)

Mehrkar-Asl and CL Brookes from Southampton UK conducted supplementary load tests by static and moving loads. Mehrkar has tested over 50 deck-spans since 1989 using different loading systems and by his tests, he has demonstrated that supplementary load tests enable improved assessments to be made.
Chladny et al (1993)

E. Chladny and I. Balz from Slovak Technical University in Slovakia wrote a paper about the inspection, imperfection measurement, evaluation and strengthening of a 20-year old steel bridge, which was designed according to former codes with lower loading actions in which shear lag was not taken into account. Damage and deterioration were noted and listed from inspection and it was noted that suitable expansion joints were needed and many parts needed cleaning and repainting. Critical sections were investigated by test loading and comparison was made between theoretical values and test load values. The comparison indicated a good correlation between the theoretical and load test values as shown in Figure 34.The rating factors calculated were very low and zero. Chadny and Balz takes a look at the design criteria and compares the rating factors computing them with both the original code and with the same code with some changes in it. They discuss the plausibility of the values of the impact factors in the codes in a critical way and compare the British code with the Czechoslovak code.

34

MONITORING METHODS AND BRIDGE ASSESSMENT

Figure 34, Normal and shear stress distribution in critical section by test loading (Chladny et al (1993))

Pietraszek et al (1991)

A report of the static and dynamic behaviors of an 86-year old steel railway bridge was made by Tomasz T. Pietraszek and George Oommen at the Canadian National Railways, Technical Centre. The bridge over Gananoque River was tested - a four span bridge of which the whole structure was riveted. On the bridge there was a symmetrically located single track on girder flanges. The bridge had been in service for more than 85 years and it carried mixed traffic. A new type of freight train was to operate at the line with a speed of 95 km/h. Therefore the bridge needed to be checked if the capacity was enough to allow the new train type. 21 strain gauge circuits and six displacement transducers were attached to the bridge and the testing was made for both passenger and freight trains with one four axle locomotive, two loaded 100 t hopper cars, three empty cars and a caboose. The train drove across the bridge several times with varying speeds and the deflections were notated. The test showed that there were nonsymmetrical strains even though the track was symmetrically located. This was probably due to corrosion of the girder flange. The test indicated an increasing deflection with increased train speed. All in all, the measured stresses were in good agreement with the calculated ones.
35

MONITORING METHODS AND BRIDGE ASSESSMENT

Pinjarkar et al (1991)

As a part of a pilot test program for the Engineering Condition assessment of the Chicago Rapid Transit system, an evaluation and load testing of a 100-year old elevated steel structure was made. The purpose was to evaluate impact loading and establish a methodology for fatigue assessment. Testing was made both static and dynamically. The static testing was performed by stopping a test train at known positions along the track with measurement of strains and deflections at critical positions in the stringers, crossbracings and columns. 18 strain gauges were used and it was found that cross-bracings between stringers were effective in distributing loads from one track to all four stringers. Stringer rotation was noted. The dynamic testing was conducted by moving of a test train along the track at different speeds and braking of the train. Strains were measured in stringers for evaluation of dynamic load effects and determination of actual variable amplitude stress-cycles to evaluate fatigue. The load test indicated nonlinear behavior, probably caused by connection slip and residual and bearing forces. The average measured impact factor was much less than the required one. The testing resulted in a methodology for determination of impact factors and fatigue life. Elfgren et al (2009) As a part of the Sustainable Bridges project, which is a project that assesses railway the capacity of railway bridges to meet future demands, the rnskldsvik bridge was tested to failure in July 2006 - a bridge that originally was designed for 25 ton axle loads. The rnskldsvik bridge was a reinforced concrete bridge of K400 with reinforcement of mostly 16 and 25 of quality Ks40. Materials were tested after the testing of the bridge and the yield strength corresponded to the prescribed value but the maximum stress of the reinforcement was higher than the prescribed value. The bridge was subjected to a vertical point load in the middle of the bridge span as shown in Figure 35.The load was applied by fastening a beam across the bridge deck with rock anchored cables 6 meters below the ground surface. The load was induced by two 1000 ton hydraulic jacks.

36

MONITORING METHODS AND BRIDGE ASSESSMENT

Figure 35,testing of the rnskldsvik bridge (Elfgren et al (2009))

First, the bridge was loaded two times on the 5th and the 6th of July . Then, the slab of the bridge was strengthened with Near Surface Mounted Reinforcement rectangular bars of carbon fibre reinforced polymers for prevention of a traditional bending failure before loading it to failure on the 10th of July. At the first loading occasion, the load-carrying capacity of the slab was to be checked so the slab was loaded onto ballast. At the second and the third loadings, the two main beams were tested. Conclusions from the testing are that it had been possible to load the bridge with considerably higher loads than it was designed for, which means that higher axle loads could have been allowed on the bridge. Since the materials had higher properties than the prescribed ones, testing of material is a important when determining the capacity of a structure. Finally, it can be said that the carbon fibre strengthening method worked very well.

4.4 MONITORING/STRAIN MEASUREMENTS

By monitoring a bridge, the evolution and changes over time can be followed systematically. There are different types of measuring methods and they can roughly be divided into mechanical, optical and electrical methods (Kyowa).

4.4.1 STRAIN GAUGES

The history behind strain gauges extends to the 1800's when Lord Kelvin announced change in resistance in electrical wiring and Dr St. Lindbeck found that thin manganese threads wrapped round a cylinder had a change of resistance when the cylinder expanded. After world war two, the modern, metal foil on plastic foil strain gauge was developed (Loadindicator (2013)). Strain gauges are, as the name implies, an electronic measuring technique for measuring strains. The transducer generally consists of a pressure sensitive diaphragm with strain gages connected to it and the gauge is tightly bonded to the measuring object(Omega). When a metal undergo a mechanical elongation or contraction, it has a change in electric resistance (since metals are bonded by electrostatic interaction between atoms and free-flowing
37

MONITORING METHODS AND BRIDGE ASSESSMENT electrons in metal-bonds). The alloy foil in the strain gauge has a rate of change in resistance proportional to strain with a certain constant (Kyowa). The benefits of strain gauges are (Loadindicator): Small to the size and light in weight. Allows using in a large area of frequency Fully constrained to the base material, no loose parts Very good linearity over a large measuring area Relatively low costs Low thermal effects

The disadvantages of strain gauges (LoadIndicator): High temperatures are limiting, highest allowable temperature is between Relatively low out-signal - 2 to 3,4 mV/V at the highest Sensitive to moisture There is a need for careful handling at the preparation and installation for achieving good results

4.4.1.1 Bonded foil strain gauges The resistor is approximately 0,025 mm thick and it is bonded directly to the strained surface by a thin layer of epoxy resin. When loaded, there will be a change in the length of the surface, which will be transmitted to the resistor. The corresponding strain is measured in terms of the electrical resistance of the foil wire, which varies linearly with the strain. The foil and the adhesive will together transmit the strain at the same time as the adhesive works as an insulator between the foil and the surface (Omega). Strain gauges are assigned a gauge factor, G or K depending on the material of the metallic materials (Kyowa). The constant is for platinum- tungsten 3, 4 and a typical metal foil strain gauge is shown in Figure 36 (LoadIndicator).

Figure 36, typical metal-foil strain gages (Omega)

There is a relation between the change of resistance in the strain gauge and the resistance of the gauge:
38

MONITORING METHODS AND BRIDGE ASSESSMENT (31) Where is the change of resistance in the strain gauge, R is the resistance of the gauge, K is the gauge factor and is the strain (LoadIndicator). A few examples of commonly used configurations of strain gages are shown in Figure 37.

Figure 37, commonly used strain gauge configurations (Young et al (2002))

4.5 LVDT
A Linear Variable Differential Transformers, LVDTs, are a common type of electromechanical transducer. The LVDT is connected to a specimen and converts rectilinear motions of the coupled object into a corresponding electrical signal. LVDT gauges can measure movements as small as millionths of an inch. Typically, an LVDT consists of a core surrounded by a coil as shown in Figure 38. The stationary element of the transducer is the coil and the core free to move axially within the coil (MacroSensors (2013)). An LVDT from the by bridge is displayed in Figure 40.

39

MONITORING METHODS AND BRIDGE ASSESSMENT

Figure 38, LVDT (MacroSensors (2013))

The primary winding, P, of the LVDT is energized by an AC source and a magnetic flux is developed which is coupled by the core to windings and as shown in Figure 39. When the core is midway between and , the amount of flux coupled to the secondarys are equal and the voltages induced in the windings, and are thus equal. This midway position is known as the null point and the voltage output ( is equal to zero. If the core is located closer to than , the flux is more couple to than to and thus the induced voltage is higher than leading to a differential voltage ( ) (Macrosensors).

Figure 39, core of the LVDT in different axial positions (Macrosensors)

Benefits of LVDT's (Macrosensors): Friction-free Infinitely small changes in core position can be measured Repeatability
40

MONITORING METHODS AND BRIDGE ASSESSMENT No contact between core and coil means no wearing of the parts -> unlimited mechanical life Stable null point location means it works good as a null position sensor Fast dynamic response

Figure 40, LVDT on by Bridge

4.6 OPTICAL MEASURING DEVICES - ARAMIS

With optical deformation measuring, different measurements can be made over a surface. ARAMIS, shown in Figure 42, is a type of optical measuring device used in testing of materials, verification of FEM-analysis and identification of non-linear conditions for example. With ARAMIS it is possible to measure deformations in 3D in measuring ranges from 8x10 to 2000x1600 mm (Cascade (2013)). It is an analysis system for measuring strains dynamically over complex materials and structures rapidly. The system is robust, noncontact and it can be used in full-field (Trilion (2013)). The specimen is prepared with a contrasting stochastic or uniform pattern, as shown in Figure 41, and is then photographed during loading by one or more digital cameras. Facets are identified on the surface of the specimen and by photogram methods the cameras register changes on the surface of the specimen at different loads (Cascade (2013)). Measurements can be made independent of material geometry and temperature. The
41

MONITORING METHODS AND BRIDGE ASSESSMENT accuracy of the ARAMIS system i s 0,01-0,02 % in the strain area 0,02-300 % tension/compression (Cascade (2013)).

Figure 41, preparation of specimen with a stochastic pattern (CASCADE (2013))

4.6.1 HARDWARE
The hardware consist of CCD and CMOS cameras providing different image resolution, a sensor, a sensor controller, computer or notebook, transport cases and a certification. The optics of an ARAMIS system is shown in Figure 42 (Trilion).

Figure 42, Aramis system (Trilion (2013))

4.6.2 SOFTWARE
The images taken by the ARAMIS system are in high resolution and in the image processing, sub-pixel accurate positions about corresponding points between all images taken during loading are provided. Displacement values in X-,Y-, and Z-direction are provided by subtracting the surface information in all loading stages. By taking the geometry of the specimen into consideration and using of plasticity theory, strains are calculated using digital
42

MONITORING METHODS AND BRIDGE ASSESSMENT image correlation methods and triangulation calculation which generates derivation of 3Dcoordinates of high accuracy. The software, which is completely developed by GOM, is designed to run the sensor and controller, to process all the measurement data, automatically compute result data and do the post-processing (Trilion (2013)).

43

LOADS

5. LOADS
A typical floor-beam-stringer-system is built up by girders along the length of the bridge that support the transverse floor-beams, which in their turn support the stringers in a grid system as shown in Figure 43. Except for the live load, permanent loads such as the dead weight of the bridge will act on the bridge. Variable loads acting on railway bridges are vertical traffic loads, breaking forces, side force, soil pressure, snow loads, change of temperature, wind, ice- and stream pressure and water pressure (BVS 583.11). Here, only the traffic load will be presented since these are the loads that are in focus for fatigue assessment.

Figure 43, grid system of bridge (Penning et al (2000))

5.1 LOAD PATH

There are two possible load paths for the type of bridge with a grid system as shown in Figure 43 with a slab resting on the stringers. The two load paths are displayed in Figure 44 and the only difference between them is that for the first load path, there is no load transferred from the concrete slab to the stringer. This is because of the lack of contact between the slab and the stringer, they are only linked through the stringer-floor-beam connection. When the slab is in contact with the stringer, some of the load can be transferred directly from the slab to the stringer (Pennings et al (2000)).

44

LOADS

Live load

Slab

Floorbeams

Stringer

Girders

Piers

Live load

Slab

Floorbeams

Stringer

Girders

Piers

Figure 44, Load paths of stringer-floor-beam bridges (Pennings et al (2000))

5.2 LOAD DISTRIBUTION

For evaluating the load distribution on a bridge with a grid system as shown in Figure 43, the distribution of a load to the floor-beam is examined with two different load distribution models. The first load model presented is more conservative than the second one.

