Master The AP Calculus AB & BC, 2nd Edition (Peterson's Ap Calculus)

PETERSO NS
M ASTER
AP CALCULUS
AB & BC
2nd Edition
W. M ic ha e l Ke lle y
M a rk Wilding,
Contributing Author
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Second Edi ti on
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OTHER RECOMMENDED TITLES
Master AP English Language& Composition
Master AP English Literature& Composition
Master AP Chemistry
Master AP U.S. Government & Politics
Master AP U.S. History
Contents
Acknowl edgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi i i
Before You Begin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
How Thi s Book I s Organi zed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
Speci al Study Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
Appendi x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvi
Youre Wel l on Your Way to Success . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvi
Gi ve Us Your Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvi
Mi ke Kel l eys How to Use Thi s Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvi i
Qui ck Reference Gui de . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xx
Top 10 Strategi es to Rai se Your Score . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxi v
PART I: AP CALCULUS AB & BC BASICS
1 All About the AP Calculus AB & BC Tests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Frequentl y Asked Questi ons About the AP Cal cul us Tests . . 3
Summi ng I t Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
PART II: AP CALCULUS AB & BC REVIEW
2 Calculus Prerequisites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Functi ons and Rel ati ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Exerci se 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Answers and Expl anati ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Functi on Properti es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Exerci se 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
I nverse Functi ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Exerci se 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Hands-On Acti vi ty 2.1: Transformi ng Functi ons . . . . . . . . . . 31
Sel ected Sol uti ons to Hands-on Acti vi ty 2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Exerci se 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Tri gonometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Exerci se 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
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v
Parametri c Equati ons (BC Topi c Onl y) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Exerci se 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Pol ar Equati ons (BC Topi c Onl y) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Exerci se 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Vectors and Vector Equati ons (BC Topi c Onl y) . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Exerci se 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Technol ogy: Sol vi ng Equati ons wi th a Graphi ng
Cal cul ator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Exerci se 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Summi ng I t Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3 Limits and Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Hands-On Acti vi ty 3.1: What I s a Li mi t? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Sel ected Sol uti ons to Hands-On Acti vi ty 3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Exerci se 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Eval uati ng Li mi ts Anal yti cal l y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Exerci se 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Conti nui ty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Exerci se 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Hands-On Acti vi ty 3.2: The Extreme Val ue Theorem . . . . . 88
Sel ected Sol uti ons to Hands-On Acti vi ty 3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Exerci se 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Hands-On Acti vi ty 3.3: The I ntermedi ate Val ue Theorem . 93
Sol uti ons to Hands-On Acti vi ty 3.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Exerci se 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Li mi ts I nvol vi ng I nfi ni ty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Exerci se 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Answers and Expl anati ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Speci al Li mi ts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Exerci se 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Technol ogy: Eval uati ng Li mi ts wi th a Graphi ng
Cal cul ator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Exerci se 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Summi ng I t Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
C onte nts vi
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4 Differentiating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Deri vati ve as a Rate of Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Exerci se 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
The Power Rul e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Exerci se 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Deri vati ves to Memori ze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Exerci se 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
The Chai n Rul e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Exerci se 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
The Product Rul e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Exerci se 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
The Quoti ent Rul e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Exerci se 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
A Word About Respecti ng Vari abl es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Exerci se 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
I mpl i ci t Di fferenti ati on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Exerci se 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Hands-On Acti vi ty 4.1: Approxi mati ng Deri vati ves . . . . . . 152
Sel ected Sol uti ons to Hands-On Acti vi ty 4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Exerci se 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Technol ogy: Fi ndi ng Numeri cal Deri vati ves wi th the
Graphi ng Cal cul ator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Exerci se 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Summi ng I t Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
5 Advanced Topics in Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
The Deri vati ve of an I nverse Functi on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Exerci se 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Hands-On Acti vi ty 5.1: Li near Approxi mati ons . . . . . . . . . . 170
Sol uti ons to Hands-On Acti vi ty 5.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Exerci se 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
LHpi tal s Rul e (BC Topi c Onl y) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Exerci se 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Parametri c Deri vati ves (BC Topi c Onl y) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
C onte nts vii
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Exerci se 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Pol ar Deri vati ves (BC Topi c Onl y) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Exerci se 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Technol ogy: Fi ndi ng Pol ar and Parametri c Deri vati ves
wi th Your Cal cul ator (BC Topi c Onl y) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Exerci se 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Summi ng I t Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
6 Applications of the Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Rel ated Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Exerci se 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Hands-On Acti vi ty 6.1: Rol l es and Mean Val ue
Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Exerci se 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Hands-On Acti vi ty 6.2: The Fi rst Deri vati ve Test . . . . . . . . 210
Exerci se 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Concavi ty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Exerci se 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Moti on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Exerci se 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Moti on i n the Pl ane (BC Topi c Onl y) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Exerci se 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Opti mi zati on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Exerci se 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Technol ogy: Model i ng a Parti cl es Movement wi th a
Exerci se 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Summi ng I t Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
7 Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Basi c Anti deri vati ves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Exerci se 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
C onte nts viii
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Hands-On Acti vi ty 7.1: Approxi mati ng Area wi th
Ri emann Sums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Exerci se 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
The Trapezoi dal Rul e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Exerci se 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
The Fundamental Theorem of Cal cul us . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Exerci se 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Hands-On Acti vi ty 7.2: Accumul ati on Functi ons . . . . . . . . . 281
Sol uti ons to Hands-On Acti vi ty 7.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Exerci se 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
The Mean Val ue Theorem for I ntegrati on, Average
Val ue of a Functi on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Exerci se 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
U-Substi tuti on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Exerci se 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
I ntegrati ng I nverse Tri gonometri c Functi ons . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Exerci se 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
Technol ogy: Eval uati ng Defi ni te I ntegral s wi th Your
Exerci se 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Summi ng I t Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
8 Advanced Methods of Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Mi scel l aneous Methods of I ntegrati on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Exerci se 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Parts (BC Topi c Onl y) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Exerci se 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Powers of Tri gonometri c Functi ons (BC Topi c Onl y) . . . . . 326
Exerci se 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
Parti al Fracti ons (BC Topi c Onl y) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
Exerci se 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
I mproper I ntegral s (BC Topi c Onl y) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Exerci se 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
C onte nts ix
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Technol ogy: Drawi ng Deri vati ve and I ntegral Graphs
wi th Your Cal cul ator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Exerci se 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Summi ng I t Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
9 Applications of Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Hands-On Acti vi ty 9.1: Area Between Curves . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Exerci se 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
The Di sk and Washer Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
Exerci se 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
The Shel l Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
Exerci se 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
Fi ndi ng the Vol ume of Regi ons wi th Known Cross
Secti ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
Exerci se 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Arc Length (BC Topi c Onl y) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
Exerci se 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Pol ar Area (BC Topi c Onl y) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
Exerci se 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
Technol ogy: Usi ng Your Cal cul ator Effi ci entl y . . . . . . . . . . . 396
Exerci se 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
Summi ng I t Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
10 Differential Equations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Hands-On Acti vi ty 10.1: Separati on of Vari abl es . . . . . . . . 407
Sol uti ons to Hands-On Acti vi ty 10.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Exerci se 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
Hands-On Acti vi ty 10.2: Sl ope Fi el ds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
Sel ected Sol uti ons to Hands-On Acti vi ty 10.2 . . . . . . . . . . . 415
Exerci se 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
Eul ers Method (BC Topi c Onl y) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
Exerci se 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
Exponenti al Growth and Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
Exerci se 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
C onte nts x
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Logi sti c Growth (BC Topi c Onl y) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
Exerci se 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
Technol ogy: A Di fferenti al Equati ons Cal cul ator
Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
Exerci se 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
Summi ng I t Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
11 Sequences and Series (BC Topics Only) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
I ntroducti on to Sequences and Seri es, Nth Term
Di vergence Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
Exerci se 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
Convergence Tests for I nfi ni te Seri es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
Exerci se 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
Power Seri es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
Exerci se 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
Tayl or and Macl auri n Seri es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
Exerci se 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
Technol ogy: Vi ewi ng and Cal cul ati ng Sequences and
Seri es wi th a Graphi ng Cal cul ator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
Exerci se 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
Summi ng I t Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
PART III: FOUR PRACTICE TESTS
Practice Test 1: AP Calculus AB. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
Secti on I , Part A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
Secti on I , Part B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
Secti on I I , Part A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
Secti on I I , Part B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
Answer Key and Expl anati ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
Practice Test 2: AP Calculus AB. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
Secti on I , Part A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
Secti on I , Part B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
Secti on I I , Part A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
Secti on I I , Part B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
Practice Test 3: AP Calculus BC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
Secti on I , Part A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
C onte nts xi
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Secti on I , Part B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
Secti on I I , Part A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
Secti on I I , Part B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580
Practice Test 4: AP Calculus BC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
Secti on I , Part A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
Secti on I , Part B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601
Secti on I I , Part A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605
Secti on I I , Part B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606
APPENDIX
College-by-College Guide to AP Credit and Placement . . . 621
C onte nts xii
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Acknowledgments
So many peopl e have i nspi red and supported me that I bal k to thi nk of how
l ucky and bl essed my l i fe has been. The wi sdom, l ove, and support of these
peopl e have shaped and made me, and wi thout them, I am nothi ng. Speci al
thanks to:
My beauti ful bri de Li sa, who teaches me every day that bei ng marri ed to
your best fri end i s just the greatest thi ng i n the worl d.
Mom, who taught me to ri se above the ci rcumstance.
Dad, who taught me al ways to ti p the barber.
My brother Dave (The Dawg), who taught me that l i fe i s pretty funny
but never as funny as a joke that references the human butt.
My best fri ends Rob Hal stead, Chri s Sarampote, and Matt Hal non, who
taught me what true fri endshi p means (and why housecl eani ng i s for the
weak).
My pri nci pal s, George Mi l l er and Tommy Tucker, who have gi ven me
every opportuni ty and then seven more.
My students, who make my job and my l i fe happi er than they coul d ever
i magi ne. My Engl i sh teachers Ron Gi bson, Jack Keossei an, Mary Dou-
gl as, and Dani el Brown, who showed me how much fun wri ti ng can be.
Sue Stri ckl and, who i nspi red i n me a l ove of teachi ng and who taught my
methods cl ass over di nner at her house.
Mark Wi l di ng, for not sayi ng, Are you crazy?
The Fi nl ey boys: James, for hi s great questi ons, wri tten speci fi cal l y to
chal l enge, decei ve, nauseate, and ensmarten students, and Ti m, for hi s
computer prowess and abi l i ty to produce crazy, three-di mensi onal di a-
grams i n the bl i nk of an eye.
The Bi g Mathemati ci an i n the Sky, who (merci ful l y) makes strai ght the
paths of us mathemati ci ans here on Earth.
Fi nal l y, wrestl i ng l egend Koko B. Ware, because Chri s thought that woul d
be pretty funny.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
xiii
Before You Begin
HO W THIS BO O K IS O RG ANIZED
Whether you have fi ve months, ni ne weeks, or just four short weeks to prepare
for the exam, Petersons Master AP Calculus AB & BC wi l l hel p you devel op a
study pl an that caters to your i ndi vi dual needs and ti metabl es. These step-by-
step pl ans are easy to fol l ow and are remarkabl y effecti ve.
Top 10 Strategies to Raise Your Score offers you tri ed and true
test-taki ng strategi es.
Part I i ncl udes the basi c i nformati on about the AP Cal cul us test that you
need to know.
Part II provi des revi ews and strategi es for answeri ng the di fferent ki nds
of mul ti pl e-choi ce and free-response questi ons you wi l l encounter on the
exam. You wi l l have numerous opportuni ti es to practi ce what you are
l earni ng i n the exerci ses that appear throughout the revi ews. I t i s a good
i dea to read the answer expl anati ons to al l of the questi ons, because you
may fi nd i deas or ti ps that wi l l hel p you better anal yze the answers i n the
next Practi ce Test.
Part III i ncl udes four addi ti onal practi ce tests, two for AB and two for
BC. Remember to appl y the test-taki ng system careful l y, work the system
to get more correct responses, be careful of your ti me, and stri ve to
answer more questi ons i n the ti me peri od.
The Appendix i s desi gned to provi de you wi th an easy reference to the
AP Credi t Pol i cy Gui del i nes i nsti tuted for al l col l eges and uni versi ti es.
SPEC IAL STUDY FEATURES
Petersons Master AP Calculus AB & BC was desi gned to be as user-fri endl y as
i t i s compl ete. I t i ncl udes several features to make your preparati on easi er.
O ve rvie w
Each chapter begi ns wi th a bul l eted overvi ew l i sti ng the topi cs that wi l l be
covered i n the chapter. You know i mmedi atel y where to l ook for a topi c that you
need to work on.
Sum m ing It Up
Each strategy chapter ends wi th a poi nt-by-poi nt summary that captures the
most i mportant poi nts. The summari es are a conveni ent way to revi ew the
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
xv
content of these strategy chapters. I n addi ti on, be sure to l ook i n the page margi ns of
your book for the fol l owi ng test-prep tool s:
Bonus Inform a tion
NO TE
Notes provi de i nteresti ng cal cul us facts, connecti ons, and notati ons to i mprove your
understandi ng of the materi al . Dont overl ook these l i ttl e gemsthey are an i mportant
part of the text, hi ghl i ghti ng i mportant i nformati on and putti ng thi ngs i nto the proper
context.
TIP
Tipsare the authors personal poi nters to you, so that you can stay on track and i n focus
as you study the materi al . Typi cal l y, they contai n pi eces of i nformati on to hel p you wi th
the many tasks youl l be requi red to perform on the AP cal cul us Test.
ALERT!
Steer cl ear of these common errors of judgment i n mathemati cs.
APPENDIX
Petersons Col l ege-by-Col l ege Gui de to AP Credi t and Pl acement gi ves you the equi va-
l ent cl asses, scores, and credi t awarded at more than 400 col l eges and uni versi ti es. Use
thi s gui de to fi nd your pl acement status, credi t, and/or exempti on based on your AP
Cal cul us AB or BC score.
YO URE WELL O N YO UR WAY TO SUC C ESS
Remember that knowl edge i s power. You wi l l be studyi ng the most comprehensi ve gui de
avai l abl e, and you wi l l become extremel y knowl edgeabl e about the exam. We l ook
forward to hel pi ng you rai se your score.
G IVE US YO UR FEEDBAC K
Petersons, a Nel net company, publ i shes a ful l l i ne of resources to hel p gui de you
through the col l ege admi ssi on process. Petersons publ i cati ons can be found at your
l ocal bookstore, l i brary, and hi gh school gui dance offi ce, and you can access us onl i ne at
www.petersons.com.
We wel come any comments or suggesti ons you may have about thi s publ i cati on and
i nvi te you to compl ete our onl i ne survey at www.petersons.com/booksurvey. Or you
can fi l l out the survey at the back of thi s book, tear i t out, and mai l i t to us at:
Publ i shi ng Department
Petersons
2000 Lenox Dri ve
Lawrencevi l l e, NJ 08648
Be fore You Be g in xvi
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Your feedback wi l l hel p us to provi de personal i zed sol uti ons for your educati onal
advancement.
M IKE KELLEYS HO W TO USE THIS BO O K
The C he ss Dile m m a
I l i ke chess. I ts a fasci nati ng game that, al though easy to grasp, i s nonethel ess very
di ffi cul t. Once you l earn how to move the pi eces around the board, you are sti l l l i ght
years away from actual l y bei ng any good (chess geni uses excepted). I have known how
to move chess pi eces si nce I was about ni ne, but I have sti l l yet to wi n a si ngl e chess
game agai nst a l i vi ng person. I am just terri bl e at chess, even though I have al ways
wanted to be good. I n my hol y grai l -l i ke quest to outsmart someone at thi s dastardl y
game, I have sought wi sdom from books. I can sti l l remember my l ast tri p to the
bookstore, standi ng wi th my mouth agape before the shel f al l otted to chess i nstructi on
books. I was hopi ng to fi nd somethi ng to forti fy (resusci tate) my chess game, onl y to fi nd
books wi th ti tl es such as 200PawnandBishopEndings, 50of theGreatest ChessGames
Ever, and 35 Tactics to CapturetheQueens Rook in Six Moves or Less. None of these
books were of any use to me at al l ! None of them even cl ai med to try to teach me what I
needed to know.
I wanted a book to teach me how to pl ay. I knew that a horsey moves i n an L shape,
but I di dnt know where he (or she) shoul d go. Often, fri ends gave me such advi ce as
control the mi ddl e of the board. I sti l l am not sure what that means or how to go
about doi ng i t. I n my frustrati on, I bought chi l drens chess games for my computer,
hopi ng to benefi t from the tutori al s that, surel y, I had a better shot at understandi ng.
Once I had compl eted the tutori al s, I was confi dent, ready to attack the toy men and
fi nal l y take my fi rst step toward Chess Grand Masteror whatever they cal l those
smart guys. I was destroyed by the smi l i ng toy chess pi ecesbeaten i n under ten
moves, on the easi est l evel . I dont thi nk I bl i nked for fi fteen mi nutes. I have seen that
l ook on my students faces before. I ts a l ook that says, I have no i dea what I m doi ng
wrong, and I thi nk I m more l i kel y to sprout wi ngs than to ever understand. Perhaps
you, too, have fel t that expressi on creep across your face, shadowed by an oi l y, si ck
feel i ng i n the pi t of your stomach. Perhaps you have a knack for math and are not
i nspi red to fear and col d sweat by cal cul us but are just l ooki ng for practi ce or to ti e up
a few l oose ends before the AP Cal cul us test. Ei ther way, thi s book wi l l hel p you
master cal cul us and prepare you for the i nfamous test day.
Und e rsta nd ing Ve rsus M a ste ring : C a lc ulus Re form
Cal cul us i s a subject, l i ke chess, that requi res more than a si mpl e understandi ng of i ts
component parts. Before you can trul y master cal cul us, you need to understand how
each of i ts basi c tenets work, what they mean, and how they i nterrel ate. Such was not
al ways the case, however. I n fact, you may have even heard the urban l egend about the
AP Cal cul us student who si mpl y took the deri vati ve of each equati on and set i t equal to
zero and sti l l got a three rati ng on the AP test! Such rumors are not true, but they
underscore the fundamental change gri ppi ng the mathemati cs worl da change cal l ed
reform. I n fact, for many years, cal cul us was treated as merel y advanced ari thmeti c,
Be fore You Be g in xvii
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rather than a compl ex and even beauti ful l ogi cal system. Cal cul us i s so much more than
formul as and memori zi ng, and when you see thi s, you begi n to actual l y understand the
rati onal e behi nd the mathemati cs i nvol ved. Havi ng these connecti ons makes under-
standi ng fl ouri sh and, before very l ong, bani shes math phobi as to the dark pl aces,
i nhabi ted heretofore onl y by your car keys when you were i n a hurry.
Wha t M a ke s This Book Diffe re nt
Thi s book i s unl i ke most math textbooks publ i shed today. I t not onl y presents formul as
and practi ce probl ems, but i t al so actual l y hel ps you understand through hands-on
acti vi ti es and detai l ed expl anati ons. I t al so puts di ffi cul t formul as i nto everyday
Engl i sh, to shed some l i ght on thei r meani ngs. I n rel ati on to my chess metaphor, my
book i ntends not onl y to tel l you that bi shops move di agonal l y, but al so to offer you
advi ce on where to move them, how soon, and i n what ci rcumstances they are most
effecti ve. (Al though I cannot actual l y gi ve you the correspondi ng chess advi ce, si nce my
deep understandi ng of bi shops ends wi th the knowl edge that they wear poi nty hats.)
Tradi ti onal math test-preparatory books state formul as, prove them, and present
exerci ses to practi ce usi ng them. There i s rarel y any expl anati on of how to use the
formul as, what they mean, and how to remember them. I n short, tradi ti onal books do
not offer to teach, when that i s what you trul y need. I have compi l ed i n thi s text al l of
the strategi es, i nsi ghts, and advi ce that I have amassed as an i nstructor. Most of al l ,
I have used common sense. For exampl e, I do not thi nk that provi ng a theorem al ways
hel ps students understand that theorem. I n fact, I thi nk that the proof can someti mes
cl oud the matter at hand! Thus, not every theorem i n the book i s accompani ed by a
proof; i nstead, I have i ncl uded i t onl y when I thi nk i t woul d be benefi ci al . Al so, there
are numerous acti vi ti es i n thi s book to compl ete that wi l l teach you, as you progress,
basi c defi ni ti ons, properti es, and theorems. I n fact, you may be abl e to devi se them
yoursel f! I not onl y want you to succeedI want you to understand.
I n order to promote understandi ng, i t i s my bel i ef that a book that i ntends to teach
must offer answers as wel l as questi ons. How useful are 100 practi ce probl ems i f onl y
numeri cal answers and maybe a token expl anati on are gi ven? Some cal cul us revi ew
books even confuse cal cul us teachers wi th thei r l ack of expl anati on (al though I bet
none of your teachers woul d ever admi t i t!). Every singlequestion in this book has a
good explanation and includes all of the important steps; thi s i s just one of the
characteri sti cs that makes thi s book uni que. No l onger wi l l you have to spend fi fteen
mi nutes deci di ng how the author got from one step to the next i n hi s or her compu-
tati ons. I know I am not the onl y one who, gnashi ng hi s teeth, has excl ai med, Where
di d the 4 go i n the thi rd step!? How can they just drop the 4? Di d the 4 just step out
for a bi te to eat and wi l l be back l ater? Am I so stupi d that i ts obvi ous to everyone but
me?
You shoul d al so fi nd that the probl ems di ffi cul ti es i ncrease as you progress. When
topi cs are fi rst i ntroduced, they are usual l y of easy or medi um di ffi cul ty. However, the
probl ems at the end of each secti on are harder and wi l l hel p you bi nd your under-
standi ng to previ ous topi cs i n the book. Fi nal l y, the probl ems at the end of the chapter
are the most chal l engi ng of al l , requi ri ng you to pi ece together al l the i mportant topi cs
and i nvol ve appropri ate technol ogy al ong the way.
Be fore You Be g in xviii
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Herei n l i es the enti re premi se and moti vati on of the book: You can preparefor theAP
Calculus test by understanding whats involved rather than simply practicing skills
out of context. Thi s i s not to say that you wont have to memori ze any formul as or that
the concepts themsel ves wi l l be presented any l ess ri gorousl y than i n a textbook. Thi s
i s not, as some mi ght cl ai m, soft mathemati cs. I nstead, i t i s mathemati cs presented
i n a way that ensures and promotes understandi ng.
The G a m e Pie c e s
The fol l owi ng are i ncl uded to hel p you i n your study of cal cul us:
Hands-on acti vi ti es or gui ded practi ce to i ntroduce and teach al l of the major
el ements of cal cul us, i ncl udi ng cal cul us reform topi cs
Target Practi ce exampl es wi th detai l ed sol uti ons to cement your understandi ng
of the topi cs (each target practi ce probl em i s accompani ed by an i con denoti ng i ts
di ffi cul tysee bel owso that you can constantl y moni tor your progress)
Common Errors denoted duri ng practi ce probl ems and notes so that you can
avoi d them
Exerci ses at the end of each secti on to practi ce the ski l l s you just l earned
A technol ogy secti on i n each chapter wi th step-by-step di recti ons for the TI -83
seri es cal cul ator to ensure that you are usi ng i t correctl y and i n accordance wi th
Col l ege Board gui del i nes. (The TI -83, TI -83 Pl us, and TI -83 Pl us Si l ver Edi ti on
cal cul ators consti tute the vast majori ty of cal cul ators used on the AP test, so
thats why we chose them.)
Addi ti onal probl ems at the end of each chapter to revi ew your ski l l s and chal -
l enge you
James Di abol i cal Di l emma Probl ems at the end of each chapter are wri tten by a
former AP Cal cul us student of mi ne, James Fi nl ey; as a former 5-er on the AP
test, he has created these probl ems to push your understandi ng to the very
l i mi tsconsi der these probl ems concentrated, wi th al l the pul p l eft i n for fl avor.
C onc lusion
Thi s book can be uti l i zed for numerous reasons and toward many ends. I t i s best used as
a study gui de to suppl ement your cal cul us textbook. As a teachi ng tool , i t can hel p you
to l earn cal cul us or fi l l i n gaps i n your understandi ng. As a resource, i t can provi de
numerous practi ce probl ems wi th ful l sol uti ons. However you choose to use the book, i t
i s my hope that i t can hel p unl ock some of the mysteri es of cal cul us for you, al though i ts
al most certai nl y goi ng to do nothi ng for your chess game.
Be fore You Be g in xix
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Q UIC K REFERENC E G UIDE
These pages contai n just about al l the formul as you need to know by heart before you
can take the AP Test. I t does not contai n al l the theorems and techni ques you need to
know. An asteri sk (*) i ndi cates a Cal cul us BC-onl y formul a.
Lim its
x
n
c
x
lim
0
x
x
x
0
1
lim
sin
x
x
x
0
1
0
lim
cos
x
x
x
e
_
,

