AN2106/3106:03 ANTHROPOLOGY OF VIOLENCE Week 2 A History of Anthropological Theories (focus on Melanesia) By Rosi !

He"#y

W!#$!#e

Collective armed conflict between putative autonomous political groups

*

(Knauft 1990: 251

P#e%&o'o"i!' W!#$!#e

!arfare was common" if not endemic" in at least parts of #elanesia at t$e time t$ese regions were first regularl% contacted b% &uropeans'

* (n most areas of #elanesia t$ere was significant demarcation between enem%

groups and allied groups'

* *

)$ere was great variation in t$e form t$at violence too*'

Co()#e*e"+i", -io'e"&e +w$at was cowardl% and savage to &uropeans was to #elanesians bot$ cosmologicall% and strategicall% rational , ma-imising t$e p$%sical and emotional cost to one.s enem%" asserting a sense of utter domination" disregard" and cultural/cosmological superiorit%" minimising t$e cost to one.s own side
*

Knauft (1990:250

P#e%Co'o"i!' W!#$!#e

1ome e-planations for pre2colonial collective violence: * is functional in t$e establis$ment and maintenance of social order * results w$en t$ere is an absence of 3cross2cutting ties." 3t$ird2part% aut$orities. (or ot$er peaceful means to resolve dispute * is a response to ecological pressures (eg land s$ortage" population densit%4 protein scarcit% * is integral to particular *inds of social structure (eg patrilineal segmentar% lineages * is caused b% particular leaders$ip t%pes (eg bigmans$ip * is generated b% particular cultural beliefs and practices" social constructions of person$ood4 gender constructs etc'

Knauft" 5ruce 1999' !arfare and $istor% in #elanesia' (n From Primitive to Postcolonial in Melanesia and Anthropology. 6nn 6rbor: 7niversit% of #ic$igan 8ress

F."& io"!'is !))#o!&*

(ndigenous warfare is:

* rational and purposeful * not ver% disruptive * about t$e integration of societ% * about dispute management

(n t$e past" and probabl% for good reasons" including t$e protection of $uman sub9ects" we downpla%ed t$e violence" cruelt%" and un$appiness e-isting in t$e areas w$ere we wor*ed' :ne reason ma% $ave been t$e belief t$at suc$ actions were momentar% departures for cultural norms t$at generated longterm $armon%" but w$atever t$e reason" b% doing so we falsified t$e record
*

&li;abet$ Colson (1909:<

F."& io"!'is A))#o!&*

* * *

Collective violence was ta*en as functional in t$e establis$ment and maintenance of social order =eit$er indigenous violence nor t$at of t$e colonial encounter were critici;ed or assessed as being blood% =eit$er indigenous violence nor t$at of t$e colonial encounter were viewed as $aving muc$ impact or legac% in t$e et$nograp$ic present

T*e Pe!&e i" *e Fe.+

)$e =uer

* 6utonomous tribal segments are in complementary opposition * 5alanced opposition is maintained t$roug$ t$e institution if t$e feud * >eud maintains t$e structural e?uilibrium between tribal segments'

* >eud is not a sign of t$e brea*down of societ%" but a political institution' * >eud is an approved and regulated mode of be$aviour between communities wit$in
a tribe' W!#$!#e !"+ /o&i!' / #.& .#e

(t $as been argued t$at patri2clans$ip and intense warfare are closel% lin*ed

* #ae &nga: locali;ed groups of related males are prone to feuding and t$e pursuit of
warfare against ot$er suc$ groups
*

#eggitt" #' 19@@ Blood is their Argument: Warfare among the Mae Enga Tribesmen of the e! "uinea #ighlands' 8alo 6lto" C6: #a%field

Cross2Cutting ties * 7terine ties (ties to maternal *in * Co2residence * Aluc*man (195B argued t$at people in most societies are enmes$ed in networ*s of conflicting lo%alties

