ULG, Transmission and Distribution Department

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Table of Contents

1 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................2 1.1 What is Transmission line?................................................................................................2 1.2 Main components ...............................................................................................................2 1.3 Definitions (Terminology)..................................................................................................3 1.4 How to procee the transmission line pro!ect.................................................................." 2 DESIGN ASPECTS OF TRANSMISSION LINE........................................................6 2.1 #asic Metho ology..............................................................................................................$ 2.2 %election of con &ctor.........................................................................................................' 2.3 %pacing an clearances for power lines............................................................................( 2.4 %ag)tension calc&lation.....................................................................................................1* 2." Dimensioning of tower......................................................................................................13 2.5.1 Determination of eig t...............................................................................................1! 2.5.2 Loading "ases...............................................................................................................1! 2.5.! #or"e $nal%ses met ods..............................................................................................15 2.5.& 'ele"tion of to(er members.........................................................................................16 2.$ Dimensioning of +ns&lator...............................................................................................1, 2.' Tower -o&n ations...........................................................................................................1( 2., .arthling............................................................................................................................21 3 CONSTRUCTION ASPECTS..................................................................................22 3.1 Transportation..................................................................................................................22 3.2 /onstr&ction of fo&n ation..............................................................................................22 3.3 Tower .rection..................................................................................................................23 3.4 %tringing.............................................................................................................................23 4 FINANCIAL ASPECT...............................................................................................23 5 ANNEX (EXERCISES).............................................................................................26 ___________________________________________________________________________
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-asi" Design and Constru"tion aspe"ts of Transmission Lines

1 1.1

INTRODUCTION What ! T"a#!$ !! %# & #'(

T is .uestion "an simpl% not be ans(ered b% a fe( (ords. /a" " apter in t is le"ture notes probabl% (ill use to gi0e a proper ans(er of it. $ transmission line is a de0i"e for t e transfer of ele"tri" energ%. 1t "an transfer t e energ% o0er long or s ort distan"es, and at different 0oltages. Transfer of ele"tri"al energ% o0er 0er% long distan"es "alls for a trun2 line (it ig 0oltages. T e transmission lines of 0er% ig 0oltages, su" as3 *, 24, 15, 24, 22, 24, &,, 24, are part of a national grid 5G6T in -elgium7. To ma2e it easier to understand it "an be said t at t e transmission lines (it t e ig er 0oltages are t e ig (a%s in t e energ% transfer s%stem. 1n bet(een t ese ig (a%s and t e small 8pat s9, ( i" mig t "all distribution net(or2 to drop t e 0oltage line from ig er le0el to lo(er le0el, t ere (ill be a lot of transmission lines (it different 0oltages. 1n t e planning and design of transmission line, a number of re.uirements a0e to be met. #rom t e ele"tri"al point of 0ie(, t e most important re.uirement is insulation and safe "learan"es to eart ed parts. T ese, toget er (it t e "ross:se"tion of "ondu"tors, t e spa"ing bet(een "ondu"tors, and t e relati0e lo"ation of ground (ires (it respe"t to t e "ondu"tors, influen"e t e design of p%lons and foundations. 1.2 Ma # )%$*%#'#t!

$ transmission line "onsists of different "omponents. T e "ondu"tors t roug ( i" t e ele"tri"al energ% is to be transferred are to be supported b% insulators and p%lons. T erefore basi"all% main "omponents, ( i" "onsists in transmission line are; Condu"tor /art (ire 5Ground (ire7 1nsulators <t er ard(are 5"lamp, 0ibration dampers, "able "onne"tor et"s7 P%lon #oundation

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___________________________________________________________________________ 1.3 D'+ # t %#! (T'"$ #%&%,-)

1n transmission lines planning and design, t e follo(ing terms are "ommonl% used; -asi" or normal span 6uling or e.ui0alent span $0erage span =ind span =eig t span

#asic or normal span T e normal span is t e most e"onomi"al span for ( i" t e line is designed o0er le0el ground, so t at t e re.uisite ground "learan"e is obtained at t e ma>imum spe"ified temperature. 0&ling or e1&i2alent span T e ruling span is t e assumed design span t at (ill produ"e, bet(een dead ends, t e best a0erage tension t roug out a line of 0ar%ing span lengt s (it " anges in temperature and loading. 1t is t e (eig ted a0erage of t e 0ar%ing span lengt s. $ "ustomar% rule is to estimate a ruling span ( i" (ill appro>imatel% ? $0erage span @ 2A! 5ma>imum span B a0erage span7 T eoreti"all% t e ruling span is "al"ulated b% t e formula;

Lr =

! ! l1! + l 2 + ...... + l n l1 + l 2 + .... + l n

= ere l1, l2,C.,ln are t e first, se"ond and last span lengt s in t e se"tion. Generall%, as t e number of spans in"rease, t e ruling span approa" es t e a0erage span. T e ere"tion tension for an% line se"tion is "al"ulated for t is %pot eti"al span. T is span is t en used to "al"ulate t e oriDontal "omponent of tension, ( i" is to be applied to all t e span bet(een t e dead end to(ers. 32erage span T e a0erage span is t e mean span lengt bet(een dead ends. 1t is assumed t at t e "ondu"tor is freel% suspended su" t at ea" indi0idual span rea"ts to " anges in tension as a single a0erage span. $ll sag and tension "al"ulations are "arried out for t e a0erage span, on t is assumption. T(o basi" %pot eses must be "onsidered for e>treme loading; Lo( temperature at a gi0en (ind speed Eig (ind at a gi0en temperature ___________________________________________________________________________
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___________________________________________________________________________ $part from t is ot er %pot esis s all also be "onsidered; Eig temperature no (ind for ground "learan"e Fean temperature for "oldest mont for $eolian 0ibration

.4ample; #ind ruling and a0erage span for & spans in a dead ended line se"tion "onsisting of lengt s, !,,, &,,, 5,, and +,, m respe"ti0el%.