lim
1
1
De riva tive s
Power Rul e:
d
dx
x nx
n n
( )
1
Product Rul e:
d
dx
f x g x f x g x g x f x
( )
( ) ( )
( )

( )
+
( )

( )
Quoti ent Rul e:
d
dx
f x
g x
g x f x f x g x
g x
( )
( )
_
,

( )

( )
( )

( )
( ) (( )
2
Chai n Rul e:
d
dx
f g x f g x g x
( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( )

( )
d
dx
x x sin cos
( )
d
dx
x x cos sin
( )

d
dx
x x tan sec
( )
2
d
dx
x x cot csc
( )

2
d
dx
x x x sec sec tan ( )
d
dx
x x x csc csc cot ( )
Be fore You Be g in xx
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d
dx
x
x
ln
( )
1
d
dx
e e
x x
( )
d
dx
x
a x
a
log
ln
( )
( )
1
d
dx
a a a
x x
( )
( )
ln
d
dx
x
x
arcsin
( )
1
1
2
d
dx
x
x
arccos
( )

1
1
2
d
dx
x
x
arctan
( )
+
1
1
2
d
dx
x
x
arccot
( )

+
1
1
2
d
dx
x
x x
arcsec
( )
1
1
2
d
dx
x
x x
arccsc
( )

1
1
2
f x
f f x
( )
( )
( )
1
1
1
*Parametri c deri vati ves:
dy
dx
dy
dt
dx
dt
d y
dx
d
dt
dy
dx
dx
dt
_
,
;
2
2
Be fore You Be g in xxi
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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De riva tive Ap p lic a tions
Mean Val ue Theorem:

( )
( ) ( )
f c
f b f a
b a
s(t) i s the posi ti on functi on; s(t) 5 v(t), the vel oci ty functi on; v(t) 5 a(t), the accel era-
ti on functi on
Projecti l e posi ti on equati on:
s t gt v t h
( )
+ +
1
2
2
0 0
; g 5 9.8 m/s
2
or 32 ft/s
2
Inte g ra tion
Power Rul e for I ntegral s:
x dx
x
n
C
n
n
+
+
+
1
1
*cos x dx 5 si n x 1 C
*si n x dx 5 2cos x 1 C
*tan x dx 5 2l n U cos xU 1 C
*cot x dx 5 l n U si n xU 1 C
*sec x dx 5 l n U sec x + tan xU 1 C
*csc x dx 5 2l n U csc x + cot xU 1 C
du
a u
u
a
C
2 2
arcsin
du
a u
a
u
a
C
2 2
1
+
+
arctan
du
u u a
a
u
a
C
2 2
1
+ arcsec
Trapezoi dal Rul e:
b a
n
2
(f(a) 1 2f(x
1
) 1 2f(x
2
) 1 ... 1 2f(x
n 2 1
) 1 f(b))
Fundamental Theorem (Part 1): f x dx F b
a
b
( ) ( )

F(a), i f F i s the anti deri vati ve

of f(x)
Fundamental Theorem (Part 2):
d
dx
a
x
f t dt f x
( )
_
,
( )

Average Val ue: f c
b a
f x dx
a
b
( )
( )
1
*I ntegrati on by Parts: *udv 5 uv 2 *vdu
Be fore You Be g in xxii
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Inte g ra tion Ap p lic a tions
Di sk Method: r x
a
b
dx
( ) ( )
2
Washer Method:
a
b
R x r x dx
( ) ( )

( ) ( )
1
]
1
2 2
Shel l Method: 2 d x h x dx
a
b
( ) ( )
*Arc Length: 1
2
2 2
+ ( ) ( )

_
,
_
,

f x
dx
dt
dy
dt a
b
a
b
' ;
*Pol ar Area:
1
2
2
r d
a
b

( )
( )
Diffe re ntia l Eq ua tions

Exponenti al growth/decay:
dy
dt
ky y Ne
kt
;
*Logi sti c growth:
dy
dt
ky L y y
L
ce
Lkt
( )
+

;
1
*Dy 5 Dx { m
* Se q ue nc e s a nd Se rie s
Sum of a geometri c seri es:
a
r 1
Rati o Test:
n
n
n
a
a
+
lim
1
Li mi t Compari son Test:
n
n
n
a
b
lim
Tayl or seri es for f(x) centered at x 5 c:
f x f c f c x c
f c x c
f c
( ) ( ) ( )( )
( )( )
( )
+ +

+
2
2!
xx c f c x c
n
n n
+ +

+
( ) ( )( )
( )
3
3! !

sin
! !
x x
x x
+ +
3 5
3 5

cos
! !
x
x x
+ + 1
2 4
2 4
e x
x x
x
+ + + + 1
2 3
2 3
! !

