THEORY AND PRACTICE IN SHIP DESIGN

GALLIN

THEORY AND PRACTICE IN SHIP DESIGN

Prof. Dr. Ing. C. Gallin Professor for S!i# Design

Delft University of Te !nology De#art$ent of S!i#%&il"ing an" S!i##ing

T!e Net!erlan"s

Contents '. Intro"& tion an" Definitions (. S!i# Design Te !ni)&es (.'. E ono$i al Eval&ations (.(. Co$#&ter Ai"e" S!i# Design (.*. O#ti$i+ation St&"ies *. S!i# Design O%,e ts an" Ingre"ients *.'. A"van e" S!i# Ty#es *.(. Inventiveness *.*. Strategy -. Con l&sions .. Referen es '. Intro"& tion an" Definitions /r. C!air$an0 La"ies an" Gentle$en0 1ro$ $y olleag&e0 frien" an" one of t!e #illars of t!is sy$#osi&$0 Prof. Stian Eri !sen0 I &n"erstoo" t!at t!e #resent #a#er %elongs to t!e gro&# !ea"e" 2T!e Nat&re of Design3. T!is s&ggests to $e t!at I !ave to %e!ave !ere0 if I an0 $ore as a #!iloso#!er t!an an engineer0 or %etter %ot! of t!e$. /y #a#er s!o&l" !ave an overvie4ing an" riti al !ara ter. I a$ "elig!te" 4it! t!is a##roa !. 5e are &se" as "esigners0 %efore starting a #ro,e t0 to $a6e a s&rvey of t!e sit&ation. Design e7#erien e ta&g!t &s t!at %efore o$ing e$erge" in a 4or6 it is re o$$en"a%le at first to 6ee# so$e "istan e fro$ it in or"er to gain so$e #ers#e tive0 to %e a%le to relativate t!e in#&t "ata0 fa tors an" onstraints0 4or6ing $et!o"s an" "esire" o&t#&t. 8y t!is I "o not $ean #eo#le to "o so $& ! t!in6ing t!at t!ey "o not start at all or %e o$e afrai" to even "o so. Designing is a $i7t&re %et4een t!in6ing an" a ting an" o&r ti$e is al4ays li$ite". I gra"&ate" in '9.: an" !ave re$aine" for (9 years ontin&o&sly involve" in s!i# "esign. 8eing .: years ol"0 I t!eoreti ally !ave '. $ore years %efore retiring. T4o;t!ir" of $y #rofessional life is #ass<. T!is %rings one to so$e !anges in !is vie4s an" a##roa !ing

International Symposium on Advances in Marine Technology Norwegian Institute of Technology, June 1979, p. 43 !7

THEORY AND PRACTICE IN SHIP DESIGN

GALLIN

$et!o"s. T!e ent!&sias$ of yo&t! gives 4ay to a $ore riti al attit&"e. Unfort&nately t!e "yna$i $a6es 4ay for a $ore reg&lar slo4er rate. Professional a$%itions transfor$ into a so$e4!at $issionary feeling0 trying to fin" an" to s#rea" t!e tr&t!. 5!en "oing so0 "o&%ts an" !esitations o &r0 4!i !0 %y t!e 4ay0 is a !ealt!y s ientifi attit&"e. Loo6ing at t!e title of t!is #a#er0 2T!eory an" #ra ti e in s!i# "esign30 one $ay sense &n ertainty in it. It is in"ee" so. Hy#ot!eti ally0 t!eory an" #ra ti e s!o&l" go0 as al4ays so ni ely sai"0 !an" in !an". 8&t t!is is never entirely t!e ase. S!i# "esign "evelo#s t!ese "ays $ore an" $ore fro$ an art to a s ien e0 %&t in any ase an a##lie" s ien e0 a##lie" in a very irreg&lar an" &nsta%le $ar6et0 t!e $ar6et of s!i##ing. T!ere is a %ig "ifferen e %et4een for e7a$#le t!eoreti al $e !ani s an" s!i# "esign. I 4o&l" li6e to re$ar6 !ereto t!at s!i# "esign is fort&nately not as syste$ati as so$e #eo#le 4o&l" li6e to !ave it. Prof. Ra4son on e sai" in A$ster"a$ ='>0 t!at too $& ! syste$ an" or"er 4o&l" 6ill t!e reativity. I f&lly agree 4it! !is state$ent. On t!e ot!er !an"0 I "o not inten" to s#oil s#ort to t!ose trying to intro"& e $ore syste$ in s!i# "esign. I only 4is! to &n"erline0 t!at orre t re ognition of t!e relative i$#ortan e of t!ings0 fle7i%ility an" s#ontaneity are essential in s!i# "esign. T!e "anger is na$ely often0 t!at #eo#le0 es#e ially s ientists "evote t!e$selves to syste$ati a%stra t to#i s0 t!ings t!ey li6e to "o0 4!i ! are not i$#li it t!e $ost i$#ortant or ne essary. It is #refera%le to "eal 4it! lean intelle t&al 4or6 t!an 4it! !alf logi al0 !alf e$#iri al al &lation $et!o"s. I "o %y no $eans 4is! to t!rea" on ot!er?s toes0 %&t t!ere !as %een $ore 4or6 "one on t!e t!eory of #ro#eller "esign t!an on steel 4eig!t al &lations. I a$ s#ea6ing !ere to #rofessional #eo#le0 so I !o#e not to %e $is&n"erstoo". S!i# "esign is an e7 iting an" fas inating a tivity0 an art %et4een t!e $o"ern te !ni)&es =(>. T!e fas inating !ara ter of t!e s!i# "esign lies in $y o#inion in t!e reative nat&re an" t!e o$#le7ity of t!is a tivity. Yo& reate a #ro"& t0 t!e s!i# or0 to %e $o"ern0 a $ariti$e ve!i le0 4!i ! 4or6s as a 4ell "efine" &nit an" fro$ 4!i ! &n"er vario&s #!ysi al0 so ial an" e ono$i al la4s an" onstraints0 ertain #erfor$an es are e7#e te". T!ese #erfor$an es $ay %e "ea"4eig!t0 s#ee"0 argo !ol" a#a ity lifting a#a ity or $any ot!er t!ings. T!e #erfor$an es of one?s o4n "esign $ay %e "ire tly o$#are" &n"er e)&al ir &$stan es 4it! ot!er e7isting s!i#s or "esigns re)&iring e)&al e7#enses. In t!e str&ggle 4it! t!e o$#etition or even %et4een one?s alternatives yo& !ave a 2 !allenger an" "efen"er3 s#irit0 o$$on to s#orting $at !es. 5!y s!o&l" a !orse ra e %e $ore attra tive0 only %e a&se of %etting or t!e ni e la"ies !ats@ In a s!i# "esign yo& an0 ,&st li6e in a !ess ga$e0 infl&en e t!e final o&t o$e0 4!ereas in !orse ra ing0 as a s#e tator at least0 not. 5ell0 4!at 4as sai" !ere to $a6e s!i# "esign attra tive an also %e sai" for ot!er in"&strial #ro"& t0 s& ! as #ens0 lot!es0 f&rnit&re0 !o&ses an" so on. T!is is tr&e0 %&t li6e ot!er so#!isti ate" ve!i les0 s& ! as ars an" #lanes0 a s!i# is a o$#li ate" asse$%ly in 4!i ! $any te !ni)&es0 i.e. steel; onstr& tion0 engineering0 ele troni s0 argo !an"ling0 living o$fort0 an" so on are on entrate" 4it!in a li$ite" s#a e. T!e re)&ire$ents or t!e #erfor$an es of t!e o$#onents are $ost ontra"i tory0 sel"o$ is one "esign "o yo& !ave fa tors 4or6ing in t!e sa$e %enefi ial "ire tion. So t!e "esign of a s!i# or $ariti$e onstr& tion is %y nat&re a o$#ro$ise0 as $y #re"e essor in Delft0 Prof. H. E. Aaeger0 &se" to say 2a %ig o$#ro$ise3. An" !ere starts t!e $i7t&re %et4een s ien es an" art. A "esigner s!o&l"0 li6e a s ientist0 &se every #ossi%le 6no4le"ge an" %e really &#;to;"ate 4it! t!e stan" of t!e te !ni)&e to avoi" 4rong "e isions an" to #ro"& e $o"ern0 even a"van e"0 "esigns. 8&t li6e in a !ess ga$e0 4!ere %e a&se of t!e s& ession of alternative an" i$$ensity of "e isions #ossi%le0 t!e follo4;&# an !ar"ly %e #rogra$$e" in a"van e0 in t!e s!i# "esign too0 "&e to t!e n&$ero&s an" "iversity of o#eration re)&ire$ents0 free an" "e#en"ing varia%les0 e)&ality an" ine)&ality onstraints0 re$ains eno&g! s#a e free for t!e e7#erien e0 int&ition an" geni&s of t!e "esigner. T!erefore an" fort&nately0 "es#ite of t!e tren" to te !ni al #erfe tion0 "esign of s!i#s an" $ariti$e onstr& tions re$ains a fas inating a tivity. /y #rofession0 %e it goo" or %a"0 is still $y !o%%y. (. S!i# Design Te !ni)&es

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THEORY AND PRACTICE IN SHIP DESIGN

GALLIN

5!en "esigning 4e an "isting&is! t4o as#e tsB t!e "esign $et!o" an" t!e "esign o%,e t. 5e nee" to "ifferentiate firstly %e a&se t!e #ro%le$ an so %e treate" easier an" se on"ly %e a&se ne4 o%,e ts0 in $y o#inion0 i$#ose ne4 "esign te !ni)&es0 a "e#en"en y "oes e7ists. 1ro$ ontin&o&s o%servations of s!i#%&il"ing events0 I a$ in line" to state t!at &# to no4 $ore #ra ti al #rogress 4as a !ieve" t!ro&g! t!e "esign of ne4 s!i# ty#es an" $ariti$e ve!i les or t!eir e)&i#$ent0 t!an %y &sing a"van e" "esign te !ni)&esC To %e sin ere again an o%session of t!is le t&re D in s!i#yar" e7#erien e it is no4 &n&s&al t!at an or"er is a e#te" for 4!i ! at t!at ti$e %eing t!e te !ni)&es for "esign an" fa%ri ation are nor yet learly "efine". Co&l" t!is &nort!o"o7 #ro e"&re %e a&se" t!e for$er tra"itional !an"i raft !ara ter of s!i#%&il"ing@ Or is it %e a&se s!i##ing res#e tively s!i#%&il"ing !as al4ays %een a ris6y enter#rise 4it! large interest involve"0 nor to %e left over to t!e o$#etition@ Or is t!is ot!er4ise "&e to t!e fa t t!at s!i#%&il"ing0 in larger "efinition t!e $arine te !nology0 is asse$%ly 4or60 in 4!i ! t!e s!i#yar" an rely on #artial "esign 4or6 fro$ s&##liers an" so allo4 t!e$selves to !ave %la 6 s#ots at an early stage in t!eir o4n "esigns@ 5!atever t!e ase0 I an not i$agine a #resent s!i#yar" $anager ref&sing an or"er %e a&se t!e "esign te !ni)&es are not yet all availa%le. (.'. E ono$i al Eval&ations S!i#s0 at least $er !ant s!i#s0 are %eing %&ilt to"ay to satisfy e ono$i al nee"s of o&ntries or interest gro&#s. 8&t also ot!er s!i# ty#es0 4!ose servi es are not "ire tly "evote" to an e ono$i al #&r#ose0 s& ! as naval s!i#s0 ost $oney to %&il" an" o#erate an" t!erefore !ave to %e e ono$i al. An e ono$i al eval&ation is t!erefore in"is#ensa%le in $o"ern s!i# "esign. In for$er ti$es it 4as to on)&er t!e sea0 #resently t!e te !ni)&es are so a"van e"0 t!at t!e sea !allenge0 alt!o&g! still "angero&s0 !as %e o$e of se on"ary i$#ortan e. 8&t 4!at is an e ono$i al s!i# an" !o4 "oes one re ogni+e it@ Here t!ings start to "iverge. T!e "efinition 2e ono$i al3 is not t!e sa$e for all #artners in %&il"ing an" o#erating a s!i#. Yo& $&st agree 4it! $e t!at s!i#yar"s are #ri$arily intereste" in %&il"ing t!e !ea#est #ossi%le s!i#0 ,&st satisfying t!e s!i#o4ner?s re)&ire$ents. S!i#yar"s are rat!er %r&tal in t!eir attit&"e0 %&t t!ey are entitle" to %e so. Un"er !ar" o$#etition t!ey try to sell t!eir #ro"& ts0 es#e ially no4a"ays0 in or"er to s&rviveC I !ave s#ent t4enty years 4it! s!i#yar"s an" 6no4 it very 4ell. 2E ono$i al3 for a s!i#yar" $eans 2least ost s!i#3 an" not!ing $ore. T!e s!i# o4ner in !is t&rn !as to %&y an" o#erate a s!i# &n"er given on"itions. To $ini$i+e t!e o$%ination of %&il"ing an" o#erating osts0 res#e tively to $a7i$i+e t!e #rofit0 is !is $ain o%,e tive. T!e given on"itions are "e#en"ent on tra"e0 ro&te o&ntry of registration an" s!i#o4ner !i$self. T!e %alan e %et4een %&il"ing an" o#eration osts0 %&t also %et4een in o$e an" osts as a 4!ole0 !anges fro$ ase to ase an" 4it! ti$e. Designers 6no4 very 4ell t!at t!e least %&il"ing osts s!i# is not t!e !ea#est one to o#erate an" t!e ontrary is vali" too. T!erefore 4e !ave to "o 4it! "ifferent e ono$i al s!i# "esignE a or"ing to vario&s ir &$stan es. I &se to say to $y st&"entsB tell $e for 4!o$ an" I s!all s!o4 yo& 4!at t!e a##ro#riate "esign loo6s li6eC So0 ontin&ing o&r logi 0 to "esign e ono$i al s!i#s for a s!i#o4ner0 yo& !ave to 6no40 as a "esigner0 !is ir &$stan es. Ris6ing to %e yni al0 %&t re$aining sin ere0 I s!o&l" "are to say0 t!at in $any ases t!e s!i#o4ner !i$self "oes not 6no4 eno&g! a%o&t t!e o#erating on"itions. He is not al4ays to %la$e. T!at 4o&l" %e too si$#le. T!e %&il"ing ti$e of t!e s!i# nor$ally ta6es %et4een one !alf an" t4o years. It?s o#erational life0 "e#en"ing on ta7 la4s of t!e res#e tive o&ntry0 is %et4een '. an" (. years. If t!e s!i#o4ner "oes not sign a long;ti$e; !arter 4!en or"ering t!e s!i# D an" not $any are t!at l& 6y D !e ta6es a great ris6 &#on !is o$#any. No%o"y an safely #re"i t t!e f&t&re. Also t!e $ost lever s!i#o4ner an not foresee a long ti$e in a"van e if a !annel 4ill %e lose"0 oil #ri es s&""enly in rease or !arvest fails0 in vario&s #la es of t!e 4orl"0 for any 6in" of reasons.