Average .span =

!,, + &,, + 5,, + +,, = 5,, m &

Customary .ruling .span = 5,, + 2

( +,, 5,, ) = *,, m

Theoretica l.ruling .span =

!,, ! + &,, ! + 5,, ! + +,, ! = 6,! m !,, + &,, + 5,, + +,,

Gormall% longer ruling span s all be "onsidered during design stage.

Dea .n %pan $ dead end span is one in ( i" t e "ondu"tor is dead:ended at bot ends. Dead end spans s ould preferabl% be a0oided, but in "ertain "ases field "onditions di"tate t eir use. 1t is fre.uentl% "on0enient to "ross a ri0er, a 0alle% (it a single long span. = en su" a span o""urs, it is desirable to dead:ended it at bot ends to a0oid using a ruling span t at (ould be too long for t e rest of t e line. Win %pan T e (ind span is t at on ( i" t e (ind is assumed to a"t trans0ersel% on t e "ondu"tors and is ta2en as alf t e sum of t(o spans, adHa"ent to t e p%lon. T is span (ill be used to "al"ulate t e (ind load of "ondu"tor on to(er. Weight span T e (eig t span is t e oriDontal distan"e bet(een t e lo(est points of t e "ondu"tors, on t e t(o spans adHa"ent to t e to(er. T e lo(est point is defined as t e point at ( i" t e tangent

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___________________________________________________________________________ to t e sag "ur0es. T e (eig t span is used to "al"ulate t e dead load of "ondu"tor on to(er. T%pi"al figure for (ind span and (eig t span is gi0en belo(.

Figure 1;

=ind span and (eig t span

1.4

.%/ t% *"%)''0 th' t"a#!$ !! %# & #' *"%1')t

-efore start to "onstru"t a transmission line a lot of planning and design (or2 need to be "arried out to pro0ide ne"essar% plans and lengt s of t e profiles, sele"tion of main "omponents of t e line to be built. T e first t ing is to a0e a loo2 on t e most up to date maps a0ailable to a".uire a general impression of t e topograp % of t e area ( ere t e line is to be ere"ted and t us dete"t an% ob0ious problems t at mig t arise. T e topograp i"al sur0e% s all be "arried out (it a most optimal solution bot en0ironmentall%, te" ni"all% and e"onomi"all%. $ proper line profile (it ne"essar% information s all be prepared. T e profile s all be normall% made (it appropriate s"ale3 for oriDontal 1; 2,,, and 0erti"al 1;5,,. $fter preparing profile design (or2 s all be started. = en designing a transmission line t e first important t ing to be 2no(n is t e operating 0oltage of t e transmission line. = at "ondu"tor to use (ill depend upon operating 0oltage, transfer "apa"it% desired and total lengt of t e transmission line. T e detail dis"ussion on t e design aspe"ts is briefed in ne>t " apter.

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___________________________________________________________________________ 2 2.1 DESIGN ASPECTS OF TRANSMISSION LINE 2a! ) M'th%0%&%,-

T e design met odolog% is based on t e "on"ept ( ereb% a transmission line is designed as a s%stem made of "omponents su" as foundation, p%lons, "ondu"tors, insulators and ot er ard(are. T e met odolog% is prin"ipall% based on international pra"ti"e. T e met odolog% "an be des"ribed in t e follo(ing steps; Gat er preliminar% line design data and a0ailable "limati" data 'ele"t reliabilit% le0el in terms of return period of design load Cal"ulate "limati" loading on "omponents Cal"ulate loads "orresponding to se"urit% re.uirements 5failure "ontainment7 Cal"ulate loads related to safet% during "onstru"tion and maintenan"e 'ele"t appropriate "orre"tion fa"tors, if appli"able, to t e design "omponents su" as use fa"tor, strengt fa"tors related to numbers of "omponents, strengt "oordination, .ualit% "ontrol, and t e " ara"teristi" strengt Design "omponents for t e abo0e loads and strengt re.uirements

Reliability levels 1n all "ases, lines s all at least meet t e re.uirements of reliabilit% le0el one, ( i" "orrespond to a return period of design loads of 5, %ears. Reliability levels for transmission line 56ef.:57 0elia5ility 6e2els T, 6eturn period of "limati" design loads, in %ears 1 5, 2 15, 3 !,,

T e reliabilit% le0el s all be dependent on t e importan"e of t e line in t e national grid. Eig er t e reliabilit% le0el means t e fa"tor of safet% is ig er and ultimatel% more "ost.

