Chapter1:WhyDontStudentsLikeSchool Contrarytopopularbelief,thebrainisnotdesignedforthinking.Itsdesignedtosaveyoufrom havingtothink. A. Mostimportantcomplexfunctions(forexample,visionandmovement)dontrequirethinkingat all. B. Yourbrainpreferstousememorytoguideactionsinsteadofhavingtothink. a. Weavoidthinkingbyrelyingonmemory.Mostoftheproblemswefaceareones wevesolvedbefore,sowejustdowhatwevedoneinthepast.Thisallowsourbrain togoonautopilot.(Thatsonereasonthattravelingissotiring:allofthetrivialactions thatathomecouldbemadeonautopilotrequireyourfullattention.) C. Forthoughtrequiringtasksthatarerepeated,yourbraineventuallyautomatizesitsoyoudont havetothink(liketyingyourshoes). Thinkingishard(incomparisontoothersystemslikevisualandmotorwhicharemuchmore efficient)because... itsslow.

. itrequireseffort itisunreliable However,thoughthinkingishard,weLIKEtothink!Infact,neuroscientistshavediscoveredthat thereisoverlapbetweenthebrainareasandchemicalsthatareimportantinlearningandthosethat areimportantinthebrainsnaturalrewardsystem,(dopamine). Wearenaturallycurious,butbecausethinkingishard,thecognitiveconditionshavetoberight forourcuriositytothrive(orwequit).Thismeans... youhaveachanceofsolvingtheproblem(whichiswhyjokesarentfunwhentheyhavetobe explained) thedifficultyisjustrightnottoohard,nottooeasy NOTthatthecontentisitselfinteresting.Curiosityaboutthecontentaloneisntenoughto makeitfun.(Therearelotsofboringlecturesaboutcoolthings,orsurprisinglycoollessonson thingsyoudidntexpecttobeinteresting.) Thinking=Combininginformationinavailableworkingmemory:Thinkingoccurswhenyou combineinformation(fromtheenvironmentandlongtermmemory)innewways.Thatcombining happensinworkingmemory. Successfulthinkingreliesonfourfactors:informationfromtheenvironment,factsinlongterm memory,andtheamountofspaceinworkingmemory.Ifanyoneofthesefactorsisinadequate, thinkingwilllikelyfail. CLASSROOMIMPLICATIONS: Makesurethereareproblemstobesolvedineachlesson,cognitiveworktobedone(vs.a longboringteacherexplanation). Respectcognitivelimits:Ifstudentsdonthavethebackgroundknowledgetoengagewitha problem,itwontworkwell.Also,dontoverloadworkingmemorywithtasksthataretoo complicated.Slowthepace,usememoryaidssuchaswritingontheboardtosavekidsfrom keepingtoomuchinformationinworkingmemory.

Piqueinterestwithappropriatequestions:Askquestionsthatengagestudentsandmakethem wanttoknowtheanswer.(Gimmickstomakethematerialrelevanttokidswithpop referencesisnotadequateitmightevokegiggles,butitsnottrulyengaging.) Reconsiderwhentopuzzlestudents:Watchingtheegggetsuckedintothebottleisa momentarythrill,butstudentslacktherightbackgroundknowledgetowondermuchmore. Savethedemonstrationuntilafterthelessononairtemperatureandvacuums,andkidswillbe excitedtoexplainandexperiencethepleasureofproblemsolving. Differentiate:Becausestudentsdontcometoyourclassequallyprepared. Changethepace:Allowscognitivebreaks,givesanopportunityforreengagement