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THEORY AND PRACTICE IN SHIP DESIGN

GALLIN

Anot!er "iffi &lty in olle ting "ata on e ono$i s fro$ s!i##ing o$#anies are t!e "iffi &lt 4ays in 4!i ! t!ey o$#ile t!eir statisti al "ata. It is as t!e %&il"ing osts al &lation at a s!i#yar"0 ea ! !as !is $et!o" %ase" on lo al tra"ition0 s#e ifi 4or6 organi+ation0 et . An e7a$#le is t!e s!i#o4ner?s "ata a%o&t osts for $aintenan e an" re#airs. 5!at is one an" 4!at is t!e ot!er0 4!ere lies t!e li$itation %et4een t!e$@ Even 4it! a 4ell organi+e" s!i##ing o$#any t!is is a #ro%le$0 %&t 4!at a%o&t olle ting "ata fro$ several o$#anies@ An" 4!i ! is t!e rig!t s ra# val&e of a #arti &lar s!i# to %e in l&"e" in t!e e ono$i al al &lations@ 5e $eet in o&r "aily 4or6 t!ese #ro%le$s an" 4e are o%lige" to $a6e all sorts of intelle t&al a ro%ati s =*>. No4 ontin&ing to t!e %e o#en an" sar asti . If s!i#o4ners %y favora%le ir &$stan es0 reg&lar servi e on"itions0 long e7#erien e an" 4ell organi+e" a"$inistration ;D%y t!e 4ay not generally t!e ase D are in a #osition to f&rnis! orre t an" o$#lete "ata for t!e "esign of an e ono$i al s!i#0 t!ey 4ill not al4ays "o so. T!is is not so negative as it $ay see$. Let &s s&##ose a s!i##ing o$#any !as %&ilt &# in ti$e0 t!ro&g! ontin&o&s efforts an" event&ally at t!e ost of 2learning $oney3 a relatively goo" going servi e. Or t!ey "is overe" %y int&ition or !an e a !ole in t!e $ar6et. Or 6no4;!o4 for a ertain tra"e or servi e0 for e7a$#le offs!ore0 !as %een aref&lly %&ilt &#. 5!y s!o&l" it %e s#rea" o&t via s!i#yar"s to t!e o$#etition@ 5e 6no4 %y e7#erien e !o4 easily a s!i# "esigner in a s!i#yar" an o%tain D via s&##liers D infor$ation a%o&t 4!at e)&i#$ent t!e o$#etition !as #rovi"e" in t!eir "esign. Ho4 #ro&" is a s!i#yar" to tell t!e s!i#o4ner F t!at also s!i#o4ner Y !as #ai" attention to or is ,&st st&"ying t!e "esign in )&estionC Dra4ings are &s&ally ir &lating not only let &s say verti ally %et4een s!i#yar" to s!i#o4ner0 %&t also !ori+ontally %et4een s!i#yar"s on one level an" %et4een s!i#o4ners0 %an6s0 s!i#%ro6ers on anot!er. 5it!o&t %eing "iso%e"ient to o&r !air$an0 Prof. 8enfor"0 I 4o&l" still li6e to $a6e t!e re$ar6 t!at no #erfe t e ono$i riterion an" no &nifor$ity "oes e7ist for o$#aring alternative "esigns. T!e riterion &se" "e#en"s or o&rse0 if reven&es are 6no4n or not0 if t!e as! flo4 is varia%le or onstant0 if t!e s!i#s !ave e)&al or &ne)&al trans#ort a#a ity or o#erational life. 8&t let &s say in one ase0 i.e. for 6no4n reven&es0 so$e #refer t!e riterion Net Present Gal&e HNPGI0 ot!ers Internal Rate or Ret&rn HIRRI for "ifferent reasons. Unfort&nately t!e res&lting o#ti$&$ s!i# "esign "e#en"s also on t!e riterion &se" =->. In Delft st&"ents gra"&ating in s!i# "esign are strongly en o&rage" to ela%orate t!eir gra"&ation t!esis in oo#eration 4it! a s!i#%&il"ing or s!i##ing o$#any or instit&tion fro$ inlan" or a%roa". In t!is 4ay a t&al tas6s0 realisti 4or6ing $et!o"s an"0 last %&t not least0 in#&t "ata es#e ially for e ono$i s an %e %etter o%taine". 5e often reali+e !o4 "iffi &lt it is to o%tain general "ata fro$ s!i#o4ners0 in #arti &lar e ono$i al an" es#e ially "ata on erning reven&es. Even 4it! t!e %est frien"ly relations!i# an" o#en %oo6s on t!e finan ial #art0 t!e fis al !a#ter0 t!e ta7ation0 re$aine" to#;se ret0 t!e fiel" of anot!er s#e ialist0 t!e ta7 ons&ltant. In on l&sionB %y nat&re of t!ings t!e tas6s are "ivi"e" an" #ro%a%ly 4ill re$ain so. 1ro$ an en)&ete on t!e e$#loy$ent of gra"&ates in naval ar !ite t&re at t!e Delft University of Te !nology &ntil '9J* res&lte" t!at only K0.L of t!e$ 4ere e$#loye" %y s!i##ing o$#anies. T!&s t!e n&$%er of engineers "is#osing of o#eration "ata of s!i#s0 if availa%le0 is also s$all. 5e $ay #er!a#s a"" t!ose engineers 4or6ing as ons&lting naval ar !ite ts H90JLI0 4!o0 4!en ons&lte"0 $ay so$eti$es %e s&##lie" %y s!i#o4ners 4it! %&siness "ata0 t!e total #er entage still re$ains s$all H'K.(LI. 8y 4ay of o$#arison0 s!i#yar"s alone e$#loye" at t!at ti$e (J0ML of t!e gra"&ates. A large s#rea"ing of e ono$i s in s!i# "esign0 fro$ t!e #oint of vie4 of s!i#o4ners0 re$ains t!erefore a "rea$. Ho4ever0 %&il"ing osts al &lation annot %e left o&t %y anyone0 neit!er %y s!i#yar"s0 as 4e !ave seen0 nor %y s!i#o4ners0 invest$ent toget!er 4it! t!e osts of a#ital #lay an i$#ortant role in t!eir "e isions. Does t!is $ean t!at 4e s!all lose t!e %oo6s on s!i# "esign e ono$i s an" %etter go an" "o so$et!ing else@ Of o&rse notC It 4as only to "e$onstrate o&r li$itation as engineers.

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THEORY AND PRACTICE IN SHIP DESIGN

GALLIN

T!e "esigner $&st %e a4are of 4!at t!e &sto$er really 4ants0 so as to %est $eet !is nee"s. He $&st !ave eno&g! 6no4le"ge of s!i##ing e ono$i s to &n"erstan" !is #artner0 an" $ost i$#ortant to s#ea6 2!is lang&age3 at negotiations. It stri6es $e !o4 fe4 naval ar !ite ts are in t!e %oar" of s!i##ing or s!i#%&il"ing o$#anies0 #ro%a%ly "&e to t!eir ignoran e of e ono$i s. T!is sit&ation s!o&l" !angeC (.(. Co$#&ter Ai"e" S!i# Design A #!eno$enon of o&r ti$e is t!e revol&tion of o$#&ter ai"e" s!i# "esign HCASDI. A%o&t '. years ago t!e o$#&ter #enetrate" into t!e "esign offi es an" is to"ay "efinitely esta%lis!e". S!i# "esign is not any $ore on eiva%le 4it!o&t o$#&ter. T!e for$i"a%le0 in t!e $eanti$e f&lly re ogni+e" a"vantages of t!e o$#&ter0 te$#te" so$e of &s0 in t!e se on" !alf of t!e si7ties0 in o&r ent!&sias$0 to try to a&to$ate "e "esign #ro e"&re =. to ':>. T!e o$#&ters0 4it! t!eir tre$en"o&s al &lation s#ee" an" storage a#a ity0 are i"eal instr&$ents0 es#e ially 4!en si$ilar "esign alternatives are to %e arrie" o&t an" eval&ate" %y ti$e ons&$ing o#eration resear ! an" e ono$i al eval&ations. It is an in"is#ensa%le instr&$ent for o#ti$i+ation st&"ies. Strange eno&g! t!e o$#&ter "i" not s& ee" in a&to$ating t!e "esign #ro e"&re0 at least as far as t!e #reli$inary "esign stage is on erne". So far as $y 6no4le"ge e7ten"s0 so#!isti ate" integrate" #rogra$s in %at ! $o"e for #reli$inary s!i# "esign are $ore a #rivilege of &niversities an" resear ! instit&tes0 t!an of "esign offi es of s!i#yar"s. Nor are t!ere any s#e iali+e" fir$s 6no4n to $e D an" !ere I !ave to %e aref&l D t!at %y offering s& ! #rogra$s !ave %oo6e" large o$$er ial s& ess in "oing so. T!e ontrary is tr&e in t!e ase of #rogra$s for ertain al &lations0 s& ! as !&ll lines0 !y"rostati s0 resistan e an" #ro#&lsion0 4eig!ts an" entre of gravity0 strengt!0 vi%ration an" so on. No%o"y 4ill "o t!ese al &lations to"ay %y !an" if #rogra$s are availa%leE t!is still $eans a onsi"era%le #rogress. T!e o$#&ter !as of o&rse also #enetrate" into t!e "esign #ro ess itself0 %&t !as not e7 l&"e" t!e "esigner0 it !el#s !i$ $ore an" $ore to $a6e t!e rig!t "e isions. 5e !ave so to s#ea6 to "o 4it! o#en0 onversational an" intera tive "esign $o"els0 in 4!i ! t!e "esigner an interfa e in t!e o$#&ting #rogress ='' to '.>. 5!y t!is "ifferent a##roa !@ T!e ans4er lies in t!e o$#le7ity of t!e s!i# "esign as 4ell as in t!e insta%ility of t!e s!i##ing $ar6et. To on eive0 for$&late0 4rite an" test a "esign #rogra$ for a $o"ern s!i#0 s&ffi iently sensi%le for o#ti$i+ation0 ta6ing into a o&nt all #ara$eters an" onstraints involve"0 an a or"ing to t!e ir &$stan es re)&ire one or t4o years of 4or6. A ti$e an" $oney ons&$ing enter#rise. In t!e $eanti$e t!e $ar6et re)&ire$ents $ay !ange0 t!&s ren"ering t!e "esign o%soleteE o""ly eno&g! t!at t!ere are t!ose 4!o t!in6 t!at s!i#%&il"ing is a gro4n ol" #rofessionC S!i# ty#es alter0 i$#rove ontin&o&sly an" ne4 ty#es a##ear. 5!o 4o&l" !ave t!o&g!t so$e years ago of t!e s& ess of ro;ro s!i#s 4it! stern0 )&arter or sle4ing ra$#s0 or t!e variety of $ariti$e onstr& tions for t!e offs!ore in"&stry@ Pro%le$s !ange0 varia%les an" onstraints too. Con l&"ing0 o$#&ter ai"e" "esign $o"els !ave0 in any ase0 to %e fle7i%le0 a"a#ta%le an" #refera%ly si$#le. Ho4ever0 t!e effe t t!e o$#&ter !as on o&r "esign t!in6ing an" 4or6ing #ro e"&res is a onsi"era%le one. As 4it! nearly everyt!ing in t!is life0 4e $ay s#ea6 !ere also a%o&t #ositive an" negative as#e ts. To start 4it! t!e #ositive onesB as #ositive 4e an $ention t!at t!e o$#&ter %ro&g!t $ore or"er into "esign t!in6ing. T!e flo4 "iagra$s of t!e o$#&ter #ro esses 4ere ta6en over to ill&strate t!e "esign $o"el an" t!&s o%liging &s to %etter t!in6ing fro$ t!e %eginning a%o&t 4!at 4e are going to "o. T!e 2yes or no3 4or6ing style of t!e o$#&ter !el#s t!e logi of "esigning. 1&rt!er$ore t!e n&$eri al 4orl" of t!e o$#&ter0 t!e &navoi"a%le algorit!$s0 sti$&late" a $ore $et!o"i al s!i# "esign. Anot!er $a,or %enefit in t!e "esign #ro ess %y &sing o$#&ters is t!e "e reasing i$#ortan e of a##ro7i$ating for$&lae. 5!en in #ossession of s&ffi ient s&%ro&tines a "esigner an o$forta%ly &se t!e$ re#eate"ly to fin" an a##ro#riate val&e of a #ara$eter instea" of refle ting on 4!i ! for$&la to !oose or #on"ering over its oeffi ients. 1or e7a$#le0 instea"