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___________________________________________________________________________ 2.2 S'&')t %# %+ )%#03)t%"

T e sele"tion of "ondu"tor siDe s all be go0erned b% t(o fa"tors; 1. /le"tri"al re.uirement 2. Fe" ani"al strengt .lectrical re1&irements T e siDe of "ondu"tor (ill be determined based on follo(ing parameters; 1nstalled "apa"it% of t e plant, P in 2= <perating 0oltage of t e line 4 in 24 Total lengt of t e line to "al"ulate t e losses Cost of "onstru"tion

P = ! V I "os

I =

P ! V "os

, 5$mp7

V ,I

Losses,
l = I 2R I 2 L

, A

5 L l , A l ,V

l 7

T erefore t ese fa"tors must be "ompared during sele"tion of "ondu"tor siDe. Eo(e0er it as been re"ommended t at for line 22, 24 and abo0e t e siDe of "ondu"tor s all not be less t an &,, mm2. #or e>ample refer Manual de travaux pratiques destine au cours du Professeur Jean Louis Lilien T e abo0e met od is primaril% appli"able to transmission lines t at are not subHe"t to load gro(t . T at (ould be t e "ase for transmission lines from ne( plants do(n to t e nearest point of "onne"tion in t e e>isting s%stem. = ile in t e "ase of load gro(t , t e sele"tion of "ondu"tor s all be "arried out b% optimiDing t e s%stem planning based on "osts and benefits for t e total benefits for t e total s%stem (it proHe"ted load gro(t and generation e>pansion plan. T e follo(ing formulas appl% to t e "al"ulation; ___________________________________________________________________________
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t o t a l

= Ki n v e s t m e n t = 5 Pp e a k = Ki n v e s t m e n t

+ Kl o s s e s

+ K OJM

K K

l o s s e s

AU

r a t e !

.R. Tl o s s A1 , ,

.k .D

.D

in 1,,, U'I A2m

OJM

. COJM

in 1,,, U'I A2m in 1,,, U'I A2m = ere3 Ppea2 Urated 6 Tloss 2/ D C<JF ? Fa>imum transmitted po(er in F= ? 6ated $C line 0oltage in 24 ? $C line resistan"e in A km ? Loss duration in ours ? /nerg% "ost in Us"A2= ? Dis"ount fa"tor ? $nnual operation J maintenan"e "ost 5K of initial in0estment7

T e optimiDation stud% (ill be "arried out b% using t ese formulas for different t%pes of "ondu"tor and optimum one s all be sele"ted for t e line. T is is a "ompre ensi0e stud% in s%stem planning. Mechanical strength T e me" ani"al strengt of t e "ondu"tor is one of t e maHor parameter during t e sele"tion of t e "ondu"tor of t e line. T ree limits on "ondu"tor tension are set b% 8T e Gational /le"tri"al 'afet% Code 5G/'C79 to 2eep normal tensions (it in reasonable limits and to pre0ent "ondu"tor stresses abo0e t e elasti" limit ( en t e "ondu"tor is full% loaded. = en t e "ondu"tor is loaded to t e assumed "limati" load, t e tension s all not e>"eed 6,K of t e ultimate strengt . T is is referred to as t e 8loaded "ondition9. = en t e "ondu"tor is initiall% strung and is "arr%ing no "limati" load, t e tension s all not e>"eed !5K of ultimate strengt at a temperature of 15.6, C 56,o #7. T is is referred to as t e 8initial unloaded "ondition9. $fter t e "ondu"tor as been subHe"ted to t e assumed "limati" load, it re"ei0es a permanent or inelasti" stret" . = en t e "ondu"tor rea" es t is "ondition, t e tension (it out "limati" load at a temperature of 15.6, C 56,, #7 s all not e>"eed 25K of ultimate strengt . T is is referred to as t e 9final unloaded "ondition9. #or a gi0en ruling span onl% one of t ese "onditions (ill "ontrol t e sele"tion of "ondu"tor siDe and t e ot er t(o ma% a0e relati0el% little signifi"an"e in so far t e ma>imum allo(able tensions are "on"erned.

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___________________________________________________________________________ 2.3 S*a) #, a#0 )&'a"a#)'! +%" *%/'" & #'!

#rom safet% "onsiderations, po(er "ondu"tors along t e route of t e transmission line s ould maintain re.uisite "learan"es to ground in open "ountr%, national ig (a%s, ri0ers, rail(a%s, tra"2s, tele"ommuni"ation lines, ot er e>isting po(er lines. T e ground "learan"e for different 0oltages, ( i" generall% appli"able are; 66 24 1!2 24 22, 24 6.5 m at @65, C "ondu"tor temperature *., m at @65, C "ondu"tor temperature *.5 m at @+,, C "ondu"tor temperature

T e minimum "learan"es of "ondu"tor o0er ri0ers, ( i" are not na0igable, s all be 2ept !.,5 m o0er ma>imum flood le0el. T e minimum "learan"es bet(een t e "ondu"tors of a po(er line and tele"ommuni"ation "able s all be; 1!2 24 22, 24 &,, 24 2.&& m 2.*& m &.++ m

T e minimum spa"ing bet(een po(er lines s all be; 1!2 24 22, 24 &,, 24 2.*5 m &.55 m 6.,, m