5.2.1 DIRECT LOAD MODEL

The Direct load Model is used by AASHTO and TxDOT (Texas Department of Transportation) and it assumes simply supported stringers and floor-beams. For bridges with slabs, the model ignores the moment carried out by the slab. In the model, a point load is distributed to the neighboring floor-beams in the longitudinal direction using statics, but no load is distributed laterally, as shown in Figure 45 (Pennings et al (2000)).

Figure 45, Direct Load Model (Pennings et al (2000))

45

LOADS

5.2.2 LEVER RULE MODEL

The lever rule model also assumes simply supported stringers and floor-beams and just like the Direct Load Model, it ignores the moment carried by the slab. This model transfers the load from the slab to the floor-beams via the stringers statically. The model results in two point loads on each floor-beam where the stringers are connected. This model is appropriate if there is no contact between the floor-beam and the slab (Pennings et al (2000)).

Figure 46, Lever Rule Model (Pennings et al (2000))

5.3 TRAFFIC LOADS

Traffic loads are, as the name implies, loads due to traffic. On railway bridges, the traffic loads are train loads, which are calculated as the vertical part of the load induced by traffic for which the bearing resistance of the bridge is calculated (BVS 583.11). Vehicles today are designed with better damping, which means that there ought to be a safety margin or for old bridges since they are designed for trains that provide a higher load impact than the vehicles in service today (Moreno (2013)).

5.3.1 FATIGUE LOAD MODEL ACCORDING TO BRO 2004

The loading fields are placed at the most unfavorable spot in the transverse direction of the bridge within the area accessible for traffic. The fatigue load model consists of load groups with two axle loads of 150 kN and two axle loads of 180 kN with axle distances of 1,5,6 and 2 meters as shown in the left image of Figure 47. The axle load consists of two point loads of 75 and 90 kN. The distance between the point loads are 2 meters and the loads are acting on a rectangular surface with the side lengths 0,6 m in the transverse direction of the bridge and 0,2 m in the longitudinal direction of the bridge as shown in the right image of Figure 47 (BRO 2004).

46

LOADS

Figure 47, fatigue loads (BRO 2004)

Load combination to be used for fatigue according to BRO 2004 is VI, which gives the value of =1 for all loading coefficients.

5.3.2 TRAFFIC LOADS ACCORDING TO EUROCODE 1

For determining the effect of traffic loads on bridges, Eurocode 1-2 gives the equivalent loads that should be applied on the load and in Appendix A2 to SS-EN 1990, also referred to as SS-EN 1990/A1 (Amendment 1), the partial coefficients and are given and along with these, National Determined Parameters (NDP:s) should be used. In the Swedish code, the equivalent load is increased or decreased with a factor , which is a multiple of 1,1 but that should be in the range . For fatigue control according to BVS 583.11, the dimensioning stress range is calculated as the difference between the largest positive and the largest negative stress by putting the traffic load at a position that maximizes these stresses (Andersson (2009)). First, the maximum permissible load of A-BV-4 is to be determined, including dynamic factors for a speed of 120 km/h and at a speed of 120 km/h< where the speed is gradually increased with 10 km/h (BVS 583.11). It should also be checked that the bridge can withstand trainloads RV and SW/2.The geometry of the car configuration and the axle loads vary dependent on the train loads as displayed in Figure 48 and Table 2. As Table 2 shows, load class A corresponds to an axle load of 25 tons, Class B corresponds to an axle load of 18 tons, 20 tons for class C, 22,5 tons for class D, 25 tons for class E and 30 tons for BV-4 (Andersson (2009).

Figure 48, car geometry

47

LOADS
Table 2 , loads and geometry for lineclassloads A-BV-4

Train load A B1 B2 C2 C3 C4 D2 D3 D4 E3 E4 E5 BV-4

Axle load Q [kN] 160 180 180 200 200 200 225 225 225 250 250 250 300

L1 [m] 12,80 14,40 11,25 12,50 11,10 10,00 14,05 12,50 11,25 13,90 12,50 11,35 12,00

L2 [m] 6,20 7,80 4,65 5,90 4,50 3,40 7,45 5,90 4,65 7,30 5,90 4,75 5,40

A new equivalent load, BV 2000, was introduced by Banverket in year 2000 for all lines except for those with heavy freight traffic. BV 2000, shown in Figure 49, represents an axle load of 30 tons with point loads of 330 kN and a line load of 110 kN/m. For lines trafficked with heavy loads, Malmbanan, for example, Banverket has introduced another equivalent load - Malm 2000. Train load Malm 2000 has ha point load of 350 kN/m from the recent 300 kN and the uniformly distributed load of 120 kN/m was kept (NDP for SS-EN 1990:2002/A1 (SIS)).

Figure 49, Load model for BV2000 and LM71. Q=110 kN/m and P =330 kN for BV 2000, Q=80 kN/m and P= 250 kN for LM71. (Andersson (2009))

Load Model 71 represents normal mainline traffic and Load model SW/2, shown in Figure 50,represents heavy traffic (Moreno (2013).

Figure 50, Load model SW/2 (Andersson (2009))

48

LOADS 5.3.2.1 Dynamic factors The dynamic addition is taken into account by multiplying the trainloads A-BV-4 and RV and SW/2 with a dynamic factor. The dynamic factor is for traffic loads BV2000, UIC-71 and SW/2 only depending on the determining length and is for these traffic loads calculated according to eq.(32): (32)

Where is the determining length according to BVS 583.11. For a main beam or a floorbeam that is simply supported, is equal to the span of the bridge if the beam is simply supported. If the beam is continuous, is equal to the arithmetic mean value of the spans multiplied with 1,2 for two spans, 1,3 if the bridge has three spans, 1,4 if there are four spans or 1,5 for 5 spans or more. For a stringer, is equal to twice the length of the stringer (BVS 583.11). For traffic loads A-D4, BV2-BV-4 the traffic loads also depend on the velocity of the trains according to eq. (33): (33)

Where (34)

for

, where (35)

And (36)

, loads.

[Hz] is the lowest eigenfrequency for the bridge loaded with only permanent

is the coefficient of velocity and

if

m/s. If v>22 m/s,

1,0.
49

LOADS For unknown values of eigenfrequencies, should be determined according to eq (37) for the upper value and according to equations (38) and (39) for the lower value of : (37)

(38) For and (39) For .

Dynamic factors according to eq (33) and (34) at different speeds are displayed in Figure 51.

Figure 51, dynamic factors (Andersson (2009))

Dynamic factors affected by

av 140 km/h are displayed in Figure 52.

Figure 52, dynamic factors at a speed of 140 km/h (Andersson (2009))

50

CASE STUDY

6. CASE STUDY
To investigate if the Rautasjokk bridge is still viable or not, testing of the almost identical by bridge was conducted in August 2013. In this chapter, the structure of the bridges will be described as well as the testing procedure and results from the testing.

6.1 BRIDGE STRUCTURE

The Warren truss has been one of the most popular truss-solutions for railroad or highway bridges during the twentieth century. It originally consists of only diagonal members who connect the two chords as seen in Figure 53, but the truss type is often altered by adding verticals (NCHRP Project 25-25, Task 15 (2005)). The main trusses of the old by bridge and the Rautasjokk bridge consist of Warren trusses with verticals as shown in Figure 54. In a Warren truss, the diagonals take both tensile and compressive stresses and all bars of the truss bears a share of the stresses. A Warren truss has got parallel chords, inclined endposts, diagonals, floor-beams, stringers and some kind of connection solution (NCHRP Project 25-25, Task 15 (2005)).

Figure 53, Warren truss with only diagonals (NCHRP Project 25-25, Task 15 (2005))

51

CASE STUDY

Figure 54, by bridge - Warren truss with verticals

The Rautasjokk bridge was built in 1902 and the superstructure was replaced in 1962. The support settlement of the bridge consists of four fixed pin bearings on one edge and four roller bearings on the other edge of the bridge. The by bridge was built in 1957. It is 5,9 meters wide and has a span of 33 meters (Moreno (2013)). The floor-system of the by bridge is a stringer-floor-beam grid system with 4,125 m spans between the transverse floor-beams as shown in Figure 55. The positions of the stringers in the floor system are shown in Figure 56. As the drawing in Figure 55 shows, the cross-section of the stringers are of the type DIMEL 55, an I-beam which corresponds to a cross-sectional geometry as displayed in Figure 57.

Figure 55, drawing of by bridge

52

CASE STUDY

Figure 56, positions of stringers (Moreno (2013))

Figure 57, position and cross-section of stringers (Moreno (2013)

The positions of the transverse floor-beams are shown in Figure 58. The profile of the floorbeams are DIP I-beams with a cross-section as shown in Figure 59.

53

CASE STUDY

Floor-beams

Figure 58, position of floor-beams

Figure 59, cross-section of floor-beams (Moreno (2013))

The stringers are connected to the floor-beams with riveted double-angle connections which consist of ten rivets with five rivets on each side of the stringer. The connection between a stringer and a floor-beam on the by bridge is shown in Figure 26. The connection is provided with a welded cover-plate on top of the stringer as shown in Figure 60, which will increase the stiffness of the connection.

54

CASE STUDY

Figure 60, detail drawing of stringer-floor-beam connection on by bridge

6.2 MATERIAL PROPERTIES

Both bridges are made of steel and the material used is, according to the Swedish code, SS1311, which is a stainless steel referred to as S235JR (G2) in the European Union (Moreno (2013)).

Figure 61, steel grade definitions

As shown in Figure 61, S is for Structural steel, 235 is the minimum yield strength of the material in MPa, which in this case is 235 MPa for a thickness to 16 mm (225 MPa for thicknesses of 16-40 mm). JR means the impact factor; that Longitudinal Charpy v-test impacts 27 J at a temperature of 20 C. G2 is a costumer option, in this case that rimming steel is not allowed (Corus (2004)). The Young's modulus for steel is 210 GPa and the shear modulus for a steel bridge can be set to 81 GPa. For rivets in riveted connections, = 330 MPa can be used (BVS 583.11).

55

CASE STUDY

6.3 GEOMETRIES AND STRESSES

6.3.1 CROSS-SECTIONAL PROPERTIES
Steel cross-sections are divided into four different classes depending on the slenderness of the compressed cross-section members. The criteria for the different classes are displayed in Table 3 (Johansson (2006)). Figure 62 and Figure 63 illustrates the cross-section class definition on the moment-rotation curve and the moment resistances for strong axis bending (SEMI-COMP+).
Table 3, Cross-section definitions

Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4

Plastic cross-sections Reaches plastic moment capacity and has enough rotation capacity to form plastic hinges Compact cross-sections Reaches plastic moment capacity but does not have enough rotation capacity to form plastic hinges Semi-compact cross-sections Reaches at least elastic moment capacity Slender cross-sections Does not reach elastic moment capacity because of local buckling

Figure 62, cross-section classes definition on moment-rotation curve (Valorisation Preject: SEMI-COMP+, design guidelines)

56

CASE STUDY

Figure 63, Bending resistance for cross-section classes according to Eurocode 3 (Valorisation Project: SEMI-COMP+, design guidelines)

To decide the slenderness of the compressed cross-section part, the ratio c/t is calculated according to Table 5.2 of SS-EN 1993-1 as displayed in Figure 64 and Figure 65.

57

CASE STUDY

Figure 64, Table 5-2 Cross-section classification (SS-EN 1993-1)

58

CASE STUDY

Figure 65, Table 5.2 cross-section classification (SS-EN 1993-1)

Since the steel of the bridge is of S235,the yield strain in Figure 64 will be equal to 1,0, as displayed in Figure 65, although the value of 1,0 is an approximate value (Moreno (2013)). After calculation of the c/t ratios the conclusion is made that the stringer has a web of crosssection class 1 and flanges of cross-section class 3, which will give the whole cross-section properties of class 3. Therefore, the elastic bending resistance is used which is defined as: (40)

The bending resistance is calculated for the stringer between the supports where the coverplate is absent. At the supports, the cover-plate has to be considered when calculating the bending resistance. The bending resistance for the stringer at the supports and between the supports is shown in Table 4.

59

CASE STUDY

Table 4, cross-sectional properties for stringer and stringer + cover-plate

Part Stringer Stringer + cover plate

A[ ] 0,0209 0,00257

Cog [m] 0,2695 0,2211

6.3.2 FATIGUE STRESS ACCORDING TO EUROCODE

For calculation of the damage equivalent factor , the partial factors according to Table 5.
Table 5, explanation of damage equivalent partial factors

are determined

0,646 1,15

0,834 1

According to Figure 10 and Figure 11 Highest value from Figure 12 chosen to be on the safe side since traffic volume is unknown According to eq. (14) for a 58 year old bridge Only one rail gives p=0, a=1 in eq. (15)

The values from Table 5 gives a damage equivalent factor of

according to eq. (13). The different parts in the investigated connection belong to different categories and therefore have different stress ranges of the principal stresses from Figure 8 and the resulting stress range can be calculated according to eq. (12). The values are shown in Table 6.
Table 6, Detail categodies and stress ranges

Stringer Floor-beam Cover-plate Double-angle connection

Category 160 160 50 71

[MPa] 140 140 28 34

[MPa] 86,74 86,74 17,35 21,07

60

CASE STUDY

6.4 TESTING PROCEDURE

For the test, the by bridge was moved from the river and put to rest on roller supports on one side of the bridge as can be seen in Figure 66 and pin supports on the other side as shown in Figure 67. The supports rested on concrete fundaments.