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THEORY AND PRACTICE IN SHIP DESIGN

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of !esitating 4!i ! line Hof Ayre0 Ale7an"er0 NS/8 an" so onI to !oose in t!e for$&la for t!e %lo 6 oeffi ient0 4e an easily let t!e o$#&ter al &late t!e re)&ire" #ro#&lsion #o4er for given s#ee"0 for several %lo 6 oeffi ients an" "eter$ine o&rselves0 a or"ing also to ot!er "esign ai$s s& ! as argo !ol"0 ontainer a#a ity0 et .0 4!i ! oeffi ient val&e is t!e %est. T!is is a $ore realisti a##roa !. T!e sa$e is vali" for 4eig!t al &lations in #la e of glo%al s#e ifi 4eig!t val&esE t!ere are0 in s!ort0 $any ot!er e7a$#les t!at o&l" %e $entione". Anot!er0 not "etri$ental non !alan e0 $a"e #ossi%le %y t!e o$#&ter0 lies in t!e se)&en e of t!e "esign ste#s. 1or$erly0 an e7#erien e" "esigner aref&lly refle te" a%o&t t!e s& ession in !is "esign 4or6 to o$e 4it! t!e least of "eto&rs0 an" in t!e s!ortest ti$e0 to an a e#ta%le "esign. A fra$es s6et !0 for e7a$#le0 4as at t!e %eginning s&ffi ient to start t!e "esign0 t!e !&ll lines "ra4ing0 as a ti$e ons&$ing "eli ate 4or60 4as "one only 4!en t!e iteration #ro ess %e a$e ri#e. To"ay "ra4ing t!e lines %y o$#&ter0 $y st&"ents 2or"er3 t!e lines in a very early stage an" "o not are if *;- lines are to %e "ra4n in a nor$al #reli$inary "esign. It loo6s li6e a 4aste0 %&t it !as a"vantages too. Even t!o&g! it $ay !ange0 an early i$#ression of0 in o&r ase t!e "e 6 onto&rs an" t!e availa%le s#a e in t!e s!i#0 is %enefi ial. T!e sa$e is tr&e for t!e res&lts of ot!er #re$at&re #artial al &lations0 4!i ! give an i"ea of t!e or"er or $agnit&"e of #ro#&lsion #o4er0 4eig!t0 tri$0 sta%ility an" s& ! li6e. 8&t one of t!e $ost o%vio&s a"vantages of o$#&ter ai"e" s!i# "esign is in $y o#inion an in rease in t!e relia%ility of for$&lae an" al &lation $et!o"s %y e7ten"ing t!e analysis of o$#arison s!i#s0 #rior to o&r o4n "esign 4or6. /ost of t!e s!i# "esign al &lations in l&"e0 !i""en or not0 #rag$ati oeffi ients0 an &navoi"a%le $is!a#. T!erefore t!e %est 4ay to !e 6 t!e relia%ility of a ertain al &lation te !ni)&e to %e &se" in a given "esign re$ains to a##ly it first on a si$ilar e7isting s!i#0 "eter$ining t!e ratio %et4een t!eoreti al an" #ra ti al res&lts0 4!at I all 2e7#erien e oeffi ient?. 8e a&se t!e a$o&nt of o$#&ter 4or6 is not so i$#ortant0 e7#erien e oeffi ients $ay %e o%taine" for nearly every #artial an" total res&lt0 for 4!i ! si$ilar s!i#s an" o$#&ter #rogra$s are availa%le. T!e "esigner e7#erien e e7ten"s %y o$#&ter ai" $ore t!an !is #rofessional lifeti$e alone 4o&l" ever !ave allo4e". An" no4 t!e negative as#e ts of t!e o$#&ter ai"e" s!i# "esign. 8esi"es nee" of o$#&ter fa ilities D $ore or less stan"ar" e)&i#$ent to"ay D an" t!e #rogra$$ing 4or6 D i$#e"i$ent alrea"y "is &sse" D t!e o$#&ter ai" "i$inis!es onsi"era%ly t!e insig!t into t!e res#e tive al &lation $et!o". It is tr&e t!at t!ose #re#aring an" 4riting t!e #rogra$ $&st "is ern at least on e t!e al &lation $et!o" to %e #rogra$$e"0 a fa t in"is#ensa%le for a goo" ,o%. T!is s!o&l" also %e t!e ase 4it! t!e "esigner &sing t!at #rogra$. Only 4!at I o%serve" 4it! st&"ents an" vali" for every%o"y0 is t!at o$fort $a6es la+yC O&t#&t of a s&%ro&tine on e o%taine" is i$$e"iately &se" f&rt!er in t!e "esign #ro ess0 4it!o&t refle tion on its o &rren e. If t!ere are "o&%ts in t!e res&lts0 t!e in#&t "ata is !e 6e" again0 %&t t!e al &lation $et!o" is ta6en for grante". 5!y not0 t!e #rogra$ !as on e %e a##rove"C T!at t!e !osen al &lation $et!o" #er!a#s %y !er nat&re is not s&ita%le for t!e #arti &lar ase or t!at t!e %&ilt;in onstants an" onstraints Hso $any in t!e s!i# "esignI "o not orres#on" any$ore for t!e given ase0 "oes not at ! t!e eye at on e. In t!e for$er $an&al al &lation te !ni)&es0 t!e %et4een; val&es in t!e o&rse of a al &lation 4ere for an e7er ise" eye an alar$ signal. T!is #ossi%ility %e o$es so$e!o4 lost. 2O&t of sig!t o&t t!e $in"3 is t!e rig!t e7#ression for t!is #!eno$enon. I 4on"er if t!e o$#&ter0 in e"& ating engineers is not even !ar$f&l. Har$f&l or not0 I "o not s#ea6 against CASD. S&$$ing &# it an %e sai" t!at t!e a"vantages of t!e o$#&ter in t!e $o"ern s!i# "esign are over4!el$ing. No s!i# "esign is on eiva%le any$ore to"ay 4it!o&t t!e o$#&ter0 even if only a s$all "es6 o$#&ter0 or to &se $o"ern ter$s !i#s0 are &se". (.*. O#ti$i+ation St&"ies Anot!er i"eal an" "ra$a in $o"ern s!i# "esign is t!e )&estion of o#ti$i+ation. T!eoreti ally ea ! a o$#lis!e" s!i# "esign s!o&l" %e t!e o#ti$&$ for t!e given o4ner?s re)&ire$ents an" e7isting onstraints. T!e "efinition of 2"esign3 an" 2o#ti$i+ation3 are synony$o&s. In #ra ti e t!is is never t!e ase. 1or$erly0 in D so to s#ea6 D $an&al s!i# "esign0 %y sli"e r&le or

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THEORY AND PRACTICE IN SHIP DESIGN