1
1
1
2 3 4
+ + + + +
x
x x x x
Be fore You Be g in xxiii
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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TO P 10 STRATEG IES TO RAISE YO UR SC O RE
When i t comes to taki ng an AP exam, some test-taki ng ski l l s wi l l do you more good than
others. There are concepts you can l earn and techni ques you can fol l ow that wi l l hel p
you do your best. Heres our pi ck for the top 10 strategi es to rai se your score:
1. Paceyourself. Usi ng l ess ti me on the easi er questi ons wi l l gi ve you more ti me for
the harder ones. Questi ons usual l y go from easi est to most di ffi cul t. Work as
qui ckl y as you can through the begi nni ng of the test. Dont get l ul l ed i nto a fal se
sense of securi ty because you appear to be mai ntai ni ng a good pace i n the fi rst part.
2. Educated guessing will boost your score. Al though random guessi ng wont
hel p you, anythi ng better than random guessi ng wi l l . On most questi ons, you
shoul d be abl e to make better-than-random guesses by usi ng common sense and
the process of el i mi nati on techni ques that are devel oped throughout thi s book. I f
you can el i mi nate one choi ce out of fi ve, you have a 25 percent chance of guessi ng
correctl y. I f you can knock out two choi ces, the odds go up to 33 percent.
3. Theeasy answer isnt always thebest answer. Make sure you read al l of the
choi ces before sel ecti ng your choi ce. Qui te frequentl y, test makers wi l l put an
attracti ve, but i ncorrect, answer as an (A) or (B) choi ce. Readi ng al l of the choi ces
decreases your chance of bei ng mi sl ed, parti cul arl y i n questi ons where no cal cu-
l ati ons are i nvol ved.
4. Use common sense. I t i s al ways i mportant to make sure your answers make
sense. On mul ti pl e-choi ce questi ons, i t mi ght be readi l y apparent that youve
made an error (e.g., none of the choi ces match your answer). However, on the free
response, there i s no i mmedi ate feedback about the accuracy of your answer. I t i s
i mportant to i nspect your work to make sure i t makes sense.
5. Put down your calculator. You onl y get to use your cal cul ator for certai n parts
of the test. On the porti ons of the exam where cal cul ators are prohi bi ted, you
shoul d expect to deal wi th numbers that are fai rl y easy to work wi th.
6. Become familiar with the topics in this book. You shoul d fi nd that the
probl emsdi ffi cul ti es i ncrease as you progress. However, the probl ems at the end of
each secti on of thi s book are harder and wi l l hel p you bi nd your understandi ng to
previ ous topi cs i n the book. Fi nal l y, the probl ems at the end of each chapter are
the most chal l engi ng of al l , requi ri ng you to pi ece together al l of the i mportant
topi cs and i nvol ve appropri ate technol ogy al ong the way.
7. Make sure you fill in the bubble sheet neatly. Otherwi se, the machi ne that
scores your answers wont gi ve you credi t.
8. Showall of your work on thefree-responsequestions. I f you onl y show your
answer, and i t happens to be i ncorrect, the grader has no choi ce but to gi ve you no
credi t for the enti re questi on. Wri ti ng down al l of your steps makes sense.
9. Knowyour stuff. Whi l e al l of these strategi es are hel pful , there i s no substi tute
for knowl edge. You may not know every bi t of i nformati on on the exam, but i t i s
i mportant that you remember the i nformati on you have l earned.
10. Be neat on the free-response questions. Let the grader focus on content,
rather than the form. The answers are not l engthy, so do your best to be neat and
organi zed.
xxiv Be fore You Be g in
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www.petersons.com
P
ART I
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
AP C ALC ULUS AB & BC
BASIC S
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CHAPTER 1 All About the AP Calculus
AB & BC Tests
All About the AP
Calculus AB & BC Tests
O VERVIEW
Fre q ue ntly a ske d q ue stions a b out the AP c a lc ulus te sts
Sum m ing it up
Your goal and vi si on i n any Advanced Pl acement cl ass shoul d be to take the
AP test, pass i t wi th a suffi ci entl y hi gh score, jump up and down l i ke a l unati c
when you recei ve your score, and attai n credi t for the cl ass i n the col l ege or
uni versi ty of your choi ce. Al l AP tests are graded on a scal e from 1 to 5, wi th
5 bei ng the hi ghest possi bl e grade. Most col l eges wi l l accept a score of 3 or
above and assi gn credi t to you for the correspondi ng course. Some, however,
requi re hi gher scores, so i ts i mportant to know the pol i ci es of the school s to
whi ch you are appl yi ng or have been accepted. An AP course i s a l i ttl e
di fferent from a col l ege course. I n a col l ege course, you need onl y pass the
cl ass to recei ve credi t. I n an AP course, you must score hi gh enough on the
correspondi ng AP test, whi ch i s admi ni stered worl dwi de i n the month of May.
So, i ts essenti al to know that al l -i mportant AP test i nsi de and out.
FREQ UENTLY ASKED Q UESTIO NS ABO UT THE AP
C ALC ULUS TESTS
Bel ow are common questi ons that students pose about the AP Cal cul us tests.
For now, thi s test i s your foe, the onl y thi ng standi ng i n your way to gl ori ous
(and i nexpensi ve) col l ege credi t. Spend some ti me understandi ng the enemys
battl e pl ans so that you are prepared once you go to war.
Wha t top ic s a re inc lud e d on the te st?
The l i st of topi cs changes a l i ttl e bi t every coupl e of years. The Col l ege Board
Web si te (www.col l egeboard.com/ap/cal cul us) al ways has the current course
descri pti on. As your academi c year draws to a cl ose, use i t as a checkl i st to make
sure you understand everythi ng.
Wha ts the d iffe re nc e b e twe e n C a lc ulus AB a nd BC ?
The Cal cul us BC curri cul um contai ns si gni fi cantl y more materi al than the AB
curri cul um. Compl eti ng Cal cul us BC i s equi val ent to compl eti ng col l ege Cal cu-
l us I and Cal cul us I I courses, whereas AB covers al l of col l ege Cal cul us I and
about hal f of Cal cul us I I . The AB and BC curri cul a cover the same materi al wi th
the same amount of ri gor; BC si mpl y covers addi ti onal topi cs. However, i f you
c
h
a
p
t
e
r
1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
take the BC test, you wi l l get both an AB and BC score (the AB score excl udes al l BC
questi ons from the test).
O f the top ic s on the c ourse d e sc rip tion, whic h a c tua lly a p p e a r the
m ost on the AP te st?
Thi s wi l l vary, of course, but I asked my students to l i st the topi cs they saw the most.
Thi s i s the l i st of topi cs they generated (BC topi cs are denoted wi th an asteri sk): rel ati ve
extrema (maxi mums and mi ni mums), the rel ati onshi ps between deri vati ves of a
functi on, the di fference quoti ent, basi c i ntegrati on, i ntegral functi ons wi th vari abl es as
l i mi ts of i ntegrati on, vol umes of sol i ds wi th known cross-secti ons, moti on (posi ti on,
vel oci ty, and accel erati on functi ons), di fferenti al equati ons, area between curves, power
seri es*, el ementary seri es* (ex, cos x, si n x), Tayl or pol ynomi al s*, radi us of conver-
gence*, and i ntegrati on by parts*.
How is the te st d e sig ne d ?
The test i s spl i t i nto two secti ons, each of whi ch has a cal cul ator-acti ve and a cal cul ator-
i nacti ve porti on. Secti on I has 45 mul ti pl e-choi ce questi ons and l asts 105 mi nutes. Of
that ti me, 55 mi nutes are spent on 28 non-cal cul ator questi ons, and 50 mi nutes are
dedi cated to 17 cal cul ator acti ve questi ons. Secti on I I has 6 free-response questi ons and
l asts 90 mi nutes. Three of the free-response questi ons al l ow the use of a cal cul ator,
whi l e 3 do not.
Should I g ue ss on the m ultip le - c hoic e q ue stions?
You l ose a fracti on of a poi nt for every mul ti pl e-choi ce questi on you answer i ncorrectl y;
thi s penal i zes random guessi ng. I f you can el i mi nate even one choi ce i n a questi on, the
odds are i n your favor i f you guess. I f you cannot el i mi nate any choi ces, i t i s best to omi t
the questi on.
Should I ha ve the unit c irc le m e m orize d ?
Oh, yes. The uni t ci rcl e never di esi t l i ves to haunt your l i fe.
Should m y c a lc ula tor b e in d e g re e s or ra d ia ns m od e ?
Unl ess speci fi cal l y i nstructed by the questi on, set your cal cul ator for radi ans mode.
I ha ve he a rd tha t the AP C a lc ulus te st is writte n b y sc ie ntists living
in the Afric a n ra infore st, a nd tha t m a ny te sts a re lost e a c h ye a r a s
c ourie rs a re a tta c ke d a nd infe c te d b y virule nt m onke ys. Is this
true ?
Defi ni tel y.
How m a ny q ue stions d o I ha ve to g e t rig ht to g e t a 3?
There i s no set answer to thi s, as the number vari es every year based on student
achi evement. Unoffi ci al l y, answeri ng approxi matel y 50 percent of the questi ons cor-
rectl y usual l y resul ts i n a 3.
PART I: AP C a lc ulus AB & BC Ba sic s 4
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www.petersons.com
Why is the te st so ha rd ?
Many students are shocked that a 50 percent i s passi ng on the AP test, but the exam
i s constructed to be a super test that tests not onl y your knowl edge but al so your
abi l i ty to appl y your knowl edge under extreme pressure and i n very di ffi cul t ci rcum-
stances. No one expects you to get them al l ri ght. Youre shooti ng for better than 50
percent, so dont pani c.
How will I fe e l whe n the te st is ove r?
Hopeful l y, you wi l l sti l l be abl e to functi on. Most students are compl etel y exhausted and
drai ned at the end of the ordeal . Students who are wel l prepared (l i ke those who buy my
book)experi ence l ess depressi on than others. I n general , students have a vague posi ti ve
feel i ng when they exi t the test i f they dedi cated themsel ves to studyi ng al l year l ong. I
have found that the way you feel when exi ti ng the test i s i ndependent of how you wi l l
actual l y perform on the test. Feel i ng bad i n no way i mpl i es that you wi l l score badl y.
Are the re a ny We b site s on the Inte rne t tha t c ould he lp m e p re p a re
for the AP te st?
There are a few good si tes on the Web that are free. Among them, one stands cl earl y
above the rest. I t offers a new AB and BC probl em each week, ti med to coordi nate wi th
a year-l ong curri cul um to hel p you prepare for the test. Furthermore, each probl em i s
sol ved i n detai l the fol l owi ng week. Every probl em ever posted i s l i sted i n an archi ve, so
i ts a very val uabl e studyi ng tool for practi ci ng speci fi c ski l l s and revi ewi ng for tests
throughout the year. To top i t off, the si te i s funny, and the author i s extremel y tal ented.
The si te? Kel l eys AP Cal cul us Web Page, wri tten and shameful l y adverti sed here by
yours trul y. You can l og on at www.cal cul us-hel p.com. Enjoy the same hi ckory-smoked
fl avor of thi s book on l i ne for free each and every week. Another good probl em of the
week si te i s theAl vi rne Probl ems of the Week (www.seresc.k12.nh.us/www/al vi rne.html ).
How a re the fre e - re sp onse q ue stions g ra d e d ?
Each free-response questi on i s worth up to ni ne poi nts. Free response questi ons usual l y
have mul ti pl e parts, typi cal l y two or three, and the avai l abl e poi nts are di spersed
among them. Many poi nts are awarded for knowi ng how to set up a probl em; poi nts are
not onl y gi ven for correct answers. I t i s best to show al l of the setup and steps i n your
sol uti on i n an orderl y fashi on to get the maxi mum amount of credi t you can. The Col l ege
Board has exampl es of excel l ent, good, and poor free response answers gi ven by actual
test takers on thei r Web si te (www.col l egeboard.com/ap/cal cul us). I n addi ti on, they have
the most recent free-response questi ons wi th thei r gradi ng rubri cs. You shoul d try these
probl ems, grade yoursel f accordi ng to the rubri cs, and see how you stack up to the
nati onal averages.
C ha p te r 1: All Ab out the AP C a lc ulus AB & BC Te sts 5
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ALERT!
The World Wide Web is
constantly in a state of flux.
Web sites come and go,
and their addresses
change all the time. All of
these links were active at
publication time.
www.petersons.com
Are fre e - re sp onse q ue stions the sa m e a s e ssa ys?
No. Free-response questi ons are most si mi l ar to questi ons you have on a typi cal
cl assroom qui z or test. They requi re you to sol ve a probl em l ogi cal l y, wi th supporti ng
work shown. Theres no guessi ng possi bl e l i ke on the mul ti pl e-choi ce questi ons.
Theres real l y no need to wri te an essayi t just sl ows you down, and you need every
l ast second on the free responsei ts real l y qui te meaty.
Should I show m y work?
Yes, i ndeedy. The APgraders (cal l ed readers)cannot assi gn you parti al credi t i f you dont
gi ve them the opportuni ty. On the other hand, i f you have no i dea what the probl em i s
aski ng, dont wri te a detai l ed expl anati on of what you would do, and dont wri te
equati ons al l over the paper. Pi ck a method and sti ck to i tthe readers can defi ni tel y
tel l i f you are tryi ng to bl uff your way through a probl em you dont understand, so dont
pul l a Copperfi el d and try to work magi c through smoke and mi rrors. Al so, keep i n mi nd
that any work erased or crossed off i s not graded, even i f i t i s compl etel y ri ght.
Wha t if the p rob le m ha s num e rous p a rts a nd I c a nt g e t the first
p a rt?
You shoul d do your best to answer the fi rst part anyway. You may not get any poi nts
at al l , but i t i s sti l l worth i t. I f the second part requi res the correct compl eti on of the
fi rst, your i ncorrect answer wi l l not be penal i zed agai n. I f you compl ete the correct
sequence of steps on an i ncorrect sol uti on from a previ ous answer, you can sti l l recei ve
full credi t for the subsequent parts. Thi s means you are not doomed, so dont gi ve up.
Is it true tha t a g e ne tic a lly e ng ine e re d c hic ke n onc e sc ore d a 4 on
the AB te st, b ut the g ove rnm e nt c ove re d it up to a void sc a nd a l?
I am not al l owed to comment on that for nati onal securi ty reasons. However, I can say
that free-range poul try typi cal l y score better on free-response questi ons.
Should I sim p lify m y a nswe rs to lowe st te rm s?
Actual l y, no! The AP readers wi l l accept an answer of
39
3
as readi l y as an answer of 13.
Some free-response questi ons can get a l i ttl e messy, and youre not expected to make the
answers pretty and presentabl e. However, you sti l l
need to be abl e to si mpl i fy for the mul ti pl e-choi ce questi ons. For exampl e, i f you reach
a sol uti on of l n
1
3
but that i s not l i sted among the choi ces, you shoul d be abl e to
recogni ze that 2l n 3 has the same val ue, i f you appl y l ogari thmi c properti es.
How a c c ura te should m y a nswe rs b e ?
Unl ess speci fi ed otherwi se, the answer must be correct to at least three deci mal pl aces.
You may truncate (cut off) the deci mal there or round the deci mal there. For exampl e, a
sol uti on of x54.5376219 may be recorded as 4.537 (truncated)or 4.538 (rounded). I f you
want to wri te the enti re deci mal , that i s okay, too, but remember that ti me i s money.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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TIP
The past free-response
questions, course outline,
and grade rubrics are all
available free of charge on
line. The College Board
Web site is updated far
more frequently than
printed material. Check
there for breaking news
and policies.
TIP
Cross out any of your errant
work instead of erasing it.
Erasing takes more time,
and time is money on the
AP test.
NOTE
2ln 3 5 ln 3
21
5 ln
1
3
according to the log
property that states
nlog
a
x 5 log
a
x
n
.
www.petersons.com
Should I inc lud e units in m y a nswe r?
I f the probl em i ndi cates uni ts, you need to i ncl ude the appropri ate uni ts i n your fi nal
answer. For exampl e, i f the probl em i nvol ves the moti on of a boat and phrases the
questi on i n terms of feet and mi nutes, vel oci ty i s i n ft/mi n, and the accel erati on wi l l be
i n ft/mi n
2
.
Whe n c a n I use the c a lc ula tor to a nswe r q ue stions?
You may use the cal cul ator onl y on cal cul ator-acti ve questi ons, but you probabl y fi gured
that out, Mr. or Ms. Smarty Pants. Occasi onal l y, you may use a cal cul ator to compl etel y
answer a questi on and show no work at al l . You can do thi s onl y i n the fol l owi ng
ci rcumstances: graphi ng a functi on, cal cul ati ng a numeri cal deri vati ve, cal cul ati ng a
defi ni te i ntegral , or fi ndi ng an x-i ntercept. I n fact, your cal cul ator i s expected to have
these capabi l i ti es, and you are expected to know how to use them. Therefore, i n these
four cases, you need onl y show the setup of the probl em and jump ri ght to the sol uti on.
For exampl e, you may wri te
*
5
2
(x2e
x
)dx 5 2508.246
wi thout actual l y i ntegrati ng by hand at al l or showi ng any work. I n al l other ci rcum-
stances, you must show supporti ng work for your sol uti ons.
How should I write a n a nswe r if I use d m y c a lc ula tor?
As i n the above exampl e, *
5
2
(x2ex)dx 5 2508.246 i s al l you shoul d wri te; the readers
understood and expected you to use your cal cul ator. Never wri te from the cal cul ator
as a justi fi cati on to an answer. Al so, never wri te cal cul ator l anguage i n your answer.
For exampl e, a free-response answer of fnI nt(x2*e(x),x,2,5) 5 2508.246 cannot get a
poi nt for the correct setup, though i t may get poi nts for the correct answer.
Wha t c a lc ula tors c a n I use on the AP te st?
The most current l i st of cal cul ators can be found on the Col l ege Board Web si te. Most
favored among the cal cul ators are the Texas I nstruments 83 and 831(and probabl y the
TI 89 before too l ong). I ts a matter of preference. Some peopl e l i ve and di e by HP
cal cul ators and wi l l jump down your throat i n the bl i nk of an eye i f you suggest that the
TI cal cul ators are better. Cal cul ators l i ke the TI -92 cannot be used because they have
QWERTY keyboards. Make sure to check the Web si te to see i f your cal cul ator i s
acceptabl e.
I re c e ntly m a d e a c a lc ula tor out of tinfoil, c a t food , a nd toe na il
c lip p ing s. Are you te lling m e I c a nt use it on the AP te st?
Sorry, but you cant. By the way, I shudder to thi nk about how the toenai l cl i ppi ngs were
put to use.
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TIP
Never, never, never round a
number in a problem unless
you are giving the answer.
If you get a value of
3.5812399862 midway
through a problem, use the
entire decimal as you
complete the problem.
Rounding or truncating
during calculations almost
always results in inaccurate
final answers.
TIP
Because you can use your
calculator to find
x-intercepts, you can also
use it to solve any equation
without explaining how. See
the Technology section in
Chapter 2 for a more
detailed explanation.
www.petersons.com
C a n I ha ve p rog ra m s store d in m y c a lc ula tors m e m ory?
Yes. Programs are not cl eared from the cal cul ators memory before the test begi ns.
Many of my students have stored vari ous programs, but I dont thi nk a si ngl e student
has ever used a program on the test. The test wri ters are very careful to construct the
cal cul ator porti ons of the test so that no cal cul ator has an advantage over another. I ts
real l y not worth your ti me to l oad up your cal cul ator.
If I c a n store p rog ra m s in the c a lc ula tor m e m ory, c a nt I store
form ula s a nd note s? Why d o I ne e d to m e m orize form ula s?
Techni cal l y, you can enter formul as i n the cal cul ator as programs, but the test wri ters
al so know you can do thi s, so i t i s hi ghl y unl i kel y that such a practi ce coul d ever be
useful to you. Remember that more than hal f of the test i s now cal cul ator i nacti ve! Dont
become so cal cul ator dependent that you cant do basi c thi ngs wi thout i t.
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NOTE
Only in the four listed
circumstances can you use
the calculator to reach an
answer. For instance, most
calculators can find the
maximum or minimum
value of a function based
on the graph, but you
cannot use a calculator as
your justification on a
problem such as this.
NOTE
A QWERTY keyboard, for
those not in the know, has
keys in the order of those
on a computer keyboard.
www.petersons.com
SUM M ING IT UP
Al l AP tests are graded on a scal e from 1 to 5, wi th 5 bei ng the hi ghest possi bl e
grade. Most col l eges wi l l accept a score of 3 or above and assi gn credi t to you for
the correspondi ng course (see the Appendi x at the back of thi s book).
Compl eti ng Cal cul us BC i s equi val ent to compl eti ng col l ege Cal cul us I and Cal -
cul us I I courses. AB covers al l of col l ege Cal cul us I and about hal f of Cal cul us I I .
The test i s i n two secti ons: Secti on I has 45 mul ti pl e-choi ce questi ons and l asts
105 mi nutes; Secti on I I has 6 free-response questi ons and l asts 90 mi nutes.
The most current l i st of cal cul ators can be found on the Col l ege Board Web si te.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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P
ART II
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
AP C ALC ULUS AB & BC
REVIEW
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CHAPTER 2 Calculus Prerequisites
CHAPTER 3 Limits and Continuity
CHAPTER 4 Differentiating
CHAPTER 5 Advanced Topics in
Differentiation
CHAPTER 6 Applications of the Derivative
CHAPTER 7 Integration
CHAPTER 8 Advanced Methods of
Integration
CHAPTER 9 Applications of Integration
CHAPTER 10 Differential Equations
CHAPTER 11 Sequences and Series
(BC Topics Only)
Calculus Prerequisites
O VERVIEW
Func tions a nd re la tions
Func tion p rop e rtie s
Inve rse func tions
Ha nd s- O n Ac tivity 2.1: Tra nsform ing func tions
Trig onom e try
Pa ra m e tric e q ua tions ( BC top ic only)
Pola r e q ua tions ( BC top ic only)
Ve c tors a nd ve c tor e q ua tions ( BC top ic only)
Te c hnolog y: Solving e q ua tions with a g ra p hing c a lc ula tor
Sum m ing it up
Thi s chapter i s meant to hel p you revi ew some of the mathemati cs that l ead
up to cal cul us. Of course, al l mathemati cs (and your enti re l i fe, no doubt) up
unti l thi s poi nt has si mpl y been a bui l d-up to cal cul us, but these are the most
i mportant topi cs. Si nce the focus of thi s book must be the actual content of the
AP test, thi s chapter i s meant onl y to be a revi ew and not an i n-depth course
of study. I f you fi nd yoursel f weak i n any of these areas, make sure to revi ew
them and strengthen your understandi ng before you undertake cal cul us i tsel f.
I deal l y, then, you shoul d pl od through thi s chapter earl y enough to address
any of your weaknesses before i ts too l ate (read wi th a scary voi ce).
FUNC TIO NS AND RELATIO NS
Cal cul us i s ri fe wi th functi ons. I t i s unl i kel y that you can fi nd a si ngl e page i n
your textbook that i snt bursti ng wi th them, so i ts i mportant that you under-
stand what they are. A functi on i s a speci al type of relation, much as, i n
geometry, a square i s a speci al type of rectangl e. So, i n that case, what i s a
rel ati on? Lets begi n wi th a si mpl e rel ati on cal l ed r. We wi l l defi ne r as fol l ows:
r(x) 5 3x 1 2. (Thi s i s read r of x equal s 3 ti mes x pl us 2.) Our rel ati on wi l l
accept some sort of i nput (x)and gi ve us somethi ng i n return. I n the case of r, the
rel ati on wi l l return a number that i s two more than three ti mes as l arge as your
i nput. For exampl e, i f you were to appl y the rul e cal l ed r to the number 10, the
rel ati on woul d return the number 32. Mathemati cal l y, thi s i s wri tten r(10) 5
3(10)12 530 12 532. Thus, r(10)532. We say that the rel ati on r has sol uti on
poi nt (10,32), as an i nput of 10 has resul ted i n an output of 32.
c
h
a
p
t
e
r
2
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13
Example 1: I f g(x) 5 x
2
2 2x 1 9, eval uate g(4) and g(23).
Solution: Si mpl y substi tute 4 and 23 i n for x, one at a ti me, to get the sol uti ons:
g(4) 5 (4)
2
2 2(4) 1 9 5 16 2 8 1 9 5 17
g(23) 5 (23)
2
2 2(23) 1 9 5 9 1 6 1 9 5 24
We cal l g and r rel ati ons because of the way they rel ate numbers together. Cl earl y, r
rel ated the i nput 10 to the output 32 i n the same way that grel ated 4 to 17 and 23 to
24. I t i s conventi onal to express these rel ati onshi ps as ordered pai rs, so we can say
that g created the rel ati onshi ps (4,17) and (23,24).
There are numerous ways to express rel ati ons. They dont al ways have to be wri tten
as equati ons, though most of the ti me they are. Someti mes, rel ati ons are defi ned
si mpl y as the sets of ordered pai rs that create them. Here, we have defi ned the
rel ati on k two ways that mean the same thi ng:
k: {(23,9),(2,6),(5,21),(7,12),(7,14)}
You can al so express a rel ati on as a graph of vari ous ordered pai rs that create i t, i n
the form (x,y). Bel ow we have graphed the functi on we defi ned earl i er, r(x) 5 3x 1 2.
Someti mes, the rul e for a rel ati on changes dependi ng on the i nput of the rel ati on.
These are cal l ed piecewise-defined relations or multi-ruled relations.
PART II: AP C a lc ulus AB & BC Re vie w 14
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www.petersons.com
Example 2: Graph the pi ecewi se-defi ned rel ati on and eval uate h(22), h(21), h(0),
h(2), h(2.5), and h(6).
Solution: The graph begi ns as the parabol a x
2
, but once x 5 21, the new rul e takes
over, and the graph becomes the hori zontal l i ne y 5 2. Thi s l i ne stops, i n turn, at x 5
2. The functi on i s undefi ned between x 5 2 and x 5 3, but for al l x . 3, the l i ne 2x 2
4 gi ves the correct outputs.
Note: I f you di dnt recogni ze that y 5 x
2
i s a parabol a, thats OK (for now). Later i n
the chapter, we di scuss how to recogni ze these graphs.
h(22) 5 (22)
2
5 4, si nce 22 fal l s wi thi n the defi ni ti on of the fi rst of the three rul es.
h(21) 5 (21)
2
5 1, for the same reason.
h(0) 5 2, as 0 i s between 21 and 2, the defi ned regi on for the second rul e.
h(2) 5 2, as i t just fal l s wi thi n the defi ni ti on of the second rul e.
h(2.5) i s not defi ned for thi s functi onno i nputs between 2 and 3 are al l owed.
h(6) 5 2(6) 2 4 5 8, si nce 6 . 3, the defi ni ng restri cti on for the l ast rul e.
So, a rel ati on i s, i n essence, some type of rul e that rel ates a set, or col l ecti on, of i nputs
to a set of outputs. The set of i nputs for a rel ati on i s cal l ed the domain, whereas the
set of outputs i s cal l ed the range. Often, i t hel ps to l ook at the graph of the rel ati on to
determi ne i ts domai n and range, as the x val ues covered by a graph represent i ts
domai n, and the y val ues covered by a graph represent i ts range. Al ternati vel y, you
can thi nk of the domai n as the numbers covered by the wi dth of the graph, and the
range as the numbers covered by the hei ght of the graph.
C ha p te r 2: C a lc ulus Pre re q uisite s 15
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www.petersons.com
Example 3: Fi nd the domai n and range for the rel ati ons k and h, as al ready defi ned
above.
Solution: Fi ndi ng domai n and range for k i s qui te easy. The domai n i s {23,2,5,7}and
the range i s {21,6,9,12,14}. The order of the numbers does not matter i n these sets.
The domai n of h comes ri ght from the rel ati onwri tten i n i nterval notati on, the
domai n i s (2`,2] (3, `). Thi s i s true because any number up to or i ncl udi ng 2 i s an
i nput for the rel ati on, as i s any number greater than 3. The range i s easi l y determi ned
from the graph we created al ready. Look at the hei ght or verti cal span of the graph.
Noti ce that i t never di ps bel ow a hei ght of 1, but above 1, every si ngl e number i s
covered. Even though there are hol es i n the graph at (21,2) and (3,2), the hei ght of 2
i s covered by numerous other x val ues. Thus, the range of the graph i s (1, `).
Now that you know qui te a bi t about rel ati ons, i ts ti me to i ntroduce functi ons.
Functions are simply relations such that every input has a unique output. I n other
words, every el ement of the domai n must resul t i n onl y one output.
Example4: Whi ch of the rel ati ons, r, g, and k, as defi ned i n the precedi ng exampl es,
are functi ons?
Solution: Take r as an exampl e. When you eval uated r(10), the resul t was 32. I s there
any chance that somethi ng other than 32 coul d resul t? No. I n a si mi l ar fashi on, any
number, when substi tuted for r, wi l l resul t i n onl y one output. Thus, r i s a functi on.
Si mi l arl y, gi s a functi on. However, k i s not a functi on, si nce k(7) 5 12 and 14. Because
the domai n el ement 7 resul ts i n two range el ements, 12 and 14, k i s not a functi on.
Consi der whats happeni ng i n functi on k graphi cal l y:
Graphi cal l y, the road (or map) from 7 i n the domai n to the range forks, whereas the
i nputs 23, 2, and 5 have onl y one path to fol l ow. Because of thi s fork i n the road from
7, k i s not a functi on.
Often, i t i s unfrui tful to ponder whether or not a rel ati on i s a functi on merel y by
rememberi ng the defi ni ti on. A shortcut to determi ni ng whether or not a gi ven rel ati on
i s a functi on i s the vertical line test. To use thi s test, i magi ne verti cal l i nes passi ng
through the graph of the rel ati on. I f any verti cal l i ne you coul d possi bl y draw i nter-
sects the graph i n more than one pl ace, the rel ati on i s not a functi on. I f any verti cal
l i ne resembl es former U.S. Presi dent James K. Pol k, seek professi onal hel p.
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Example 5: Expl ai n why the rel ati on descri bed by the equati on x
2
1 y
2
5 9 i s not a
functi on.
Solution: Fi rst, you need to remember that x
2
1 y
2
5 9 i s the equati on of a ci rcl e
centered at the ori gi n wi th radi us 3. Look at the graph of the rel ati on:
Noti ce the l i ne x 5 2 (one of many verti cal l i nes you coul d i magi ne i ntersecti ng the
graph) i ntersects the ci rcl e i n two pl aces. By substi tuti ng 2 for x i n the equati on, you
can determi ne that the two poi nts of i ntersecti on are (2,=5) and (2,2=5). Si nce x 5
2 has two di sti nct outputs, thi s i s not a functi on.
Even i f you werent sure what a functi on was by defi ni ti on, you undoubtedl y know
many functi ons al ready. You shoul d know, at the mi ni mum, 15 speci fi c functi ons and
thei r properti es by heart. Ni ne of these are l i sted bel ow wi th any i mportant charac-
teri sti cs you shoul d ei ther memori ze or be abl e to determi ne from the graph. The
remai ni ng si x are presented l ater i n thi s chapter. These functi ons and thei r defi ni ng
characteri sti cs need to become real l y fami l i ar to you.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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NOTE
The other six functions are
given in the trigonometry
section of this chapter.
www.petersons.com
I mportant Functions to Memorize
Among these functi ons, the strangest mi ght be y 5 [[x]], cal l ed the greatest integer
function. Thi s functi on takes any real number i nput and returns the l argest i nteger
that i s l ess than or equal to i t. For exampl e, [[5.3]] 5 5 si nce among the i ntegers that
are l ess than or equal to 5.3 (5,4,3,2,1,0,21,22,...), the l argest i s 5. Li kewi se, [[4]] 5 4.
However, [[23.6]] 5 24, si nce among the i ntegers l ess than 23.6 (24,25,26,27,...),
24 i s the l argest.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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ALERT!
[[24.9]] 24. The answer
cannot be 24 since 24 is
larger than 24.9, and the
greatest integer function
outputs the largest integer
less than or equal to the
input. [[24.0]] 5 25
www.petersons.com
EXERC ISE 1
Directions: Sol ve each of the fol l owi ng probl ems. Deci de whi ch i s the best of
the choi ces gi ven and i ndi cate your responses i n the book.
YO U M AY USE A G RAPHING C ALC ULATO R FO R PRO BLEM S 3 THRO UG H 6.
1. Whi ch of the fol l owi ng rel ati ons are functi ons?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d) y 5 6(2x) 1 3
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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(e) y
x
x x
x
<
1
0
0
,
,
(f) y
x x
nx x
2
1
1 1
,
,
2. I f f(x) 5 x
2
2 25, g(x) 5 x
2
1 9x 1 20, and h(x) 5
f~x!
g~x!
, what i s the domai n of h?
3. I f f(x) 5U xU 1 1 and g(x) 5
1
3x
2
1 4
, fi nd f(4) 2 g(3) 1 (fg)(0)
4. Wri te the functi on, m, whose graph i s gi ven bel ow. Al so, fi nd the domai n and
range of m.
5. I f m(x) i s defi ned by the graph bel ow, eval uate [[m(23)]], [[m(0)]], and [[m(4)]].
6. Graph some functi on s(x) such that
s(1) 5 4
s(22) 5 s(2) 5 s(5) 5 0
s i s i ncreasi ng on [26 , x , 1 and 4 , x , 6]
s has domai n [26,6] and range (22,4]
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ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIO NS
1. Onl y c and eare functi ons. Noti ce that a, b, and f (when graphed) fai l the verti cal
l i ne test. I n d, every i nput except zero wi l l resul t i n two outputs.
2. Accordi ng to the probl em, h(x) 5
x
2
2 25
x
2
1 9x 1 20
. When the denomi nator i s zero, the
functi on i s undefi ned (si nce i t i s i l l egal i n thi s arm of the Mi l ky Way to di vi de by
zero). Factori ng the denomi nator gi ves (x 1 4)(x 1 5), whi ch means that functi on
i s undefi ned when x 5 24 or x 5 25. Thus, the domai n of h i s al l real numbers
except 24 and 25.
3. The functi on (fg)(x) i s created by the product of f and g. Si nce f(x) z g(x) 5
U xU 1 1
3x
2
1 4
,
(fg)(0) 5
1
4
. Thus, f(4) 2 g(3) 1 (fg)(0) 5 5 2
1
31
1
1
4
5
647
124
or, approxi matel y 5.218.
4. By exami ni ng the sl opes and y-i ntercepts of these l i nes, i t i s not too hard to get
the pi ecewi se-defi ned functi on.
The domai n of m(x) i s (2`,`), and the range i s (21,`).
5. From the graph, you can see that m(23) 5 0, m(0) 5 3.5, and m(4) 5 2.5, so the
greatest i nteger functi on val ues are not too di ffi cul t: [[m(23)]] 5 0, [[m(0)]] 5 3,
and [[m(4)]] 5 21.
6. There are a number of sol uti ons to the probl em. One i s gi ven here:
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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www.petersons.com
FUNC TIO N PRO PERTIES
Once a rel ati on i s cl assi fi ed as a functi on, the fun i s onl y just begi nni ng. Functi ons
exhi bi ti ng other speci fi c properti es al l ow us to deepen our ever-wi deni ng puddl e of
understandi ng. For exampl e, some functi ons can be cl assi fi ed as even. An even functi on
i s so mathemati cal l y robust that a negati ve i nput does not affect the functi on at al l .
Consi der the functi on f(x) 5 x
2
2 3, and compare f(4) to f(24). Upon substi tuti ng, i t i s
cl ear that f(4) 5f(24) 513. Opposi te el ements of the domai n resul t i n the same output.
Thus, f(x) exhi bi ts the property that al l ows us to cl assi fy i t as even. Mathemati cal l y, we
wri te: I f f(2x) 5 f(x), then f(x) i s even, whi ch means that eval uati ng the functi on at a
negati ve i nput, 2x, resul ts i n the ori gi nal functi on, f(x).
Example 6: Prove that m(x) 5 5x
4
2 2x
2
1 7 i s even, whereas b(x) 5 x
2
1 8x i s not
even.
Solution: I n order to test m, you substi tute 2x i nto the functi on to get
m(2x) 5 5(2x)
4
2 2(2x)
2
1 7 5 5x
4
2 2x
2
1 7 5 m(x).
Because m(2x) 5 m(x), the functi on i s even. Si mi l arl y, test b:
b(2x) 5 (2x)
2
1 8(2x) 5 x
2
2 8x b(x)
Thus, b i s not even.
Be careful ! I t i s just pl ai n wrong to assume that because b i s not even, i t must be an
odd functi on. Though that assumpti on i s true wi th i ntegers, i t i s not true wi th
functi ons. I n fact, for a functi on to be odd, i t must sati sfy a compl etel y di fferent
property: I f g(2x) 5 2g(x), then g(x) i s sai d to be odd. Whereas the terms i n an even
functi on stay exactl y the same for an i nput of 2x, each of the terms of an odd functi on
wi l l become i ts opposi te.
Example 7: Show that the functi on d(x) 5 x
5
2 3x i s odd.
Solution: Noti ce that d(2x) 5 (2x)
5
2 3(2x) 5 2x
5
1 3x5 2d(x). Therefore, d i s odd.
Al l of the terms must change si gn (as they di d i n thi s probl em) i n order for the
functi on to be odd.
Another i mportant property of a functi on i s the symmetry, i f any, that i s evi dent i n i ts
graph. A graph i s cal l ed symmetri c i f i t i s exactl y the same (or mi rrored) on both si des
of some arbi trary l i ne or poi nt. For exampl e, the graph of y 5 x
2/3
, bel ow, i s descri bed
as y-symmetri c because the graph i s i denti cal on ei ther si de of the y-axi s. Al l y-
symmetri c graphs have thi s defi ni ng property: i f a poi nt (x,y) l i es on the graph, so
must the poi nt (2x,y).
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ALERT!
If a function does not fulfill
the requirements to be
even or odd, the function is
classified as neither even
nor odd.
www.petersons.com
Noti ce that the si gn of the i nput to the functi on does not matterboth xand 2xresul t
i n the same y. Does that sound fami l i ar? I t shoul d! Thats the defi ni ti on of an even
functi on. Therefore, all even functions arey-symmetric and viceversa.