Chapter2:HowCanITeachStudentstheSkillsTheyNeedWhenStandardizedTests RequireOnlyFacts Factualknowledgemustprecedeskill,saysWillingham.Researchfromcognitivesciencehas shownthatthesortsofskillsthatteacherswantforstudentssuchastheabilitytoanalyzeandthink criticallyrequireextensivefactualknowledge. Tothink,youneedsomethingtothinkabout:Itisimpossibletothinkcriticallyaboutanytopic withoutsomefactualknowledgestoredinlongtermmemory.Thinkingprocessesareintertwinedwith backgroundknowledge. Backgroundknowledgeisessentialtoreadingcomprehension,becausewithoutitallyouhaveis text(thereaderdoesntknowhowtoseparatetheimportantfromtheunimportant). Havingawealthofbackgroundknowledgeimprovesreadingcomprehensionbecause: ithelpswithknowingdefinitions ithelpsstudentsunderstandtherelationshipbetweenideas,fillinginthegapsthatthewriter leavesinthetextbecauses/heassumesacertainlevelofbackgroundknowledgeonthe readerspart itpermitschunkingofideas,whichhelpstofreeupmorespaceinworkingmemorytoallow easiercomprehension Experimentconfirmingthepowerofbackgroundknowledge:Poorreaders(ascategorizedby standardizedtestperformances)whoknowalotaboutbaseballdobetterthangoodreaderswho dontwhengivenapassageaboutbaseballtoread. Factualknowledgeimprovesmemoryandisessentialtocognitivereasoning. Themoreknowledgeyouhave,thegreateryourabilitytogainmore.Einsteingotitbackwardswhen hesaidImaginationismoreimportantthanknowledge. CLASSROOMIMPLICATIONS: Teachstuffthatkidswillneedtoknowtoreapthegreatestcognitivebenefits. Makesurestudentshavethenecessarybackgroundknowledgetocarryoutathinkingtask: Ourgoalisnotsimplytohavestudentsknowalotofstuffitstohavethemknowstuffin serviceofbeingabletothinkeffectively.Criticalthinkingisnotasetofproceduresthatcanbe practicedandperfectedwhiledivorcedfrombackgroundknowledge. Havestudentsreadasmuchaspossible! Makeknowledgemeaningfulbyrelatingfactstoeachother,drawingconnections.Notjustlists offacts. Takeadvantageofteachablemoments,sincestudentsaremorelikelytoacquireknowledge whenitismeaningfultothem.

Chapter3:WhydoStudentsRememberEverythingThatsonTelevisionandForget EverythingISay? Whydowerememberstorepermanentlyinlongtermmemorysomethingsandnotothers? Ithelps(alittle)ifsomethingcreatesanemotionalreaction,butemotionisnotnecessaryfor learning,andwelearnthingsallthetimethathavenoemotionalresonanceforus. Repetitiondoesntmakeusremember.(Whatdoesapennylooklike?) Instead,sayWillinghamMemoryistheresidueofthought.Werememberwhatwethink about. Storiesarepowerfultoolsforteachers,becausetheyhelpstudentsbuildmeaning: ourbrainstreatstoriesdifferentlythanothertypesofmaterial,easiertoremember storiesareinterestingbecausetheyrequireinferencemaking 4Csofastory:causality,conflict(orquestion),complications,andcharacter Soorganizingyourlessonasastoryisaneffectivewaytohelpstudentscomprehend.(easy todoinhistory) Framingeachlessonwithacompellingquestion:QuestionsareliketheConflictofthestory,they drivethelessonandhelpstudentsappreciateitssignificance/meaning/context.ThematerialIwant studentstolearnisactuallytheanswertoaquestion.Onitsown,theanswerisalmostnever interesting.Butifyouknowthequestion,theanswermaybequiteinteresting.Thatswhymakingthe questionclearissoimportant. CLASSROOMIMPLICATIONS: Paycarefulattentiontowhatanassignmentwillrequireastudenttothinkabout.(ediblemaps? picturesofcastlesonaplotdiagram?flashyfeaturesofpowerpoint?) Tryingtomakethingsrelevanttostudentscanbackfireanddistractthemintothinkingabout thewrongthings(ex.,algebraexampleaboutcellphoneminutes)inaddition,sometimesitsa forced/artificialstretchtodoso,andplus,thereisvalue,interest,andbeautyinlearning aboutthingsthatdonthavemuchtodowithme. Thetwomostimportantqualitiesforteachersisthattheyconnectpersonallywithstudentsand theyorganizethematerialinawaythatmakesitinterestingandeasytounderstand. Framinglessonsisimportant:Startwiththematerialyouwantstudentstolearn,andthink backwardtotheintellectualquestionitposes,aquestionthatinspiresstudentstoseekan answer. Attentiongrabbersatthebeginningofalessonmaybackfire(wearingatoga,coolmagic tricksinscience).However,usingtheseaspickmeupsduringthemiddleofthelessonorat theendoncestudentshavebuiltsomecontextandbackgroundknowledgemightbe preferable. Acautionaboutdiscoverylearning:hardertopredict/controlwhatstudentswillthinkabout (immediatefeedbackalongthewaycanbehelpfulheretokeepthingsontrack,likewhen learningacomputergameorapp) Usemnemonicsforthosetimeswhenstudentsneedtoremembersomethingthatdoesnt havemuchmeaningonitsown.