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#ri$itive a""ing $a !ines0 t!e ti$e an" $eans for a #erfe t o#ti$i+ation0 in l&"ing e ono$i s0 4ere never availa%le in a "esign offi e. At t!e $ost so$e alternatives 4ere set &# an" t!e %est one 4as arrie" o&t. Also in t!e o#ti$i+ation fiel" t!e o$#&ter reate" great #ossi%ilities. Here too0 ni e ent!&siast 4or6 !as %een "one in t!e last "e a"e ='K to (:>. Nevert!eless0 4e $&st a"$it t!at o#ti$i+ation st&"ies "i" not a !ieve a large s ale of &se. T!e reasons fir t!is are #artially alrea"y $entione" in t!e !a#ter refle ting on e ono$i s in s!i# "esign. 1&rt!er$ore0 t!e ti$e %et4een in)&iry an" ten"er is al$ost al4ays s!ortE in any ase too s!ort for an e7tensive o#ti$i+ation. Until t!e ontra t is ass&re" t!e s!i#yar" 4ill not &s&ally invest too $& ! in a so#!isti ate" o#ti$i+ation 4or6. If t!e finan ial as#e ts are settle"0 t!e s!i#o4ner 4ants to o%tain !is s!i# as soon as #ossi%le. If t!e ontra t is signe"0 t!e 4or6s!o#s of t!e s!i#yar" are as6ing for "ra4ings an" t!e #lanning offi e of t!e s!i#yar" &rges for t!e final "esign. 8earing t!is in $in"0 real o#ti$i+ation 4or60 if any at all0 is in #ra ti e arrie" o&t only in t!e onte7t of st&"ies for a ne4 s!i# ty#e0 for e7a$#le a stan"ar" s!i#0 after an a tive $ar6eting a$#aign %y %ig s!i#%&il"ing o$#aniesE &niversities an" resear ! instit&tions !ave0 for t!e $o$ent0 %een left o&t of t!ese onsi"erations. It o&l" %e arg&e" t!at t!e o$#&ter o&l" !el# !ere a lot. IT "oes in"ee"0 %&t only on a li$ite" s ale. 1irstly0 4e s!o&l" not forget t!at t!e !ig! level of 6no4le"ge in $at!e$ati s an" e ono$i s0 o$%ine" 4it! e7#erien e in s!i# "esign an" o$#&ter te !ni)&es0 nee"e" in o#ti$i+ation st&"ies0 is not often availa%le at s$all or average si+e s!i#yar"s. 1&rt!er$ore0 for a o$#&ter ai"e" o#ti$i+ation #ro ess0 4or6ing $ore or less a&to$ati ally as envisage" at t!e %eginning of t!is "evelo#$ent0 yo& nee" a "esign $o"el in %at ! $o"e0 4it! all "isa"vantages of t!e last one alrea"y "is &sse" in t!e #revio&s !a#ter. Let &s forget for a 4!ile t!e alrea"y s!o4n la 6 of o$$&ni ation %et4een s!i#o4ners an" s!i#yar"s. In t!e $atter of e ono$i al o#eration "ata0 t!at are in"is#ensa%le in o#ti$i+ation st&"ies. Let &s ass&$e t!is infor$ation line "oes 4or6. T!e o#ti$i+er 4ill %e overflo4e" 4it! in#&t "ata 4!ile trying to onsi"er all t!e fa tors of infl&en e fro$ t!e s!i##ing $ar6et #l&s t!ose of t!e s!i# "esign0 %ot! of 4!i ! 4e alrea"y 6no4 as %eing o$#le7. N&$ero&s free an" "e#en"ing varia%les are0 as I sai" %efore0 t!e onse)&en e. Unfort&nately t!e "egree of o$#li ation of o#ti$i+ation $et!o"s in reases stea"ily 4it! n&$%er of varia%les. 1ive or si7 are eno&g! for s& ! an o#ti$i+ation te !ni)&e0 %&t not for a s!i# "esign. Of o&rse yo& an o#ti$i+e a "esign only as a f&n tion of one or t4o varia%les0 %&t is t!e res&lt t!en a #ra ti al o#ti$&$@ 5!at after all is a #ra ti al o#ti$&$ in t!e "esign of a s!i#@ An o#ti$i+ation te !ni)&e %y o$#&ters lea"s0 after a sear ! #ro e"&re 4it! #enalties for onstraints an" a or"ing to t!e %&ilt;in a &ra y0 to one #oint0 2t!e o#ti$&$3. S& ! a #oint $ay e7ist0 %&t in "oing so0 !ave a$ore t!eoreti al t!an #ra ti al signifi an e. To $y e7#erien e 4it! "esign alternatives0 #ara$etri st&"ies an" o#ti$i+ation 4or60 t!e &rves of o%,e t val&e0 i.e. of an e ono$i al riterion as f&n tion of "esign #ara$eters0 are $ost #retty flat0 neig!%o&ring #oints of t!e o#ti$&$ on t!e &rve of t!e o%,e t val&e %eing t!erefore D fro$ a #ra ti al #oint of vie4 D ,&st as a e#ta%le. As a $atter of fa t t!ese si"e #oints $ay event&ally %e even $ore attra tive. In a s!i# s& ! as a %&l6 arrier0 for e7a$#le0 t!e 4eig!t of t!e engine #lant "oes not #lay t!e $ost i$#ortant role an" t!e s!i#o4ner 4ill gla"ly a e#t a !eavier #lant of a $a6e for 4!i ! !e !as &nifor$ s#are #arts or fro$ a $an&fa t&rer 4it! 4!o$ !e !as goo" %&siness onne tions or in 4!o$ !e !as onfi"en e. All t!ese fa tors are "iffi &lt to intro"& e in an o#ti$i+ation st&"y an" t!is is only one of t!e $any #ossi%le e7a$#les. S#ea6ing in ter$s of #ra ti al "esigning0 #ara$eter st&"ies0 in 4!i ! t!e #ara$eters are syste$ati ally varie" in ta%&lar or $atri7 for$ an" t!e res&lts "is#laye" eit!er $an&ally or %y o$#&ter in t!e for$ of si$#le gra#!s "o a very satisfying ,o%. T!e s!i# "esign "oes not re)&ire an a &rate )&antitative 4or60 li6e in a #!ar$a y. Neit!er an t!e tas6 of a s!i# %e al &late" an" o#ti$i+e" as t!e ro&te of a satellite 4or6ing &n"er t!e &n !angea%le la4s of t!e elestial $e !ani s. T!erefore t!e fiel" of t!e o#ti$i+ation st&"ies in s!i# "esign re$ains e7 l&sive for only very s#e ial 4ell "efine" ases0 for resear ! #&r#oses an" tea !ing te !ni)&es0 an attri%&te ty#i al to resear ! instit&tions an" &niversities.

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THEORY AND PRACTICE IN SHIP DESIGN

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*. S!i# Design O%,e ts an" Ingre"ients 1ollo4ing t!e general tren" an" onfor$ing to t!e title of t!is sy$#osi&$ 2A"van es in /arine Te !nology30 if 4e s#ea6 a%o&t s!i# "esign o%,e ts 4e !ave to on entrate on a"van e" s!i# ty#es an" forget for a 4!ile t!e evergreens. In"ee"0 "esign $eans #er "efinition D as 4e !ave seen D reativity an" #rogress. T!ese %ea&tif&l attri%&tes s!o&l" %e t!eoreti ally e7#e te" in a"van e" s!i# ty#es. *.'. A"van e" S!i# Ty#es One an s ar ely rea" to"ay all t!e infor$ation on ne4 %&il"ings0 to follo4 e7a tly t!e "evelo#$ent of ne4 s!i# ty#es. In t!e last t4o "e a"es 4e !ave seen so$e very "istin t a##earan es0 s& ! as ontainer s!i#s0 %arge arriers0 roll;nNroll;off s!i#s0 gas tan6ers0 et . Only t!ese ne4 s!i# ty#es "i" not a##ear t on e0 %&t gra"&ally #enetrate" t!e $ar6et. 1or e7a$#le0 t!e ontainer a$e fro$ lan"0 fro$ f&rnit&re $an&fa t&rers0 to lin6 t!e sea 4it! t!e lan"0 t!e roa" an" t!e rail 4it! t!e s!i#. Pra ti ally all every"ay argo s!i#s are "esigne" no4 for arrying ontainers tooE ontainer s!i#s an ta6e refrigerate" ontainers in in reasing n&$%ers0 ontainer are sto4e" also in ro;ro s!i#s &sing s#e ial loa"ing e)&i#$ent. It is t!e sa$e in t!e offs!ore fiel"0 4!ere se$i;s&%$ersi%les are s#rea"ing o&t0 serving for vario&s servi esB %esi"es e7#loration for #ro"& tion0 #i#e layers an" floating ranes0 or as !otels. 8&t 4!at "oes an a"van e" s!i# ty#e really $eans@ T!e fast liner argo s!i# of (' to (- 6nots0 as #&re "ry argo s!i#0 on e onsi"ere" as an 2a"van e" ty#e3 !ave al$ost "isa##eare"0 !is #la e %eing ta6en %y fast ontainer s!i#s. T!e reason is o%vio&sB t!e invest$ent in %&il"ing an" o#erating at !ig! s#ee"s is not any$ore o$#ati%le 4it! #resent oil #ri es an" 4it! la%o&r osts for onventional loa"ing an" "is !arging in !ar%o&r. T!e $&lti;#&r#ose argo s!i#0 %est s&ite" for stan"ar"i+ation "&ring t!e last ten years en,oye" great #o#&larity0 first as 2Li%erty re#la e$ents3 an" after4ar"s as a 4ell esta%lis!e" s!i# ty#e. Here 4e "ete t an i$#ortant a"van e" "esign on e#t0 na$ely to si$#lify s!i# ty#es0 to "esign t!e$ #ro"& tion frien"ly an" so0 $eeting rationali+ation efforts0 t!&s s&##ressing ra"i ally t!e %&il"ing osts. In t!e #ro ess of !el#ing t!e less "evelo#e" o&ntries or t!ro&g! t!eir o4n #rogress0 t!ey onse)&ently too6 over an a##re ia%le #er entage of t!e 4orl"?s s!i#%&il"ing. T!ere are no reasons 4!y t!is tren" s!o&l" !ange. T!e only !an e for in"&striali+e" o&ntries 4it! !ig! la%o&r osts to $aintain or not to lose t!eir o&t#&t in s!i#%&il"ing is to rationali+e t!e #ro"& tion. An alternative is t!e ot!er e7tre$e0 to %&il" so#!isti ate" s!i#s for 4!i ! a s#e iali+e" 6no4le"ge an" %&il"ing e7#erien e is re)&ire". T!e ontainer s!i# !as ri#ene" in "esign0 t!e storage of ontainers %elo4 an" on "e 60 is 4ell solve". Container s!i#s &# to *::: TEU or "evelo#ing &# to '(:.::: HP an" r&nning over *: 6nots !ave %een %&ilt. Gas t&r%ines !ave %een a"o#te" for t!e #ro#&lsion of so#!isti ate" ontainer s!i#s =('>. Only 4e rea" no4 in t!e #rofessional #ress t!at t!e gas t&r%ines in t!at ase 4ill %e re#la e" %y "iesel $otors an" t!e s#ee" 4ill %e re"& e" fro$ (K to (' 6nots =((>. 5!at "oes a"van e" s!i# ty#es t!en $ean !ere@ 5ort! o%serving is anot!er e7a$#le of a"van e" s!i# "esignB t!e %arge arrier. A very logi al an" #ro$ising on e#t for o$%ine" sea an" inlan" 4ater trans#ort.0 &sing %ig floating ontainers0 t!e %arges0 4!i ! $oreover !el# against ongestion in %&sy !ar%o&rs. T!e !ig! invest$ent vers&s t!e lo4 )&ality argo trans#orte"0 res#e tively in o$e0 #ro%le$s of $aintenan e an" s&rveillan e of t!e %arges in !ar%o&r as 4ell as t!e ne essary %&t not s&ffi ient international oor"ination restri te" so$e!o4 t!e e7#ansion of t!is interesting s!i# ty#e0 at least not so far as ontainer s!i#s "i". St&"ies $a"e in t!is "ire tion so$e ti$e ago s!o4e" re" fig&res =(*>. So$e of t!e e7isting %arge arriers 4ere onverte" %a 6 into

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THEORY AND PRACTICE IN SHIP DESIGN