The other type of symmetry that i s very common to cal cul us i s origin-symmetry. I f a
graph (or functi on) i s ori gi n-symmetri c, then al l poi nts (x,y) on the graph must have a
correspondi ng (2x,2y), as di spl ayed i n the graph bel ow, the graph of y 5 x
3
2 x.
Usi ng the same reasoni ng as above, all odd functions areorigin-symmetric.
Example 8: Determi ne what symmetry, i f any, i s evi dent i n the functi on
h:{(3,5),(4,21),(0,0),(23,25),(24,1)}.
Solution: The functi on h i s ori gi n-symmetri c, si nce every (x,y) i s pai red wi th a
correspondi ng (2x,2y).
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TIP
It is easy to remember that
origin-symmetric functions
are oddthey both start
with the letter o.
www.petersons.com
EXERC ISE 2
I n probl ems 1 through 6, determi ne i f the gi ven functi on i s even, odd, or nei ther.
1. g(x) 5 x
4
2 3x
2
1 1
2. p(x) 5 2x
3
1 =
3
x
3. m(x) 5
+
( )
3 1 4
2 5
3 2
4 2
x x
x x
4. b(x) 5 x
7
1 5x
3
2 17
5. v:{(21,4),(2,6),(1,4)}
6.
7. The equati on x 5 y
2
has an x-symmetri c graph. I n x-symmetri c graphs, i f the
poi nt (x,y) i s contai ned, then so i s (x,2y). Why arent x-symmetri c functi ons used
as often as y- and ori gi n-symmetri c functi ons i n cal cul us?
8. Compl ete the bel ow graph of f i f ...
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(a) f i s odd
(b) f i s even
9.
I f j(x) and k(x) are odd functi ons and h(x) 5
j~x!
k~x!
, what ki nd of symmetry
characteri zes h?
1. g i s even: g(2x) 5 (2x)
4
2 3(2x)
2
1 1 5 x
4
2 3x
2
1 1 5 g(x).
2.
p i s odd: p(2x) 5 2(2x)
3
1 =
3
2x 5 22x
3
2 =
3
x. Remember that
=
3
21 5 21.
3. mi s odd. No si gns wi l l change i n m(2x), except 23x
3
wi l l become 3x
3
. Thus, the
enti re fracti on (al l one term) changes from negati ve to posi ti ve, and
m(2x) 5 2m(x).
4. b i s nei ther even nor odd: b(2x) 5 (2x)
7
1 5(2x)
3
2 17 5 2x
7
2 5x
3
2 17 b(x).
Because the 217 does not change si gns l i ke al l the other terms, b i s not odd; b i s
cl earl y not even, ei ther.
5. v i s nei ther even nor odd. You mi ght thi nk the functi on i s even si nce the pai r of
poi nts (21,4) and (1,4) are present. However, (22,6) woul d al so have to be present
to make the functi on even.
6. r i s nei ther even nor odd si nce there i s no y- or ori gi n-symmetry.
7. The vast majori ty of x-symmetri c graphs are not functi ons, as they fai l the
verti cal l i ne test. Note that the si ngl e i nput x resul ts i n two outputs, y and 2y,
whi ch i s forbi dden i n the happy l and of functi ons.
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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www.petersons.com
8.
9. To test h(x), you proceed as usual : h(2x) 5
j~2x!
k~2x!
. Si nce j and k are odd, you know
that h(2x) 5
2j~x!
2k~x!
5
j~x!
k~x!
5 h(x). Therefore, h i s even, as the negati ve si gns wi l l
cancel out, maki ng h(x) y-symmetri c by defi ni ti on.
INVERSE FUNC TIO NS
Everythi ng has i ts eventual undoi ngfor every hi gh there i s a l ow, and for every up,
there i s a down. The speci fi c el ement that actual l y pl ays the rol e of spoi l er depends on
the si tuati on, of course; Superman has kryptoni te and the Wi cked Wi tch of the West
has the bucket of water. Functi ons are no excepti on to thi s rul eevery functi on, f(x),
has i ts i nverse functi on, f
21
(x)a rul e that compl etel y undoes the functi on, effec-
ti vel y destroyi ng i t, l eavi ng behi nd onl y a smol deri ng, wi de-eyed vari abl e. Thi s i s a
l i ttl e too much i magery for most mathemati ci ans, who choose, i nstead, to wri te
f(f
21
(x)) 5 f
21
(f(x)) 5 x. Transl ated, thi s means that any functi on of x, when pl ugged
i nto i ts i nverse functi on (or vi ce versa), l eaves behi nd onl y x.
Any functi ons that sati sfy thi s condi ti on are i nverse functi ons. Some i nverse functi ons
are pretty obvi ous. For exampl e, the i nverse of g(x) 5 x 1 3 i s a pi ece of cake: g
21
(x) 5
x2 3. (The opposi te of addi ng 3 to a number i s subtracti ng 3). However, i ts not al ways
so obvi ous to determi ne i f functi ons are i nverses of each other.
Example9: Prove that h(x) 5 2x
2
2 3, x 0 and j(x) 5
x 1 3
2
are i nverse functi ons.
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NOTE
Plugging one function into
another is called
composing the function
with another. It it usually
written as f(g(x)), where the
function g is being plugged
into f. The notation
(f g)(x) is also used; it means
the same thing.
www.petersons.com
Solution: I f the functi ons fi t the above rul e, they are i nverse functi ons, but i f the
gl ove dont fi t, we must acqui t.
h(j(x)) 5 j(h(x)) 5 x
h
S
x + 3
2
D
5 j(2x
2
2 3) 5 x
2
S
x + 3
2
D
2
2 3 5
~2x
2
2 3! + 3
2
5 x
2 z
x 1 3
2
2 3 5
2x
2
2
5 x
x 1 3 2 3 5 =x
2
5 x
x 5 x 5 x
Therefore, h and j are i nverses.
You may be wonderi ng how functi ons and thei r i nverses actual l y undo each other, as
we have sai d. The answer i s that, i n essence, i nverse functi ons reverse the domai n
and range of the host functi on, maki ng the i nputs the outputs and the outputs the
i nputs. Consi der the si mpl e functi on r:{(1,5),(2,23),
S
7,
1
2
D
,(9,2p)}. Cl earl y, the domai n
i s {1,2,7,9} and the range i s {5,23,
1
2
,2p}. I t i s qui te easy to construct r
21
si mpl y
swi tch the domai n and range: r
21
:{(5,1),(23,2),
S
1
2
,7
D
,(2p,9)}. Now, the defi ni ng prop-
erty of i nverse functi ons becomes more obvi ous. Consi der r
21
(r(x)) for the ordered pai r
(1,5). Because r(1) 5 5, we wri te r
21
(r(1)) 5 r
21
(5) 5 1. You end up wi th a 1, just as
you started, and the functi ons have, i n essence, cancel ed one another out. The same
property i s at work when you commute from home to school i n the morni ng and then
back home i n the afternoon. The ri des to and from school are i nversel y rel ated, and
you end up back where you started.
Because the purpose of i nverse functi ons i s to reverse the domai n and range of a
functi onchangi ng the order of the functi ons (x,y) pai r the graphs of i nverse
functi ons have a speci al property as wel l . The graphs of i nverse functi ons are refl ec-
ti ons of one another across the l i ne y 5 x. Bel ow, the functi ons h and j from Exampl e
9 are graphed. Noti ce how they are symmetri c to each other across the y 5 x l i ne.
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NOTE
We must restrict h (x 0) to
ensure that it has an inverse
function. This is explained
later in this section.
www.petersons.com
I ts worth di scussi ng why you had to l i mi t the domai n of h i n order to even qual i fy h
for an i nverse functi on. The graph of h(x) 5 2x
2
2 3, wi th no restri cti on, has two roots.
Easi l y found, the two roots are
S
3
2
,0
D
and
S
2
3
2
,0
D
. Because i nverse functi ons
reverse ordered pai rs, h
21
must i ncl ude the poi nts
S
0,
3
2
D
and
S
0,2
3
2
D
. I f thi s
were al l owed, h
21
woul d have two outputs for the domai n el ement 0 and, therefore,
coul d not be a functi on.
The vi sual test used to ensure that a functi on has an i nverse i s cal l ed the horizontal
line test, and i t works much l i ke the verti cal l i ne test. I f any hori zontal l i ne drawn
through a functi on graph i ntersects the graph at more than one pl ace, the functi on
cannot have an i nverse. (I n the functi on h above, because the parabol a has two roots,
the hori zontal l i ne y5 0 i ntersects the parabol a i n two pl acesone of many such l i nes
that ensures h fai l s the test.) I f a functi on passes the hori zontal l i ne test, i t i s sai d to
be one-to-one. I n other words, for every i nput there i s one output and vi ce versa.
I t sti l l remai ns to actual l y fi nd an i nverse functi on, but the process i s rather si mpl e
and i s di rectl y based on the properti es di cussed above.
Example 10: Fi nd the i nverse functi on of f(x) 5 =
4
2x 2 7.
Solution: Because i nverse functi ons, i n effect, swi tch the x and y vari abl es, do so i n
the functi on, and sol ve the resul ti ng equati on for y. Thi s i s the i nverse functi on.
y 5 =
4
2x 2 7
x 5 =
4
2y 2 7
x
4
5 2y 2 7
x
4
1 7
2
5 y 5 f
21
~x!
However, you must restri ct f
21
(x) to x 0 to make the graph monotoni c and ensure the
exi stence of an i nverse.
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NOTE
By restricting the graph of h
to x 0, you are removing
the left half of the
parabola. The resulting
graph only increases from
left to right, as the portion
that decreased was
included on x , 0. Because
the restricted graph moves
only in one direction, it is
termed monotonic. Many
monotonic graphs have
inverses because of their
unidirectional nature.
www.petersons.com
EXERC ISE 3
YO U M AY USE A G RAPHING C ALC ULATO R FO R ALL O F THESE PRO BLEM S.
1. I f f(x) 5 x
2
1 3x 11 and g(x) 5 x 2 , fi nd
(a) (f + g)(x)
(b) g(g(x))
(c) g
21
(f(x))
(d) g(f(4))
USE THE C HART BELO W FO R PRO BLEM S 2 AND 3.
2. I f r(x) and s(x) are functi ons, as defi ned above, eval uate
(a) r(s(2))
(b) s(r
21
(0))
(c) r
21
(r
21
(s(1)))
3. Why does s
21
(x) not exi st?
4. Fi nd the i nverse functi ons of each (i f possi bl e):
(a) p(x) 5 2x
3
2 1
(b) y 5 [[x]]
5. I f h(x) 5 x
5
1 3x 2 2, fi nd h
21
(4).
6. Usi ng the defi ni ti on of one-to-one functi ons, expl ai n why functi on m, as defi ned
i n the functi on map bel ow, has no i nverse.
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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www.petersons.com
1. (a)
(f + g)(x) 5 f(g(x)) 5 f~=x 2 2! 5 ~=x 2 2!
2
1 3~=x 2 2! 1 1 5 x 1 3
~=x 2 2! 2 1.
(b) g(g(x)) 5 g~=x 2 2! 5 ==x 2 2 2 2.
(c) Fi rst, fi nd g
21
(x). Usi ng the same method as Exampl e 10, g
21
(x) 5 x
2
1 2.
Now, g
21
(x
2
1 3x 1 1) 5 (x
2
1 3x 1 1)
2
1 2 5 x
4
1 6x
3
1 11x
2
1 6x 1 3.
(d)
Cl earl y, f(4) 5 29 (by substi tuti on), so g(f(4)) 5 g(29) 5 =27.
2. Thi s probl em i s si mpl i fi ed by fi ndi ng r
21
(x) (by reversi ng the ordered pai r of r);
r
21
:{(1,23),(0,22),(2,21),(5,0),(3,1),(21,2),(23,3)}.
(a) r(s(2)) 5 r(23) 5 1.
(b) s(r
21
(0)) 5 s(22) 5 4.
(c) r
21
(r
21
(s(1))) 5 r
21
(r
21
(1)) 5 r
21
(23) 5 3.
3. Functi on s has no i nverse because i t i s not one-to-one. Noti ce that both x 5 22
and x 5 3 resul t i n the same output of 4. I n a one-to-one functi on, every output
must have onl y one i nput that maps to i t.
4. (a) Reverse the x and y to get x 5 2y
3
2 1, and sol ve for y; p
21
(x) 5
x +1
2
3
.
(b) There i s no i nverse functi on for y 5 [[x]] si nce the greatest i nteger functi on
fai l s the hori zontal l i ne test. Because the graph i s a col l ecti on of hori zontal
l i ne segments, a hori zontal l i ne overl appi ng one of these segments wi l l i nter-
sect an i nfi ni te amount of ti mes.
5. Thi s probl em i s di ffi cul t because you cannot fi nd h
21
(x)i f you try to use the
method of Exampl e 10, you are unabl e to sol ve for y. Thus, a di fferent approach i s
necessary. Note that i f 4 i s i n the domai n of h
21
(as evi denced by the fact that we
are abl e to pl ug i t i nto h
21
), then i t must be i n the rangeof h. Thus, h
21
contai ns
some poi nt (4,a) and h contai ns (a,4), where a i s a real number. Substi tute the
poi nt (a,4) i nto h to get a
5
1 3a 2 2 5 4, and use your graphi ng cal cul ator to sol ve
the equati on. Therefore, a 5 1.193 and h
21
contai ns the poi nt (4,1.193). Hence,
h
21
(4) 5 1.193. See the technol ogy secti on at the end of thi s chapter to revi ew
sol vi ng equati ons wi th the graphi ng cal cul ator.
6. Noti ce that m(c) 5 m(d) 5 3. Therefore, two i nputs resul t i n the same output, m
i s not one-to-one, and onl y one-to-one functi ons can have i nverses. One-to-one
functi ons map one domai n el ement to one range el ement; vi sual l y, thi s means
that onl y one road can l ead away from each i nput and onl y one road can l ead i nto
each output.
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www.petersons.com
HANDS- O N AC TIVITY 2.1: TRANSFO RM ING FUNC TIO NS
The process of graphi ng functi ons becomes much easi er once you can see how the
presence of addi ti onal numbers affects a graph. You can move, refl ect, and stretch a
graph si mpl y by ti nkeri ng wi th the constants i n a functi on, as you wi l l l earn i n thi s
acti vi ty. You wi l l fi nd Hands-on Acti vi ti es l i ke thi s throughout the book. Someti mes, the
best way to l earn somethi ng i snt by readi ng but by doi ng. I n such cases, we have
foregone notes and substi tuted these l aboratory acti vi ti es. I n order to compl ete thi s
acti vi ty, you wi l l need to be abl e to graph functi ons on a cal cul ator.
1. Draw the graphs of y5 x
2
, y5 x
2
2 1, and y5 x
2
1 2 on the gri ds bel ow. The fi rst
you shoul d know by memory (as one of the ni ne i mportant functi ons descri bed
earl i er i n the chapter). You shoul d graph the others wi th your graphi ng
cal cul ator.
2. How do the numbers 21 and 2 seem to affect the graph of x
2
?
3. Compl ete thi s concl usi on: When graphi ng the functi on f(x) 1 a, the a val ue
causes the graph of f(x) to
4. Usi ng the same process as you di d for probl em 1 above, graph the functi ons
y 5 x
3
, y 5 (x 2 3)
3
, and y 5 (x 1 1)
3
.
5. How do the numbers 23 and 1 seem to affect the graph of x
3
?
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TIP
In the Hands-On Activities in
this book, exact graphs are
not important. It is more
important to get the
general shape of the graph
correct and pay more
attention to the concepts
behind the
actvities instead.
www.petersons.com
6. Compl ete thi s concl usi on: When graphi ng the functi on f(x 1 a), the a val ue
causes the graph of f(x) to
7. Try to draw the graphs of y 5 (x 1 2)
2
2 3 and y 5 (x 2 1)
3
1 1 bel ow, based on
the concl usi ons you made i n probl ems 3 and 6. Check your resul t wi th your
graphi ng cal cul ator.
8. Graph the functi ons y 5 U x 1 1U and y 5 2U x 1 1U bel ow. You shoul d be abl e to
graph the fi rst, but use the graphi ng cal cul ator for the second.
9. Compl ete thi s concl usi on: Mul ti pl yi ng f(x) by a negati ve, 2f(x), causes the
graph to
10.
Graph the functi ons y 5 =x and y 5 =2x bel ow, agai n usi ng your graphi ng
cal cul ator for the second graph.
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TIP
You may need to consult
your owners manual if
youre not sure how to
graph absolute values on
your calculator. On a TI-83,
the command is abs( and is
found on the
MathNumber menu.
www.petersons.com
11. Compl ete thi s concl usi on: Substi tuti ng 2x i nto the functi on f(x) causes i ts
graph to
12. Try to draw the graphs of y 5 2U x 1 2U 1 3 and y 5 2
1
x 2 1
2 2 based on al l of
your concl usi ons so far. Once agai n, check your resul ts wi th your graphi ng
cal cul ator.
13. Graph the functi ons y 5 x
2
2 2 and y 5 U x
2
2 2U on the gri ds bel ow, agai n usi ng
your cal cul ator onl y for the second graph, i f possi bl e.
14. Compl ete thi s concl usi on: The graphs of f(x) and U f(x)U di ffer i n that U f(x)U
15. Graph the functi ons y 5 =x and y 5 =U xU , usi ng your cal cul ator for the second
onl y.
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TIP
When checking the second
graph in Question 12 with
your calculator, make sure
you enter the function as
21
x 2 1
. If x 2 1 is not in
parentheses, the calculator
interprets the equation as
1
x
2 1.
www.petersons.com
16. Compl ete thi s concl usi on: The graph of f(U xU ) fundamental l y changes the graph of
f(x) by
SELEC TED SO LUTIO NS TO HANDS- O N AC TIVITY 2.1
2. The graph i s moved down one and up two, respecti vel y.
3. ...move up i f a i s posi ti ve, and move down i f a i s negati ve.
5. The graph i s moved ri ght 3 and l eft 1, respecti vel y.
6. ...move l eft i f a i s posi ti ve, and move ri ght i f a i s negati ve (al though thi s mi ght be
the opposi te of what you expected).
9. ...fl i p upsi de down, or (more mathemati cal l y) refl ect across the x-axi s.
11. ...refl ect across the y-axi s.
14. ...has no negati ve range. Vi sual l y, any negati ve porti on of the graph i s fl i pped so
i t l i es above the x-axi s.
16. ...repl aci ng al l the val ues of x , 0 wi th a mi rror i mage of x . 0. The graphs f(x)
and f(U xU ) are al ways y-symmetri c.
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NOTE
You may not have worded
all of your answers exactly
the same, but that does
not mean they are wrong.
Check to see if the
concepts are correct.
www.petersons.com
EXERC ISE 4
DO NO T USE A G RAPHING C ALC ULATO R FO R THESE PRO BLEM S.
1. Graph the fol l owi ng:
(a) y 5 (x 2 p)
2
1 2
(b) y 5
1
x 1 1
2 1
(c) y 5 U x 2 1U 1 3
(d) y 5 2(U xU )
3
(e) y 5 ( ) x 3 2
2. Expl ai n mathemati cal l y why the graphs of y 5 (2x)
3
and y 5 2(x
3
) are i denti cal .
3. Gi ven f(x) as defi ned i n the bel ow graph, graph the i ndi cated transl ati ons:
(a) f(x) 2 2
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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www.petersons.com
(b) f(x 1 1)
(c) 2f(x)
(d) f(2x)
(e) U f(x)U
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www.petersons.com
(f) f(U xU )
(g) g
21
(x), i f g(x) 5 f(x) when 23 x 21
4.
Why does y 5 =2x have a graph i f you cannot fi nd a real square root of a
negati ve number? (Answer based on the graph)
1.
2. The graphs are i denti cal because y 5 x
3
i s odd; therefore (2x)
3
5 2x
3
.
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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3.
f x ) 1)
f ( ) ff ( )
|f (x |
f (| |)
gg
1
( ))
Transl ate each of the graphs defi ni ng poi nts, as i ndi cated i n the graph. To fi nd
the i nverse functi on i n 3(g), si mpl y reverse the order of the coordi nate pai r of g(x);
note that g i s made by the poi nts (23,21), (22,0), (21,1) and the l i ne segments
connecti ng them.
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www.petersons.com
4. You graphed thi s functi on i n Acti vi ty 2.1, Questi on 10. Noti ce that the domai n of
the resul ti ng functi on i s (2`,0]. A negati ve i nput wi l l el i mi nate the probl em of a
negati ve radi cand, as the product of two negati ve numbers i s posi ti ve.
TRIG O NO M ETRY
I t i s extremel y i mportant to make sure you are very profi ci ent i n tri gonometry, as a
great deal of cal cul us uses tri gonometri c functi ons and i denti tes. We have whi ttl ed the
content down to onl y the most i mportant topi cs. Fami l i ari ze yoursel f wi th al l these
basi cs. Learn them. Love them. Take them out to di nner, and pi ck up the tab wi thout
gri maci ng.
The study of tri angl es and angl es i s fundamental to tri gonometry. When angl es are
drawn i n a coordi nate pl ane, thei r verti ces si t atop the ori gi n, and the angl es begi n on
the posi ti ve x-axi s. A posi ti ve angl e proceeds countercl ockwi se from the axi s, whereas
a negati ve angl e wi nds cl ockwi se. Both angl es i n the bel ow fi gure measure
p
3
radi ans
(60), al though they termi nate i n di fferent quadrants because of thei r si gns.
On the other hand, some angl es, al though unequal , l ook the same. I n the fi gure bel ow,
the angl es A 5
5p
4
and B 5
13p
4
termi nate i n the exact same spot, but B has travel ed
an extra ti me around the ori gi n, compl eti ng one ful l rotati on before comi ng to rest.
Angl es such as these are cal l ed coterminal angles (si nce they termi nate at the same
ray).
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NOTE
Radicand is the fancy-
pants term for stuff
beneath the radical sign.
TIP
In order to convert from
radians to degrees, multiply
the angle by
180
p
. To
convert from degrees to
radians, multiply the angle
by
p
180
.
www.petersons.com
Another major topi c from yonder days of precal cul us i s the uni t ci rcl ethe dreaded
ci rcl e wi th center at the ori gi n and radi us onethat defi nes the val ues of many
common si nes and cosi nes. I t i s essenti al to memori ze the uni t ci rcl e i n i ts enti rety.
The poi nts next to each of the angl es are the cosi ne and si ne of that angl e, respec-
ti vel y. The remai ni ng tri gonometri c functi ons are di rectl y based on si ne and cosi ne:
tan x 5
si n x
cos x
cot x 5
cos x
si n x
sec x 5
1
cos x
csc x 5
1
si n x
Example 11: Eval uate al l si x tri gonometri c functi ons i f u 5
11p
6
.
Solution: From the uni t ci rcl e, cos
11p
6
5
=3
2
and si n
11p
6
5
21
2
. From there, we use
the defi ni ti ons of the other functi ons:
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TIP
Radians are used almost
exclusively on the AP test
(in lieu of degrees).
TIP
One real-life example of
coterminal angles in action
is a revolving door. You may
enter such a door and
proceed right into the
building or continue to loop
around and around before
entering. The number of
times you circled in the
revolving door does not
affect your final destination,
although it may alarm the
buildings security staff (who
are typically much larger
and stronger than you).
www.petersons.com
tan
11p
6
5
si n
11p
6
cos
11p
6
5
2
1
2
=3
2
5 2
1
=3
or 2
=3
3
(both are correct)
cot
11p
6
5
23
=3
, as cotangent i s the reci procal of tangent
sec
11p
6
5
2
=3
or
2=3
3
, as secant i s the reci procal of cosi ne
csc
11p
6
5 22, as cosecant i s the reci procal of si ne
The reason that cotermi nal angl es are so useful i n tri gonometry i s that al l tri gono-
metri c functi ons are periodic functions, because after some peri od of ti me, the graphs
wi l l repeat themsel ves. That i nterval of ti me i s cal l ed (surpri se!) the period. Si ne,
cosi ne, secant, and cosecant al l have a peri od of 2p, whereas tangent and cotangent
have a peri od of p. Thus, tan
S
p
4
D
5 tan
S
5p
4
D
, si nce there i s an i nterval of
4p
4
(p)
between the i nputs, and tangent has begun to repeat i tsel f.
Perhaps the most i mportant aspects of tri gonometry you wi l l use are the tri gonomet-
ri c i denti ti es. These are used to rewri te expressi ons and equati ons that are unsol vabl e
i n thei r current form. I n other cases, through the substi tuti on of an i denti ty, an
expressi on becomes much si mpl er. Youl l need to memori ze these formul as, too. Bel ow
are l i sted the most i mportant tri gonometri c i denti tes:
Pythagorean i denti ti es: cos
2
x 1 si n
2
x 5 1 (Mamma Theorem)
1 1 tan
2
x 5 sec
2
x (Pappa Theorem)
1 1 cot
2
x 5 csc
2
x (Baby Theorem)
Even and odd i denti ti es: si n(2x) 5 2si n x
csc(2x) 5 2csc x
tan(2x) 5 2tan x
cot(2x) 5 2cot x
cos(2x) 5 cos x
sec(2x) 5 sec x
Doubl e-angl e formul as: si n 2x 5 2si n xcos x
cos 2x 5 cos
2
x 2 si n
2
x
5 2cos
2
x 2 1
5 1 2 2si n
2
x
tan 2x 5
2tan x
1 2 tan
2
x
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ALERT!
Some students record unit
circle values in their
calculators memory
instead of memorizing
them. Remember that
approximately 50 percent
of the AP exam is taken
without a calculator, and
those precious notes will be
inaccessible. Make sure to
memorize the unit circle!
TIP
You are not required to
rationalize fractions on the
AP test (like when
calculating secant and
tangent in Example 11),
and its generally a good
idea not to waste time
doing it. However, a
nonrationalized fraction
may not always be listed
among multiple-choice
options, whereas a
rationalized answer could
be. Make sure you can
express your answer
either way.
www.petersons.com
Power-reduci ng formul as: cos
2
x 5
1 1 cos 2x
2
si n
2
x 5
1 2 cos 2x
2
tan
2
x 5
si n
2
x
cos
2
x
5
1 2 cos 2x
1 1 cos 2x
Sum and di fference formul as: si n (x 6 y) 5 si n x cos y 6 cos x si n y
cos (x 6 y) 5 cos x cos y 7 si n x si n y
tan (x 6 y) 5
tan x 6 tan y
1 7 tan x tan y
Example 12: Si mpl i fy the expressi on
sec
2
x
tan x
2 tan x.
Solution: The fi rst order of busi ness i s common denomi nators, so we can add the
termsmul ti pl y the tan x term by
tan x
tan x
to do so. You then use a resul t of the Bi g
Pappa Theorem to si mpl i fy.
sec
2
x
tan x
2
tan
2
x
tan x
=
sec
2
x 2 tan
2
x
tan x
=
1
tan x
= cot x
Example 13: Rewri te the expressi on =1 2 cos x i n terms of si ne.
Solution: I f you mul ti pl y the second power-reduci ng formul a by 2, the resul t i s
1 2 cos 2x 5 2si n
2
x. Therefore, 1 2 cos x 5 2si n
2
x
2
. Thi s i s sti l l true, as the cosi ne
angl e i s sti l l twi ce as l arge as the si ne angl e. Therefore, we can substi tute 2si n
2
x
2
for
1 2 cos x:
2si n
2
x
2
=2 si n
x
2
Another major i mportant tri gonometri c topi c i s i nverse functi ons. I nverse tri gonomet-
ri c functi ons can be wri tten one of two ways. For exampl e, the i nverse of cosi ne can be
wri tten cos
21
x or arccos x. Because the fi rst format l ooks l i ke (cos x)
21
(whi ch equal s
sec x), the l atter format (wi th the arc- prefi x) i s preferred by many. Both mean the
same thi ng. The tri cki est part of i nverse tri g functi ons i s knowi ng what answer to
gi ve.
I f asked to eval uate arccos 0, you mi ght answer that cosi ne i s equal to 0 when x 5
p
2
or
3p
2
. I t i s true that cos
p
2
5 cos
3p
2
5 0. However, thi s means that the functi on y 5
arccos x has two outputs when x 5 0, so arccos x i s not a functi on! Thi s i s remedi ed by
restri cti ng the ranges of the i nverse tri g functi ons, as shown bel ow.
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TIP
The nicknames Mamma,
Pappa, and Baby are not
conventional but are good
for quick reference. Dont
use these names on the AP
Test, or no one will have
any idea what you are
talking about!
NOTE
Only cosine and secant are
even functions; the other
trigonometric functions
are odd.
NOTE
The cosine has three
possible substitutions for a
double angle. Choosing
the correct one depends
on the circumstance.
www.petersons.com
TheRestricted Ranges (TheBubbles)
Any answer for arcsi n x, arctan x, or arccsc x wi l l have to fal l wi thi n the i nterval
F2
p
2
,
p
2
G, whereas outputs for arccos x, arccot x, and arcsec x must fal l i n the i nterval
[0,p]. For our previ ous exampl e of arccos 0, the correct answer i s
p
2
, as
3p
2
does not fal l
wi thi n the correct i nterval (or bubbl esee Ti p at l eft).
Example 14: Eval uate the fol l owi ng expressi ons wi thout the use of a cal cul ator:
(a) arcsi n
=3
2
(b) arcsec 22
(c) arctan 2
=3
3
Solution: (a) The si ne functi on has the val ue
=3
2
when x 5
p
3
and
5p
3
; onl y
p
3
fal l s i n
the arcsi n bubbl e.
(b) I f an angl e has a secant val ue of 22, i t must have a cosi ne val ue of 2
1
2
, as the
functi ons are reci procal s. Cosi ne takes thi s val ue when x 5
2p
3
and
4p
3
. Onl y the
fi rst fal l s i n the arccos bubbl e, so the answer i s
2p
3
.
(c) Noti ce that 2
=3
3
i s the same as
1
2=3
(the l atter i s just not rati onal i zed). Thi s i s
the same as
1
2
2=3
2
. Tangent i s negati ve i n the second and fourth quadrants, but
onl y the fourth quadrant i s i n the arctan bubbl e. Thus, onl y angl e
11p
6
has the
appropri ate val ues (recal l that tangent i s equal to si ne di vi ded by cosi ne). How-
ever, to graph
11p
6
, you have to pass outsi de the arcsi n bubbl e, si nce
11p
6
.
p
2
, the
l argest val ue al l owed for arctan, and passi ng outsi de the bubbl e i s not al l owed.
Therefore, the answer i s the cotermi nal angl e 2
p
6
, whi ch ends i n the same spot.
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NOTE
Because the Pappa
Theorem says 11 tan
2
x 5
sec
2
x, subtract tan
2
x from
both sides to get 1 5 sec
2
x
2 tan
2
x. This substitution is
made in the second step.
TIP
It helps to read arc as
where is.... For example,
the function arcsin 1 is
asking Where is sine equal
to 1?. The answer is
p
2
.
TIP
We will refer to the
restricted trig ranges as
bubbles for convenience
and, well yes, fun. For
example, arctan 1
5p
4
because
5p
4
is not in the
arctan bubble (i.e., the
angle does not fall in the
intervals given by The
Restricted Ranges
diagram).
www.petersons.com
Fi nal l y, as promi sed earl i er i n the chapter, here are the fi nal si x functi ons you
need to know by heart. They arebi g shockerthe tri gonometri c functi ons:
TheTrigonometric Functions
2 2
y sin x
1
1
1
1
1
1
2 2
y cos x
1
1
2 2
y tan x
2 2
y cot x
2 2 2 2
y sec x y csc x
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TIP
When giving solutions to
inverse trigonometric
functions, always remember
the bubble. The bubble is a
happy place. Outside the
bubble, the people are not
nice, and the dogs bite.
Also, its hard to find stylish
shoes that are still
comfortable outside the
bubble.
www.petersons.com
EXERC ISE 5
1.
I f si n b 5 2
2
5
and p , b ,
3p
2
, fi nd the val ues of the other fi ve tri gonometri c
functi ons for b.
2. Use cotermi nal angl es to eval uate each of the fol l owi ng:
(a) si n (11p)
(b)
cos
21p
4
(c)
tan
13p
3
3. Eval uate cos(arcsi n(22x)).
4. Si mpl i fy:
(a) tan
4
x 1 2tan
2
x 1 1
(b)
cos x
sec x
1
si n x
csc x
5.
Veri fy that csc
2
x 5
1
cos
2
x 2 cos 2x
.
6. Sol ve thi s equati on al gebrai cal l y: cos
2
x 2 cos 2x 1 si n x 5 2si n
2
x, and gi ve
answers on the i nterval [0,2p).
7.
Graph y 5 2
3
2
si n(2x) 1 1.
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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www.petersons.com
1. The gi ven i nterval for b makes i t cl ear that the angl e i s i n the thi rd quadrant
(si ne i s al so negati ve i n the fourth quadrant, so thi s i nformati on i s necessary).
Thi s al l ows you to draw a reference tri angl e for b, knowi ng that si ne i s the rati o
of the opposi te si de to the hypotenuse i n a ri ght tri angl e. Be careful to make the
l egs of the tri angl e negati ve, as both x and y are negati ve i n the thi rd quadrant.
Usi ng the Pythagorean Theorem, the remai ni ng (adjacent) si de measures =21.
From the di agram, you can easi l y fi nd the other 5 tri gonometri c rati os.
cos b 5 2
=21
5
, tan b 5
2
=21
, sec b 5 2
5
=21
, csc b 5 2
5
2
, cot b 5
=21
2
2. (a) si n (11p) 5 si n(p) 5 0
(b) cos
S
21p
4
D
= cos
S
5p
4
D
=
2=2
2
(c) tan
S
13p
3
D
= tan
S
p
3
D
=
si n
p
3
cos
p
3
=
=3
2
1
2
= =3
3. Thi s probl em i s si mi l ar to Number 1, but the addi ti onal restri cti on we had there
i s repl aced by the bubbl e. You know that si ne i s posi ti ve, but si nce thi s i s the
arcsi n funci on, onl y the fourth quadrant i s i n the bubbl e. Thus, your reference
tri angl e i s drawn as i f i n the fourth quadrant.
From the di agram, cos u 5
adjacent
hypotenuse
5 =1 2 4x
2
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www.petersons.com
4. (a) The quadrati c expressi on can be factored to get (tan
2
x 1 1)(tan
2
x 1 1), or
(tan
2
x 1 1)
2
. By the Pappa Theorem, thi s equal s (sec
2
x)
2
5 sec
4
x.
(b) Substi tuti ng the val ues of sec x and csc x, you get
cos
cos
sin
sin
cos sin
x
x
x
x
x x
1 1
2 2
+ +
, whi ch equal s 1 by the Mamma Theorem.
5.
1 1
2
2 2
sin cos cos x x x
cos
2
x 2 cos 2x 5 si n
2
x
cos
2
x 2 si n
2
x 2 cos 2x 5 0
cos
2
x 2 si n
2
x 5 cos 2x
6. Note that thi s questi on speci fi es the i nterval [0,2p). Thus, we do not i gnore
answers outsi de of the arcsi n bubbl es i n the fi nal step but gi ve al l the answers on
the uni t ci rcl e. Note al so that we made the probl em easi er by substi tuti ng 1 for
cos
2
x 1 si n
2
x i n the second step:
cos
2
x 1 si n
2
x 2 cos 2x 1 si n x 5 0
1 2 (1 2 2si n
2
x) 1 si n x 5 0
2si n
2
x 1 si nx 5 0
si n x(2si n x 1 1) 5 0
x 5 0, p,
7
6
,
11
6
.
7. The coeffi ci ent of the x affects the graph by stretchi ng or shri nki ng the peri od.
The numberhere 2expl ai ns how many ful l graphs of si ne wi l l fi t where one
used to. Si nce the peri od of si ne i s 2p, now two ful l graphs wi l l occupy the peri od
i nstead of one. Had the coeffi ci ent been 3, three graphs woul d squeeze i nto the
same space. The
3
2
gi ves the ampl i tude of the si ne wave. The rest of the transl a-
ti ons work the same as they di d earl i er i n the chapter.
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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PARAM ETRIC EQ UATIO NS ( BC TO PIC O NLY)
There are numerous ways to express rel ati ons, and the Cal cul us AB test focuses al most
excl usi vel y on rectangul ar representati on. However, the BC test i ncl udes three others:
parametri c, pol ar, and vector. Lucki l y, there i s a l ot of overl ap among the three, so come
on back i n off of that l edge, BCeryou have so much to l i ve for!
Parametri c equati ons use a parameter (a thi rd vari abl e) i n thei r defi ni ti on. For
exampl e, the parametri c representati on of a ci rcl e centered at the ori gi n wi th radi us
one i s gi ven by: x 5 cos t, y 5 si n t. You get the ordered pai r to draw the graph by
substi tuti ng successi ve val ues of t i nto the expressi ons for xand y(the arrows gi ve you
a sense of di recti on i n the graph but are not actual l y part of the graph).
The graph tel l s you a l ot more than the equi val ent rectangul ar equati on of x
2
1 y
2
5 1.
Wi th thi s set of parameters, you can easi l y tel l that the graph begi ns and ends at the
poi nt (1,0) and proceeds i n a counter-cl ockwi se path. You can even get some noti on of the
speed travel ed i n the path. These are the major endeari ng qual i ti es of parametri c equa-
ti ons.
Your TI cal cul ator can easi l y draw parametri c equati ons. Press the Mode button and
sel ect Parametri c mode. The Y5 screen wi l l now show x
1T
5 and y
1T
5. Type your
parametri c equati ons there. The x,t,u button wi l l now di spl ay a t, si nce you are i n
parametri c mode. I n order to adjust the val ues through whi ch t wi l l cycl e, press
Wi ndow, and set the maxi mum and mi ni mum val ues of t.
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NOTE
In this example, you should
use t values on the interval
[0,2p), since x and y involve
trigonometric functions. The
graph you get as a result is
the unit circle! If you think
about it, this makes a lot
of sense.
www.petersons.com
Example 15: Graph the parametri c equati on x 5 1 1 2t, y 5 2 2 t
2
and convert i t to
rectangul ar form.
Solution: Usi ng a tabl e of val ues or the cal cul ator, you get the graph of a parabol a. I f
you got onl y hal f of the parabol a, make sure you are substi tuti ng i n negati ve val ues of
t. A good range for t on the cal cul ator i s 210 t 10 i f there arent any tri gonometri c
functi ons, al though someti mes 10 i s unnecessari l y hi gh. Better safe than sorry,
though.
I n order to convert to rectangul ar form, sol ve ei ther xor yfor t and pl ug i nto the other.
The x expressi on seems easi er, so i ts better to start by sol vi ng i t for t:
x 2 1 5 2t
x 2 1
2
= t
y 5 2 2
S
x 2 1
2
D
2
y 5 2 2
~x 2 1!
2
4
y 5 2
1
4
(x 2 1)
2
1 2
Thi s i s a parabol a wi th vertex (1,2) openi ng downward, as i s veri fi ed i n our graph.
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NOTE
If you graph the parametric
equations x 5 cos (2t), y 5
sin (2t), the graph is the
same as x 5 cos t and y 5
sin t, but the circle is
actually drawn twice! In
fact, the circle is fully
completed when t 5 p.
There can be numerous
ways to express a graph in
parametric form, differing in
direction, path, and the
speed of the graph.
TIP
Adjust the range of t on the
calculator by pressing the
Window button.
www.petersons.com
Example 16: Graph the parametri c equati on x 5 cos
2
t, y 5 si nt, and fi nd i ts
correspondi ng equati on i n rectangul ar form.
Solution:Agai n, graph usi ng a tabl e of val ues or a cal cul ator, but make sure to reset
your t val ues to [0,2p). I n order to convert to rectangul ar form, uti l i ze the Mamma
Theorem and substi tute.
cos
2
u 1 si n
2
u 5 1
x 1 y
2
5 1
x 5 1 2 y
2
Noti ce that the parametri c graph does not i ncl ude the enti re parabol a. Therefore, i t i s
i mportant that you restri ct the rectangul ar equati on so that i ts graph matches
exactl y. The fi nal answer i s x 5 1 2 y
2
, x 0.
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EXERC ISE 6
1. Draw the graphs of the fol l owi ng parametri c equati ons and rewri te each i n
rectangul ar form:
(a) x 5 3cos u, y 5 2si n u
(b)
x 5 t 2 1, y 5 2 2
2
t
2. Gi ven the graphs bel ow, draw the graph of the parametri c equati ons x 5 a(t),
y 5 b(t).
3. Fi nd parametri c equati ons whose graph i s an el l i pse centered at the ori gi n wi th
hori zontal major axi s of l ength 8 and mi nor axi s of l ength 4.
4. Based on your work on the above probl ems, name another benefi t of parametri c
equati ons versus rectangul ar functi ons.
5. Create as many parametri c representati ons of y 5 ax 1 b as you can.
1. (a) The graph i s easy to fi nd vi a chart or graphi ng cal cul ator. I n thi s i nstance, i t
i s just as easy to fi nd by converti ng the equati on to rectangul ar form. Because
the Mamma Theorem states that cos
2
u 1 si n
2
u 5 1, you shoul d sol ve the
parametri c equati ons for cos u and si n u. I f you do, the resul t i s
x
3
5 cos u and
y
2
5 si n u. By substi tuti on i nto the Mamma Theorem,
x
2
9
+
y
2
4
= 1, whi ch i s
standard form for an el l i pse.
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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(b) Agai n, the chal l enge i s the conversi on to rectangul ar form. I n thi s probl em, i t
i s easy to sol ve the x equati on for t: t 5 x 1 1. Substi tute thi s i nto the y
equati on to get y 5 2 2
2
x + 1
. Si mpl i fy thi s to get the rectangul ar equati on
y 5
2x
x + 1
.
2. Make an ordered pai r to begi n graphi ng. For exampl e, consi der t 5 2. At thi s
val ue of t, a(2) 5 0 and b(2) 5 2. Therefore, the graph wi l l contai n the poi nt (0,2).
Use a si mi l ar process for the other val ues of t between 0 and 6.
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3. Your work i n 1(a) makes thi s much easi er. The el l i pse descri bed has equati on
x y
2 2
16 4
1 + . Because the Mamma Theorem al so has two terms bei ng summed to
equal 1, you can do the fol l owi ng:
cos
2
2
16
t
x
sin
2
4
4
t
y
(because of Mamma)
cos sin t
x
t
y