T e spa"ing of "ondu"tors is determined b% "onsiderations, ( i" are partl% ele"tri"al and partl% me" ani"al. Usuall% "ondu"tors (ill s(ing s%n" ronousl% 5in p ase7 (it t e (ind, but (it long spans and small siDe of "ondu"tors, t ere is al(a%s possibilit% of t e "ondu"tors s(inging non: s%n" ronousl%, and t e siDe of t e "ondu"tor and t e ma>imum sag at t e "entre of t e span are fa"tors, ( i" s ould be ta2en into a""ount in determining t e p ase distan"e apart at ( i" t e% s ould strung. $s a rule of t umb, minimum oriDontal spa"ing bet(een "ondu"tors s ould not be less t an 1K of t e span lengt in order to minimiDe t e ris2 of p ases "oming into "onta"t (it ea" ot er during s(ing. T ere are number of empiri"al formula in use, dedu"ed from spa"ing, ( i" operated in pra"ti"e; G/'C, U'$ formula a0e su""essfull%

EoriDontal spa"ing in "m,

# = A + !.6+1 " + L 2

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___________________________________________________________________________ = ere $ ? ,.*62 "m per 24 line 0oltage ' ? 'ag in "m, and L ? Lengt of insulator string in "m '(edis formula

EoriDontal spa"ing in "m,

# =6.5 " +,.*

= ere ' ? 'ag in "m and / ? Line 0oltage in 24 #ren" formula

EoriDontal spa"ing in "m,

# = + " + L + 1.5

= ere ' ? 'ag in "m L ? Lengt of insulator string in "m / ? Line 0oltage in 24 Tower top clearance To(er top "learan"e is t e 0erti"al "learan"e bet(een eart (ire and top "ondu"tor, ( i" is go0erned b% t e angle of s ielding. T e s ield angle 0aries from about 25, to !,,,depending on t e "onfiguration of "ondu"tors. To(er top "learan"e s all be ta2en 1.5 and 2.25 m for 1!2 24 and 22, 24 respe"ti0el% for ,, s(ing. 2.4 Sa,4t'#! %# )a&)3&at %#

T e sag and tension of t e "ondu"tor are subHe"t to 0ariations due to t e " anges in temperatures and loading. #or spans of t e order of !,, meters and less, t e sag and tension "al"ulation "an be "arried out b% paraboli" formula (it suffi"ient degree of a""ura"%. #or t e "ase of 0er% long spans, "atenar% formula gi0es more a""urate results t an paraboli".

7ara5olic form&la; ___________________________________________________________________________

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L =" +

" ! .$ 2 2& .% 2

D=

" 2 .$ +%

T " 2 .$ % = + $ +% $

/atenary form&la8
L= 2% "$ "inh $ 2% % "$ 1 Cosh $ 2%

D=

T % =D+ $ $
$= &2 + p 2

= ere; . ? resultant load on t e "ondu"tor per unit lengt ' ? 'pan lengt D ? 'ag of "ondu"tor at its lo(est point L ? lengt of t e "ondu"tor in span T ? Tension at eit er point of support E ? oriDontal tension at t e lo(est point T e oriDontal tension at t e lo(est point 5E7 s all normall% be ta2en 6, GAmm2 for span less t an !,, m and 1,, GAmm2 for span grater t an !,, m span. T is tension (ill be treated as a pretension.

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___________________________________________________________________________ 1n t ose instan"es ( ere t e "ondu"tor supports are not at t e same ele0ation, sags are determined b% means of in"lined span sag formulas, ( i" e>press t e sag in terms of t e sag of a le0el span of t e same lengt as follo(s;

-ig&re 2;

1n"lined 'pan
2

D1 = D1 &D

D2 = D1 + &D "1 = " 1 2 &D

( ere; D1 D2 / '1 ? "ondu"tor sag belo( lo(er support ? "ondu"tor sag belo( upper support ? differen"es in ele0ation bet(een support ? oriDontal distan"e from lo( part of sag to lo(er support

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___________________________________________________________________________ .4ample; #ind t e "ondu"tor sag b% t e paraboli" and "atenar% met od for t e "ondu"tor (it t e data gi0en belo(; Condu"tor span ' Diameter, D =ind pressure at &.&, C =eig tAmeter lengt $rea 5see $nne> 7 ? *,, m ? 21 mm ? )*2.2 GAmm2 ? ).+ GAmm ? 261 mm2

2.5

D $'#! %# #, %+ t%/'"

2.5.1 D't'"$ #at %# %+ h' ,ht

T e fa"tors go0erning t e eig t of to(er are; Finimum permissible ground "learan"e, 1 Fa>imum sag, 2 4erti"al spa"ing bet(een "ondu"tors, ! 4erti"al "learan"e bet(een eart (ire and top "ondu"tor,

&

T e total eig t of to(er (ill be determined b%;

% T = h1 + h2 + h! + h&

2.5.2 L%a0 #, )a!'!

T e loads on transmission line to(er "onsist of t ree mutuall% perpendi"ular s%stems of load a"ting 0erti"al, normal to t e dire"tion of line, and parallel to t e dire"tion of t e line. 1t as been found "on0enient in pra"ti"e to standardiDe t e loads as under; Trans0erse load Longitudinal load 4erti"al load Torsional s ear =eig t of stru"ture