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ontainer s!i#s. 8&t still ne4 #ro#osals ontin&e to a##ear =(->0 ne4 %arge arriers of vario&s "esigns are %eing %&ilt =(.>. T!e $oral of t!e story is t!at 2a"van e"3 s!i# "esign is not al4ays evi"ent or $ean t!e sa$e %y ti$e. T!e story of %arge arriers in l&"es &nfort&nately one $ore tragi event0 t!e loss of t!e 2/On !en30 t!e Las!;8arge Carrier0 (K: $ in lengt!0 -*.::: t"4 arrying a#a ity0 on '( t! De e$%er '9JM. No%o"y "o&%ts on t!e relia%ility of t!e "esign an" onstr& tion of t!at s!i#. 8&t are 4e "esigners #er!a#s not too onfi"ent on o&r te !ni al reso&r es0 &n"eresti$ating t!e o$#le7ity of t!e sea !allenge 4!en intro"& ing on a large s ale ne4 "esign on e#ts@ 'K$ !ig! gantry rane an" %arges of -.:t ea ! on t4o layers on "e 6 are re$ar6a%le "esign re)&ire$ents =(K>. /any s#e iali+e" "esigns !ave alrea"y %een reate" for LPGNLNG arriers an" $ore 4ill #ro%a%le still o$e. Any4ay0 a"van e" "esign te !ni)&es 4o&l" still %e ne essary if t!e 2nor$al3 si+e of to"ay of '(..:::$* s!o&l" %e in rease" to **:.:::$*0 as #ro#ose" in =(J>. 5ell0 t!e oil tan6ers over $ore t!an one !alf of t!e 4orl" fleet. T!eir in"ivi"&al si+e attaine" as $& ! as ..-.::: t"4 an" a&se" in t!e si7ties $any #ro%le$s0 "&e to "raft restri tions =(M> or "&e to re)&ire" strengt!. T!ey 4ere t!e a"van e" "esigns. A#art fro$ t!is. 1ro$ a "esign #oint of vie4 t!e oil tan6ers are not as e7 iting as ot!er s!i# ty#es. Ho4ever0 t!ro&g! t!eir reg&lar servi e0 one 4ay #ayloa" an" ret&rn an" %allast0 r&nning $ostly &n"er longti$e !arter an" strong o$#etition0 oil tan6ers are 4ell s&ite" to o#ti$i+ation st&"ies. T!e oil risis of '9J* an" t!e trans#ort over a#a ity 4!i ! follo4e"0 #ra ti ally sto##e" t!e ne4 %&il"ing of s& ! s!i#s. 8&t for one e7 e#tion 4e an s#ea6 !ere on a"van e" s!i# "esigns of oil tan6ers B t!e ne4 I/CO reg&lations against oil #oll&tion at sea0 t!e /ar#ol '9J*0 t!e SOLAS '9J-0 %ot! a$en"e" in 1e%r&ary '9JM =(9>. T!e segregate" %allast tan6s an" orres#on"ing "esign re)&ire$ents0 as onse)&en es of t!e last #oll&tion atastro#!es ertainly give 4or6 for a"van e" "esign to naval ar !ite ts. In "esigning #ro"& t or !e$i al tan6ers t!e I/CO reg&lations too0 t!e so alle" 2 o"es30 are a fiel" sti$&lating a"van e" "esign t!in6ing. A%o&t %&l6 arriers 4e $ay say t!e sa$e as for t!e %ig oil tan6ers0 referring to "esign0 to si+e0 o$#etition0 et . Only an o#ti$i+ation #ro ess is $& ! $ore "iffi &lt0 %e a&se of t!e irreg&lar servi es. 8&t0 li6e or"inary $&lti;#&r#ose argo s!i#s 4it! o%ligatory lo4 %&il"ing osts0 t!e %&l6 arriers are )&alifie" for stan"ar"i+ation. Stan"ar" s!i#s $ay so$eti$es %e regar"e" as %ot! "ry argo s!i#s an" %&l6 arriers. A"van e" "esign te !ni)&es to rationali+e t!e #ro"& tion an" o#eration of stan"ar" s!i#s are a##li a%le for %&l6 arriers too. Train an" ar ferries0 $ostly %ot! o$%ine"0 in l&"ing t!eir #assengers0 are 4ell 6no4n s!i# ty#es an" not ne4. 5it! in reasing n&$%er of #rivate ars0 rising stan"ar" of living an" !oli"ay;$a6ers0 t!e "e$an" for t!is ty#e ontin&o&sly in rease"0 even in #erio" of "e#ression in s!i#%&il"ing. Passenger ferries toget!er 4it! t!e r&ising s!i#s are t!e only s& essors of t!e on e so fa$o&s #assenger liner. T!e %&siness of t!e last ategory is ta6en over %y ,&$%o air#lanes an" t!e #restige %y s&#ersoni 2Con or"e3. A"van e" s!i# "esign for #assenger ferries0 %e a&se of t!e s!ort ro&tes an" to $a6e t!e$ re$&nerative0 $eans so$eti$es &nfort&nately a $a7i$&$ n&$%er of #ersons an" ve!i les li6e sar"ines in a an. On t!is #oint I 4o&l" li6e to #raise t!e o&rage an" t!e te !ni al a !ieve$ent of t!e 1innis! s!i##ing an" s!i#%&il"ing in"&stry. T!ey %&ilt t4o years ago not only 4orl"?s largest H'.:: #assengersI0 %&t also t!e 4orl"?s fastest #assengerN ar ferry H*:0. 6nI0 t!e gast&r%ine" H( 7 *J.:: PSI 21inn,et3 =*:>. T!e o$forta%le s!i# #rove" to %e a s& ess. It saves (( !o&rs on t!e ro&te Helsin6i;Trave$&n"e an" so grants to t!e !oli"ay;$a6ers one e7tra "ay ea ! 4ay. A signifi ant role is en,oye" to"ay %y a "erivate of ferriesB t!e roll;onNroll;off argo s!i#0 in s!ort ro;ro. T!ey are %&ilt0 as 4e all 6no40 a or"ing to t!e sa$e #rin i#les as ferries0 only t!e ve!i les are vans0 lorries or trailers0 loa"e" 4it! argo. T!e #assengers D 4it! t!e e7 e#tion of &# to '( "rivers D !ave "isa##eare". 1or t!is reason t!eir %est na$e $ay %e of 2ro;ro argo s!i#s3. T!eir e7#ansion is "&e to t!e si$#li ity of argo !an"ling. T!e )&i 6 loa"ing an"

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THEORY AND PRACTICE IN SHIP DESIGN

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"is !arging #ro e"&re o&nter%alan es e ono$i ally t!e losses in argo !ol"0 a&se" %y an" %et4een ve!i les. Of o&rse t!e %alan e "e#en"s on t!e ratio lengt! of t!e ro&te to n&$%er of !ar%o&r alls0 an" t!e #referen e for roa" against rail %y $any trans#ort o$#anies see$s to s!ift t!e %rea6 #oint in favo&r of t!e ro;ro. T!e argo !an"ling e)&i#$ent on 4!eels0 "riving on %oar" over ra$#s0 eli$inates #retentio&s !ar%o&r fa ilities =*'>. T!e "is overy of )&arter or even $ore sle4ing ra$#s re"& es t!e re)&ire" !ar%o&r fa ilities to a si$#le )&ay an" a #la e to #ar6 an" $anoe&vre t!e ve!i lesE for &n"evelo#e" o&ntries an" agglo$erate" !ar%o&rs a very strong arg&$ent. T!e on l&sion of t!is o%servation o&l" %e t!at &n"er a"van e" s!i# "esign 4e s!o&l" %y no $eans al4ays &n"erstan" o$#li ate" "esign0 ,&st t!e o##osite $ay %e t!e ase. As al4ays in "esign 4or60 %y intro"& ing a ne4 syste$ yo& annot only %oo6 %enefits. T!e si$#le argo !an"ling syste$ of ro;ro s!i#s &sing ra$#s i$#li ates s#e ial !&ll an" #oo# for$s0 %ig o#enings at t!e stern along 4it! 4eig!ts of ra$#s of &# to -:: tons0 4!i ! $&st %e #er$anently arrie". Here in"ee" is roo$ for a"van e" "esign te !ni)&es0 i.e. strengt! al &lation0 to fin" t!e %est onstr& tion0 to $ini$i+e an" a &rately "eter$ine t!e ne essary a""itional steel 4eig!t =*(>. O#erational resear ! st&"ies s!o&l" "eter$ine o#ti$&$ si+es of ra$#s0 #osition of sorting areas0 traffi on %oar"0 et . In a""ition to t!is %eing floating garages0 effe tive0 less ost syste$s for ventilation an" fire fig!ting0 orres#on"ing to $o"ern r&les an" reg&lations0 are to %e o#ti$i+e". 1inally0 4atertig!t s&%"ivision 4it! longit&"inal instea" of transversal %&l6!ea"s0 a or"ing to I/CO resol&tion A(K.0 favo&rs loa"ing of ve!i les on lo4er "e 6s. An in rease in t!e n&$%er of "rivers 4it!o&t all t!e re)&ire$ents for #assenger s!i#s $ay %e a #ro$ising feat&re =**>. /ost of t!e arg&$ents a##lie" to ferries an" ro;ro s!i#s are also vali" for t!e s#e iali+e" s!i#s &se" in t!e ar e7#ort. Interesting e)&i#$ent "esign D $ova%le ar "e 6s D !ave also %een #ro"& e" for t!e sa$e #&r#ose0 to o%tain argo fle7i%ility or to &se %&l6 arriers as e7#ort ar trans#orter. N a"van e" "esign an $ean e)&i#$ent for $&lti;#&r#ose &se0 i.e. for less voyages in %allast. T!e a%ove e7a$#les ill&strate" a"van e" s!i# ty#es for trans#ort of goo"s an" #eo#le. 5e s!all no4 onsi"er t!e se on" large gro&# of s!i#s for s#e ial "&ties. T!e stern tra4lers $a"e t!eir 4ay an" #ra ti ally li)&i"ate" t!e si"e tra4ler. In rease" si+e of tra4lers0 at t!e sa$e ti$e fa tory s!i#s %e a$e $o"ern feat&res. A"van e" s!i# "esign $eans for fis!ing %oats a"van e" fis!ing te !ni)&es0 ele troni s0 et .0 in or"er to give t!e fis! no !an e to es a#eC T!e e7tension of national 4aters to (:: $iles +one %rings to $any o&ntries D es#e ially to t!e &n"evelo#e" ones D t!e nee" to e7#lore t!e fis! reserves of t!eir 4aters. T!erefore0 resear ! vessels are nee"e". 1is!ing %y o4n $eans on a large s ale is an i$#ortant $atter as a so&r e of foo" an" la%o&r0 es#e ially for less in"&striali+e" %&t "ensely #o#&late" o&ntries. A"van e" s!i# "esign $eans !ere t!e $ost s&ita%le s!i#0 to %e %&ilt 4it! little $oney &n"er #ri$itive %&il"ing on"itions. /&lti;#&r#ose si$#lifie" stan"ar" fis!ing %oats o&l" %e t!e rig!t ans4er. A"van e" s!i# "esign 4it! seagoing t&gs to"ay $eans !ig! val&es of %ollar" #&ll0 res#e tively installe" !orse #o4er0 as 4ell as t!eir a#a%ility to serve also to t!e offs!ore in"&stry. S!i#s "evelo#ing *:: tons %ollar" #&ll an" !aving (K.::: HP are alrea"y %&ilt. T!e e7#lanation !ere is t!e nee" to !an"le an" event&ally res &e $o"ern s!i#s of in rease" si+e an" "is#la e$ent0 es#e ially $a$$ot! tan6ers or !&ge offs!ore onstr& tions. T!e e7#loration of oil an" gas fiel"s nort! of t!e #olar ir le an" t!e te !ni al #rogress #er$itting installation of large #ro#&lsion #o4er in a relatively s$all s#a e le" to $ore an" $ore #o4erf&l i e%rea6ers. Gast&r%ine" i e%rea6ers 4it! '.:.::: HP #ro#&lsion #o4er are #resently in "esign stage. 8esi"es i e%rea6ing tan6ers an" %&l6 arriers are a reality =*->. P&s!er %oats an" argo %arges for$ a lassi al syste$ for inlan" navigationE not e)&ally so in t!e ase of t!e seagoing ones. /any efforts !ave %een "one to solve t!e #ro%le$ of t!e onne tion %et4een t!e #&s!er an" t!e o ean going %arges. Gario&s #ro#osals a##eare" an"