Figure 66, roller support on by bridge

Figure 67, pin support on by bridge

61

CASE STUDY

6.4.1 PREPARATIONS
The by bridge was provided with strain gauges, LVDTs, CODs, accelerometers and temperature gauges. The ARAMIS-system was set up shortly before the testing. 6.4.1.1 ARAMIS First, the geometry of the two connections to be tested were measured at the site. The dimensions of the riveted double-angle connections are shown in Figure 68. Then, a fullscale copy of the connection was cut out in plastic foil. The plastic-foil models of the connections were then used as a template to cut out a model in another sheet of plastic foil, which was provided with a cut-out grid-pattern. Then, a drill was used to make holes for the rivets. The solid plastic-foil templates and the grid-provided plastic-foil models are shown in Figure 69 and Figure 70.

Figure 68, Dimensions of riveted double-angle connections

62

CASE STUDY

Figure 69, connection 1 solid plastic-foil template and hole-pattern-provided foil

Figure 70, connection 2 template and model

Before loading of the bridge, the connections were cleansed from dirt and dust using a steelbrush. The connection in Figure 26 after being cleansed is shown in Figure 71. The connections were thereafter sprayed with black spray paint as shown in Figure 72. After the paint had dried, the grid-provided plastic-foil models were put over the connections and white spray-paint was used to create a contrasting pattern over the connections as shown in Figure 73.

63

CASE STUDY

Figure 71, Cleansed connection

To provide the rivets with a contrasting pattern, a black pen was used to make black dots on the rivets by hand. Connection with regular grid pattern and dotted rivets is shown in Figure 74.

Figure 72, Connection painted black

64

CASE STUDY

Figure 73, Connection with grid-pattern

After the connection had been prepared with a contrasting pattern, the ARAMIS-system was set up and calibrated so that both cameras were aimed at the exact same point. To ensure that the calibration was sufficiently accurate, a few test-snaps were taken and analyzed in order to see if the program could automatically choose a starting-point or not and if the whole area of the connection was able to be analyzed through both cameras. Set-up of the system is displayed in Figure 75.

65

CASE STUDY

Figure 74, connection with regular grid-pattern and stochastic dot-pattern on the rivets

Figure 75, ARAMIS-setup

6.4.1.2 LVDTs In the vicinity of the connections examined by the ARAMIS system, the bridge was monitored by LVDTs. The positions of these LVDTs in the middle of the bridge, on long beams and stringers in the vicinity of connection 2 are shown in Figure 76.
66

CASE STUDY

LTM1 LM1

LM2

LMs1

Figure 76, positions of LVDTs

67

CASE STUDY On the position of connection 1 but on the opposite side of the bridge, four rivets were monitored by LVDTs by drilling a hole in the web of the crossbeam to place the LDVTs on both sides on the rivet heads measuring the movement. The positions of these LVDTs are shown in Figure 77 and Figure 78 shows two of the monitored rivets on by bridge.

Figure 77, position of LVDTs on rivets

68

CASE STUDY

Figure 78, picture of LVDTs on by bridge

LM1, LM2: In the middle of the beam where LM1 is the LVDT closest to the connection measured. The results from these gauges are to be compared with results from connection 2. LMs1 - Situated in the middle of the stringer on the opposite side of connection 2. The results from this LVDT should be ok to compare to the stringer measured due to symmetry. LTM1 - in the middle of the floor-beam which measured, mid of bridge LFFL2-1,4: rivets deformation top of connection LFFL2-2,3: rivets deformation bottom of connection

6.4.1.3 Strain gauges Gauges in the vicinity of the examined connections were of interest to investigate. The names of the names of the gauges examined in this thesis are explained in both Swedish and in English in Table 7.
Table 7, explanation of gauge names

Gauge name TUM TUF TLK TLM TB

Swedish Tjningsgivare Underram Mitten Tjningsgivare Underram Fjrdedelspunkt Tjningsgivare Lngbalk Kontinutetsplt Tjningsgivare Lngbalk Mitten -

English translation Strain gauge Bottom chord Middle Strain gauge Bottom chord Quarter point Strain gauge Stringer Cover-plate Strain gauge Long-beam Middle Strain gauge middle of stringer

69

CASE STUDY In the stringer at the same position as connection 1 but on the opposite side of the bridge, there were five gauges measuring the behavior of the stringer. They were connected to a beam that was welded to the bridge and therefore measured the deflections with the bridge as a reference. The gauges, which are referred to as TLK1, TLK2, TLS1, TLS2 and TML1 are displayed in Figure 79. Since the bridge was symmetric, the deflections of this stringer were assumed to represent the behavior of the stringer connected to the floor-beam in connection 1.

Figure 79, Position of strain gauges TLK1-2, TUF1-2, TLS1-2, TFT1-3, TML1 (Moreno (2013))

70

CASE STUDY

Figure 80, positions of TLK-gauges on the stringers

The strains on the stringer on the opposite side of Connection 1 were monitored by gauges TLK1-1, TLK1-2, TLK1-3 and TLK1-4 at the point closest to the connection (see Figure 79 and Figure 80) can be compared to those measured by ARAMIS.

6.5 Loading
The load was generated by hydraulic jacks on two points of the bridge as seen in Figure 81, simulating four axles of a train car. Due to underlying rocks in the ground under the bridge, it was impossible to drill the holes symmetrically and therefore, the loading was placed in an asymmetrically. The hydraulic jacks are referred to as A and B and the positions of the jacks are shown in Figure 82. Two connections were measured with the ARAMIS-system; position 1 and 2, shown in Figure 83 and Figure 84.

Figure 81, hydraulic jack on by Bridge

71

CASE STUDY

Figure 82 , by bridge with positions of loads

Figure 83, positions of connections investigated with direction Boden to the left and direction Stockholm to the right

Figure 84, position of connections examined

The load was applied to the bridge in four steps. First, 100 tons were put on the bridge and it took approximately two minutes to reach the load. Then, the load was allowed to act on the
72

CASE STUDY bridge during about 5-10 minutes and then the bridge was unloaded. The unloading procedure took about a minute. The 100-ton loading- and unloading procedure was repeated three times, then the same procedure was done with a load of 132 tons and 160 tons. To finish the loading procedure, a load of 180 tons was put to rest on the bridge for two similar cycles. During all this loading, the connection 1 was monitored by ARAMIS. Then, the whole loading procedure was repeated but with the ARAMIS system put on position 2. A schematic image of the planned loading- and unloading procedure is displayed in Figure 85.

Loading cycles
1900n1900ral 1900n1900ral 1900n1900ral 1900n1900ral 1900n1900ral 1900n1900ral Load (Tons) 1900n1900ral 1900n1900ral 1900n1900ral 1900n1900ral 1900n1900ral 1 31 61 91 121 Time (minutes)

Figure 85, planned loading for the cyclic loads

After loading the bridge according to Figure 85, the connection at position 2 was monitored for eight loading scenarios. For the first one, only hydraulic jack A was active inducing the bridge with a load of 160 tons as shown in Figure 86. For the second loading, only hydraulic jack B was active providing a load of 160 tons as shown in Figure 87. For scenario threeeight, both jacks were active inducing loads shown in with a load arrangement as shown in Figure 82.

Figure 86, load setup scenario 1

73

CASE STUDY

Figure 87, load setup scenario 2 Table 8, loads for loading scenarios 3-8

Loading scenario 3 4 5 6 7 8

Load [tons] 210 230 250 270 320 340

74

RESULTS

7. RESULTS
7.1 ARAMIS
By using the ARAMIS software developed by GOM, reports from the loading of by bridge was processed into reports displaying displacements and major strains. The graphs showing displacements display displacements in millimeters on the vertical axis and the stages on the horizontal axle. Since the system was set up to take an image each second, it can be said that the graphs show the displacements versus the time. The coordinate system orientation is shown in Figure 88, with the z-axis pointing out of the plane, the y-axis positive upwards and the x-axis positive to the right.

Figure 88, coordinate system orientation for connections

75

RESULTS

7.1.1 CYCLIC LOADS

The first six loading cycles, at the connection near the support, were investigated in three different points, one at the upper end of the connection, one in the middle of the connection and one at the lower end of the connection. The points are referred to in alphabetic order from A to C, where point A is the upper point, point B is the midpoint and point C is the lower point. The same points were investigated for both the three cycles of 100 tons and the three cycles of 132 tons. Then, three new points were checked for the cyclic load of 160 tons, points D, E and F and. D is the upper point, E is the midpoint and F is the lower point. For the two cycles of 180 tons , the three points G, H and I were checked, where G is the upper point, H is the midpoint and I is the lower point. A typical plot of the displacements of the cyclic loads is shown in Figure 89. The approximate location of the different points are shown in Figure 90.

Figure 89, y-displacement for cyclic load of 160 ton

76

RESULTS

Figure 90, approximate position of the investigated points

The connection at the middle of the bridge were checked for the same loads; three cycles with 100 ton loading, three cycles with 132 ton loading , three cycles of 160 ton loading and two cycles of 180 ton loading. Three points were checked for the cyclic loads. For the 100 ton loading, the points are referred to as J, K and L. The upper point is referred to as point J, the middle point as K and the lower point is referred to as point L. For the load of 132 tons, three points were checked; M, N and O, where M is the upper point, N is the midpoint and O is the lower point. For the 160 ton loading, the three points were P at the upper part of the connection, Q in the middle and R in the lower part of the connection. For the load of 180 tons, the three investigated points are S in the upper part of the connection, T in the lower part of the connection and U at the lower part of the connection. The exact positions of the points and the displacement curves are displayed in APPENDIX B. The mean values of the displacements for the different points are displayed in Table 9.

77

RESULTS

Table 9, Displacements for the cyclic loads

Point A (100 ton) B (100 ton) C (100 ton) A (132 ton) B (132 ton) C (132 ton) D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U

Displacement Displacement x [mm] y [mm] -0,22 -3,2

Displacement z [mm] 0,52

Load [ton] 100

-0,25 -0,23

-3,2 -3,2

0,37 0,23

100

100 -0,32 -4,43 0,6 132 -0,36 -4,43 0,45 132 -0,29 -4,41 0,33 132 -0,24 -0,24 -0,19 -0,2 -0,18 -0,16 0,02 0,01 -0,07 -0,23 0,25 -0,23 -0,15 -0,12 -0,22 0,00 -0,15 -0,24 -5,3 -5,33 -5,35 -5,9 -5,88 -5,89 -10,6 -10,5 -10,5 -13,9 -13,8 -13,7 -16,9 -16,9 -16,9 -19 -19 -19 -0,77 -0,53 -0,77 -0,9 -0,7 -0,9 1,5 1,45 1,47 -0,65 -0,6 -0,45 -0,43 -0,53 -0,6 -0,53 -0,6 -0,7 160 160 160 180 180 180 100 100 100 132 132 132 160 160 160 180 180 180

The connection was also checked for major strains and a typical contour plot for an arbitrary stage during the loading of 100 ton, this is shown in Figure 91. A typical report for the major strain is shown in Figure 92.
78

RESULTS

Figure 91, major strain for stage 906 100 ton cyclic loading

Figure 92, Major strain for point B, 100 ton loading

7.1.2 STATIC LOADING

After the cyclic loading, connection 2 was checked for eight new loading scenarios which are specified in Table 8 and for each one of these scenarios, three points in the connection was checked; one in the upper part, one in the middle and one in the lower part of the connection. First, hydraulic jack A induced a load of 160 tons on the bridge and three points were checked for this load with the ARAMIS-system referred to as A2, B2 and C2 where A2 is the upper point, B2 the midpoint and C2 the lower point. Thereafter hydraulic jack B induced a
79

RESULTS load of 160 tons on the bridge and three points were examined; D2, E2 and F2 of which D2 is the upper point, E2 is the midpoint and F2 is the lower point. For scenario 3 the points G2, H2 and I2 were examined and G2 is the upper point, H2 the midpoint and I2 is the lower point. For scenario 4, the points J2, K2 and L2 were examined of which J2 was the upper point, K2 the midpoint and L2 the lower point. For scenario 5, the points examined are referred to as M2, N2 and O2 with M2 in the upper part of the connection, N2 in the middle of the connection and O2 in the bottom part of the connection . The points examined in scenario 6 are referred to as P2, Q2 and R2 where P2 is in the upper part of the connection, Q2 in the middle of the connection and R2 in the lower part of the connection . For scenario 7, the examined points are referred to as S2, T2 and U2 with S2 in the upper part of the connection, T2 in the middle of the connection and U2 in the bottom of the connection. Finally, the points examined in loading scenario 8 are referred to as V2, W2 and X2 with V2 in the upper part of the connection, W2 in the middle of the connection and X2 in the lower part of the connection. The displacement results from the loading scenarios 1-8 are displayed in Table 10.
Table 10, Displacements for load scenarios 1-8