Chapter4:WhyIsItSoHardforStudentstoUnderstandAbstractIdeas? Abstractionisthegoalofschooling:Theprocessofformulatinggeneralizedideasbyextracting commonqualitiesfromspecificexamples(applyclassroomlearninginnewcontexts).Unfortunately, however,themindpreferstheconcrete. Understanding=remembering:Weunderstandnewabstractthingsinthecontextofconcrete thingswealreadyknow(analogieshelp).Knowledgedoesnttransfereasily,itsamatterofgettingthe rightoldideasintoworkingmemoryandrearrangingwithcomparisonsorrethinking.Understandingis difficult,andneedstobebuiltonpriorknowledgetomakeitstick. Degreesofcomprehension:roteknowledge,parroting<shallowknowledge,regurgitating<deep knowledge,whichoccurswhenboththepartandthewholeisunderstood,andstudentscanapply newideasinnewsituations,seerichinterconnections Surfacevs.DeepStructure:Problemsthatmaylookdifferentonthesurfacebutrequirethesame stepsforcompletion.Studentshavedifficultyapplyingunderlyingconceptstonewsituations.Ex. knowthattheformulaforarea=LxW,butcantfindtheareaofasoccerfield

CLASSROOMIMPLICATIONS: givelotsofexamplesandhavestudentscomparetheminordertogetthemtofindpatterns andrecognizedeepstructures(forexample,lotsofexamplesofdramaticironywhena characterexpectsoneresult,buttheoppositehappensbecausethecharacterdoesntknow somethingthattheaudiencedoesknow:OedipusRex,Romeo&Juliet,Othello) askquestions,giveassignmentsandassessmentsthatrequiredeepknowledgeresponses buildlowerlevelcomprehensionbeforetryingtomakedeeperunderstandings

Chapter5:IsDrillingWorthIt? Thebottleneckincognitionisthelackofspaceinworkingmemory.Youcancheatthislimitationin twoways: (1)chunkingseparatethingsintoasingleunit (2)practicingtomakeprocesses/knowledgeautomatic(likedriving,shoetying,readingoutloud) whichfreesupspaceinworkingmemoryforhigherlevelthinking. So,whypractice? Practicehelpstransferinformationtolongtermmemoryandtohelpautomatizeworkingmemory. Practicehelpsyouretainmemory/knowledge. Practiceimprovestransfer:Workinglotsofproblemsofaparticulartypemakesitmorelikely thatyouwillrecognizetheunderlyingstructureoftheproblem,evenifyouhaventseethis particularversionbefore. CLASSROOMIMPLICATIONS: Providemultipleopportunitiesforpracticethatarenotboring. Whattopractice:buildingblocks,orthethingsonedoesagainandagaininasubjectareaand whichareprerequisitesformoreadvancedwork Spaceoutpractice,becausedistributedpracticeleadstomoreenduringmemories,and thereforerequireslesstimethanpracticethatislumpedtogether.

Chapter6:WhatstheSecrettoGettingStudentstoThinkLikeRealScientists, Mathematicians,andHistorians? Dontexpectnovicestolearnlikeexperts.Doingsooverestimatesthecognitiveabilitiesofnovices andunderestimatesthecognitivetasksthatexpertsperformintheirwork. Expertsareonawholedifferentlevelcognitivelyspeaking: Itsnotjustthatexpertshavealotofknowledgestoredinmemory,butthatknowledgeisalso organizeddifferently.Novicesthinkingisqualitativelydifferentthanthatofexperts. Comparedtonovices,expertsarebetterabletosingleoutimportantdetails,producesensible solutions,andtransfertheirknowledgetosimilardomains. Expertsdontthinkintermsofsurfacefeatures,asnovicesdotheythinkintermsoffunctions, ordeepstructure,whichhelpsthemwrestlewithabstractionsmoreeasily. Expertshaveautomatizedmanyoftheroutine,frequentlyusedproceduresthatearlyintheir trainingrequiredcarefulthought. Itsnotrealistictoexpectstudentstothinklikeexpertsinafield,whocontinuetocreatenewknowledge inafield.Weshouldntexpectstudentstocreatenewknowledge!Ittakeshoursofpractice(10year rule)tobecomeexperts. CLASSROOMIMPLICATIONS: Ourgoalistohelpstudentsgainanunderstandingofthecontentbeingtaughtandtohonethe skillstheyneedandtomakesimpletasksautomatic. Studentsarenotdoingsciencewhentheyconductexperimentsinscienceclasswherethe outcomeisalreadyknowntheycant,becausetheydonthavethebackground knowledge/schemainthefieldthattheyneedinordertorecognizeanomalousresults.Butwe wantstudentstopracticethetypeofthinkingthatscientificexperimentationrequires. Studentsarenotdoinghistorywhentheyreadhistorytextbooksinclass.(Myownprocess example:Asanundergrad,Ireadhistorytocomprehendit,buttherewasnometacognition abouthistoriographyuntilgradschooleventhen,Ispentthefirstyearobserving,analyzing, buildingawarenessofwhatotherhistoriansdoandhowtheythinkbeforeItriedtowriteanew historicalnarrativeinmythesis!) Studentsarereadytocomprehend,butnottocreatenewknowledge:Astudentmaynotbe abletodevelophisownscientifictheory,buthecandevelopadeepunderstandingofexisting theory. Activitiesthatareappropriateforexpertsmayattimesbeappropriateforstudents,butnot becausetheylldomuchforstudentscognitively.Rather,thesetaskscanserveasameansof exercisingtheircreativityandprovidingmotivation.Butthetasksmustmatchthestudents currentcognitiveequipment.