/o&i!' / #.& .#e !"+ E&o'o,y

* *

!$at social formations entail warfare as an integral part of social structureC Does warfare occur as a c$ronic response to ecological pressures suc$ as land or protein s$ortageC * #eggitt" #' 19@@' Blood is their Argument
* *

6gnatic clans$ip and warfare lin*ed' Eand pressure and warfare lin*ed

E&o'o,i&!' A))#o!&*

6ttempts to lin* collective violence to ecological factors

* &g Fappaport" Fo% 19B0' Pigs for the Ancestors: $itual in the Ecology of a e!
"uinea People. =ew Gaven: Hale univesrit% 8ress' * #aring warfare was a part of an encompassing ecological c%cle t$roug$ w$ic$ conflict was managed and t$e population (people and pigs was *ept below t$e carr%ing capacit% of t$e land'

* !arfare was lin*ed to t$e #aring ritual c%cle (%ai%o W!#$!#e !"+ E&o'o,y

!arfare , part of a self2regulating ecological s%stem * #aring warfare

*

part of a $omeostatic c%cle t$at articulated subsistence activit% and demograp$% wit$ spiritual beliefs and ritual be$aviour )$is c%cle *ept t$e #aring biotic environment intact

* #aring warfare
* * *

>acilitated demograp$ic movement 6d9usted people/land ratios Iia spiritual beliefs" alternated t$e build2up of pig $erds wit$ slaug$ter for pig feasts

1tudies on ecolog% and warfare in #elanesia" demonstrate t$at t$e e-istence and/or intensit% of warfare in pre2state societies cannot be predicted as a lineal function of population densit%" population pressure" or protein scarcit%' * +perceptions of scarcit%+determined t$eir relations$ip to t$e land no less significantl% t$an did topograp$%" t$e pattern of rainfall" or t$e range of indigenous plants' )$at is to sa%" ideas are also causall% efficient components of ecos%stems+ (#eggitt 19@@@:10<

W!#$!#e !"+ Le!+e#s*i) Ty)es

!arfare is caused b% big2men w$o struggle to maintain t$eir unstable leaders$ip b% inducing t$eir fellows to fig$t wars w$ic$ will wea*en t$eir rivals. communities and so diminis$ treats to t$eir $egemon% (1illitoe 19@0:252 * Gowever" big2men ma% also demonstrate t$eir strengt$ b% stopping fig$ts * 1trat$ern (19@1:@5200 documents $ow #t Gagen bigmen $ave a strong inclination to be conciliator% and to engage in e-c$ange as well as in aggressive action'
* *

1tat$ern" 6' 19@1 The $ope of Mo%a 1illitoe" 8' 19@0 5ig men and t$e war in =ew Auinea' Man 1<: 2522@1

Psy&*o'o,i&!' A))#o!&*es

8s%c$ological dimensions of #elanesian warfare

* 6ggressive masculine se-2role identit% * 1e-ual antagonism against women

* #an% accounts of warfare suggest armed conflict was initiated not so muc$ from a positive drive to see* prestige but from fear of attac*
*

8re2emptive raids

* The &ambia
* &t$nops%c$olog% and masculine aggression W!#$!#e !"+ C.' .#e

!arfare lin*ed to particular cultural wa%s of constructing person$ood" in particular gendered person$ood

* Gerdt argues t$at warfare among t$e 1ambia ultimatel% rests on t$e desires of men
to dominate women * 31e-ual politics. lies at t$e core of 1ambia collective violence
*

Gerdt" Ailbert 190@' The &ambia: $itual and "ender in Hor*: Golt" Fine$art and !inston

e! "uinea. =ew

1ambia male essence 2 'erungdi * a life2force substance containing masculine ?ualities of bodil% and spiritual strengt$'

/e0.!' A" !,o"is(

#ale2female interactions are c$aractered b% opposition and fear

* #en.s fear of being polluted b% women

* #arr%ing women from potential enem% $amlets * #arr%ing strangers as pawns in a political tug2of2war between groups * Eong separation of t$e se-es during development Co''e& i-e Vio'e"&e !"+ H.(!" N! .#e