Point A2 B2 C2 D2 E2 F2 G2 H2 I2 J2 K2 L2 M2 N2 O2 P2 Q2 R2 S2 T2 U2 V2 W2 X2

Displacement Displacement Displacement x [mm] y [mm] z [mm] -0,3 -15,55 -0,75 -0,33 -15,58 -0,53 -0,35 -15,55 -0,33 0,05 -19,2 -0,95 -0,06 -19,3 -1,24 -0,17 -19,3 -1,65 -0,32 -21,6 -0,8 -0,4 -21,7 -0,8 -0,55 -21,7 -0,9 -0,22 -23,64 -0,76 -0,32 -23,7 -0,87 -0,44 -23,71 -0,77 -0,24 -25,44 -0,8 -0,35 -25,52 -0,87 -0,45 -25,55 -1,05 -0,24 -28 -0,85 -0,35 -28,1 -0,95 -0,53 -28,1 -1,05 -0,15 -33,6 -1 -0,3 -33,7 -1,04 -0,45 -33,8 / -0,12 -36,1 -1,05 -0,04 -36,2 -1,1 -0,25 -36,2 -1,3

80

RESULTS

7.2 STRAIN GAUGES

All the strain plots are displayed in APPENDIX C. The strains from the TKL gauges during the first cyclic loading are displayed in Table 11.
Table 11, Strains from TKL1-gauges

Gauge TLK1 TLK2 TLK3 TLK4 TLK5

Displacement [ m/m] 100 ton load - 12 13 -22 3 0

Displacement [ m/m]132 ton load -15 18 -27 5 0

Displacement [ m/m] 160 ton load -17 21 -30 7 0

Displacement [ m/m] 180 ton load -15 28 -30 12 7

The strains from the gauges in the middle of the bridge are displayed in Table 12.
Table 12, Strains measured in the middle of the bridge

Load 100 ton 132 ton 160 ton 180 ton Load scenario 1 Load scenario 2 Load scenario 3 Load scenario 4 Load scenario 5 Load scenario 6 Load scenario 7 Load scenario 8

Strain [ m/m] TUM1-1 55 78 95 103 95 100 130 150 90 170 200 225

Strain [ m/m] TUM1-2 130 140 170 185 168 205 235 255 120 315 380 415

Strain [ m/m] TUM2-1 40 62 80 85 95 100 130 140 150 160 190 205

Strain [ m/m] TUM2-2 120 162 193 215 174 225 260 280 300 330 385 405

81

RESULTS After the cyclic loads and load scenarios 1-8, the bridge was tested at another occasion with a strain gauge placed on the middle of the stringer at connection 2, right under the load. At this occasion, the bridge was loaded with 300 tons and 320 tons before it was tested to failure. Strains measured in the middle of the stringer at connection 2 at the day of final loading: TB-gauges are displayed in Table 13.
Table 13, strains of TB-gauges

Gauge TB1

Strain [ m/m] 3000 kN load 380

Strain [ m/m] 3200 kN load 410

From the strains displayed in . Table 13, the stresses and field moments are calculated according to eq. (2) and eq. (3) which are displayed in Table 14.
Table 14, stresses, strains and moments at the middle of the stringer according to measured strains

Load [kN] 3000 3200

[%] 0,038 0,041

[MPa] 79,8 86,1

M [kNm] 323,03 348,53

7.3 LVDTS
All the displacement plots are displayed in APPENDIX C. The results from the cyclic loads in the middle of the bridge are displayed in Table 15.
Table 15, displacements form LVDTs during the cyclic loads

LVDT LM1 LM2 LMs1 LTM1 LFFL1-1 LFFL1-2 LFFL1-3 LFFL1-4

Displacement [mm] for 100 ton cyclic load 6,8 6,8 8,2 10 0,002 0,0018 0,0011 0,0007

Displacement [mm] for 132 ton cyclic load 9,2 9,2 11,2 13 0,0023 0,0024 0,0013 0,0008

Displacement [mm] for 160 ton cyclic load 10,7 11 13,5 15 0,0026 0,0029 0,016 0,001

Displacement [mm] for 180 ton cyclic load 11,8 12,3 11 16 0,0015 0,00115 0,0027 0,002

82

RESULTS Displacements from load scenario 1-8 are displayed in Table 16.
Table 16, displacements from LVDTs load scenarios 1-8

LVDT LM1 LM2 LMs1 LTM1 LFFL1-1 LFFL1-2 LFFL1-3 LFFL1-4

Displ. [mm] L.S 1 0,19 0,01 0,27 0,26 0,00015 0,00015 -0,0002 -0,0004

Displ. [mm] L.S 2 11 10,5 17 15 0,001 7 0,001 5 0,005 0,005

Displ. [mm] L.S 3 15 14 19 19 0,0025 0,0030 -0,007 0,0075

Displ. [mm] L.S 4 / / / / / / / /

Displ. [mm] L.S 5 17,5 16,5 22 22 0,0030 0,0037 0,0010 0,0010

Displ. [mm] L.S 6 19 18,5 24 24 0,02 0,06 0,005 0,001

Displ. [mm] L.S 7 23 23 29 29 0,0045 0,0050 0,0010 0,0010

Displ.[m m] L.S 8 23 25 31 31 0,0048 0,0050 -0,0020 -0,0020

83

ANALYSIS

8. ANALYSIS
In this chapter, the results will be analyzed. Firstly, moments and shear forces will be calculated from the measured strains in chapter 8.1.1 and thereafter, in chapter 8.1.2, moments and shear forces will be calculated according to the current load case by the help of the software LinPro. Moments for the simply supported case will be compared to the fixed case and the level of constraint will then be determined in chapter 8.2. In chapter 8.3, displacements will be analyzed along with stresses and strains and the fatigue life from the stress level obtained will be compared to the theoretical one according to the Eurocodes.

8.1 MOMENT

AND SHEAR FORCE CALCULATIONS

8.1.1 MOMENTS CALCULATED BY THE MEASURED STRAINS

The strains measured by the strain gauges are reported in m/m, which is one millionth of a meter per meter. The stress is obtained by insertion of the strain into eq. (2), i.e. multiplying the strain with the Young's modulus. Thereafter eq. (3) is used to obtain the moment. For the gauges at the continuity plate the results are displayed in Table 17 to Table 20.
Table 17, strains, stresses and moments for Gauges TKL1-5, 100 ton load

Gauge TKL1 TKL2 TKL3 TKL4 TKL5

Strain -0,000012 0,000013 -0,000022 0,000003 0

Stress [MPa] -2,52 2,73 -4,62 0,63 0

Moment [kNm] -14,873 16,11246 -27,2672 3,71826 0

Table 18, strains, stresses and moments for gauges TKL1-5, 132 ton load

Gauge TKL1 TKL2 TKL3 TKL4 TKL5

Strain -0,000015 0,000018 -0,000027 0,000005 0

Stress [MPa] -3,15 3,78 -5,67 1,05 0

Moment [kNm] -18,5913 22,30956 -33,4643 6,1971 0

84

ANALYSIS
Table 19, strains, stresses and moments for gauges TKL1-5, 160 ton load

Gauge TKL1 TKL2 TKL3 TKL4 TKL5

Strain -0,000017 0,000021 -0,00003 0,000007 0

Stress [MPa] -3,57 4,41 -6,3 1,47 0

Moment [kNm] -21,0701 26,02782 -37,1826 8,67594 0

Table 20, strains, stresses and moments for gauges TKL1-5, 180 ton load

Gauge TKL1 TKL2 TKL3 TKL4 TKL5

Strain -0,000015 0,000028 -0,00003 0,000012 0,000007

Stress Moment [MPa] [kNm] -3,15 -18,5913 5,88 34,70376 -6,3 -37,1826 2,52 14,87304 1,47 8,67594

8.1.2 THEORETIC MOMENTS AND SHEAR FORCES

For a beam over simply supported beam, the end moments are calculated by assuming the same angle at the supports from both directions. inFigure 93 and the moments are the ones acting on the beam in this case. The load setup is shown in Figure 94.

Figure 93, forces acting on a simply supported beam (formelblad fronter)

85

ANALYSIS

Figure 94, load setup for the simply supported case

The support angles are put as the same from both directions according to(41): (41) The angles are calculated according to eq(42) and (43): (42)

(43)

Member 0:

Member 1:

Member 2:

86

ANALYSIS

Member 3:

And so on. gives:

gives:

And so on. In this way we obtain an expression for the moments which can be compared to the moments calculated by the software LinPro. The shear forces are calculated according to eq (44) and eq (45) :

(44)

(45) The moments along the beams are calculated as: (46)

For a fixed beam, the end moments are calculated from both sides of the beam, in this case, in Figure 95 are the forces that are relevant to investigate.
87

ANALYSIS

Figure 95, forces acting on a fixed beam (formelblad fronter)

The reaction forces are calculated according to eq.(47) and eq.(48): (47)

(48)

The support moments are calculated according to eq (49) and eq (50):

(49)

(50)

88

ANALYSIS The member who is the most interesting to investigate is member 4, since it is monitored by a strain gauge in the middle of the beam. The moments and forces along member 4 are displayed in
Table 21 to Table 24.
Table 21, moments and shear forces along member 4, 3000 kN load, simply supported

x [m] 0 0,4125 0,825 1,2375 1,36 1,36 1,65 2,0625 2,475 2,8875 3,16 3,16 3,3 3,7125 4,125

V [kN] -710,12 -710,12 -710,12 -710,12 -710,12 89,88 89,88 89,88 89,88 89,88 889,88 889,88 889,88 889,88 889,88

M [kNm] -382,35 -89,43 203,50 496,42 583,41 583,41 557,35 520,28 483,20 446,13 421,63 421,63 297,05 -70,02 -437,10

Table 22, moments and shear forces along member 4, 3000 kN load, fixed

x [m] 0 0,4125 0,825 1,2375 1,36 1,36 1,65 2,0625 2,475 2,8875 3,16 3,16 3,3 3,7125 4,125

V [kN] -663,11 -663,11 -663,11 -663,11 86,89 86,89 86,89 86,89 86,89 86,89 836,89 836,89 836,89 836,89 836,89

M [kNm] -588 -314,46 -40,93 232,61 313,84 313,84 288,64 252,80 216,96 181,12 157,45 157,45 40,28 -304,93 -650,15

89

ANALYSIS

90

ANALYSIS
Table 23, moments and shear forces along member 4, 3400 kN load, simply supported

x [m] 0 0,4125 0,825 1,2375 1,36 1,36 1,65 2,0625 2,475 2,8875 3,16 3,16 3,3 3,7125 4,125

V [kN] -710,12 -710,12 -710,12 -710,12 -710,12 89,88 89,88 89,88 89,88 89,88 889,88 889,88 889,88 889,88 889,88

M [kNm] -382,35 -89,43 203,50 496,42 583,41 583,41 557,35 520,28 483,20 446,13 421,63 421,63 297,05 -70,02 -437,10

Table 24, moments and shear forces along member 4, 3400 kN load, fixed

x [m] 0 0,4125 0,825 1,2375 1,36 1,36 1,65 2,0625 2,475 2,8875 3,16 3,16 3,3 3,7125 4,125

V [kN] -707,32 -707,32 -707,32 -707,32 92,68 92,68 92,68 92,68 92,68 92,68 892,68 892,68 892,68 892,68 892,68

M [kNm] -627,2 -335,43 -43,66 248,11 334,76 334,76 307,89 269,66 231,43 193,20 167,94 167,94 42,97 -325,26 -693,49

The calculated moments and shear forces along all the members for the 3000 kN load and the 3400 kN load are displayed in APPENDIX A. For member 7, the support moments are of interest to investigate. For the 100 ton, 132 ton, 160 ton and the 180 ton loads, we obtain the moments displayed in Table 25.
91

ANALYSIS
Table 25, support moments for member 7, simply supported stringer

Load [kN] 1000 1320 1600 1800

Moment [kNm] -9,11 -12,02 -14,57 -16,39

To make quick comparisons between simply supported stringers and fixed stringers, the software LinPro 2.7.5 was used, which calculates forces and moments. With all beams simply supported and the total load 100 ton (1000 kN), then the behavior of the stringer would be according to Figure 96 with low support moments and maximum moments in the spans. If the stringers were to be fixed instead, as Figure 97 shows, there would be support moments but the field moments would be decreased.

Figure 96, simply supported stringers: top image load setup, bottom image shows moment diagram (LinPro 2.7.5)

Figure 97, fixed stringers: top image load setup and bottom image shows moment diagram (LinPro 2.7.5)

92

ANALYSIS
Table 26 shows that the moments calculated by the strains from strain gauge TKL1 next to

the theoretical moments for the same support.