9ertical loa s 4erti"al loads are (eig t of "ondu"tors and eart (ire and stru"tures as (ell as do(n:pull "aused b% le0el differen"es bet(een to(ers, ( i" is ta2en into a""ount ( en determining t e (eig t span. ___________________________________________________________________________
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___________________________________________________________________________ Trans2erse loa s Trans0erse loads are "aused b% (ind and oriDontal pull from de0iation angle in t e line. 6ongit& inal loa s Longitudinal loads are "aused b% pretension of "ondu"tor tension on one side onl% of tension to(ers and b% an abnormal 5bro2en (ire7 load on suspension to(ers, subHe"t to definition b% standards or national "odes of pra"ti"e. Weight of str&ct&re T e (eig t of stru"ture is an un2no(n .uantit% until t e a"tual design is "omplete. Eo(e0er, 6%le1 as e0ol0ed an empiri"al formula gi0ing t e appro>imate (eig t of an% to(er in terms of its eig t and ma>imum (or2ing o0erturning moment at t e base.
' = ,.6&+ .% . M + &5,

( ere3 = ? (eig t of to(er abo0e ground le0el in 2g, E ? o0erall eig t of t e to(er F ? o0erturning moment at ground le0el, in G m 5(or2ing loads7 =or2ing load for to(er in 6%leLs formula defined as M of ultimate load of "ondu"tors and eart :(ire3 ( ere 2 is t e fa"tor applied for normal "ondition. Win loa =ind speed and turbulen"e depend on t e terrain roug ness. =it in"reasing terrain roug ness, turbulen"e in"reases and (ind speed de"reases near ground le0el. #our "ategories of ground, of in"reasing roug ness are "onsidered as indi"ated in table belo( 56ef7. :ro&n ro&ghness categories ;0 $ C D

1.,+

1.,,

,.+5

,.6*

T e referen"e (ind 0elo"it% for a parti"ular line, VR = K R VM , = ere 4F is (ind speed. T e line, ( i" follo(s t e ridge of ill, 0alle% and "ulti0ated fields, falls under t e "ategor% C and D. Eo(e0er for "al"ulation purpose t e line s all be regarded under "ategor% -, i.e. N6 ?1.
1

6%le, P.O., 8'teel to(er e"onomi"s9, Oournal of 1//, Part 2, 1)&6.

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___________________________________________________________________________ T e present pra"tise in (ind load "al"ulation is; =ind pressure on "ondu"tors; =ind pressure on stru"tures; P ? ,.6!& 4F2 in GAmm2 P? 1.,252 4F2 in GAmm2

$ir resistan"e fa"tor s all be ta2en 1.*1 for total (ind pressure, front and ba"2 of stru"ture. 2 T us total pressure on stru"ture (ill be P =1.*1 1.,252 .V M on t e proHe"ted area of t e to(er. T is pra"ti"e and number is based on $meri"an 'o"iet% of Ci0il /ngineers Go.523 8Guide for Design of 'teel Transmission To(ers9. />ample for "al"ulation of to(er loading for a t%pi"al 1!2 24 double "ir"uit line is en"losed in $nne>.

2.5.3 F%")' A#a&-!'! $'th%0!

<n"e t e e>ternal loads a"ting on t e to(er are determined, one pro"eeds (it an anal%sis of t e for"es in 0arious members. -efore t e ad0ent of digital "omputers, met od of anal%sis of "omple> stru"tures generall% in0ol0ed lengt %, time:"onsuming "al"ulations, in0ol0ing long and "al"ulations, for obtaining member for"es and defle"tions. T e use of "omputer programs as enabled t e anal%sis of large stru"tural s%stems to be "arried out more easil% and a""uratel%. $mong t e 0arious met ods a0ailable for t e truss anal%sis, t e matri> formulation of anal%ti"al met od as t e ad0antage o0er ot er met ods, sin"e t e operation of matri> algebra "an be pro0ided in t e form of routine in t e "omputer program. T e matri> met od of stru"tural anal%sis is broadl% subdi0ided into t(o distin"t met ods; 1. #le>ibilit% met od 2. 'tiffness met od $lt oug t(o approa" es are fundamentall% different, t e% are lin2ed to ea" ot er b% a "omplementar% relations ip. -le4i5ility metho T e fle>ibilit% met od of anal%sis is also 2no(n as t e for"e met od or "ompatibilit% met od.

[ ( ]{ R} = {}
= ere ( , R J are fle>ibilit% influen"e "oeffi"ient, member for"es and displa"ement respe"ti0el%.

{ R} = [ ( ] 1 {! }

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___________________________________________________________________________ 1n general, if a stru"ture is n times stati"all% indeterminate, it (ill be ne"essar% to set up n "ompatibilit% e.uations at n releases in order to anal%se t e stru"ture. T e "ompatibilit% e.uations are set up b% establis ing t e "ontinuit% of t e stru"ture at ea" release in turn, using t e displa"ement ( i) 5termed as fle>ibilit% influen"e "oeffi"ient7 at 1 due to unit stress at H.