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so$e of t!e$ !ave %een reali+e". Can 4e s#ea6 !ere of a"van e" "esign@ Per!a#s te !ni ally0 %&t e ono$i ally o#erational t!ere are still so$e "o&%ts too =*.>. 5it! in rease" traffi an" s!i# si+es0 4it! "evelo#$ent of ne4 regions0 "re"ging 4ill re$ain a t&al an" in "e$an"0 %&t t!e o$#etition %et4een t!e %&il"ers in reases too. A"van e" "esigns in !o##er "re"ging0 s& ! as t!e s#lit trail or a tive rotary !ea"s an" in &tter "re"ging self elevating 4al6ing #latfor$s are reali+e". In "re"ging a"van e" "esign $ay %e synony$o&s 4it! relia%ility in o#eration &n"er !eavy 4or6ing0 soil an" sea on"itions0 $aintenan e an" re#airs0 often in far a4ay0 isolate" #la es0 4!ere assistan e is not easily availa%le. Also t!e se$i;s&%$ersi%le #rin i#le $ay #enetrate in t!is fiel" =*K>. T!e last %&t not t!e least ategory of s!i#s an" $ariti$e onstr& tions to %e revie4e" D a relative ne4 an" 4ell "efine" gro&# on its o4n D is t!e gro&# of ve!i les serving t!e offs!ore in"&stry. T!e gro&# !as %een so i$#ortant in t!e last years0 t!at t!e 4or6;!&ngry s!i#yar"s !ave also reate" an" over a#a ity t!ere. S!i#s an" $ariti$e onstr& tions for offs!ore0 so far steel onstr& tions0 are $ostly %&ilt at s!i#yar"s. T!is fa t !as a logi al e7#lanation. T!e s!i#%&il"er 6no4s t!e sea. T!e s!i# "esigner is a &sto$e" to all t!e onstraints0 li6e sta%ility0 resistan e0 sea6ee#ing0 orrosion effe te" %y t!e environ$ent. He an solve strengt! #ro%le$s an" t!e 4or6s!o#s are a%le to $an&fa t&re an" !an"le !eavy steel onstr& tions. Offs!ore ve!i les are asse$%ly 4or6 as 4ell0 of 4!i ! $arine engineering for$s a goo" #art. A ne4 as#e t !ere is t!e re)&ire" 6no4le"ge an" s6ill of oil #ro"& tion in"&stry an" in t!e f&t&re0 sea $ining. In a"van e" "esigns t!e s!i#%&il"ers $&st reate o#ti$al 4or6ing on"itions for t!e last t4o na$e" in"&stries. T!e "evelo#$ent follo4e" in"ee" t!is "ire tion. S!i#s 4ere onverte" or ne4ly "esigne" for "rilling a tivities. A $ariti$e ve!i le 4it! less #ossi%le $ove$ents in sea 4ay0 i.e. $ini$&$ ratio 4ater#lane to "is#la e$ent0 t!e se$i;s&%$ersi%le0 !as %een %&ilt on a large s ale. Starting 4it! "rilling a tivities for oil e7#loration0 it no4 e7ten"s to #ro"& tion too =*J>. Pi#e laying e)&i#$ent an" !eavy ranes0 at t!e %eginning installe" on onverte" s!i#s0 are no4 %eing #la e" on se$i;s&%$ersi%le of i$#ressive si+es an" "is#la e$ent val&es to re"& e t!e ina tive "ays to a $ini$&$. S&##ort s!i#s for $aintenan e an" a o$$o"ation of re4s are for t!e sa$e reason also se$i;s&%$ersi%les. Gario&s "esigns of #latfor$s on t!ree0 fo&r0 five or $ore legs0 re tang&lar or ir &lar in for$ !ave %een %&ilt. T!e &n"er4ater %o"ies are for "ifferent reasons s#!eres0 ylin"ers or #ontoons. 5!at a"van e" $eans !ere0 is not so easy to ans4er. A"van e" $ay %e !ere %esi"es sea4ort!iness0 i.e. $ini$&$ "o4n ti$e0 in rease" "ea"4eig!t Ha 4ea6 #oint of s& ! ve!i lesI0 %etter #ro#&lsion %&t also si$#lifie" for$ an" rational #ro"& tion. 5e annot lose t!e !a#ter offs!ore 4it!o&t $entioning on e $ore t!e fleets of s&##ly vessels0 alrea"y e7isting in vario&s si+es an" for "ifferent servi es0 s& ! as to4ing0 an !or !an"ling0 fire fig!ting0 salvage0 i e%rea6ing an" not to forget s&##lying t!e "rilling rigs 4it! #i#es0 e$ent0 $&"0 et . In t!eir "esign t!ey rese$%le t&gsE t!e $ain "ifferen e %et4een s&##ly vessels an" t&gs is t!e re)&ire" !ig!er "ea"4eig!t val&es an" t!e s#a e on t!e after "e 6 for argo storage. A"van e" "esign an %e !ere versatility0 $&lti;#&r#ose again =*M>0 re$e$%ering t!at a #o 6et;6nife 4it! $any f&n tions0 s& ! as to o#en %ottles0 ans0 et .0 is not really satisfa tory for any. Lastly0 a 4or" a%o&t s&%$arines an" &n$anne" sea%otto$ 4or6ing e)&i#$ent0 4!i ! in t!e f&t&re $ay ai" on large s ale re overy of $inerals fro$ great "e#t!s. Offs!ore is a ty#i al fiel" of s!i#%&il"ing an" $arine engineering o#en for inventiveness. I "o not nee" to s#ea6 a%o&t t!at !ere in Nor4ay. Ho4ever0 inventiveness is an attri%&te of a"van e" s!i# "esign0 t!e s#i es in a $eal. *.(. Inventiveness in S!i# Design

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THEORY AND PRACTICE IN SHIP DESIGN

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Inventiveness in s!i# "esign is a fas inating s&%,e t. It is a ga$e 4it! $any o$#onents0 re)&iring %orn talent0 #rofessional 6no4le"ge an" e7#erien e0 favo&ra%le ir &$stan es0 #ersisten e0 %&t also a realisti a##roa !0 a feeling for e ono$i s0 a sales strategy an"0 last %&t not least0 serio&sness. It is a to#i 4!i ! $ore or less follo4e" $e an" #er!a#s $any of yo& "&ring o&r #rofessional life. I !a" t!e #leas&re to rea" a #a#er entitle" 2Inventiveness in S!i# Design3 %efore t!e Nort! East Coast Instit&tion of Engineers an" S!i#%&il"ers0 in Ne4 astle &#on Tyne in O to%er '9JJ =*9>. T!ere I trie" to "efine 4!at s!i# "esign an" invention ea ! are0 4!at is o$$on an" 4!at is "ifferent 4it! t!e$. T!ere is an interla e %et4een inventiveness an" a"van e" s!i# "esign. Inventiveness an" "esigns ,oine" toget!er on a very t!in %or"er0 es#e ially in a"van e" s!i# "esign. T!e 2!ot3 as#e t of t!e o$#arison %et4een "esign an" inventiveness 4as t!e )&estionB 2 an a "esigner affor" to %e an inventor an" if so0 !o4 far@ S!all I infe t $y st&"ents 4it! t!e vir&s of inventiveness0 4!i ! in e7tre$e ases o&l" lea" to in &ra%le illness an" "isaster0 or s!all I re o$$en" t!e$ to "esign0 4it! s$all i$#rove$ents0 only t!at 4!i ! !as e7iste" %efore0 to avoi" any ris6 at t!e sa$e ti$e s&##ressing fantasy an" t!e 4is! to str&ggle for o$#etition@3 In t!at #a#er an atte$#t !as %een $a"e to for$&late0 on %e!alf of t!e st&"ents0 fro$ o4n e7#erien e an" fro$ o%servation of onte$#orary #rofessional "evelo#$ents0 so$e #rin i#les of inventiveness in s!i# "esign. In t!e %eginning it a##eare" nearly i$#ossi%le to fin" r&les an" reg&lations for goo" invention. 5!o !as t!e rig!t to "o so@ Not every%o"y is a /osesC 8&t t!in6ing $ore a%o&t it0 one feels t!at t!ere $&st0 at least0 e7ist so$e g&i"elines for it0 as for any ot!er a tivity oriente" to rea ! a target. 1ollo4ing t!e line tra e" %y Prof. 1re"eri 8a on an" Prof. Her%ert S !nee6l&t!0 tentative #rin i#les for a##li ation on inventiveness in s!i# "esign 4ere for$&late". T!ese #rin i#les are as follo4sB An innovation s!o&l" o$e o&t at t!e rig!t $o$ent. Not all inventions 4!i ! !ave faile" s!o&l" %e forgotten0 so$e of t!e$ re onsi"eration #erio"i ally. "eserve

/ost s& essf&l inventions "o not s&""enly a##ear on t!e $ar6et0 t!ey are t!e res&lt of ste# %y ste# a##li ation of inventiveness in s!i# "esign. S!i#o4ners "o not li6e inventionsC Do not in l&"e in a s!i# "esign $ore t!an one $a,or invention at a ti$e. An invention to %e a e#te" in a s!i# "esign !as to %e first of all relia%le. To %e relia%le an invention !as to %e %&ilt &# as far as #ossi%le of onventional $aterial an" #arts an" !as to %e easy to $aintain an" re#air0 t!at $eans it !as to %e si$#le. An invention to %e a e#te" %y a s!i#o4ner s!o&l" offer s&%stantial e ono$i al #rofit. T!e #rofit of an invention s!o&l" %e #resente" in t!e $ost attra tive $anner for t!e &sto$er. A "esigner s!o&l" not !ang on to t!e 4!ole of an invention0 !e s!o&l" a e#t #artial res&lts or 4!atever o$es o&t. T!e s!ortest of t!ese #rin i#les0 2s!i#o4ners "o not li6e inventions3 is #er!a#s t!e $ost signifi ant. T!e reasons 4!y are given in t!e na$e" le t&re =*9>. Lively "is &ssions on t!at o asion #ro"& e" t4o $ore a""itional #rin i#les. One #rin i#le a$e fro$ Dr. 8&7ton0 on e ono$i al si"e0 na$ely t!at 2T!e s!i# si+e of t!e invest$ent !as a negative effe t on an invention0 t!is relate" also to t!e ins&ffi ien ies of ti$e an" staff0 allote" in s!i#%&il"ing for "esign an" esti$ating3. Anot!er #rin i#le0 %y ontri%&tion of Dr. Teas"ale0 4as t!atB

International Symposium on Advances in Marine Technology Norwegian Institute of Technology, June 1979, p. 43 !7

THEORY AND PRACTICE IN SHIP DESIGN

GALLIN

2It is not s&ffi ient to #ro"& e so$et!ing ne4 in one of t!e t!ree "is i#lines "esign0 #ro"& tion an" $ar6eting an" negle t t!e ot!er t4o3. T!is is so $& ! t!e $ore seeing as 2t!e se on" !an e ta6es a long ti$e in o$ing3. 5!at "o s& ! #rin i#les $ean@ If a s!i# "esigner follo4s t!e$0 is !e s& essf&l@ I s!o&l" say not at all. To ite fro$ $y #a#erB 2O&r #rin i#les are only a sort of %&l64ar6 to #revent &s falling into t!e 4ater0 or a ra"ar at nig!t for safe navigation. 8&t if one is a goo" a#tain0 to $a6e for #ort is anot!er $atter. I a$ afrai" t!e )&estion $ar6 $&st re$ain over 4!et!er inventiveness s!o&l" %e a##lie" in s!i# "esign. T!e rig!t ans4er "e#en"s on so $any e7tra fa tors an" i$#on"era%les0 to %e "e i"e" as t!e ase $ay %e. 8&t one t!ing is s&re0 t!e #at! to !aving an invention re ogni+e" an" reali+e" is a long0 !ar" one. T!is 4arning s!o&l" %e given to everyone fro$ t!e %eginningC To start 4it! t!e #atent a##li ation is no easy $atter.3 ... 2It $a6es little sense0 if %enefits are envisage"0 to a##ly for a #atent only in one?s !o$e o&ntry0 es#e ially in s& ! international an" 4orl"4i"e %&siness as s!i#%&il"ing an" s!i##ing. T!e 4!ole #ro e"&re is an e7#ensive a"vent&re.3 ... 21or in"ivi"&als0 yo&ng engineers0 t!e solitary 4ay is $ostly i$#ossi%le. T!e !el# an" en o&rage$ent fro$ t!e o$#anies e$#loying t!e$ "e#en"s &#on t!e %enefits in vie40 ost involve" in resear ! an" #rototy#e %&il"ing0 o$#any #oli y an" not least it "e#en"s &#on t!eir o4n #osition in t!e o$#any. An" t!is is ,&st t!e %eginning of t!e story.3 ... 2T!e $ateriali+ation of an invention0 t!e %&il"ing of t!e #rototy#e0 is t!e se on" %ig ste#. Preli$inary "esign0 esti$ates0 4or6s!o# "ra4ings0 $o"el tests0 %&il"ing osts an" f&ll s ale trials are e7#ensive a tivities0 at least in s!i#%&il"ing an" $arine engineering.3 ... 2To onvin e #eo#le an" to raise $oney for an invention is not easy. It is a str&ggle in 4!i !0 #ara"o7i ally0 goo" res&lts $eet e7tre$e ene$ies in t!e for$ of !&$an ,ealo&sy an" o$#etition. T!e innovation %a%y an "ie s!ortly after a !ealt!y %irt!.3 ... 2T!e t!ir" #!ase0 t!e ti$e to get t!e f&ll o$$er ial val&e fro$ an invention0 is li6e t!e est&ary an" t!e sea for a river. It is %ig %&siness fen"ing for itself0 "e#en"ing0 as %&siness "oes0 on $ar6et0 &sto$ers vie4s0 $anage$ent0 #ro"& tion fa ilities0 sales organi+ation0 again0 a#ital an"0 #er!a#s0 an ele$ent of !an e. An" if ti$es are %a"0 as so often in s!i#%&il"ing0 t!e %est innovation "oes not re eive any !el#C Ho4 4o&l" an inventive oil tan6er "esigner earn !is living to"ay@ 2... S&$$ari+ingB t!e ga# %et4een t!eory an" #ra ti e of t!e onventional s!i# "esign is even $ore a &te 4!en "ealing 4it! a"van e" "esign res#e tively inventiveness. I still on l&"e"B 2In s#ite of t!e $iseries0 an" in"e#en"ent of finan ial res&lts0 t!e inventiveness in itself0 t!e ent!&sias$ #ro ee"ing fro$ it0 t!e i$#&lse for resear ! an" a o$#lis!$ent0 t!e e$otion of $o"el or f&ll s ale testing0 t!e negotiations 4it! t!e #atent offi es0 #rogressing 4or6 4it! yo&r o4n o$#any or 4it! lients an" t!e in rease in self onfi"en e are 4on"erf&l.3 To yo&ng engineers I gave t!e a"vi eB at least0 try. *.*. Design Strategy T!e &lti$ate sense of a s!i# "esign is t!e %&il"ing an" selling of t!e "esign o%,e ts. 5it! only a roll of "esign "ra4ings t!is an0 of o&rse not %e a !ieve". T!ere are t!e 4ell %alan e" efforts of t!e te !ni al an" o$$er ial staff of a s!i#yar"0 &n"er t!e rig!t $anage$ent0 ne essary to ass&re t!at a goo" "esign o$es at t!e rig!t $o$ent on t!e rig!t $ar6et0 %eing o$#etently #resente"0 negotiate"0 reali+e" 4it! $ini$&$ osts0 an"0 last %&t not least0 a"e)&ately finan e". T!e %&il"ers0 in $ost of t!e ases t!e "esigner self0 !ave to fig!t an" 4in a %attle &n"er !ar" 2s!ooting fire3 of t!e o$#etitors. T!&s I feel t!e 4or" 2strategy30 in o&r ase 2"esign strategy30 is to t!e #oint. It is nor one )&ality alone0 %&t a sy$#!ony of "is i#lines