Table 26, comparison between simply supported support moments and measured support moments, member 7

Load [kN] 1000 1320 1600 1800

Moment [kNm] Simply supported -9,11 -12,02 -14,57 -16,39

Moment [kNm] Measured -14,87 -18,59 -21,07 -18,59

The moments diagrams obtained by Linpro for the 3000 kN load is shown in Figure 98 and the moment diagrams for 3200 kN load is shown in Figure 99.

Figure 98, bridge at 3000 kN load: 1: Load setup fixed stringers. 2: Moment diagram for fixed stringers. 3: Load setup simply supported stringers. 4: moment diagram simply supported stringers (Linpro 2.7.5)

93

ANALYSIS

Figure 99, bridge at 3200 kN load. 1: Load setup fixed stringers. 2: moment diagram fixed stringers. 3: load setup simply supported stringers. 4: moment diagram simply supported stringers. (LinPro 2.7.5)

The moment in the middle of element 4 is the most interesting in this case and the midmoments obtained by LinPro are displayed Table 27.
Table 27, Moments in the middle of element 4 obtained by LinPro

Load [kN] 3000 3200

Moment fixed [kNm] 252,80 269,66

Moment simply supported [kNm] 487,76 520,28

8.2 LEVEL OF RESTRAINT

To calculate the level of restraint, the difference between the moment for a simply supported beam and a fixed beam was calculated: (51)

was subtracted from the measured moment: (52)

94

ANALYSIS

Then

was divided with

to obtain how many percent simply supported the beam is: (53)

1-M gives the level of restraint.

Figure 100, the measured moments on a scale between fixed moments and simply supported moments

The ratio of the fixed moment and calculated moment from the strains is shown in Table 28 for both the 3000 kN load and the 3200 kN load and to illustrate the level of constraint, Figure 100 shows the fixed moment, the simply supported moment and the measured moment on a scale.
Table 28, comparison of calculated and measured field moments, span 4

Load [kN] 3000 3200

Moment [kNm] Simply supported 487,76 520,28

Moment [kNm] Measured 323 349

Moment [kNm] Fixed 252,80 269,66

Level of restraint [%] 62,55 60,40

95

ANALYSIS

8.3 DISPLACEMENTS, STRESSES AND STRAINS

When comparing the LVDTs adjacent to connection 2 to the deflections measured by ARAMIS, the ARAMIS-system measured larger deformations than the LVDTs as shown in Table 29 and as displayed in Figure 101 .
Table 29, Displacements for connection 2 measured by ARAMIS and adjacent LVDTs

Load [ton] 100 132 160 180 210 250 270 320 340

LM1 [mm] 6,8 9,2 10,7 11,8 15 17,5 19 23 23

LM2 [mm] 6,8 9,2 11 12,3 14 16,5 18,5 23 25

LMs1 [mm] 8,2 11,2 13,5 14,8 19 22 24 29 31

LTM1 [mm] 10 13 15 16 19 22 24 29 31

ARAMIS [mm] 10,5 13,8 16,9 19 21,7 25,5 28,1 33,7 36,2

Figure 101, displacements form LVDTs compared to ARAMIS

The deflection results show that there is not much movement in the rivets. There is more movement in the upper rivets than in the lower ones. The whole connection moves inwards in the negative z-direction (the longitudinal direction of the bridge), is pushed downwards in the negative y-direction and outwards in the negative x-direction (the transverse direction of

96

ANALYSIS the bridge) as Figure 102 shows. The upper part of the connection moves less in the xdirection than the lower part of the connection for loads of 2100 kN and higher.

Figure 102, directions of displacements of the connections

When comparing the LVDTs to the results from the ARAMIS, the LVDTs adjacent to connection 2 shows less deflections. One has to be aware that the time scale of the plots from the ARAMIS and the plots from the strain gauges and LVDTs cannot be compared since they were not initiated at the exact same time, thus they are not synchronized. TKL1 is the strain gauge that is situated the closest to connection 1and the moment from TKL1 could therefore be compared to the theoretical moment. The support moments calculated by using the results from the strain gauge are higher than the moments calculated for a simply supported beam. This shows that the stringer most probably cannot be considered as simply supported. The support moments measured for the cyclic loads of 100160 tons are 45-63 % higher than the ones for a simply supported beam as displayed in Figure 103.

97

ANALYSIS

Support moments for member 7

Moment [kNm]

Measured Simply supported 1902n1 1902n1 1903n1 1903n1 1903n1 1903n1 1904n1 1904n1 1904n1 1904n1

1900n1900ral

Load [kN]
Figure 103, Measured moments compared to simply supported moments for member 7

The major strains were investigated in different points of the connection and therefore they only apply locally. Major strains obtained by ARAMIS would result in high support moments. For connection 1, the support moment would be -247,88 kNm, which is 27 times higher than the theoretical support moment for a simply supported beam and 16,67 times higher than the moment calculated by the measured strains. When comparing the moments from LinPro with the moments calculated by the strains of gauge TB, the results show that the field moment in the middle of the stringer is somewhere between the field moment of a simply supported beam and a fixed beam. The measured moment is closer to a fixed beam than a simply supported. The calculated resulting equivalent stress range in chapter 6.3.2 for the stringer would result in a moment of 351 kNm according to eq. (3). When comparing the life time of the stringers for the theoretical stress level and the measured one, a lower stress level (37,45 % lower for the 3000 kN load and 39,6 % lower for the 3200 kN load) would mean an increased life time as Table 30 shows.
Table 30, change in fatigue life for stringers with reduced stress levels

N (loading cycles) Theoretic stress 37,45 % of the theoretic stress 39,6 % of the theoretic stress 87,74 32,48 34,35

This means that by having partly restrained stringers, the life length of the stringers increase significantly. In this case, by lowering the stress level in the stringer by 37-40 %, it can be
98

ANALYSIS found that the life time of the stringer had an increase of more than from the expected life time. load cycles

99

DISCUSSION

9. DISCUSSION
There was less movement in x-direction for the upper part of the connection than in the bottom of the connection, which can be seen particularly clearly for loads of 210 tons and more. This is probably because the upper part of the connection is stiffer than the lower part due to the welded cover-plate. The results from the LVDTs showed that there was more movement in the upper rivets than in the lower ones. This difference in movement is probably an effect of the negative bending moment described in chapter 3.3, where the bending-induced end-rotation of the stringer forces the upper part of the connection to an out-of-plane flexure. Since the magnitude of the shear forces at the rivets was low, it is possible that parts of the shear forces are taken up by the frictional shear resistance that is neglected in design. The deflections in x-direction for connection 2 propagated during the load cycles for the cyclic loads. This may be due to the fact that the boreholes drilled for rock anchoring were skewed which when loaded, pulled the bridge sideways in the negative x-direction. It needs to be said that the loading was not according to any of the existing load models described in chapter 5.3, which make the existing load models inapplicable for this case. There should be a safety margin considering the traffic, though, since the bridge is old and designed for older vehicles. The trains today have better damping than older trains which means that today's vehicles will give a lower dynamic loading impact. When comparing measured values from strain gauges, LVDTs, ARAMIS and theoretical deflections, strains and stresses can be questioned since the different monitoring devices did not measure at the exact same point. It was hard to keep the loading constant. Graphs from Load scenario 2 from ARAMIS show that the load increases as the deflection propagates during the loading. Figure 104 shows a graph of a load cycle which is aimed to be steady at 3000 kN but the load fluctuates a lot during this load cycle and the load cycles are thus not as ideal as the planned ones displayed in Figure 85.

100

DISCUSSION

Figure 104, loads of the hydraulic jacks, 3000 kN load, red curve is jack A and blue curve is jack B

Since all points of the connections were not registered through all stages, arbitrary points with most stages represented were picked in the upper, middle and lower part of the connection for investigating the behavior of the connections instead of making a section analysis which tended to leave certain stages blank. To illustrate the difference between a point with all stages represented and a point with stages missing, Figure 105 displays point V2 next to an arbitrary point on a rivet which had all stages represented in the results. When calculating the project, it is shown that those stages that are not registered by ARAMIS are simply blank in the reports as shown in Figure 106.

101

DISCUSSION

Figure 105, Point V2 to the left, Arbitrary point on rivet on a contour plot showing

Figure 106, report for y-displacement for arbitrary rivet point to the left, report for y-displacement for point V2 to the right

The ARAMIS-system is sensitive to changing conditions. After calibration, factors such as passing trains, sunlight and heavy wind may affect the ability of the system to register all the area measured. For ideal testing conditions, the ARAMIS-system would be set up on a stiff concrete floor in a laboratory which is a plane surface. But since the testing was made on site, the ARAMIS-system was set up on the ground, which is uneven and ground movements can have affected the results. The plausibility of the major strains obtained by ARAMIS are questionable. Moments obtained by the major strains from ARAMIS are about 17 % higher than the measured ones which excessively high values. Because points were investigated, these results only apply locally. These results apply to the investigated measurement points which are described in chapter 7.1 and specified in APPENDIX B.
102

DISCUSSION The results found are that the stringers are 63 % restrained for the 3000 kN load and 60 % restrained for the 3200 kN load, so it can be concluded that the beams are approximately 60 % constrained, which means that the behavior of the stringers is more like a fixed beam than a simply supported beam. It is thus proved that the stringers of this bridge are not simply supported. The fact that the stringers do have end moments means that the fasteners are subjected to forces that they are not designed to take. The connections do not only have to deal with shear forces but also with moments. End moments for a beam means reduced field moments, which indicates that the stresses in the middle of the beam are lower than for the simply supported case that the beam is designed for. A lowered stress level would mean an increased life time for the stringers according to the fatigue stress calculations of Eurocode. But the testing conducted at site was a static test and vehicles on bridges in service cause dynamic impact loads. So the lowered stress levels of the test results and the theoretical fatigue stresses cannot be decisively compared and said to give an absolute number of increased loading cycles and more research is needed in this field to estimate the actual fatigue life. However, this tendency can be seen as a way to theoretically increase the fatigue life of this type of bridges. As mentioned in chapter 1 and 2, the most fatigue critical parts of a structure are those which cause discontinuities in the geometry and stress concentrations, such as connections. If the stresses in the middle of the stringers are lowered and the stresses at the supports of the beams are increased, it means that the stresses in a not-so-fatigue critical parts are lowered whilst the stresses in the most fatigue prone components of the stringers are subjected to additional stress. The conclusion to be drawn from this is that the presence of end moments for a stringer will most probably reduce the fatigue life of the structural detail, but more research is needed to validate this statement.

103

CONCLUSIONS

10. CONCLUSIONS
Conclusions to be drawn from this thesis are that the stringers which were designed as simply supported behave more like fixed beams which means that the field moments are overestimated in design. Calculated field moments from the full-scale testing results indicate that the stringers are 6063 % restrained. The connections are though subjected to both shear forces and end moments which they are not designed to take and calculated end moments from the testing show that the end moments are 55 % higher than for a simply supported beam. A lowered stress level means an increased life time for the investigated part, whish in this case means that the mid parts of the stringers would have an increased life time of load cycles whilst the effects of the end moments on the stringer-to-floor beam-connections need to be further investigated.

FUTURE RESEARCH
In this thesis, it has been found that the connections are subjected to forces they are not designed to take. But the effects of the end moments and the consequences of these need to be investigated in future research. By monitoring of dynamic testing that simulates the impact loading of actual train passages, the fatigue effects can better be determined and an improved estimation of the actual fatigue life can be made. Components and structural details that are known to be particularly prone to fatigue can be examined in a laboratory and subjected simulated fatigue loading whilst monitored to investigate the fatigue effects. In this thesis, only the stringers and the stringer-floor-beam connections have been studied. To investigate the viability of the whole structure, all components and structural details of the bridge need to be assessed in future research.