%tiffness metho T e stiffness met od is also 2no(n as Displa"ement met od or /.uilibrium met od. T e met od begins b% fi>ing t e stru"ture at t e nodes, appl%ing un2no(n displa"ement {} one at a time and finding t e nodal for"es, P, due to ea" one of t em. T e e.uations of e.uilibrium are set up in terms of nodal displa"ements a""ounting for boundar% "onditions.

[ K ]{ } = { P}
'ol0ing t ese e.uations, un2no(n displa"ements, , are first obtained b% using

{ } = [ K ] 1 { P}
/0er% stru"ture must fulfil t e dual re.uirements of e.uilibrium and "ompatibilit%. T e fle>ibilit% met od maintains t e stru"ture in e.uilibrium and uses "ompatibilit% "onditions for t e solution, ( ile t e stiffness met od maintains t e "ompatibilit% of t e stru"ture and ma2es use of e.uilibrium "ondition for t e solution. #or sol0ing pin:Hointed trusses, t e stiffness met od generall% leads fe(er e.uations. T erefore, t e stiffness met od is more "ommonl% emplo%ed in t e anal%sis of transmission line to(ers.

2.5.4 S'&')t %# %+ t%/'" $'$5'"!

T e a>ial for"e is t e onl% for"e for to(er member 5bra"ing7. T erefore, t e member as to be designed eit er "ompression or tension. 'ome members in "ross:arm (ill be subHe"ted b% bending moment. = en t ere is multiple load "ondition "ertain members ma% be subHe"ted to "ompression and tension as (ell as bending and a>ial. T e leg se"tion (ill be subHe"ted bot bending and a>ial for"es. T e basi" design "riteria, ( i" are appli"able for sele"tion of to(er members, are as follo(; Tension
(U

s!

,.). Anet .

M2

/ompression ___________________________________________________________________________
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* s! ( A . + e(( M1

#en ing moment

M ( =' . + ! e(( M1

( ere; $net $eff ? Get "ross se"tional are of angle se"tion ? /ffe"ti0e "ross se"tional area of angle se"tion (U ? Ultimate strengt of material in Fpa (+ ? Pield strengt in Fpa =eff ? /ffe"ti0e se"tional modulus M 1 ? 1.1 M 2 ? 1.25 ( ( +! = + M1 #en ing an a4ial forces T e "ross se"tion of leg se"tion (ill be satisfa"tor% if t e follo(ing "riteria are satisfied;
* s! M !+ M !, + + 1 Ae(( . ( y! 'e((+ . ( +! 'e((, . ( +!

#&c<ling 7henomenon To(ers are normall% "omposed of "olumn members supported b% stress:"arr%ing bra"ing and L redundant members. Limiting 0alues of e 5slenderness ratio7 are for legs, 15,3 for ot er r members "arr%ing "al"ulated stress 2,,3 6edundant, 25,. = ere Le is t e effe"ti0e lengt and r is radius of g%ration. T e uler Formula is used in t e elasti" range. #or general "ase Le = KL , ( ere N is t e effe"ti0e lengt fa"tor, ( i" depends on t e end restraints. /ffe"ti0e lengt s of "olumns (it different restraints are s o(n in figure belo(.

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Figure !"!;

/ffe"ti0e lengt s of "olumns (it different restrains

2.6 D $'#! %# #, %+ I#!3&at%"

$ir "learan"e refers to t e minimum distan"e, ( i" must be maintained bet(een t e li0e "ondu"tor and eart ed metal parts of t e support to a0oid flas o0er bet(een t em. T e minimum air "learan"e as to be maintained e0en under t e "onditions of s%stem o0er: 0oltages (it t e insulator strings in t e defle"ted position due to t e a"tion of (ind pressure. 1n e>tra ig 0oltage s%stems, t ree t%pes of o0er 0oltages are li2el% to o""ur; 1. <0er 0oltages due to dire"t stro2es of lig tning 2. <0er 0oltages due to s(it" ing surges /nergising of transmission lines on no load '(it" ing off of long lines on no load 1nterruption of transformer magnetising "urrents

!. Po(er fre.uen"% o0er 0oltages = en a long loaded line is interrupted at one end = en an open line is suddenl% "onne"ted to t e sour"e <n t e o""urren"e of a single p ase to eart fault or t(o p ases to eart fault

1t is t erefore ne"essar% to spe"if% t ree different "learan"es "orresponding to t ree different t%pes of o0er 0oltages mentioned abo0e, (it t e insulator string in t e defle"ted position. T e number of insulator dis"s and air "learan"es normall% adopted are gi0en in table belo(;

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Ta5&'6

N3$5'" %+ #!3&at%" 0 !)! +%" E.7 & #'!

Nominal system voltage, kV O8'" 7%&ta,'! 66 132 220 400

Number of discs (254 146 mm! "#itc$ing surges &o#er'fre(uency )ig$tning R')%$$'#0'0 #3$5'" %+ #!3&at%" 0 !)! 2 3 1 5 5 5 1 9 % 10 1 14 13 20 2 23

Ta5&'6

A " )&'a"a#)' 3#0'" 0 ++'"'#t !-!t'$ %*'"at #, )%#0 t %#

Nominal system voltage, kV S-!t'$ )%#0 t %# 66 132 220 400

*inimum clearances in cm "#itc$ing surges &o#er'fre(uency )ig$tning 3+ 33 %0 ,0 ,6 150 114 133 210 22+ 1++ 2%0

2.:

T%/'" F%3#0at %#!