Chapter7:HowShouldIAdjustMyTeachingforDifferentTypesofLearners? Childrenaremorealikethandifferentinhowtheythink.Thereisnogoodevidencethatlearningwillbe easierifateachermatchesthemethodofinstructiontoachildspreferedstyle. VAKtheory=theclaimthateveryonehasapreferedsensethroughwhichinformationisacquired.But notalllearningoccursinoneparticularsensemostlearningismultisensory. Thebestwaytolearnsomethingistaggedtothecontent,notalearningstyle:Soanauditorylearner willnotlearnwherecountriesgoonamapbyhearingadescriptionofcountrysizes/shapesbutrather byseeingthemap.Avisuallearnerdoesnotbestlearnhowtopronounceasoundbyseeingthe phoneticspellingbutratherbyhearingitpronounced. Gardnerstheoryofmultipleintelligences:Willinghamcriticizesitin3ways... talentvs.intelligence notallintelligencesarecreatedequal eachintelligenceisconnected Differentiationbasedonlearningstyleisnotbasedoncognitivescience. CLASSROOMIMPLICATIONS: Thinkintermsofcontent,notstudents:adiagramofFortKnoxshouldbeseen,thenational anthemofTurkeyshouldbeheard,andthechecheturban(wornbySaharantribestoprotect themselvesagainstsunandwind)shouldbeworn. Changepromotesattention:Willinghamrecommendschangingthingsupsothatyouget maximalexposure. Thereisvalueineverychild,evenifheorsheisnotsmartinsomeway.

Chapter8:HowCanIHelpSlowLearners? Thischapterfocusesonintelligence:IntheWest,intelligenceisoftenconsideredfixedbybirthin theEast,intelligenceisseenasmalleable,andwithhardworkyoucanimprove.Cognitivescience supportstheEasternview. Theresalotoftimeherespentdefiningintelligence(itsnotabilityanditsnotplural),discussing whetheritsgeneticorenvironmental(both,butprobablymostlyenvironmental,seeFlynneffect). CLASSROOMIMPLICATIONS: Praiseeffort,notability:encourageyourstudentstothinkoftheirintelligenceasundertheir control,andespeciallythattheycandeveloptheirintelligencethroughhardwork. Treatfailureasanaturalpartoflearning:Ifyouwanttoincreaseyourintelligence,youhaveto challengeyourself. Teachstudyskills.

Chapter9:ImprovingYourPractice Teachingisacognitivechallenge.Youneedbothsubjectmatterexpertise,andpedagogical knowledge. Yourbestbetforimprovingyourteachingistopracticeteaching.Andpracticeisnotthesameas experienceitsdeliberateandwithagoal,requiringfeedback.(trainingvs.workingout) Butexperienceisnotthesamethingaspractice.Experiencemeansonlythatyouuseaskill practicemeansthatyoutrytoimprovebynoticingwhatyouaredoingwrongandformulating strategiestodobetter.Practicealsorequiresfeedback,usuallyfromsomeonemoreskilled thanyouare. http://www.ascd.org/publications/educationalleadership/sept09/vol67/num01/21stCenturySkil ls@TheChallengesAhead.aspx Itstobeexpectedthatonceyouhavegainedsufficientexpertiseyouwillteachonautopilotatleast partofthetime.Theresnothingwrongwiththat,butseriousworkatimprovingyourteachingmeans thatyouwillbeonautopilotlessoften. Thegoldenruleforateacheristoknowyourstudents.Studentsmustbekeptinterested,andtokeep theminterestedyoumustanticipatetheirreactions,andtoanticipatetheirreactions,youhavetoknow them!

Seeanotherteacherssummaryhere: http://mrbunkeredu.wordpress.com/2014/02/18/howwhydontstudentslikeschoolmighthelpmetea ch/ SEEALSO:Theoryofcognitiveapprenticeship.[1][2]Thistheoryholdsthatmastersofaskilloftenfail totakeintoaccounttheimplicitprocessesinvolvedincarryingoutcomplexskillswhentheyare teachingnovices.Tocombatthesetendencies,cognitiveapprenticeshipsaredesigned,among otherthings,tobringthesetacitprocessesintotheopen,wherestudentscanobserve,enact,and practicethemwithhelpfromtheteacher.[1]