104

REFERENCES

REFERENCES
Printed references Al-Emrani et al (2009) - Al-Emrani, M; Kliger, R. (2009). Utmattningshllfasthet svr att berkna fr stlbro. Husbyggaren,2, 12-15 Al-Emrani (2002) - Al-Emrani, M. "Fatigue in riveted railway bridges - A study of the fatigue performance of riveted stringers and stringer-to-floor-beam connections". Chalmers University of Technology, Gteborg ISBN: 91-7291-211-1 Andersson (2009) - Andersson, A. (2009). Utmattningsanalys av jrnvgsbroar: En fallstudie av stlbroarna mellan Stockholm Central och Sder Mlarstrand, baserat p teoretiska analyser och tjningsmtningar. Kungliga tekniska Hgskolan, Stockholm. ISSN: 1103-4270; 96 Aygl (2012) - Aygl, M. (2012). Fatigue Analysis of Welded Structures Using the Finite Element Method. Chalmers University of Technology. Gothenburg, Sweden Boardman (1990) -Boardman, B. (1990). Fatigue Resistance of Steels, ASM Handbook. 10th edition vol.1.Deere and Company. Technical Center, ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 44073, pp. 673-688. Carlsson et al (2008) - Carlsson, F; Plos, M; Norlin, B; Thelandersson, S. (2008). "Skerhetsprinciper fr brighetsanalys av broar med icke-linjra metoder". Kungliga Tekniska Hgskolan, Chalmers, Lunds Tekniska Hgskola Report TVBK-3056 ISSN 0349-4969 Chladny et al (1993) - Chladny, E; Balz, I. (1993). Inspection, evaluation and strengthening of the SNP bridge in Bratislava. Bridge management 2: Inspection, Maintenance assessment and repair. Papers presented at the second international conference on bridge management 18-21 April 1993, University of Surrey, Guildford. ISBN: 0-7277-1926-2 Corus (2004) - European structural steel standard EN 10025:2004 - Explanation and comparison to previous standards. 2004. Corus construction & Industrial. Scunthorpe, United Kingdom Elfgren et al (2009) - Elfgren, L; Tljsten, B; Enochsson, O; Paulsson, B. (2009). Sustainable Railway Bridges with Higher Axle Loads - Monitoring Examples from Northern Sweden. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF COMADEM. 12, 2. p 39-45 Failure diagnosis and Prognosis of Swedish Railway Systems. ISSN:1363-7681 Eriksson (2006) -Eriksson, K. (2006). Att konstruera med stl: Modul 8 - Utmattning. Lule Tekniska Universitet, Lule Haghani et al (2012) - Haghani, R.; Al-Emrani, M.; Heshmati, M. (2012). Fatigue-prone details in Steel Bridges. Buildings, 2, 456-476 ISSN 2075-5309
105

REFERENCES Johansson (2006) - Johansson, B. (2006). Att konstruera i stl: Modul 5 Tvrsnittsbrfrmga. SBI, Stockholm, LTU, Lule & KTH, Stockholm Kumar Goel (2006) - Kumar Goel, R., Study of behaviour of stringer to floor beam connection in riveted railway open web girder bridges. Journal of IPWE. April, 2006. Kumar Jain et al (2005) - Kumar Jain, A; Punmia, B.C; Jain, A.K. (2005). Comprehensive Design of steel Structures. Laxmi Publications, ISBN-10: 8170080932 Larsson (2009) - Larsson, T. (2009). Fatigue Assessment of Riveted Bridges. Lule Tekniska Universitet, Lule. Mack, N; Woodsong, C; M. MacQueen, K; Guest, G; Namey, E. (2005).Qualitative research Methods: A data collectors field guide. Family Health International. North Carolina, USA ISBN: 0-939704-98-6 Mehrkar et al (1996) - Mehrkar, S; Brookes, CL. Load testing in bridge assessment. Structural Assessment: The role of Large and Full Scale Testing. Joint IStructE/City university International Seminar, City university, London, 1-3 July 1996 Moreno (2013) - Moreno, M. (2013).State of stresses and fatigue assessment for a steel truss bridge.Lule tekniska Universitet, Lule NCHRP Project 25-25, Task 15 (2005) - A Context for Common Historic Bridge Types. Prepared for The National cooperative Highway Research Program Transportation Research Council National Research Council by Parsons Brickerhoff and Engineering and Industrial Heritage. October 2005. Nicholas (2006) - Nicholas, T. (2006). High cycle fatigue - A Mechanics of Materials Perspective. Elsevier, Oxford, Great Britain. ISBN: 978-0-08-044691-2 Nussbaumer et al (2011) - Nussbaumer, A; Borges, L; Davaine, L. (2011).Fatigue design of steel and composite structures: Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures, Part 1-9 Fatigue, Eurocode 4: Design of Composite Steel and Concrete Structures. Ernst &SohnVerlagfrArchitektur und technicheWissenschaftern GmbH & Co. Kg, Berlin.Print ISBN: 9783433029817 Online ISBN: 9783433601181 Olofsson et al (2004) - Olofsson, I.; Elfgren, L. Sustainable Bridges-Assessment for Future Traffic Demands and Longer Lives; Taylor & Francis: Oxford, UK, 2004; p. 369. Packham (1993) - Packham, A.J. (1993). Cost-effective load testing of bridges on British Railways. Bridge Management 2, University of Surrey, Guildford, 18-23 April 1993. p. 450-7 ISBN: 0-7277-1926-2 Pennings et al (2000) - Pennings, K. H.; Frank, S.L.; Wood, J.A.; Yura, J.A.; Jirsa, J.O. (2000). Lateral load distribution on transverse floor beams in steel plate girder bridges. Research
106

REFERENCES report 1746-3, Research projekt 0-1746 Effects of overloads on existing structures. Texas Department of Transportation in cooperation with U.S. Department of transportation Federal Highway, Texas Pietraszek et al (1991) - Pietraszek, T; Oommen, G. (1991). Static and dynamic behaviours of an 85-year-old steel railway bridge. Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering. p. 201-213. Pinjarkar et al (1991) - Pinjarkar, S.G; Kritzler, R.W; Rolsing, R. A.; McCarthy, P. O. (1991). Evaluation and Load Testing of a 100-Year-Old Elevated Steel Transit Structure. Transportation Research Record. Issue 1290. p 252-262. ISBN: 0-309-05067-7 Righihiotis et al (2010) - Righiniotis D., Timothy; Imam M., B; Chryssanthopoulos K., M. (2011). Fatigue analysis of riveted railway bridge using the theory of critical distances. Engineering Structures, 30 (29 p) SEMI-COMP+ - Valorisation Preject: SEMI-COMP+, design guidelines - Valorisation Procect: SEMI-COMP+ n RFS2-CT-2010-00023 "Valorisation Action fo Plastic Member Capacity of Semi-Compact Steel Sections - a more Economic Design". Design guidelines for cross-section and member design according to Eurocode 3 with particular focus on semi-compact sections.12th July 2011.Institute for Steel Structures and Shell Structures, Graz Schlune et al (2008) - Schlune, H.; Plos, M. (2008). Bridge Assessment and Maintenance based on Finite Element Structural Models and Field Measurements. Chalmers University of Technology. Gteborg. ISSN 1652-9162 SS-EN 1990/A1 - Eurokod - Grundlggande dimensioneringsregler fr brverk. Swedish standards Institute, Stockholm SS-EN 1991-2 - Eurokod 1: Laster p brverk - Del 2: Trafiklast p broar. Swedish Standards Institute, Stockholm SS-EN 1993-1 - Eurokod 3: Dimensionering av stlkonstruktioner. Swedish Standards Institure, Stockholm Tamboli (2009) - Tamboli, Akbar R. (2009). Handbook of structural steel connection design and details. 2nd Edition. McGraw-Hill, University of California. ISBN: 0071550054, 9780071550055 Troive , 1998 - Troive, S. Structural LCC Design of Concrete Bridges. Kungliga Tekniska Hgskolan, Stockholm. ISSN: 1103-4270 Vogel, T. (1996). Provided testing to failure of a 37 year old road bridge. Structural assessment: The role of large and full scale testing. .JointIStructE/City university International Seminar, City university, London, 1-3 July 1996

107

REFERENCES W.Ryan et al (2006) - W. Ryan, T; Hartle, R; Mann, E; Danovich, L. (2006). Bridge Inspecctor's Reference Manual (BIRM). U.S Department of transportation, Federal Highway Administration and National Highway Institute. Volume 1. Report No FHWA NHI 03-001. Arlington, Virginia Zamiri Akhlaghi (2009) - Zamiri Akhlaghi, F. (2009).Fatigue life assessment of welded bridge details using structural hot spot stress method. Chalmers university of technology. Gteborg.

Online references BRO 2004. VV publikation 2004:56

http://www.trafikverket.se/PageFiles/20361/bro_2004_2_lastforutsattningar.pdf [Online] (verified 2013-10-23)

BVS 583.11, Trafikverket 2013: Brighetsberkning av jrnvgsbroar

http://ida8iext.banverket.se/bvdok_extern/ViewPdfDoc.aspx?docGUID=d189e601-e9c9-4099-864a4166ed906112

[Online] (verified 2013-11-14) Cascade 2013: http://opttech.cascade.se/optisk-matteknik/produkter/matsystem/aramis [Online] (verified 2013-11-11) Kyowa: What's a strain gage? Introduction to Strain gages http://www.jor.se/measurement/res/pdf/whats.pdf [Online] (verified 2013-11-14) Loadindicator 2013: http://www.loadindicator.se/tjanster/applicering.html [Online] (verified 2013-11-14) MacroSensors: http://www.macrosensors.com/lvdt_tutorial.html [Online] (verified 2013-10-23)
108

REFERENCES Omega: http://www.omega.com/prodinfo/StrainGages.html [Online] (verified 2013-11-11) Sustainable bridges (2007) - Monitoring methods for Railway Bridges. An Integrated Research Project during 2003-2007 supported by the European Commission in the 6th Framework Program, with 32 partners from 12 countries, Contract No TIP-CT-2003-001653. Many reports and papers are listed on the homepage http://www.sustainablebridges.net [Online] (verified 2013-10-02) Swedish Standards Institute http://www.sis.se/ [Online] (verified 2013-10-23) Trilion 2013: http://trilion.com/3d-software/aramis/ [Online] (verified 2013-11-11) Unit 3 (2013) - Indira Gandhi National Open University: Unit 3 riveted joints: http://www.ignou.ac.in/upload/Unit-3-60.pdf [Online] (verified 2013-11-11)

Software ARAMIS software by GOM Catman 5.5 LinPro 2.7.5

109

APPENDIX A

APPENDIX A
Moments and shear forces along the stringer
Table 31, moments and shear forces at the joints for the simply supported case at 3000 kN load

Member Joint 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 8

V [kN] -10,44 -10,35 51,68 51,68 -225,41 524,59 -658,13 91,87 -665,74 834,26 -125,83 -125,83 33,11 33,11 -6,62 -6,62

M [kNm] 0 42,64 42,64 -170,56 -170,56 -287,01 -287,01 -358,46 -358,46 -409,78 -409,78 109,27 109,27 -27,32 -27,32 0

Table 32, moments and shear forces along member 0, simply supported, 3000 kN load

x [m] 0 0,4125 0,825 1,2375 1,65 2,0625 2,475 2,8875 3,3 3,7125 4,125

V [kN] -10,34 -10,34 -10,34 -10,34 -10,34 -10,34 -10,34 -10,34 -10,34 -10,34 -10,34

M [kNm] 0 4,26 8,53 12,79 17,06 21,32 25,58 29,85 34,11 38,38 42,64

110

APPENDIX A
Table 33, moments and shear forces along member 1, simply supported, 3000 kN load

x [m] 0 0,4125 0,825 1,2375 1,65 2,0625 2,475 2,8875 3,3 3,7125 4,125

V [kN] 51,68 51,68 51,68 51,68 51,68 51,68 51,68 51,68 51,68 51,68 51,68

M [kNm] 42,64 21,32 0,00 -21,32 -42,64 -63,96 -85,28 -106,60 -127,92 -149,24 -170,56

Table 34, moments and shear forces along member 2, simply supported, 3000 kN load

x [m] 0 0,4125 0,825 1,2375 1,65 2,0625 2,475 2,73 2,73 2,8875 3,3 3,7125 4,125

V [kN] -225,41 -225,41 -225,41 -225,41 -225,41 -225,41 -225,41 524,59 524,59 524,59 524,59 524,59 524,59

M [kNm] -170,56 -77,58 15,40 108,38 201,36 294,34 387,32 444,80 444,80 362,18 145,78 -70,61 -287,01

111

APPENDIX A
Table 35, moments and shear forces along member 3, simply supported, 3000 kN load

x [m] 0 0,41 0,41 0,4125 0,825 1,2375 1,65 2,0625 2,475 2,8875 3,3 3,7125 4,125

M [kNm] -658,13 -287,01 -658,13 -17,17 91,87 -17,17 91,87 -17,40 91,87 -55,30 91,87 -93,19 91,87 -131,09 91,87 -168,98 91,87 -206,88 91,87 -244,77 91,87 -282,67 91,87 -320,56 91,87 -358,46 V [kN]

Table 36, moments and shear forces along member 4, simply supported, 3000 kN load

x [m] 0 0,4125 0,825 1,2375 1,36 1,36 1,65 2,0625 2,475 2,8875 3,16 3,16 3,3 3,7125 4,125

V [kN] -665,74 -665,74 -665,74 -665,74 -665,74 84,26 84,26 84,26 84,26 84,26 834,26 834,26 834,26 834,26 834,26

M [kNm] -358,46 -83,84 190,78 465,40 546,95 546,95 522,52 487,76 453,00 418,24 395,28 395,28 278,49 -65,65 -409,78