4 2
x 5 4cos t y 5 2si n t
4. Parametri c equati ons can easi l y descri be non-functi ons, as best evi denced i n
Sol uti on 2 above. That crazy-l ooki ng thi ng certai nl y does not pass the verti cal
l i ne test.
5. The si mpl est representati on of any functi on i n parametri c form i s accompl i shed
by setti ng x 5 t and to make that substi tuti on i n the y equati on: y 5 at 1 b.
However, there are many ways to express that functi on. Noti ce that x5 t 2 band
y 5 at 2 ab 1 b al so resul ts i n the same graph. Si mpl y pi ck anythi ng for the x
equati on and adjust y accordi ngl y.
PO LAR EQ UATIO NS ( BC TO PIC O NLY)
Pol ar equati ons are a very handy way to express compl ex graphs very si mpl y. However,
the pol ar system uti l i zes a compl etel y di fferent coordi nate axi s and graphi ng system.
Once you warm up to pol ar coordi nates, i ts not too hard to bear them.
Al l pol ar poi nts are gi ven i n the form (r,u), where u i s an angl e i n standard posi ti on
and r i s a di stance al ong the termi nal ray of that angl e. Therefore, i n order to graph
a pol ar coordi nate, fi rst draw the angl e speci fi ed by u, and then count r uni ts al ong the
termi nal ray.
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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Example 17: Graph the pol ar coordi nates A 5 (3,
p
2
), B 5 (1,2
3p
4
), and C 5 (22,
5p
6
).
Solution:
Poi nt A i s graphed on the termi nal ray of
p
2
(or 90), the posi ti ve y-axi s. Count 3 uni ts
al ong thi s ray from the ori gi n to pl ace A. B i s one uni t away from the ori gi n at u 5
2
3p
4
. C i s just a l i ttl e tri cki er. After drawi ng the angl e u 5
5p
6
, you count two uni ts
backward from the ori gi n, as r i s gi ven as 22. Therefore, C ends up i n the fourth
quadrant rather than the second, as you mi ght have hypothesi zed.
Graphi ng pol ar equati ons consi sts of nothi ng more than pl otti ng a seri es of pol ar
poi nts (as you just di d) and connecti ng the resul ti ng dots. Just as was the case for
parametri c graphs, a tabl e of val ues and the cal cul ator are your mai n graphi ng tool s.
Example 18: Graph r 5 4si n 2u wi thout weepi ng.
Solution: To sol ve thi s, we wi l l al l ow u to take on val ues from 0 to 2p and fi nd the
correspondi ng r val ues. The tabl e bel ow gi ves the major angl es of the fi rst quadrant,
and the resul t, r, when those angl es, u, are pl ugged i nto r 5 4si n 2u. I f you conti nue
thi s process for the other three quadrants, you wi l l obtai n a si mi l ar shape.
I t i s i mportant that you know how pol ar graphs are created, but i t i s expected that you
wi l l typi cal l y graph them on your cal cul ator. The AP test i s more focused on appl yi ng
di fferent ski l l s to pol ar and parametri c equati ons, rather than focusi ng on si mpl y
graphi ng them. So, dont spend too much ti me honi ng your ski l l s and tryi ng to graph
these qui ckl ymake use of your technol ogy.
Al though you practi ced converti ng parametri c equati ons to rectangul ar form, no such
practi ce fol l ows sui t for pol ar equati ons. As you saw i n Exampl e 18, the graphs can be
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NOTE
The origin is also referred to
as the pole when
graphinghence the
name of polar equations.
TIP
Choose polar mode by
pressing the Mode button
on your calculator. The
Y5 screen now functions
as as the r5 screen, and
pressing the x,t,u button will
display u.
NOTE
The graph of r 5 4sin 2u is
called a rose curve, since it
sort of looks like a flower.
More common polar
graphs are given in the
exercises.
www.petersons.com
qui te compl i cated, and the major strength of pol ar graphi ng i s the ease wi th whi ch
such compl i cated graphs can be formed. Theres no need to strong-arm the equati ons
i nto rectangul ar form. I t i s i nteresti ng, however, how si mpl y pol ar coordi nates can be
converted i nto rectangul ar coordi nates and vi ce versa. Wel l , at l east i t i s i nteresti ng to
me. A l i ttl e.
Example 19: Convert the pol ar coordi nate (22,
5p
4
) i nto a rectangul ar coordi nate.
Solution: Any pol ar coordi nate (r,u) can be transformed i nto the correspondi ng rect-
angul ar coordi nate (x,y) wi th the formul as x5 rcosu and y5 rsi nu. Therefore, (22,
5p
4
)
becomes the rectangul ar coordi nate
S
22z2
=2
2
,22z2
=2
2
D
= ~=2,=2!. The di agram
bel ow gi ves a vi sual proof of thi sthe ri ght tri angl e created by the pol ar coordi nate
and the axes i s a 45-45-90 i soscel es ri ght tri angl e wi th hypotenuse 2. Basi c geometry
veri fi es that the l egs have l ength =2.
Example 20: What pol ar coordi nate corresponds to the rectangul ar coordi nate
(23,23)?
Solution: Noti ce that u =
opposi te
adjacent
=
23
23
= 1. Tangent has a val ue of 1 at u 5
p
4
and
5p
4
,
but the correct answer i s
5p
4
si nce you are worki ng i n the thi rd quadrant. Al l that
remai ns, then, i s to fi nd r, whi ch i s very easy to do thanks to good ol d Pythagoras. By
the Pythagorean Theorem, (23)
2
1 (23)
2
5 r
2
, so r 5 =18 5 3=2. Thus, the correct
pol ar coordi nate i s
S
3=2,
5p
4
D
.
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www.petersons.com
EXERC ISE 7
YO U M AY USE A G RAPHING C ALC ULATO R FO R PRO BLEM S 4 AND 5.
1. Graph the fol l owi ng pol ar equati ons wi thout a tabl e of val ues:
(a) r 5 2.5
(b) u 5
3p
4
(c) r 5 csc u
2. Predi ct the graph of r 5 u, 0 u 2p, and justi fy your predi cti on.
3. Bel ow are exampl es of common pol ar curves. Match the graphs to the correct
equati ons bel ow.
r 5 1 1 si n u
r 5 2 1 3cos u
r
2
5 9cos 2u
r 5 2cos 3u
4. Graph r 5 2si n u.
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5. Convert:
(a) (r,u) 5
S
22,
11p
6
D
to rectangul ar coordi nates
(b)
(x,y) 5 ~2=3,1! to pol ar coordi nates.
1. (a)
The graph wi l l have a radi us of 2.5, regardl ess of the angl e u. Does thi s sound
fami l i ar? Yep...i ts a ci rcl e wi th radi us 2.5.
(b)
I n thi s case, onl y the angl e comes i nto pl ay. Al ong that angl e, any radi us i s fai r
game. The resul t i s a l i ne that corresponds to the angl e i ndi cated. Noti ce that the
l i ne stretches i nto the fourth quadrant (because the negati ve radi i are possi bl e).
(c)
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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I f you rewri te r 5 csc u as
1
si n u
and cross-mul ti pl y, the resul t i s rsi n u 5 1.
However, accordi ng to Exampl e 19, we know that y 5 rsi n u. Therefore, rsi nu 5 1
becomes the equati on y 5 1, a hori zontal l i ne.
2. Cl earl y, you begi n the graph at the pol e, as r 5 u 5 0. As u i ncreases (movi ng
countercl ockwi se), your radi us (bei ng equal ) i ncreases al so. Therefore, the further
you rotate, the l onger the radi us, formi ng a spi ral .
3. These probl ems are si mpl y a study i n testi ng poi nts. Once you choose a si gni fi -
cant number of angl es and pl ug them i nto each of the formul as, you can begi n to
see whi ch graphs coul d represent those equati ons.
(A) r 5 2cos 3u: A rosecurve has petal s, but not necessari l y onl y three petal s,
as i n thi s parti cul ar graph.
(B) r
2
5 9cos 2u: A lemniscatei s i n the shape of a fi gure eight that you can
skate.
(C) r 5 1 1 si n u: A cardioid curve l ooks a l i ttl e bi t l i ke a heart, hence the
name. To me, i t l ooks more l i ke a tush pri nt i n a recl i ner.
(D)r 5 2 1 3cos u: A limaon may or may not have the puckered l oop evi dent
i n thi s graphwi thout the l oop, a limaon l ooks l i ke a l ess rounded
cardi oi d.
4. A cal cul ator or a tabl e of val ues resul ts i n the graph bel ow. Make sure you can do
these by ei ther method.
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5. (a) Use the pol ar coordi nate to create a ri ght tri angl e, from whi ch i t i s cl ear that
x 5 2=3 and y 5 1. You can al so use the formul as from Exampl e 19. For
i nstance x 5 rcos u 5 22 z cos
11p
6
5 22 z
=3
2
5 2=3. The y-coordi nate wi l l
work just as easi l y.
(b) Once agai n, a graph i s very hel pful ; from the di agram bel ow, tan u =
1
2=3
=
1
2
=3
2
. Therefore, u 5
5p
6
. Use the Pythagorean Theorem to fi nd r: 1
2
1
~2=3!
2
5 r
2
, so r 5 =4. One appropri ate pol ar coordi nate i s (2,
5p
6
).
VEC TO RS AND VEC TO R EQ UATIO NS ( BC TO PIC O NLY)
Vector curves compl ete the tri umvi rate of BC graph representati ons. Al though they
have very pecul i ar and i ndi vi dual characteri sti cs, they are very cl osel y rel ated (by
marri age)to parametri c equati ons, as you wi l l see. Avector i s, i n essence, a l i ne segment
wi th di recti on. I t i s typi cal l y drawn as an arrow on the coordi nate pl ane. The di agram
bel ow i s the vector AB
Y
, wi th i ni ti al poi nt A 5 (23,22) and termi nal poi nt B 5 (4,1).
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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Al though you can draw vectors anywhere i n the coordi nate pl ane, i ts real l y handy
when they begi n at the ori gi nsuch a vector i s sai d to be i n standard position.
Example 21: Put vector AB
Y
(as defi ned above) i n standard posi ti on.
Solution: To begi n, cal cul ate the sl ope of the l i ne segment:
Dy
Dx
=
1 2 ~22!
4 2 ~23!
=
3
7
. There-
fore, to get from poi nt A to poi nt B, you travel up 3 uni ts and to the ri ght 7 uni ts.
Because vector AB
Y
has the same l ength and di recti on wherever i t i s on the coordi nate
pl ane, movi ng i t to standard posi ti on di d not affect i t at al l . I n fact, we can now wri te
AB
Y
i n component form: AB
Y
5 ,7,3.. Graphi ng ,7,3. i s al most equi val ent to graph-
i ng the poi nt (7,3), except that ,7,3. wi l l have a vector l eadi ng up to that poi nt.
Thanks to Pythagoras (ya gotta l ove hi m), fi ndi ng the l ength of a vector, denoted
U U AB
Y
U U , i s very si mpl e. For i nstance, U U AB
Y
U U from Exampl e 21 i s =58. To cal cul ate the
l ength, si mpl y draw a ri ght tri angl e wi th the vector as i ts hypotenuse and appl y the
Pythagorean Theorem.
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NOTE
You really dont need a
formula to put a vector in
standard formyou can
simply count the number of
units you traveled along
the graph.
www.petersons.com
Perhaps the most common way a vector i s represented i s i n unit vector form. A uni t
vector i s defi ned as a vector whose l ength i s 1. Cl earl y, i 5 ,1,0. and j 5 ,0,1. are
uni t vectors, and these vectors are the backbone of uni t vector form.
Lets put good ol d vector AB
Y
5 ,7,3. from previ ous exampl es i n uni t vector form.
Thi s vector i s created by movi ng 7 uni ts ri ght and 3 uni ts up from the ori gi n. As
demonstrated by the di agram bel ow, thi s i s the same as seven i vectors and three j
vectors. Therefore, AB
Y
5 7i 1 3j 5 7i 1 3j.
Example 22: I f vector v has i ni ti al poi nt (22,6) and termi nal poi nt (1,25), compl ete
the fol l owi ng:
(a) Put v i n component form.
I n order to travel from the begi nni ng to the end of the vector, you proceed
ri ght 3 uni ts and down 11. Thus, v 5 ,3,211..
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NOTE
The length of a vector is
also called the norm of the
vector.
NOTE
In textbooks, vector v can
be written as v
Y
or v. Since
handwriting in boldface is
not possible, you should
designate vectors using the
little arrow.
www.petersons.com
(b) Fi nd U U vU U .
As pi ctured i n the di agram bel ow, U U vU U 5 3 11 130
2 2
+
( )
.
(c) Wri te v i n uni t vector form.
Any vector ,a,b. has uni t vector form ai 1 bj, so v 5 3i 2 11j.
Graphi ng vector curves i s qui te easy. Al though the graphs are created by
vectors, the graphs are not covered wi th arrows. I nstead, you can graph
vector equati ons exactly thesameas parametri c equati ons.
Example 23: Graph the vector curve r(t) 5 (t 1 1)i 1 t
3
j.
Solution: Thi s vector functi on can be expressed parametri cal l y. Remember that i
refers to hori zontal di stance and j to verti cal di stance, exactl y l i ke x and y, respec-
ti vel y. Therefore, thi s vector functi on has exactl y the same graph as the parametri c
equati ons x 5 t 1 1, y 5 t
3
, whi ch you can graph usi ng a cal cul ator or tabl e of val ues.
Sol vi ng x 5 t 1 1 for t and substi tuti ng t i nto the y equati on gi ves you the rectangul ar
form of thi s graph: y 5 (x 2 1)
3
.
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EXERC ISE 8
YO U M AY USE A G RAPHING C ALC ULATO R FO R PRO BLEM 4 O NLY.
For numbers 1 through 3, v 5 ,2,3., w has i ni ti al poi nt (3,23) and termi nal poi nt
(21,4), and p 5 2v 2 w.
1. Express p i n component form.
2. Fi nd U U pU U .
3. What i s the uni t vector form of p?
4. Gi ven vectors r(t) 5 eti 1 (2et 1 1)j and s(t) 5 ti 1 (2t 1 1)j, expl ai n why r and
s have the same rectangul ar form but di fferent graphs.
1. Fi rst, put w i n component form. You can ei ther count uni ts from the start to the
end of the vector or si mpl y fi nd the di fference of the begi nni ng and endi ng
coordi nates: w 5 ,21 2 3,4 2(23). 5 ,24,7.. Now, p 5 2v 2 w 5
2,2,3. 2 ,24,7. 5 ,4,6. 2 ,24,7. 5 ,8,21..
2. I f you l i ke, you can draw a ri ght tri angl e to justi fy your cal cul ati ons, but i t i s not
necessary. U U pU U = =64 + 1 = =65.
3. Once pi s i n component form, al l of the hard work i s done. I n standard uni t vector
form, p 5 8i 2 1j.
4. You can express r(t) as the parametri c equati ons x 5 et, y 5 (2et 1 1). By
substi tuti on, y 5 2x 1 1. You wi l l get the very same parametri c equati ons for s(t),
but the graph of s(t) i s the enti re l i ne 2x 1 1, whereas the graph of r(t) i s 2x 1 1,
x . 0. The reason for thi s i s the domai n of et. Thi nk back to the major graphs to
memori ze for the chapter. Remember that et has a posi ti ve range and cant output
negati ve numbers or 0. Therefore, after substi tuti ng x 5 et i nto y to get 2x 1 1,
that resul ti ng l i near functi on carri es wi th i t the restri cti on x . 0, l i mi ti ng the
graph accordi ngl y.
TEC HNO LO G Y: SO LVING EQ UATIO NS WITH A G RAPHING
C ALC ULATO R
You know how to sol ve equati ons; youve been doi ng i t successful l y si nce i ntroductory
al gebra, and youre not even afrai d of quadrati c functi ons. Bri ng em on, you say, wi th
a menaci ng gl i nt i n your eye and a quadrati c formul a program hummi ng i n your
cal cul ators memory. One probl em: the Col l ege Board al so knows that you have access to
cal cul ator technol ogy, and some of the equati ons youl l be asked to sol ve arent goi ng to
be the pretty l i ttl e factorabl e ones youre used to. I n fact, some equati ons on the
cal cul ator-acti ve secti on wi l l l ook downri ght ugl y and fri ghteni ng.
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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The Col l ege Board expects that you wi l l have access to and profi ci ency wi th a
graphi ng cal cul ator that can do four major thi ngs, at the l east, as descri bed i n
Chapter 1. You must be able to solve equations (even ugly ones) with your
graphing calculator. As al ways, i nstructi ons are i ncl uded for the TI -83, currentl y
the most common cal cul ator used on the AP test. Consul t your i nstructi on manual i f
you have a cal cul ator other than the TI -83.
Example 24: Fi nd the sol uti ons to the equati on e
2x
1 cos x 5 si n x on [22p,2p].
Solution: There i s no easy way to sol ve thi s; i ts just enough to shake your fai th i n the
useful ness of the quadrati c formul a. However, there i s hope! Fi rst, move thi ngs
around so that the equati on equal s zero. I f you subtract si n x from both si des of the
equati on, that goal i s accompl i shed: e
2x
1 cos x 2 si n x 5 0. Now, the sol uti ons to the
ori gi nal equati on wi l l be the roots of thi s new equati on. Put your cal cul ator i n radi ans
mode ([Mode] Radi an) and graph Y 5 e
2x
1 cos x 2 si n x. I f you press [Zoom]
Ztri g, the wi ndow i s ni cel y sui ted to tri gonometri c functi onsthe wi ndow i s basi -
cal l y [22p,2p] for the x-axi s and [24,4] for the y-axi s. I f you di d everythi ng correctl y,
you shoul d see thi s:
Fi ndi ng those x-i ntercepts i s our goal . I t doesnt matter whi ch you fi nd fi rst, but wel l
start wi th the ri ghtmost one. Cl earl y, the root fal l s between x 5 2p and 2
p
2
. To
cal cul ate the root, press [2nd][Trace] zero, as we are l ooki ng for zeros of the
functi on. At the prompt Left bound? type a number to the l eft of thi s root; for
exampl e, 2p. Si mi l arl y, for the prompt Ri ght bound? you can type 0.
At the prompt Guess? you shoul d take a stab at prognosti cati ng the root. A good
guess seems to be 2
3p
4
. Once you press [Enter], the cal cul ator does the rest of the
work for you, and the root turns out to be x 5 22.362467. The AP test onl y requests
three-deci mal pl ace accuracy, so 22.362 i s acceptabl e. Note, however, that 2.363 i s not
correct and i s not accepted. You do not have to round answersyou can si mpl y cut off
(or truncate) deci mal s after the thousandths pl ace.
Fol l ow the same steps to get the second root. I f you dont l i ke typi ng i n guesses for the
boundari es, you can press the l eft and ri ght arrow buttons to move the l i ttl e X turtl e
al ong the graph. For exampl e, i n the di agrams bel ow, you move the l i ttl e turtl e to the
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l eft of the root at the prompt Left bound?. Once you press Enter and get the Ri ght
bound? prompt, you move the turtl e to the ri ght of the root. You can even do thi s
when asked for a guessjust move the turtl e between the two boundari es and get
cl ose to the root.
The second root of the equati on i s 25.497775, whi ch can be wri tten as 25.497 or
25.498 on the AP test.
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EXERC ISE 9
YO U M AY USE A G RAPHING C ALC ULATO R FO R PRO BLEM S 9 AND 10 O NLY.
For probl ems 1 through 5, use the fol l owi ng graphs of f and g:
1. Determi ne whi ch of the two functi ons has an i nverse and sketch i t.
2. Graph U f(x)U and g(U xU ).
3. I f f i s created wi th a semi ci rcl e and an absol ute val ue graph, wri te the equati on
that represents f(x).
4. Draw a functi on h(x) such that h(x) 5 g
21
(x) when x 0 and h(x) i s odd.
5. Eval uate f(g(f(22))).
6. Sol ve the equati on cos 2x 2 cos
2
x 5 2si n x and gi ve sol uti ons on the i nterval
[0,2p).
7. I f m(x) 5 2x
3
1 5x 2 2, fi nd m
21
(6).
*8. Graph r 5 cos u 2 si n ucos u and fi nd the val ues of u where the graph i ntersects
the pol e.
*9. Graph x 5 e
t
, y 5 t 1 1, and express the parametri c equati ons i n rectangul ar
form.
*10.J ames Diabolical Challenge: Wri te a set of parametri c equati ons such that: at
t 5 0, x 5 0 and y 5 0 and at t 5 4, x 5 4 and y 5 6. Then, fi nd the rectangul ar
i nverse of your equati ons.
*BC2only problem
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ALERT!
A bad choice for the
bounds would have been
[23p,0], as this interval
includes both roots. When
you are trying to calculate
a root, make sure only the
root you are trying to find
falls within the boundaries
you assign.
www.petersons.com
1. Onl y g has an i nverse functi on; because f fai l s the hori zontal l i ne test, i t i s not
one-to-one and thus has no i nverse. To graph g
21
, ei ther refl ect g about the l i ne
y 5 x or choose some coordi nates from the graph of g and reverse them
remember that i f (a,b) i s on the graph of g, then (b,a) i s on the graph of g
21
.
2. The graph of U f(x)U wi l l not extend bel ow the x-axi s, and g(U xU ) wi l l be y-symmetri c,
as shown bel ow:
3. The ci rcl e has equati on (x 1 2)
2
1 y
2
5 4, so sol vi ng for y and i denti fyi ng onl y the
upper hal f of the ci rcl e resul ts i n the equati on y 5 =4 2 ~x + 2!
2
. The absol ute
val ue graph i s y 5 U x 2 1U 2 1, by graph transl ati ons. Therefore, we can wri te the
mul ti -rul e functi on.
4. The graph of h wi l l l ook exactl y l i ke the graph of g
21
for x 0 (as the functi ons are
equal there), but si nce h i s odd, i ts graph wi l l have to be ori gi n-symmetri c, whi ch
di ctates the graph of h for x . 0.
a
n
s
w
e
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s
e
x
e
r
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s
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s
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5. From the graphs, you see that f(22) 5 2, g(2) 5 1, and f(1) 5 21. Thus,
f(g(f(22))) 5 21.
6. Usi ng a doubl e-angl e formul a for cos 2x, rewri te the equati on to get cos
2
x 2
si n
2
x 2 cos
2
x 5 2si n x. Thi s si mpl i fi es easi l y to 2si n
2
x 2 2si n x 5 0. Now, factor
the equati on: 2si n x(si n x 1 2) 5 0. The answer i s x 5 0, p (remember that you
cannot sol ve si n x 5 22, si nce si ne has a range of 0 y 1).
7. Fi rst of al l , i f 6 i s i n the domain of m
21
, then i t i s i n the rangeof m. Therefore,
there i s some number x such that 2x
3
1 5x 2 2 5 6. I t i s not easy to fi nd that
number, however, and you shoul d resort to the graphi ng cal cul ator to sol ve the
equi val ent equati on 2x
3
1 5x 2 8 5 0 i n the method descri bed i n the Technol ogy
secti on of thi s chapter. Doi ng so resul ts i n x 5 1.087. Thus, m(1.087) 5 6 and
m
21
(6) 5 1.087.
8. The graph, gi ven bel ow, wi l l hi t the pol e whenever r 5 0. Therefore, set the
equati on equal to 0 and factor to get cos u(1 2 si n u) 5 0. Thi s has sol uti ons u 5
p
2
and
3p
2
.
9. The graph i s gi ven bel ow. I n order to put i n rectangul ar form, sol ve x 5 e
t
for t by
taki ng l n of both si des. Doi ng so resul ts i n l n x 5 t. (You coul d al so sol ve the y
equati on for t, but thi s resul ts i n a much ugl i er rectangul ar forma functi on of
y.) Substi tuti ng t 5 l n x i nto the y equati on gi ves y 5 l n x 1 1, x . 0. The
restri cti on i s caused by the range of e
t
bei ng posi ti ve, as denoted earl i er i n the
chapter.
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www.petersons.com
10. The si mpl est sol uti on for thi s probl em i s x 5 t and y 5
3
2
t, as 6 i s
3
2
of 4. The
rectangul ar form of thi s probl em i s y 5
3
2
x, so the i nverse i s y 5
2
3
x.
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www.petersons.com
SUM M ING IT UP
Cal cul us i s ri fe wi th functi ons so i ts i mportant that you understand what they
are: a functi on i s a speci al type of rel ati on.
I f a functi on does not ful fi l l the requi rements to be even or odd, the functi on i s
cl assi fi ed as nei ther even nor odd.
I t i s easy to remember that ori gi n-symmetri c functi ons are oddthey both start
wi th the l etter o.
Pl uggi ng one functi on i nto another i s cal l ed composingthe functi on wi th another.
Remember not to stress out over exact graphs.
Radians are used al most excl usi vel y on the AP test (i n l i eu of degrees).
Some students record uni t ci rcl e val ues i n thei r cal cul ators memory i nstead of
memori zi ng them. Remember that approxi matel y 50 percent of the AP test i s
taken wi thout a cal cul ator. Make sure to memori ze the uni t ci rcl e!
When gi vi ng sol uti ons to i nverse tri gonometri c functi on, al ways remember the
bubbl e.
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www.petersons.com
Limits and Continuity
O VERVIEW
Ha nd s- O n Ac tivity 3.1: Wha t is a lim it?
Eva lua ting lim its a na lytic a lly
C ontinuity
Ha nd s- O n Ac tivity 3.2: The e xtre m e va lue the ore m
Ha nd s- O n Ac tivity 3.3: The inte rm e d ia te va lue the ore m
Lim its involving infinity
Sp e c ia l lim its
Te c hnolog y: Eva lua ting lim its with a g ra p hing c a lc ula tor
Sum m ing it up
The concepts of l i mi ts stymi ed mathemati ci ans for a l ong, l ong ti me. I n fact,
the di scovery of cal cul us hi nged on these wi l y l i ttl e creatures. Li mi ts al l ow us
to do otherwi se i l l egal thi ngs l i ke di vi de by zero. Si nce, techni cal l y, i t i s never
acceptabl e to di vi de by zero, l i mi ts al l ow upti ght math peopl e to say that they
are di vi di ng by basi cal l y zero or essenti al l y zero. Li mi ts are l i ke fortune
tel l ersthey know where you are headi ng, even though you may not ever get
there. Unl i ke fortune tel l ers, however, the advi ce of l i mi ts i s al ways free, and
l i mi ts never have bi zarre names l i ke Madame Vi nchense.
HANDS- O N AC TIVITY 3.1: WHAT IS A LIM IT?
By compl eti ng thi s acti vi ty, you wi l l di scover what a l i mi t i s, when i t exi sts, and
when i t doesnt exi st. As i n previ ous Hands-On Acti vi ti es, spend qual i ty ti me
tryi ng to answer the questi ons before you break down and l ook up the answers.
1. Let f(x) 5
x
2
2 3x 2 4
x + 1
. What i s the domai n of f(x)? Graph f(x).
c
h
a
p
t
e
r
3
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71
2. The tabl e bel ow gi ves x-val ues that are l ess than but i ncreasi ngl y cl oser and
cl oser to 21. These val ues are sai d to be approaching 21 from theleft. Use your
cal cul ator to fi l l i n the mi ssi ng val ues of f(x) for each x.
3. The y-val ue (or hei ght) you are approachi ng as you near the x val ue of 21 i n the
tabl e above i s cal l ed the left-hand limit of 21 and i s wri tten
lim
x