International Symposium on Advances in Marine Technology Norwegian Institute of Technology, June 1979, p. 43 !7

THEORY AND PRACTICE IN SHIP DESIGN

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involve" in an" aro&n" t!e "esign0 4!i ! lea"s to #ra ti al s& ess. 5it!o&t #retensions of o$#leteness 4e s!all #ass in revie4 so$e o$#onents of t!is in"is#ensa%le strategy. Starting 4it! t!e )&estion of t!e rig!t $o$ent an" $ar6etB as a r&le0 t!e 4or6 %egins in t!e "esign offi e after t!e tele7 4it! t!e s!i#o4ner?s in)&iry !as arrive". T!is is a stan"ar"0 %&t not a"van e" 4or6ing style. Ti$e is in s& ! ases s!ort0 not #er$itting 4ell t!o&g! o&t "esign alternatives0 4it! t!e ai$ to fin" t!e %est one. A sol&tion to t!e a%ove #ro%le$ is alrea"y given %y $any s!i#yar"s or %ig $arine o$#anies. 8y $eans of $arine $ar6et analysis0 fleet "evelo#$ent an" ne4 %&il"ing0 re)&ire$ents are %eing st&"ie" an" fore asts atte$#te" =-:>. 5e $ay t!in6 4!at 4e li6e a%o&t fore asts an" "o&%ts are $otivate"0 %&t &n"er ons io&s a##roa ! of #ossi%ilities an" li$its of fore asts0 t!ey an at least serve as tools for fle7i%le #lanning. T!e "evelo#$ent tren"s $ay %e re ogni+e"0 sensitivity st&"ies on t!e infl&en e of "ifferent fa tors on t!e finan ial res&lts arrie" o&t in a"van e0 so t!at 4!en ertain fa tors o$e into for e0 "e isions an %e ta6en )&i 6ly an" ,&stly. S!i#yar" a#a ity an" tonnage "e$an" an so %e %etter o$#are". T!e relia%ility of $ar6et analysis $ay not %e eno&g! to %&il" s!i#s in a"van e0 %&t it $ay %e for "esigning t!e$. Anot!er0 fro$ a strategi #oint of vie40 #ositive feat&re of a"van e" s!i# "esign to over t!e "efi ien ies of fore asts0 o&l" %e its versatility. T!e s!i# an %e so %&ilt as to serve &n !ange" for $ore t!an one tas60 t!e so alle" 2$&lti;#&r#ose vessel30 a fre)&ent ty#e to"ay0 alrea"y $entione". T!e versatility !o4ever0 an also %e in l&"e" in t!e "esign itself0 t!e onstr& tion %eing %ase" on $o"&lar syste$s0 4it! inter !angea%le o$#onents. 1or e7a$#le0 for t!e sa$e !&ll 4e $ay onsi"er t!e %&ilt;in #ossi%ility for longer alternatives0 "ifferent argo gear e)&i#$ent0 ontainers vers&s ro;ro an" %&l60 or #ro#&lsion engines of vario&s o&t#&ts. 5e !ave si$ilar s& essf&l e7a$#les fro$ t!e air raft an" ar in"&stries. Dr. Teas"ale in ref. =*9> re$in"s &s of t!e i$#ortan e of #ro"& tion for a"van e" s!i# "esigns. In"ee" a"van e" "esigns re)&ire for t!eir s& ess a"van e" #ro"& tion $et!o"s an" vi e;versa. Loo6ing %a 6 on !istory0 t!e intro"& tion of steel as a $aterial !ange" t!e "esign on e#t of for$er s!i#%&il"ers. /ore re ently0 t!e 4el"e" onstr& tion0 in #refa%ri ate" se tions0 "e#en"ing on t!e lifting a#a ity of yar"s? ranes0 $ay "eter$ine t!e s&%"ivision of s!i#0 i.e. t!e "esign itself. I 4o&l" li6e to all s& ! a"van e" "esigns 2#ro"& tion frien"ly30 in 4!i ! t!e on e#t is #arti &larly oriente" to an o#ti$al #ro"& tionE t!is s!o&l" t!eoreti ally %e ro&tine an" not e7 e#tions. T!e #resentation of a "esign is not0 in $y o#inion0 a fa tor of $inor i$#ortan e. 8Y t!is I "o not only $ean t!e )&ality of "ra4ing 4or6 an" #a#er. T!ese too !ave to orres#on" 4it! a ertain stan"ar"0 to %e learly an" or"erly "one. 5e s!o&l" not forget t!at t!e s!i#o4ner !i$self "oes &se t!e "esign in negotiations 4it! !arterers0 %an6s0 a&t!orities an" 4o&l" li6e to $a6e in !is t&rn a goo" i$#ression. Un"er #resentation of a "esign I $ainly t!in6 a%o&t t!e #resentation of an o%,e t0 fro$ a &sto$er?s #oint of vie4. T!e "esigner 6no4s t!e a"vantages an" "isa"vantages of !is #ro"& t. At least a"vantages s!o&l" %e learly an" si$#ly #resente"0 so as to $a6e !is &sto$er?s "e ision easier0 t!e "e ision $a6ers often %eing )&alifie" #ersons fro$ t!e o$$er ial si"e an" t!erefore less fa$iliar 4it! te !ni al #ossi%ilities. One te !ni al a"vantage $ay %e 2translate"3 in "ifferent 4ays for t!e %enefit of t!e o4ner. In ref. =-'> s& ! an e7a$#le is s!o4n. T!e i$#ortan e of finan ial s&##ort in s!i#%&il"ing is o%vio&s an" only too 4ell 6no4nC Ho4 $any goo" "esigns !ave not %een reali+e"0 %e a&se t!e finan ial si"e o&l" not %e settle"0 an" vi e;versa0 !o4 $any %eginners in s!i# "esign too6 over or"ers0 t!an6s to finan ial fa ilities0 govern$ent s&%ventions0 et . T!erefore to "esign strategy %elongs leverly "evi e" finan ial %a 6gro&n". Unfort&nately0 t!e finan ial s&##ort "oes not only e7ten" to a favo&ra%le #ay$ent on"itions. 5e !ave alrea"y seen t!at a"van e" "esign of a"van e" s!i#s an" $ariti$e onstr& tions $ay as6 for ne4 or a"a#te" #ro"& tion te !ni)&es0 res#e tively #ro"& tion e)&i#$ent0 4!i ! in so$e ases 4ent so far as to reate ne4 s!i#yar"s. An" t!at is not yet everyt!ing. In ref. =*9>

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THEORY AND PRACTICE IN SHIP DESIGN

GALLIN

Dr. Teas"ale &n"erlines anot!er as#e t of s!i#%&il"ing $ar6et0 na$ely a 2t!res!ol"3 !as to %e #asse"0 i.e. a s&ffi ient n&$%er of a ne4 s!i# are to %e sol"0 for s& ess to %e a !ieve". In"ee" s!i#o4ning is a ris6y enter#rise0 not so $& ! %e a&se of t!e so$eti$es so$e4!at &nfrien"ly #!ysi al environ$ent0 %&t $ore %y t!e &nsta%le s!i##ing $ar6et0 !anging to 4orl"4i"e fl& t&ation. 5it! t!e large s&$s of a#ital engage"0 s!i#o4ners are entitle" to avoi" any e7tra ris6s an" t!erefore #refer to or"er a s!i# fro$ a #roven series. 1or t!e %&il"ers to %&il" a series of s!i#s at 2 oPte )&e oPte3 on"itions0 re)&ire an a##re ia%le finan ial effort. In s!i# "esign too0 $oney %rings no !a##iness0 %&t are goo" ataly+ers. -. Con l&sions It 4as t!e tas6 of t!is #a#er to give evi"en e on erning t!e "is re#an ies e7isting %et4een t!eory an" #ra ti e in $o"ern s!i# "esign0 %et4een !o4 4e s!o&l" #er!a#s li6e "esigning to %e an" !o4 it is in reality. T!e latter %eing so0 not %y !an e0 %&t %y reasons of #ra ti e. 5e $ay s!ift of o&r vie4s on s!i# "esign. It 4as t!e intention of t!e a&t!or t!at %y relating "ifferent as#e ts of $o"ern s!i# "esign0 one $ig!t fin" o&t 4!at is i$#ortant an" 4!at is not in #ra ti al "esign. /ore signifi an e 4as #ai" to t!e "esign o%,e ts0 so alle" a"van e" s!i# ty#es0 t!an to ne4 "esign te !ni)&es0 %e a&se t!e first are in #ra ti e t!e #ro$oters0 4!ile t!e se on" are "eter$ine" an" a onse)&en e of t!e first ones. Res#e t 4as s!o4n for e ono$i s0 as t!e #&r#ose0 t!e 2sine )&a non3 of $o"ern s!i# "esign. A&st as a naval ar !ite t $&st s#ea6 englis! to"ay0 t!e international lang&age of s!i#%&il"ing an" s!i##ing0 t!e s!i# "esigner $&st #ossess a %asi 6no4le"ge of e ono$i s to &n"erstan" !is #artners. Unfort&nately0 no &nifor$ity e7ists in ost al &lations an" e ono$i riteria. Even s!o&l" t!is %e t!e ase0 t!e o$$&ni ation %et4een t!e #arties involve" on e ono$i "ata is %a"0 "&e to t!e "ivergen y of interests. Referen e !as %een $a"e f&rt!er to t!e o$#&ter as a great non;"is#ensa%le !el# for t!e "esigner0 %&t 4arnings !ave not %een !i""en on negative as#e ts an" li$itations of o$#&ter ai"e" s!i# "esign. O#ti$i+ation st&"ies !ave still to %e regar"e" as 4or6 of elite0 only "one in s#e ial ases. T!e $ore 4e t!in60 t!e $ore 4e $&st on l&"e t!at #ra ti al a"van e" s!i# "esign "oes not al4ays $ean t!e sa$e. An a"van e" "esign is t!ere to $eet ne4 ne essities of o&r so iety an" t!ey an %e entirely "ifferent. T!e o%solete Li%erty s!i#s of t!e se on" 4orl" 4ar $a"e 4ay for $&lti;#&r#ose !ea# stan"ar" argo s!i#s. T!e t!reat of less "evelo#e" o&ntries to %e o$e s!i#%&il"ers0 o%lige" t!e in"&striali+e" ones to rationali+e t!e #ro"& tion0 4it! all onse)&en es for t!e s!i# "esign. 1&rt!er0 t!e &##er li$it for $er !ant s!i#s? s#ee"0 t!e e ono$i al 2so&n" %arrier3 for s!i#s0 as 4ell as t!e !ig! la%o&r osts in #orts of t!e "evelo#e" o&ntries0 in"& e" a"van e" argo !an"ling0 s& ! as ontainers0 %arges an" ro;ro?s. Agglo$erate" !ar%o&rs or #ri$itive fa ilities of ne4 $ar6ets %ro&g!t t!e e7#ansion of t!e ro; ro ty#e vessel. Relatively ne4 in"&stries0 s& ! as offs!ore0 reate" ne4 s!i#s an" $ariti$e ve!i les. 1inally0 atastro#!es an so$eti$es #ro$ote a"van e" s!i#s0 res#e tively "esign r&les0 as "i" t!e 2Titani 3 for SOLAS an" 2Torrey Canyon30 2A$o o Ca"i+3 for /ARPOL. A"van e" s!i# "esign $ay $ean si$#le or ,&st for t!e sa6e of it a"van e"E for sno%s in s!i# "esign so$eti$es trivial0 %&t not &ni$#ortantC T!e 4!eel is si$#le too0 %&t t!e A+te s 4o&l" not !ave o#erate" ro;ro s!i#s. Un"er a"van e" "esign 4e $ay &n"erstan" not only si$#le0 %&t also !ea# to %&il" an" o#erate. Q&i 6 a"a#ta%ility of "esign to ne4 argo an" #ort on"ition or to ne4 legislation is a sign of a"van e" "esign t!in6ing. T!is "oes not e7 l&"e "iffi &lt "esigns for e7igent argo0 s& ! as li)&efie" gas0 !eavy goo"s0 et . t!is %eing a onsolation for #retentio&s "esigners. Creation of a"van e" "esign re)&ires 6no4le"ge an" inventiveness0 t!e latter t!eoreti ally e7 ellent0 $ay in #ra ti e %e a !eavy %&r"en0 a "iffi &lt 4ay to go 4it! no ins&ran e or re4ar". Inventiveness an %e "angero&s for %ot! "esign an" "esigner. T!ere are so$e #rin i#les 4!i ! o&l" %e follo4e"0 !o4ever only as g&i"e an" not as a re i#e.