T e foundation is "alled upon to resist t e follo(ing t%pes of for"es; Uplift Do(nt rust Lateral load <0erturning moment

T e basi" 0erti"al for"es are deri0ed from t e dead(eig t of t e to(er and t e "ondu"tors. T e (ind "ontributes to t e oriDontal for"e on t e to(er, produ"ing not onl% oriDontal s ear for"e 5lateral load7 on t e foundation, but also an uplift on t e (ind(ard side of t e stru"ture and do(nt rust on t e ot er. T e uplift or t e "ompression for"es are of primar% "on"ern in to(er foundation design 5see figure belo(7. T e design of t e to(er foundation depends on t e nature of loading and t%pe of soil t at supports t e foundation. ___________________________________________________________________________
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Figure !"#;

#or"es on to(er foundation.

T e t%pes of foundations generall% adopted for transmission line to(ers are as follo(s; 1. 2. !. &. 5. $ugur t%pe (it under"ut Pad and stem t%pe Under reamed pile t%pe Grillage t%pe 6o"2 an" ors

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-ig&re 2.4; 2.;

Different t%pes of foundation

Ea"th& #,

<n"e t e geometr% of t e to(er and t e line insulation le0el are fi>ed, t e one fa"tor, ( i" affe"ts t e lig tning performan"e of a line t at "an be "ontrolled during t e "onstru"tion p ase of t e line, is t e to(er:footing resistan"e. Conse.uentl%, t is s ould be measured during t is p ase of t e (or2 and, if ne"essar%, e>tra eart ing pro0ided. T e footing resistan"e to be attained for different 0oltage "ategories a""ording to 'o0iet Union pra"ti"e is gi0en in table belo(; ___________________________________________________________________________
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___________________________________________________________________________ %pecific resisti2ity of soil (ohms=cm3) Up to 1,& 1,& up to 5 Q1,& 5Q1,& up to 1,Q1,& 1,Q1,& 0esistance (in ohms) >p to 33* <9 4**="** <9 1, 1, 15 1! 2, 15 !, !,

CONSTRUCTION ASPECTS

$ transmission line "onstru"tion proHe"t is fundamentall% a series of indi0idual proHe"ts, ( i" are spotted o0er t e lengt of t e line. T is "onstru"tion (or2 "annot be organised in t e same manner as a "ompa"t dam, po(er ouse and building "onstru"tion. Due to t e great time it ta2es to tra0el bet(een to(er sites, more "onstru"tion inspe"tors or super0isors are re.uired to "ontrol t e proHe"t. $ "onstru"tion "ommuni"ations net(or2 is a must for t e transmission line "onstru"tion. To perform all operations re.uired for "onstru"ting t e line "omprises t e follo(ing p ases; 3.1 Transportation of material at site Constru"tion of foundation To(er ere"tion 'tringing of t e "ondu"tor T"a#!*%"tat %#

T e (eig t of materials and e.uipment re.uired for building t e line is se0eral undred tonnes, ( ile "onstru"tion sites are s"attered o0er a (ide area. Logisti" operation t us be"omes a maHor fa"tor in t e line "onstru"tion.

3.2

C%#!t"3)t %# %+ +%3#0at %#

Generall% most of t e to(er foundation is "on"rete foundation (it different t%pe. T e 0olume of "on"rete (ill 0ar% from 15 m! up to &, m! per foundation depending upon t e load on parti"ular to(er. Rualit% "ontrol during t e "onstru"tion of foundation is most, sin"e t e "onstru"tion materials li2e, sand, aggregate, "ement and steel are broug t from different lo"ation and .ualit% ma% ___________________________________________________________________________
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___________________________________________________________________________ 0ar%. Curing of foundation is often " allenging, be"ause of la"2 of (ater at ea" to(er lo"ation. 3.3 T%/'" E"')t %#

-uilt up met od, ere"ting t e to(er members b% member is most "ommonl% used for ere"ting to(ers. T e ere"tion progresses from t e bottom up(ard. T e four main leg members of t e first se"tion of t e to(er are first ere"ted and gu%ed off. T e "ross:bra"es are t en assembled on t e ground and t e assembl% is raised as a unit and bolted to t e alread% ere"ted "orner leg angles. T e first se"tion is t us built and oriDontal struts, if an% are bolted in position. #or assembling t e se"ond se"tion of t e to(er, an ere"ting pole is pla"ed on t e top of one of t e "orner legs for raising parts of t e se"ond se"tion of t e to(er. T e leg members and bra"es of t is se"tion are t en oisted and assembled. T e ere"ting pole is t us mo0ed up as t e to(er gro(s. T e pro"ess is "ontinued till t e "omplete to(er is ere"ted. Cross:arms are also assembled on t e ground and raised up and fi>ed to t e main bod% of t e to(er. 3.4 St" #, #,

'tringing t e line, in0ol0es t e follo(ing four operations; 'tringing t e pilot line to aulage t e "ondu"tor 6unning out t e "ondu"tors from reels Pulling up t e "ondu"tors to "orre"t sag and tension T%ing off

Condu"tor s ould al(a%s be paid out from rotating reels or some similar rotating de0i"e. To speed up t e (or2, and ( ere0er t e topograp % permits it, t e "ondu"tor is paid out from t e rotating reels mounted on tru"2. T is (ill minimise t e possibilit% of damaging t e "ondu"tor b% dragging it o0er fen"es, ro"2s, et". 1n re"ent %ears, t e use of eli"opters as be"ome pre0alent sin"e t e stret" ing met od "an redu"e t e (or2 for"e and at t e same time a0oid "utting trees.