1
f(x). What i s the
l eft-hand l i mi t of f(x)?
4. The tabl e bel ow gi ves x-val ues that are greater than but i ncreasi ngl y cl oser to
21. These val ues are approaching21fromtheright. Use your cal cul ator to fi l l i n
the mi ssi ng val ues, as you di d i n Number 2.
5. The y-val ue (or hei ght) you are approachi ng as you near the x val ue of 21 i n the
tabl e above i s cal l ed the right-hand limit of 21 and i s wri tten
lim
x
+
1
f(x). What i s
the ri ght-hand l i mi t of f(x)?
6. Graph f(x) bel ow, and draw the l eft- and ri ght-hand l i mi ts as arrows on the graph.
7. When the l eft- and ri ght-hand l i mi ts as xapproaches 21 both exi st and are equal ,
the general l i mi t at x 5 21 exi sts and i s wri tten
lim
x1
f(x). Does the general l i mi t
exi st at x 5 21? I f so, what i s i t?
8. Wri te a few sentences descri bi ng what a l i mi t i s and how i t i s found.
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TIP
Limits can help you
understand the behavior of
points not in the domain of
a function, like the value
you described in Number 1.
ALERT!
J ust because the general
limit may exist at one x
value, that does not
guarantee that it exists for
all x in the function!
www.petersons.com
9. Each of the fol l owi ng graphs has no l i mi t at the i ndi cated poi nt. Use a graphi ng
cal cul ator and your knowl edge of l i mi ts to determi ne why the l i mi ts do not exi st.
(a)
lim
x2
g(x) i f g(x) 5
+ <