112

APPENDIX A
Table 37, moments and shear forces along member 5, simply supported, 3000 kN load

x [m] 0 0,4125 0,825 1,2375 1,65 2,0625 2,475 2,8875 3,3 3,7125 4,125

V [kN] -125,83 -125,83 -125,83 -125,83 -125,83 -125,83 -125,83 -125,83 -125,83 -125,83 -125,83

M [kNm] -409,78 -357,87 -305,97 -254,06 -202,16 -150,25 -98,35 -46,44 5,46 57,37 109,27

Table 38, moments and shear forces along member 6, simply supported, 3000 kN load

x [m] 0 0,4125 0,825 1,2375 1,65 2,0625 2,475 2,8875 3,3 3,7125 4,125

V [kN] 33,1134 33,1134 33,1134 33,1134 33,1134 33,1134 33,1134 33,1134 33,1134 33,1134 33,1134

M [kNm] 109,27 95,61495 81,95567 68,29639 54,63712 40,97784 27,31856 13,65928 7,03E-06 -13,6593 -27,3185

Table 39, moments and shear forces along member 7, simply supported, 3000 kN load

x [m] 0 0,4125 0,825 1,2375 1,65 2,0625 2,475 2,8875 3,3 3,7125 4,125

V [kN] -6,62 -6,62 -6,62 -6,62 -6,62 -6,62 -6,62 -6,62 -6,62 -6,62 -6,62

M [kNm] -27,32 -24,59 -21,85 -19,12 -16,39 -13,66 -10,93 -8,20 -5,46 -2,73 0,00
113

APPENDIX A

Table 40, moments and shear forces at the joints, 3000 kN load, fixed stringers

Member Joint 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 8

V [kN] 0 0 0 199,31
-199,310389

550,69 -729,25 20,76 -664,11 836,89 0 0 0 0 0 0

M [kNm] 0 0 0 -234,17 234,17 -458,26 -249,42 -27,53 -587,00 -650,15 0 0 0 0 0 0

Table 41, moments and shear forces along member 0,1, 5, 6 and 7 for 3000 kN load, fixed stringers

x [m] 0 0,4125 0,825 1,2375 1,65 2,0625 2,475 2,8875 3,3 3,7125 4,125

V [kN] 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

M [kNm] 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

114

APPENDIX A
Table 42, moments and shear forces along member 2, fixed stringers 3000 kN load

x [m] 0 0,4125 0,825 1,2375 1,65 2,0625 2,475 2,73 2,73 2,8875 3,3 3,7125 4,125

V [kN] -199,31 -199,31 -199,31 -199,31 -199,31 -199,31 -199,31 550,69 550,69 550,69 550,69 550,69 550,69

M [kNm] 234,17 -151,95 -69,74 12,48 94,70 176,91 259,13 309,95 309,95 223,22 -3,94 -231,10 -458,26

Table 43, moments and shear forces along member 3, 3000 kN load, fixed stringer

x [m] 0 0,41 0,41 0,4125 0,825 1,2375 1,65 2,0625 2,475 2,8875 3,3 3,7125 4,125

M [kNm] -729,24 -249,41 20,76 49,58 20,76 49,58 20,76 49,53 20,76 40,97 20,76 32,40 20,76 23,84 20,76 15,28 20,76 6,72 20,76 -1,84 20,76 -10,40 20,76 -18,96 20,76 -27,53 V [kN]

115

APPENDIX A
Table 44, moments and shear forces along member 4, 3000 kN load, fixed stringer

x [m] 0 0,4125 0,825 1,2375 1,36 1,36 1,65 2,0625 2,475 2,8875 3,16 3,16 3,3 3,7125 4,125

V [kN] -663,11 -663,11 -663,11 -663,11 86,89 86,89 86,89 86,89 86,89 86,89 836,89 836,89 836,89 836,89 836,89

M [kNm] -588 -314,46 -40,93 232,61 313,84 313,84 288,64 252,80 216,96 181,12 157,45 157,45 40,28 -304,93 -650,15

Table 45, moments and reaction forces in the joints for the simpy supported case, 3400 kN load

Member Joint 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 8

V [kN] -11,03 -11,03 55,13 55,13 -240,43 559,57 -702,01 98,00 -710,12 889,88 -143,22 -143,22 35,32 35,32 -7,06 -7,06

M [kNm] 0,00 45,48 45,48 -181,93 -181,93 -306,14 -309,14 -382,35 -382,35 -437,10 -437,10 116,56 116,56 -29,14 -29,14 0,00

116

APPENDIX A
Table 46, moments and shear forces along member 0, 3400 kN load, simply supported

x [m] 0 0,4125 0,825 1,2375 1,65 2,0625 2,475 2,8875 3,3 3,7125 4,125

V [kN] -11,03 -11,03 -11,03 -11,03 -11,03 -11,03 -11,03 -11,03 -11,03 -11,03 -11,03

M [kNm] 0 4,55 9,10 13,64 18,19 22,74 27,29 31,84 36,39 40,93 45,48

Table 47, moments and shear forces along member 1, 3400 kN load, simply supported

x [m] 0 0,4125 0,825 1,2375 1,65 2,0625 2,475 2,8875 3,3 3,7125 4,125

V [kN] 55,13 55,13 55,13 55,13 55,13 55,13 55,13 55,13 55,13 55,13 55,13

M [kNm] 45,48 22,74 0,00 -22,74 -45,48 -68,22 -90,96 -113,70 -136,45 -159,19 -181,93

117

APPENDIX A
Table 48, moments and shear forces along member 2, 3400 kN load, simply supported

x [m] 0 0,4125 0,825 1,2375 1,65 2,0625 2,475 2,73 2,73 2,8875 3,3 3,7125 4,125

V [kN] -240,43 -240,43 -240,43 -240,43 -240,43 -240,43 -240,43 559,57 559,57 559,57 559,57 559,57 559,57

M [kNm] -181,93 -82,75 16,43 115,61 214,79 313,97 413,15 474,46 474,46 386,32 155,50 -75,32 -306,14

Table 49, moments and shear forces along member 3, 3400 kN load, simply supported

x [m] 0 0,41 0,41 0,4125 0,825 1,2375 1,65 2,0625 2,475 2,8875 3,3 3,7125 4,125

M [kNm] -702,01 -306,14 97,99 -18,32 97,99 -18,32 97,99 -18,56 97,99 -58,98 97,99 -99,40 97,99 -139,82 97,99 -180,25 97,99 -220,67 97,99 -261,09 97,99 -301,51 97,99 -341,93 97,99 -382,35 V [kN]

118

APPENDIX A
Table 50, moments and shear forces along member 4, 3400 kN load, simply supported

x [m] 0 0,4125 0,825 1,2375 1,36 1,36 1,65 2,0625 2,475 2,8875 3,16 3,16 3,3 3,7125 4,125

V [kN] -710,12 -710,12 -710,12 -710,12 -710,12 89,88 89,88 89,88 89,88 89,88 889,88 889,88 889,88 889,88 889,88

M [kNm] -382,35 -89,43 203,50 496,42 583,41 583,41 557,35 520,28 483,20 446,13 421,63 421,63 297,05 -70,02 -437,10

Table 51, moments and shear forces along member 5, 3400 kN load, simply supported

x [m] 0 0,4125 0,825 1,2375 1,65 2,0625 2,475 2,8875 3,3 3,7125 4,125

V [kN] -134,22 -134,22 -134,22 -134,22 -134,22 -134,22 -134,22 -134,22 -134,22 -134,22 -134,22

M [kNm] -437,10 -381,73 -326,37 -271,00 -215,63 -160,27 -104,90 -49,54 5,83 61,19 116,56

119

APPENDIX A
Table 52, moments and shear forces along member 6, 3400 kN load, simply supported

x [m] 0 0,4125 0,825 1,2375 1,65 2,0625 2,475 2,8875 3,3 3,7125 4,125

V [kN] 35,32 35,32 35,32 35,32 35,32 35,32 35,32 35,32 35,32 35,32 35,32

M [kNm] 116,56 101,99 87,42 72,85 58,28 43,71 29,14 14,57 0,00 -14,57 -29,14

Table 53, moments and shear forces along member 7, simply supported, 3400 kN load

x [m] 0 0,4125 0,825 1,2375 1,65 2,0625 2,475 2,8875 3,3 3,7125 4,125

V [kN] -7,06 -7,06 -7,06 -7,06 -7,06 -7,06 -7,06 -7,06 -7,06 -7,06 -7,06

M [kNm] -29,14 -26,23 -23,31 -20,40 -17,48 -14,57 -11,66 -8,74 -5,83 -2,91 0,00

Member Joint 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 5

V [kN] 0 0 0 0 -212,60 587,40 -777,86 22,14 -707,32 892,68 0

M [kNm] 0 0 0 0 -249,78 -488,81 -266,04 -29,36 -627,20 -693,49 0

120

APPENDIX A 5 6 6 7 7 6 6 7 7 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Table 54, moments and shear forces along members 0,1,5,6, and 7 for 3400 kN load, fixed stringers

x [m] 0 0,4125 0,825 1,2375 1,65 2,0625 2,475 2,8875 3,3 3,7125 4,125

V [kN] 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

M [kNm] 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Table 55, moments and shear forces along member 2, 3400 kN load, fixed stringers

x [m] 0 0,4125 0,825 1,2375 1,65 2,0625 2,475 2,73 2,73 2,8875 3,3 3,7125 4,125

V [kN] -212,60 -212,60 -212,60 -212,60 -212,60 -212,60 -212,60 587,40 587,40 587,40 587,40 587,40 587,40

M [kNm] -249,78 -162,08 -74,38 13,31 101,01 188,71 276,40 330,61 330,61 238,10 -4,20 -246,51 -488,81

121

APPENDIX A
Table 56, moments and shear forces along member 3, 3400 kN load, fixed stringers

x [m] 0 0,41 0,41 0,4125 0,825 1,2375 1,65 2,0625 2,475 2,8875 3,3 3,7125 4,125

M [kNm] -777,86 -266,04 22,14 52,89 22,14 52,89 22,14 52,83 22,14 43,70 22,14 34,57 22,14 25,43 22,14 16,30 22,14 7,17 22,14 -1,96 22,14 -11,10 22,14 -20,23 22,14 -29,36 V [kN]

Table 57, moments and shear forces along member 4, 3400 kN load, fixed stringers

x [m] 0 0,4125 0,825 1,2375 1,36 1,36 1,65 2,0625 2,475 2,8875 3,16 3,16 3,3 3,7125 4,125

V [kN] -707,32 -707,32 -707,32 -707,32 92,68 92,68 92,68 92,68 92,68 92,68 892,68 892,68 892,68 892,68 892,68

M [kNm] -627,2 -335,43 -43,66 248,11 334,76 334,76 307,89 269,66 231,43 193,20 167,94 167,94 42,97 -325,26 -693,49