)wo views:

* Gumans b% nature are essentiall% violent and competitive in t$e natural state
* (eg' see Gobbes 2 (eviathan (1001 3'''3t$e life of man JisK solitar%" poore" nast%" brutis$" and s$ort. wit$out civili;ation (state control

* Gumans b% nature are essentiall% peaceful and cooperative'

* 3primitive. peoples" living in a pure state of nature" are peaceful" free of stress and aggression4 it is civilisation t$at $as corrupted us * (eg' Fousseau and #ar- ' Lean Lac?ues Fousseau (1@1221@@0

* * *

>renc$ political p$ilosop$er w$ose ideas were $ig$l% influential in t$e >renc$ Fevolution (1@09 ' Fousseau.s famous ma-im (sic : #an is born free and ever%w$ere $e is in c$ains reveals a ver% different sentiment to Gobbes. view of natural $umanit%' Fousseau argued t$at basic $uman nature is good" generous and cooperative" but in t$e conditions of ine?ualit% and e-ploitation" $uman nature becomes perverted and greed%'

W!#$!#e !"+ A,,#essio" i" 1e'!"esi!

Garrison" 1imon (199< The Mas% of War. #anc$ester: #anc$ester 7niversit% 8ress'

* 38eacefulness and aggression are not properties of t$e collective temperament of a

people" but of social relations and social processes'''6ggression is a relation" not an essence. (p'1M

* 3violence is one of a range of s%mbolic practices b% means of w$ic$ groups act to

constitute t$emselves wit$in t$e s%stem of relations$ips encompassing t$em. (p'1M

* 3)$e creation of social distance appears to be a basic preoccupation of #elanesian

political life'. (p'1B '

* 3(n #elanesia it is not so muc$ groups t$at ma*e war" but war t$at ma*es groups.
(p'10 T*e 1!"!(2. o$ A-! i) 3/e)ik Ri-e#4 PNG5

)$e communit% of 6vatip is made up of an association of members of different descent groups/clans'

* )$e male initiation cult stresses t$e value of communit% association over t$e lines
of descent' * )$e male initiation cult is preoccupied wit$ war ma*ing and wit$ fostering aggression in men' * 5ecause people are seen as in$erentl% sociable" men $ave to be made aggressive t$roug$ cultural means' * )$e abilit% to *ill $as to be imparted b% magic and ritual' Co((."i y o$ A-! i)

* * * * * * * * *

1<00 people 1B e-ogamous sub2clans Clans are totemic and lin* to totemic animals )otemic clans form t$e basis of $ereditar% trade partners$ips t$roug$out t$e region )$e communit% divides into two e-ogamous units (moieties t$at e-c$ange marriage partners 6vatip is endogamous

Co((."i y !,!i"s C'!"s*i) >or t$e #anambu" t$e communit% of 6vatip is somet$ing t$at must be forged from t$e mass of social relations in t$e 1epi* region' )$ese relations relate to t$e totemic clans and to t$e traditional trade lin*s e-isting between members of t$e same clan' Critical to t$ese bonds t$at e-ist between t$e members of 6vatip and t$eir fellow clan members in t$e broader region is a sense of empat$% and fellow feeling t$at underlies a sense of obligation and $ospitalit%'

E()! *y 6 P!&i$is(

* *

>or t$e #anambu" t$e natural state of being is to be empat$etic about t$e condition and circumstances of ot$ers' 1uc$ empat$% results in c$aritable $ospitalit% and absence of desire to *ill or $arm'

* * * *

>or t$e #anambu" t$erefore" people are essentiall% *ind and not warli*e'

1!"!(2. I" e#"!' 6 E0 e#"!' /e'$ Ma!ul N 3understanding. 3empat$%. )aiyi% N 3spirit. )$e analog% is to a tree trun* $ollowed out as a canoe' )$e soft inner pit$ of t$e log is ma!ul" t$e $ard outer edge is %aiyi%.