1
2
3 2
3 1 2
x x
x x
,
,
(b)
lim
x0
si n
2p
x
(c)
lim
x0
1
x
4
10. Compl ete thi s statement: A l i mi t does not exi st i f...
A.
B.
C.
C ha p te r 3: Lim its a nd C ontinuity 73
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1. The domai n i s (2`,21) (21,`), or al l real numbers excl udi ng x 5 21, as thi s
makes the denomi nator zero and the fracti on undefi ned. The graph l ooks l i ke
y 5 x 2 4 wi th a hol e at poi nt (21,25).
3. The graph seems to be headi ng toward a hei ght of 25, so that i s the l eft-hand
l i mi t.
5. The ri ght-hand l i mi t al so appears to be 25.
6. The graph i s i denti cal to y 5 x 2 4, except f(x) i s undefi ned at the poi nt (21,25).
Even though the functi on i s undefi ned there, the graph i s sti l l headed toward
the hei ght (or l i mi t) of 25 from the l eft and ri ght of the poi nt.
7. The general l i mi t does exi st at x 5 21, and
lim
x1
f(x) 5 25.
8. A general l i mi t exi sts on f(x) at x 5 c (c i s a constant) i f the l eft- and ri ght-hand
l i mi ts exi st and are equal at x 5 c. Mathemati cal l y,
lim
x c
f(x) 5 L i f and onl y i f
lim ( ) lim ( ) .
x c x c
f x f x L