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THEORY AND PRACTICE IN SHIP DESIGN

GALLIN

1inally t!e %est a"van e" s!i# "esign $ay gro4 $o&l"y in a "es6 "ra4er0 if not strategi ally sol" %y o$#etent #eo#le at t!e rig!t $o$ent0 an" 4it! a"e)&ate $eans on t!e rig!t #la e. A&st as a s& essf&l star0 4!o %esi"es talent nee"s a goo" i$#resario. I sin erely !o#e0 t!at $y refle tions on t!eory an" #ra ti e of s!i# "esign "i" not "isa##oint. 8&t li6e "esigns D &s&ally "one first on #a#er instea" of %&il"ing t!e$ "ire tly at f&ll s ale D it is #er!a#s %etter to riti i+e ver%ally t!e "is re#an y %et4een t!eory an" #ra ti e in s!i# "esign0 t!an %ear its onse)&en es. 1or t!e last ti$e in t!is le t&re0 t!e tr&t!0 4!en re ogni+e"0 s!o&l" %e sai" an" s!o&l" not !&rt. . . Referen es
'. (. *. -. .. K. J. M. 9. R. A. Ra4son0 2T!e art of s!i# "esigning30 E&ro#ort International /ariti$e Conferen e0 A$ster"a$0 '9JK. C. Gallin0 2Ont4er#en van s !e#en een 6&nst in "e $o"erne te !nie6@30 Ina&g&ral s#ee ! Hin ger$anI at t!e Delft University of Te !nology0 Delft0 '9J:. C. Gallin0 A. 5. /&nt+0 G. A. S !e#$an0 A. P&nt0 2Ne4 stan"ar" s!i#s or se on" !an" s!i#s@ An e ono$i al eval&ation &sing o$#&ter te !ni)&es30 Pro ee"ings I.C.C.A.S.0 Got!e$%&rg0 '9JK. T!. /. Oostin,en0 2E ono$i riteria for s!i# "esign o#ti$i+ation30 Gra"&ation 5or60 Delft University of Te !nology0 '9J(E S !i# en 5erf0 Nove$%er '9J(. R. D. /&r#!y0 D. A. Sa%at0 R. A. Taylor0 2Least ost s!i# !ara teristi s %y o$#&ter te !ni)&es30 C!esa#ea6e Se tion0 S.N.A./.E.0 '9K*E /arine Te !nology0 A#ril '9J.. C. Gallin0 2Ent4&rf 4irts !aftli !er S !iffe $ittels Ele6tronenre !ner3 HS&$$ary of Do tor T!esisIE Aa!r%& ! "er S !iff%a&te !nis!en Gesells !aft0 '9KJ. A. 5. Gilfillan0 2Preli$inary "esign %y o$#&ter30 Transa tions I.E.S.S.0 '9KJ. L. R. R&#ras0 2Progra$$ing of t!e ele$entary "esign of a s!elter;"e 6er M.:::;'(.:::: ts."430 8&". O6rer0 De e$%er '9KM0 Aan&ary '9K9. R. P& !stein0 2A&to$atisierte Pro,e6tier&ng o#ti$aler S !iffe30 S !iff%a&fors !&ng. Son"er!eft0 '9K9.

':. A. Holtro#0 2Co$#&ter #rogra$s for t!e "esign an" analysis of general argo s!i#s30 Gra"&ation 5or60 Delft University of Te !nologyE Re#ort No. 'J.S0 Net!erlan"s S!i# Resear ! Centre TNO0 Delft0 '9J'E International S!i#%&il"ing Progress0 Gol. '90 1e%r&ary '9J(. ''. C. Gallin0 25!i ! 4ay o$#&ter ai"e" s!i# "esign@30 Pro ee"ings I.C.C.A.S.0 To6yo0 '9J*. '(. E. Deet$an0 2S!i# "esign on onversational $o"e0 e7e$#lifie" for tan6ers30 Gra"&ation 5or60 Delft University of Te !nology0 '9J. Hin oo#eration 4it! Gerol$e Unite" S!i#yar"sI. '*. H. No4a 6i0 2Gra#!is ! intera6tive Pro%le$e "es S !iffsent4&rfes30 S.T.G. Co$$ittee for S!i# Design0 Ha$%&rg0 '9J.. '-. S. T!orval"sen0 1. /a,or0 2Intera tive #reli$inary s!i# "esign 4it! gra#!i al ai"s30 Pro ee"ings I.C.C.A.S.0 To6yo0 '9J*. '.. C. Gallin0 L. R. R&#ras0 E. Deet$an0 2T!e realities of #resent "ay s!i# "esign30 Pro ee"ings I.C.C.A.S.0 To6yo0 '9J*. 'K. P. /an"el0 R. Leo#ol"0 2O#ti$i+ation $et!o"s a##lie" to s!i# "esign30 Transa tions S.N.A./.E.0 '9KK. 'J. A. /oe0 S. L&n"0 2Cost an" 4eig!t $ini$i+ation of str& t&res 4it! s#e ial e$#!asis on longit&"inal strengt! $e$%ers of tan6ers30 Der Ingenie&r0 Nos. -J an" -9E Transa tions R.I.N.A.0 '9KM. 'M. H. No4a 6i0 1. 8r&sis0 P. /. S4ift0 2Tan6er #reli$inary "esign D an o#ti$i+ation #ro%le$ 4it! onstraints30 Transa tions S.N.A./.E.0 '9J:. '9. H. No4a 6i0 2O#ti$i+ation in #re; ontra t s!i# "esign30 Pro ee"ings I.C.C.A.S.0 To6yo0 '9J*.

International Symposium on Advances in Marine Technology Norwegian Institute of Technology, June 1979, p. 43 !7

THEORY AND PRACTICE IN SHIP DESIGN

GALLIN

(:. L. R. R&#ras0 2O#ti$i+ation $et!o" an" #ara$etri st&"y in #re ontrate" s!i# "esign30 International S!i#%&il"ing Progress0 /ay '9JK. ('. 8. 8. Car#enter0 A. G. Hol%&rn0 D. A. A?Neill0 2Syste$ integration of t!e G. T. S. E&roliner fro$ on e#tion to o#eration30 /arine Te !nology0 Aan&ary '9J*. ((. 2Diesel statt Gast&r%ine30 Hansa No. .0 '9J90 #age **J. (*. A. Peterse0 2O#ti$i+ation of LASH;servi e30 Gra"&ation 5or60 Delft University of Te !nology0 '9J(. (-. H. Lin"e0 R. S#et!$ann00 2Ein 8arge;Carrier;Syste$ $a7i$aler Leist&ngsfS!ig;6eit &n" vielseitiger Ger4en"%ar6eit30 Hansa NO. 'M0 '9JKE Hansa No0 '(0 '9JJE Hansa No. ':0 '9JM. (.. 2Las!0 Sea%ee0 8a o3 2Ne4 Las! "esigns fro$ Las! Syste$s In .0 "evelo#e" %y A. L. Gol"$an3E 3A&li&s 1& !i6 D first of t4o %arge arrying vessels %&ilt for R&ssian o4ners!i# %y Gal$et Oy3E 21irst 8a o;oner0 or"ere" fro$ T!yssen Nor"see4er6e3E S!i##ing 5orl" an" S!i#%&il"er0 Aan&ary '9J9. (K. R. 5en"el0 2T&$ Untergang von /On !en30 Hansa No. '0 '9J9. (J. Naval Pro,e t Develo#$ent Co$#any Rotter"a$ 8G0 2**:.::: $ * Gerol$e li)&efie" nat&ral gas arrier30 Rotter"a$0 '9JJ. (M. Net!erlan"s S!i# /o"el 8asin0 2T!e "evelo#$ent of a -(..::: TD5 tan6er 4it! restri te" "ra&g!t30 Pro ee"ings of Sy$#osi&$0 5ageningen0 '9J'. (9. 5. D. Sni"er0 2I/CO Conferen e on Tan6er Safety an" Poll&tion Prevention30 /arine Te !nology0 Gol. '.0 No. *0 A&ly '9JM. *:. 28a 6gro&n" to 1inn,et30 S!i#%&il"ing U /arine Engineering0 A&lyNA&g&st '9JJE 21inn,et30 S!i##ing 5orl" U S!i#%&il"er0 A&ly '9JJ. *'. I. L. 8&7ton0 R. P. Daggitt0 A. Ring0 2Cargo a ess e)&i#$ent for $er !ant s!i#s30 #&%lis!e" %y E. U 1. N. S#on Lt"0 Lon"on0 '9JM. *(. A. H. C. /ei,ers0 2Infl&en e or t!e ra$# ty#es on t!e steel 4eig!t of ro;ro argo s!i#s30 Gra"&ation 5or60 Delft University of Te !nology0 '9JM. **. /. A. 5. /. van Hees0 2Design an" e ono$i al eval&ation of ro;ro argo s!i#s for "angero&s goo"s an" *K #assengers30 Gra"&ation 5or60 Delft University of Te !nology0 '9JK. *-. 25orl"?s first i e%rea6ing %&l6 arrier30 S !i#en 5erf0 NO. (K0 '9JM. *.. A. 5. /&nt+0 2Enige %es !o&4ingen %etreffen"e "e +eegaan"e "&4vaart3E H. A. 5esters0 2Teegaan"e "&4vaart30 G&est le t&res at t!e Delft University of Te !nology0 '9J.. *K. L. Goossens0 2Se$i;s&%$ersi%le "re"ge30 Gra"&ation 5or60 Delft University of Te !nology0 '9JME T. P. Aoo"en0 2Se$i;s&%$ersi%le "re"ge30 Offs!ore Te !nology Conferen e0 Ho&ston0 '9J9. *J. 8. 8ern!ar"0 2Se$i;s&%$ersi%le #ro"& tion an" storage #latfor$ for e7#loitation of oil so&r es30 Gra"&ation 5or6 in #re#aration0 Delft University of Te !nology0 '9JMN'9J9. *M. S. Gee$an0 2A $&lti;#&r#ose offs!ore servi e vessel30 Gra"&ation 5or60 Delft University of Te !nology0 '9JM. *9. C. Gallin0 2Inventiveness in s!i# "esign30 Transa tions of t!e Nort! East Coast Instit&tion of engineers an" S!i#%&il"ers0 Gol. 9-0 Ne4 astle &#on Tyne0 '9JME S !i# en 5erf0 No. (0 Aan&ary '9J9 an" No. *0 1e%r&ary '9J9. -:. 8. Nilsson0 21leet "evelo#$ent an" ne4%&il"ing re)&ire$ents30 /arine /ar6et Analysis0 *NJM0 #&%lis!e" )&arterly %y Stal;Laval T&r%in A80 1ins#ong0 S4e"en. -'. C. Gallin. H. /. Hiersig0 /. C. van "er Hoe60 2T!e lengt! of t!e engine roo$ D a !allenge to s!i# "esign30 Aa!r%& ! "er S !iff%a&te !nis !en Gesells !aft0 8an" J:0 '9JK Hin Ger$anIE S !i# en 5erf0 A&ly '9JM Hin Englis!I.

International Symposium on Advances in Marine Technology Norwegian Institute of Technology, June 1979, p. 43 !7