1!"!(2. T*eo#y o$ C*i'+*oo+

* *

6 c$ild $as ill2developed ma!ul and t$us an inabilit% to recognise social relations and social obligations' 6s a c$ild grows and learns to respect its elders" it is ac?uiring t$e capacit% to $ear t$em" w$ic$ is t$e development of ma!ul'

/)i#i 7 *e I(!,e o$ /e'$

* * *

)aiyi%" w$ic$ Garrison glosses as spirit" self2image" double or soul refers to t$e life force and individualit% of a person Counters ma!ul and drives t$e development of self2autonom%' )$riving" it leads to a strong sense of self2assertion ( %a*a! w$ic$" applied to a man" refers to courage and t$e abilit% to cut one.s own pat$s in t$e bus$

I"i i! io"

* *

(nitiation of men into t$e grades of t$e men.s $unting cult is viewed as t$e stead% development of men.s spirits to increase t$eir potenc%' 6 man $ig$ in %aiyi% stands above t$e lines of *ins$ip and recognises onl% t$e categories of spirit appropriate to t$e levels of t$e $unting lodge'

W!# 1!,i&

* *

!$en a raid too* place against an enem% village" a simbu% J$ereditar% war magicianK would go wit$ t$e part%' )$e magician would c$ew some bespelled pieces of ginger and lemon" step into t$e enem% $amlet and spra% t$e mi-ture from $is mout$'

* * * *

)$is magic would paral%se and stupef% t$e enem%" ma*ing t$em eas% to *ill'

Akar Lust before t$e fig$ters would attac*" t$e magician would bespell t$em wit$ t$e most powerful of all forms of 6vatip war magic' Ge would give t$em eac$ a bespelled leaf of a variet% of croton called a%ar" w$ic$ t$e% placed on t$eir tongues' )$is magic could onl% be administered after t$e men were well awa% from 6vatip because" once bespelled" t$e% became capable of *illing an%one" even t$eir own wives and c$ildren'

W!# 1!,i& !s *e /.))#essio" o$ Mawul *#o.,* *e !,e"&y o$ Kaiyik

)$e special war magic is about turning men w$o $ave cultivated t$eir sense of individual autonom% (%aiyi% into dispassionate and cold2blooded *illers w$o become deaf to t$e entreaties of ot$ers and capable of *illing an%one' (n t$eir terms" t$ese people $ave become non2$uman'

* *

T#!"s$o#(! io" o$ *e /e'$ Faids re?uired special magic" w$ic$ placed t$e fig$ters in a trance li*e state and e-cused t$em of accountabilit% for t$eir actions'

* )$e outward sign of t$is transformation was self2decoration'

* 3)o fig$t" men must mas* t$emselves be$ind a collective identit% and transmute t$emselves b% means of self2decoration" from distinct persons into depersonalised refractions of a group. (Garrison 199<:0B ' * #en $ad to be made $omicidal via t$e male cult and initiation rites' Fo#,i", Co((."i y *#o.,* Vio'e"&e

Communit% would never e-ist were it not forged from $uman societ% t$roug$ t$e agenc% of violence w$ic$ see*s to suppress in brutal and blood% wa%s t$e lin*s people feel to ot$er people" especiall% t$eir fellow clan members' 1ociet% is founded in $uman violence and in t$e suppression of $uman nature'

Peo)'e *!-e o 2e made !,,#essi-e

(n contrast to t$e Gobbsian view" #elanesian societies conceive of t$e person as fundamentall% and inherently sociable'

* Conflict arises not because individuals are self2interested beings t$at re?uire
control" but because t$e% are lin*ed from birt$ in inescapable relations of obligation and dependenc%' * )$e ?uestion is not $ow to ma*e in$erentl% violent individuals into peaceful beings but to ma*e in$erentl% sociable individuals into beings capable of violence'