122

APPENDIX B

APPENDIX B
Plots from ARAMIS

Figure 107, position of point A

Figure 108, position of point B

Figure 109, position of point C

123

APPENDIX B

Figure 110, displacement in x-direction for point A

Figure 111, displacement in x-direction for point B

124

APPENDIX B

Figure 112, displacement in x-direction for point C

Figure 113, displacement in y-direction for point A

125

APPENDIX B

Figure 114, displacement in y-direction for point B

Figure 115, displacement in y-direction for point C

126

APPENDIX B

Figure 116, displacement in z-direction for point A

Figure 117, displacement in z-direction for point B

127

APPENDIX B

Figure 118, displacement in z-direction for point C

128

APPENDIX B

Figure 119, position of point D

Figure 120, position of point E

129

APPENDIX B

Figure 121, position of point F

Figure 122, displacement in x-direction for point D

130

APPENDIX B

Figure 123, displacement in x-direction for point E

131

APPENDIX B

Figure 124, displacement in x-direction for point F

Figure 125, displacement in y-direction for point D

132

APPENDIX B

Figure 126, displacement in y-direction for point E

Figure 127, displacement in y-direction for point F

133

APPENDIX B

Figure 128, displacement in z-direction for point D

Figure 129, displacement in z-direction for point E

134

APPENDIX B

Figure 130, displacement in z-direction for point F

135

APPENDIX B

Figure 131, position of point G

Figure 132, position of point H

Figure 133, position of point I

136

APPENDIX B

Figure 134, displacement in x-direction for point G

Figure 135, displacement in x-direction for point H

137

APPENDIX B

Figure 136, displacement in x-direction for point I

138

APPENDIX B

Figure 137, displacement in y-direction for point G

Figure 138, displacement in y-direction for point H

139

APPENDIX B

Figure 139, displacement in y-direction for point I

Figure 140, displacement in z-direction for point G

140

APPENDIX B

Figure 141, displacement in z-direction for point H

Figure 142, displacement in z-direction for point I

141

APPENDIX B

Figure 143, position of point J

Figure 144, position of point K

Figure 145, position of point L

142

APPENDIX B

Figure 146, displacement in x-direction for point J

Figure 147, displacement in x-direction for point K

143

APPENDIX B

Figure 148, displacement in x-direction for point L

Figure 149, displacement in y-direction for point J

144

APPENDIX B

Figure 150, displacement in y-direction for point K

Figure 151, displacement in y-direction for point L

145

APPENDIX B

Figure 152, displacement in z-direction for point J

Figure 153, displacement in z-direction for point K

146

APPENDIX B

Figure 154, displacement in z-direction for point L

Figure 155, Position of point M

147

APPENDIX B

Figure 156, position of point N

Figure 157, position of point O

148

APPENDIX B

Figure 158, displacement in x-direction for point M

Figure 159, displacement in x-direction for point N

149

APPENDIX B

Figure 160, displacement in x-direction for point O

Figure 161, displacement in y-direction for point M

150

APPENDIX B

Figure 162, displacement in y-direction for point N

Figure 163, displacement in y-direction for point O

151

APPENDIX B

Figure 164, displacement in z-direction for point M

Figure 165, displacement in z-direction for point N

152

APPENDIX B

Figure 166, displacement in z-direction for point O

153

APPENDIX B

Figure 167, position of point P

Figure 168, position of point Q

Figure 169, position of point R

154

APPENDIX B

Figure 170, displacement in x-direction for point P

Figure 171, displacement in x-direction for point Q

155

APPENDIX B

Figure 172, displacement in x-direction for point R

Figure 173, displacement in y-direction for point P

156

APPENDIX B

Figure 174, displacement in y-direction for point Q

Figure 175, displacement in y-direction for point O

157

APPENDIX B

Figure 176, displacement in z-direction for point P

Figure 177, displacement in z-direction for point Q

158

APPENDIX B

Figure 178, displacement in z-direction for point R

159

APPENDIX B

Figure 179, position of point S

Figure 180, position of point T

Figure 181, position of point U

160

APPENDIX B

Figure 182, displacement in x-direction for point S

Figure 183, displacement in s-direction for point T

161

APPENDIX B

Figure 184, displacement in x-direction for point U

162

APPENDIX B

Figure 185, displacement in y-direction for point S

Figure 186, displacement in y-direction for point T

163

APPENDIX B

Figure 187, displacement in y-direction for point U

Figure 188, displacement in z-direction for point S

164

APPENDIX B

Figure 189, displacement in z-direction for point T

Figure 190, displacement in z-direction for point U

165

APPENDIX B

Figure 191, position of point A2

Figure 192, position of point B2

Figure 193, position of point C2

166

APPENDIX B

Figure 194, displacement in x-direction for point A2

Figure 195, displacement in x-direction for point B2

167

APPENDIX B

Figure 196, displacement in x-direction for point C2

Figure 197, displacement in y-direction for point A2

168

APPENDIX B

Figure 198, displacement in y-direction for point B2

Figure 199, displacement in y-direction for point C2

169

APPENDIX B

Figure 200, displacement in z-direction for point A2

Figure 201, displacement in z-direction for point B2

170

APPENDIX B

Figure 202, displacement in z-direction for point C2

171

APPENDIX B

Figure 203, position of point D2

Figure 204, position of point E2

Figure 205, position of point F2

172

APPENDIX B

Figure 206, displacement in x-direction for point D2

Figure 207, displacement in x-direction for point E2

173

APPENDIX B

Figure 208, displacement in x-direction for point F2

Figure 209, displacement in y-direction for point D2

174

APPENDIX B

Figure 210, displacement in y-direction for point E2

Figure 211, displacement in y-direction for point F2

175

APPENDIX B

Figure 212, displacement in z-direction for point D2

Figure 213, displacement in z-direction for point E2

176

APPENDIX B

Figure 214, displacement in z-direction for point F2

Figure 215, position of point G2

177

APPENDIX B

Figure 216, position of point H2

Figure 217, position of point I2

178

APPENDIX B

Figure 218, displacement in x-direction for point G2

Figure 219, displacement in x-direction for point H2

179

APPENDIX B

Figure 220, displacement in x-direction for point I2

Figure 221, displacement in y-direction for point G2

180

APPENDIX B

Figure 222, displacement in y-direction for point H2

Figure 223, displacement in y-direction for point I2

181

APPENDIX B

Figure 224, displacement in z-direction for point G2

Figure 225, displacement in z-direction for point H2

182

APPENDIX B

Figure 226, displacement in z-direction for point I2

Figure 227, position of point J2

183

APPENDIX B

Figure 228, position of point K2

Figure 229, position of point L2

184

APPENDIX B

Figure 230, , displacement in x-direction for point J2

Figure 231, displacement in x-direction for point K2

185

APPENDIX B

Figure 232, displacement in x-direction for point L2

Figure 233, displacement in y-direction for point J2

186

APPENDIX B

Figure 234, displacement in y-direction for point K2

Figure 235, displacement in y-direction for point L2

187

APPENDIX B

Figure 236, displacement in z-direction for point J2

Figure 237, displacement in z-direction for point K2

188

APPENDIX B

Figure 238, displacement in z-direction for point L2

Figure 239, position of point M2

189

APPENDIX B

Figure 240, position of point N2

Figure 241, position of point O2

190

APPENDIX B

Figure 242, displacement in x-direction for point M2

Figure 243, displacement in x-direction for point N2

191

APPENDIX B

Figure 244, displacement in x-direction for point O2

Figure 245, displacement in y-direction for point M2

192

APPENDIX B

Figure 246, displacement in y-direction for point N2

Figure 247, displacement in y-direction for point O2

193

APPENDIX B

Figure 248, displacement in z-direction for point M2

Figure 249, displacement in z-direction for point N2

194

APPENDIX B

Figure 250, displacement in z-direction for point O2

Figure 251, position of point P2

195

APPENDIX B

Figure 252, position of point Q2

Figure 253, position of point R2

196

APPENDIX B

Figure 254, displacement in x-direction for point P2

Figure 255, displacement in x-direction for point Q2

197

APPENDIX B

Figure 256, displacement in x-direction for point R2

Figure 257, displacement in y-direction for point P2

198

APPENDIX B

Figure 258, displacement in y-direction for point Q2

Figure 259, displacement in y-direction for point R2

199

APPENDIX B

Figure 260, displacement in z-direction for point P2

Figure 261, displacement in z-direction for point Q2

200

APPENDIX B

Figure 262, displacement in z-direction for point R2

Figure 263, position of point S2

201

APPENDIX B

Figure 264, position of point T2

Figure 265, position of point U2

202

APPENDIX B

Figure 266, displacement in x-direction for point S2

Figure 267, displacement in x-direction for point T2

203

APPENDIX B

Figure 268, displacement in x-direction for point U2

Figure 269, displacement in y-direction for point S2

204

APPENDIX B

Figure 270, displacement in y-direction for point T2

Figure 271, displacement in y-direction for point U2

205

APPENDIX B

Figure 272, displacement in z-direction for point S2

Figure 273, displacement in z-direction for point T2

206

APPENDIX B

Figure 274, position of point V2

Figure 275, position of point W2

Figure 276, position of point X2

207

APPENDIX B

Figure 277, displacement in x-direction for point V2

Figure 278, displacement in x-direction for point W2

208

APPENDIX B

Figure 279, displacement in x-direction for point X2

Figure 280, displacement in y-direction for point V2

209

APPENDIX B

Figure 281, displacement in y-direction for point W2

Figure 282, displacement in y-direction for point X2

210

APPENDIX B

Figure 283, displacement in z-direction for point V2

Figure 284, displacement in y-direction for point W2

211

APPENDIX B

Figure 285, displacement in y-direction for point X2

212

APPENDIX B

Figure 286, major strain for point B

Figure 287, major strain for point D

213

APPENDIX B

Figure 288, major strain for point E

Figure 289, major strain for point F

214

APPENDIX B

Figure 290, major strain for point G

Figure 291, major strain for point H

215

APPENDIX B

Figure 292, major strain for point I

Figure 293, major strain for point M

216

APPENDIX B

Figure 294, major strain for point N

Figure 295, major strain for point O

217

APPENDIX B

Figure 296, major strain for point P

Figure 297, major strain for point Q

218

APPENDIX B

Figure 298, major strain for point R

219

APPENDIX B

Figure 299, major strain for point S

Figure 300, major strain for point T

220

APPENDIX B

Figure 301, major strain for point U

Figure 302, major strain for point A2

221

APPENDIX B

Figure 303, major strain for point B2

Figure 304, major strain for point C2

222

APPENDIX B

Figure 305, major strain for point D2

Figure 306, major strain for point E2

223

APPENDIX B

Figure 307, major strain for point F2

Figure 308, major strain for point G2

224

APPENDIX B

Figure 309, major strain for point H2

Figure 310, major strain for point I2

225

APPENDIX B

Figure 311, major strain for point J2

Figure 312, major strain for point K2

226

APPENDIX B

Figure 313, major strain for point L2

Figure 314, major strain for point M2

227

APPENDIX B

Figure 315, major strain for point N2

Figure 316, major strain for point O2

228

APPENDIX B

Figure 317, major strain for point P2

Figure 318, major strain for point Q2

229

APPENDIX B

Figure 319, major strain for point R2

Figure 320, major strain for point S2

230

APPENDIX B

Figure 321, major strain for point T2

Figure 322, major strain for point U2

231

APPENDIX B

Figure 323, major strain for point V2

Figure 324, major strain for point W2

232

APPENDIX B

Figure 325, major strain for point X2

233

CONTENTS

APPENDIX C
Plots fromLVDTs and strain gauges

Figure 326, LM1, LM2 100 ton loading

Figure 327, LMs1 100 ton

APPENDIX B

Figure 328, LTM1, 100 ton

Figure 329, LFFL1-1-4 ton ton load

235

APPENDIX B

Figure 330, LM1, LM2 132 ton

Figure 331, LMs1 132 ton

236

APPENDIX B

Figure 332, LTM1, 132 ton

Figure 333, LFFL1-1-4 132 ton

237

APPENDIX B

Figure 334, LM1, LM2, 160 ton

Figure 335, LMs1 160 ton

238

APPENDIX B

Figure 336, LTM1 160 ton

Figure 337, LFFL1-1-4, 160 ton

239

APPENDIX B

Figure 338, LM1, LM2, LTM1 and LMs1, 180 ton

Figure 339, LFFL1-1-4 180 ton

240

APPENDIX B

Figure 340, LM1 and LM2 load scenario 1

Figure 341, LMs1, load scenario 1

241

APPENDIX B

Figure 342, LTM1, load scenario 1

Figure 343, LFFL1-1-4, load scenario 1

242

APPENDIX B

Figure 344 , LM1, LM2, load scnario 2

Figure 345, LMs1 load scenario 2

243

APPENDIX B

Figure 346, LTM1, load scenario 2

Figure 347, LFFL1,1-4, load scenario 2

244

APPENDIX B

Figure 348, LM1, LM2 load scenario 3

Figure 349, LMs1, LTM1 load scenario 3

245

APPENDIX B

Figure 350, LFFL1-1-4 load scenario 3

Figure 351, LM1, LM2 load scenario 5

246

APPENDIX B

Figure 352, LMs1, LTM1 load scenario 5

Figure 353, LFFL1-1-4 load scenario 5

247

APPENDIX B

Figure 354, LM1, LM2 load scenario 6

Figure 355, LMs1, LTM1 load scenario 6

248

APPENDIX B

Figure 356, LFFL1-1-4 load scenario 6

Figure 357, LM1, LM2 load scenario 7

249

APPENDIX B

Figure 358, LMs1, LTM1 load scenario 7

Figure 359, LFFL1-1-4, load scenario 7

250

APPENDIX B

Figure 360, LM1, Lm2 load scenario 8

Figure 361, LMs1, LTM1 load scenario 8

251

APPENDIX B

Figure 362, LFFL1-1-4 load scenario 8

Figure 363, TLK gauges 100 ton load

252

APPENDIX B

Figure 364, TLK gauges 132 ton load

Figure 365, TLK gauges 160 ton load

253

APPENDIX B

Figure 366, TLK gauges 180 ton load

Figure 367, TUM gauges 100 ton load

254

APPENDIX B

Figure 368, TUM-gauges 132 ton load

Figure 369, TUM-gauges 160 ton load

255

APPENDIX B

Figure 370, TUM-gauges 180 ton load

Figure 371, TUM-gauges load scenario 1

256

APPENDIX B

Figure 372, TUM-gauges, load scenario 2

Figure 373, TUM-gauges load scenario 3

257

APPENDIX B

Figure 374, TUM-gauges load scenario 4

Figure 375, TUM-gauges load scenario 5

258

APPENDIX B

Figure 376, TUM-gauges load scenario 6

Figure 377, TUM-gauges load scenario 7

259

APPENDIX B

Figure 378, TUM-gauges load scenario 8

Figure 379, TB-gauge, 3000 kN load

260

APPENDIX B

Figure 380, TB1 3200 kN load

261