FINANCIAL ASPECT

Transmission line "ost (ill be bro2en do(n into different "omponent "osts; "ondu"tor, eart (ire, insulatorsAfittings, to(ers, foundation, and engineering. /a" "omponent in"ludes material and ere"tion 5"onstru"tion7. T e brea2do(n into "omponent "osts, ( i" is a0eraged internationall% are gi0en in table belo(;

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___________________________________________________________________________ #0.3; D?W@ +@T? /?M7?@.@T /?%T%A +@T.0@3T+?@36 39.03:. 3ll fig&res are B of total line costs
/omponents C 1"* <9 1"* D 3** <9 %ingle circ&it Do&5le circ&it %ingle circ&it Do&5le circ&it Matr. .rec Total Matr. .rec Total Matr. .rec Total Matr. .rec Total
2,.2 2.& 5.2 21.) 11.5 !., 11.& 1.* !.5 11.2 5., !., 31.$ 4.1 ,.' 33.1 1$." $.* 25., 1.5 6.5 21., 11.5 2., 11.5 1.1 !.5 ).& 5., 2., 3$." 2.$ 1*.* 3*.4 1$." 4.* 2,.* 2.1 6.5 21., 11.2 2.5 12., 1.6 2.& 11.+ 5.& 2.+ 32.' 3.' ,.( 32., 1$.$ ".3 2*., 1.! 5., 21.5 1,.* 1.5 11.5 1.2 !., ).+ 5.5 2., 3,." 2." ,.* 31.3 1$.2 3."

Condu"tors /art (ires 1nsulators Afittings To(ers #oundation 6ig t of (a%, /ngineering Totals

6&.2

!5.+

1**.*

6*.5

!2.5

1**.*

6&.,

!6.,

1**.*

6*.,

!!.,

1**.*

T e "ost distribution for double "ir"uit lines up to !,, 24 also applies to single "ir"uit lines (it t(in "ondu"tors per p ase. /omponents Condu"tors /art (ires 1nsulators Afittings To(ers #oundation 6ig t of /ngineering Totals 42* <9A %ingle /irc&it %ingle /irc&it Matr. .rec 21.1 12.6 2., 2., &., !.2 21., 1,.5 (a%, 2.! 6,.) 12.+ 5.* 2.+ !).1

Total 33.' 4.* '.2 33., 1$.2 ".1 1**.*

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6ist of 0eferences

1. Furt % '.'. J 'ant a2umar $.6.,1)),.9Transmission Line 'tru"ture93 F"Gra(Eill -oo2 "o3 2. $'C/:Fanuals and 6eports on /ngineering Pra"ti"e Go 523 8Guide for Design of 'teel Transmission To(ers9. !. Professor Oean:Louis Lilien, 1))+A1))) 39 Fanuel de tra0au> prati.ues destine au "ours9. &. 6/$ -ulletin 16,:2, Oul% 1)6). 8/ngineering and <perations Fanual for 6ural /le"tri" '%stems9, Distribution Line Design 5Fe" ani"al7 5. 6es am 6aH D a2al, Oune 1)))3 D1:1))):163 8Fs" T esis <n NE1FT1:DE$LN/=$6
1!2 N4 T6$G'F1''1<G L1G/, G/P$L, $ 'TUDP <# 1FP<6T$GT P$6$F/T/6'93 1G'T1TUTT
#<6 4$''-PGG1GG, D/P$6TF/GT <# EPD6$UL1C $GD /G416<GF/GT$L /GG1G//61GG.

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ANNEX (EXERCISES)

%ag an Tension calc&lation8

E<a$*&'6 G 8'# 0ata6 -onductor s.an " in m / 0iameter, 0 in mm / 1ind .ressure at 4240 - in N3mm2 / 1eig$t .er meter leng$t$ in N3m / -ross sectional area of conductor in mm2 / S%&3t %#6 4ind t$e resultant load on t$e conductor .er unit lengt$
$= &2 + p 2

,00 21 %,2,2 %,+ 261

1ind load .er meter run / 233 0 #ind .ressure / (,N3m / 16,,,1+2

13,610+

Pa"a5%& ) +%"$3&a6 12 ) / 22 0 / 32 5 / ,05,%015 3%,35%15 26,60,12

Cat'#a"- +%"$3&a6 12 ) / 22 0 / 32 5 / ,05,%164 3%,52534 26,62,%1

.4ercise8 -in the con &ctor sagA length an tension 5y the para5olic an form&la for the con &ctorA Moose with the ata gi2en 5elow8 'pan ' ? 65, m Diameter D ? !1.** mm =ind pressure ? *5, GAmm2 1"e load ? 15 GAm Condu"tor (eig t ? 2, GAm CA' area of "ondu"tor ? 525.+ mm2

catenary

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