+

9. (a)
lim
x

2
g(x) 5 2 and
lim
x
+
2
g(x) 5 5. Because
lim
x

2
g(x)
lim
x
+
2
g(x), the general
l i mi t
lim
x2
g(x) does not exi st, accordi ng to your concl usi on from probl em 8.
(b) As you get cl oser to x 5 0 from the l eft or the ri ght, the functi on does not
approach any one hei ghti t osci l l ates i nfi ni tel y between hei ghts, as demon-
strated i n i ts graph on the fol l owi ng page.
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(c) As you approach x 5 0 from the l eft or the ri ght, the functi on grows i nfi ni tel y
l arge, never reachi ng any speci fi ed hei ght. Functi ons that i ncrease or de-
crease wi thout bound, such as thi s one, have no general l i mi t.
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EXERC ISE 1
For probl ems 1 through 6, determi ne i f the fol l owi ng l i mi ts exi st, based on the graph
bel ow of p(x). I f the l i mi ts do exi st, state them.
1.
lim
x

2
p(x)
2.
lim
x
+
3
p(x)
3.
lim
x3
p(x)
4.
lim
x

5
p(x)
5.
lim
x
+
5
p(x)
6.
lim
x1
p(x)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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ALERT!
You can write l i m
x0
1
x
4
= `.
Technically, however, a limit
of ` means there is no limit,
since a limit must be a real
number.
www.petersons.com
For probl ems 7 through 9, eval uate (i f possi bl e) the gi ven l i mi ts, based on the graphs
bel ow of f(x) and g(x).
7.
lim
x2
(f(x) 1 g(x))
8.
lim
x0
(f(x) z g(x))
9. lim
x
f x
g x
( )
( )
1
1. Thi s l i mi t does not exi st, as p i ncreases wi thout bound as x2
1
. You can al so say
lim
x

2
p(x) 5 `, whi ch means there i s no l i mi t.
2. You approach a hei ght of 21. I n thi s i nstance,
lim lim lim
x x x
p x p x p x

+
( ) ( ) ( )
3 3 3
1
3. As stated i n Number 2, the general l i mi t exi sts at x 5 3 and i s equal to 21 (si nce
the l eft- and ri ght-hand l i mi ts are equal to 21).
4.
lim
x

5
p(x) 5 1
5. lim
x
+
5
p(x) 5 21. Noti ce that
lim
x
+
5
p(x) cannot exi st.
6. lim
x1
p(x) 5
lim
x1
p(x) 5 0. Thus, the general l i mi t,
lim
x1
p(x) 5 0. Even though the
functi on i s undefi ned at x 5 21, p i s sti l l headed for a hei ght of 0, and thats
whats i mportant.
7.
lim
x2
(f(x) 1 g(x)) 5 (21 1 1) 5 0
8.
lim
x0
(f(x) z g(x)) 5 (0 z 0) 5 0
9. Al though
lim
x1
g(x) appears to be approxi matel y
1
4 1
, lim
x
f x
( ) does not exi st. There-

fore, lim
x
f x
g x
( )
( )
1
cannot exi st.
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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www.petersons.com
EVALUATING LIM ITS ANALYTIC ALLY
At thi s poi nt i n your mathemati cs career, you possess certai n pol i shed ski l l s. For
exampl e, i f asked How many i s 4 15? you woul d not need ni ne appl es i n order to reach
a sol uti on. I n the same way, you can eval uate most l i mi ts wi thout actual l y l ooki ng at a
graph of the gi ven functi on. I n fact, you dont need frui t of any ki nd to eval uate l i mi ts
anal yti cal l y. I nstead, you need to l earn the three major methods of fi ndi ng l i mi ts:
substi tuti on, factori ng, and the conjugate methods.
Remember that l i mi ts answer the questi on Where i s a functi on headi ng? Lucki l y
for math nerds al l over the worl d (l i ke me), a functi on usual l y reaches the
desti nati on for whi ch i t was headi ng. I n such cases, you can use the substitution
method for eval uati ng l i mi ts. I t shoul d be the fi rst method you try i n every l i mi t
probl em you encounter.
Example 1: Eval uate the fol l owi ng l i mi ts:
(a)
lim
x2
(x
2
2 4x 1 9)
Substi tute x 5 2 i nto the functi on to get 2
2
2 4 z 2 1 9 5 5. Thus,
lim
x2
(x
2
2 4x 1 9) 5 5. Thats al l there i s to i t.
(b)
lim
x
x
2
2
z cot 3x
Substi tuti on i s agai n the way to go:
2
2
3
2
cot
4
3
2
3
2
cos
sin
4
0
1
5 0
I f al l l i mi ts were possi bl e vi a di rect substi tuti on, however, you woul d have done l i mi ts
i n basi c al gebra, and everyone woul d, i n general , be happi er. Someti mes, substi tuti on
wi l l not work, because the resul t i s i l l egal . For exampl e, consi der the functi on wi th
whi ch you experi mented i n Hands-On Acti vi ty 3.1:
lim
x1
x x
x
2
3 4
1

+
. I f you try di rect
substi tuti on, the resul t i s
( ) ( )
+

+
+
1 3 1 4
1 1
1 3 4
1 1
2
=
0
0
. The techni cal term for a
resul t of
0
0
i s indeterminate, whi ch means that you cannot determi ne the l i mi t usi ng
thi s method. (And you were just starti ng to feel confi dent...) Lucki l y, just i n the kni ck
of ti me, i n ri des the factoring method of eval uati ng l i mi ts on a shi ny whi te steed.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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NOTE
The only appreciable
difference between
x
2
2 3x 2 4
x +1
and x 2 4 is that
x
2
2 3x 2 4
x +1
is undefined
when x 5 21. Though
technically unequal, the
functions share identical
limit values everywhere.
www.petersons.com
Example 2: Eval uate
lim
x1
x
2
2 3x 2 4
x + 1
Solution: The factori ng method entai l s factori ng the expressi on and then si mpl i fyi ng
i t. Thi s numerator factors easi l y, gi vi ng you
lim
x1
x x
x
( ) + ( )
+
4 1
1
. Next, cancel the common
factors i n the fracti on to get
lim
x1
(x 2 4). Therefore,
lim
x1
x x
x
( ) + ( )
+
4 1
1
5
lim
x1
(x 2 4).
Al though substi tuti on di d not work before, i t certai nl y wi l l i n the new expressi on, so
lim
x1
(x 2 4) 5 21 2 4 5 25, the same resul t you reached i n Acti vi ty 3.1. Huzzah!
The l ast l i mi t eval uati on method has a very speci fi c ni che i n l i fei t attacks radi cal
expressi ons i n l i mi ts. Thi s makes deci di ng to appl y the conjugate method rel ati vel y
easy. Thi s techni que i s based on a si mpl e compl ex number concept you have most
l i kel y al ready l earned (al though you wont be usi ng i t to simplify compl ex numbers i n
thi s appl i cati on).
Example 3: Eval uate lim
x
x
x

7
3 2
7
Solution: Substi tuti on wi l l resul t i n the i ndetermi nate answer
0
0
, and factori ng i snt
as frui tful as i t was i n Exampl e 2. To eval uate thi s l i mi t, mul ti pl y the fracti on by the
conjugate of the radi cal expressi on di vi ded by i tsel f:
x
x
+
+
3 2
3 2
.
x7
lim
x x
x x
+
+
( ) ( )
( )
( )
3 2 3 2
7 3 2
x7
lim
x
x x

+
( )
( )
( )
3 4
7 3 2
x7
lim
x
x x
+ ( )
( )
7
7 3 2
I ts best to l eave the denomi nator al one i ni ti al l y, as you can now cancel the common
(x 2 7) term to get
x7
lim
1
3 2 x +
Now, substi tuti on i s possi bl e, and the answer i s
1
7 3 2
1
4 2
1
4 +

+

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NOTE
The conjugate of the
complex number a 2 bi is
the complex number a 1
bi. To take the conjugate,
change the sign that
combines the terms to
its opposite.
www.petersons.com
EXERC ISE 2
DO NO T USE A C ALC ULATO R FO R PRO BLEM S 1 THRO UG H 6.
Eval uate the fol l owi ng l i mi ts, i f they exi st.
1.
lim
x
x x x
x

4
3 2
2 7 4
4
2.
lim
x
x
x
9
3
9
3.
lim
x
x x
x

+ 1
2
2 5
1
4.
lim
x
x
x
+
+ 2
3
8
2
5. lim
,
,
x
f x f x
x
x
x
x
( ) ( )
4
2
5
5
4
0 4
if
6.
lim
x
x
x 0
7. lim sin
x
x
x 0
1
1. Di rect substi tuti on resul ts i n the i ndetermi nate form
0
0
and cannot be used. The
best opti on i s factori ngdoi ng so resul ts i n
lim
x
x x x
x
+ ( ) ( )
4
2 1 4
4
. El i mi nati ng
the common factor gi ves you
lim
x4
x(2x 1 1). Substi tuti on i s now al l owed, and the
answer i s 36.
2. Substi tuti on (al ways your fi rst method to attempt) fai l s. The presence of a radi cal
al erts you to use the conjugate method:
lim
lim
x
x
x x
x x
x
x x
( )
+
( )
( ) +
( )
( ) +
( )
9
9
3 3
9 3
9
9 3
i
i
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TIP
While undertaking the
factoring or conjugate
methods, make sure to
leave the lim
x c
in front of
each successive linethe
limits of each step are
equal, but the functions
themselves are not
always equal.
www.petersons.com
Noti ce that you have to factor a 21 out of (9 2 x) i n the denomi nator to be abl e to
match the (x 2 9) i n the numerator.
lim
x
x
9
1
3
1
9 3
1
6
3. Al though you may want to appl y factori ng i n thi s exampl e because of the pres-
ence of pol ynomi al s, substi tuti on worksdont forget to try substi tuti on fi rst:
1 2 1 5
1 1
6
2
3
2
( )
+

4. Because substi tuti on fai l s and there are no radi cal s, factori ng i s the method to
use. I n fact, the numerator i s a sum of perfect cubes and factors easi l y.
lim
lim
x
x
x x x
x
x x
+ ( ) +
( )
+
+ ( ) ( ) +
+ +
2
2
2
2
2
2 2 4
2
2 4 2 2 2 4
4 4 4 112
5. Dont be di stracted by the fact that f(4) 5 0. Thi s does not mean that
lim
x4
f(x) 5 0.
I f you graph the functi on, youl l see that f(x) i s not headingfor a hei ght (l i mi t) of zero
when x 5 4. The graph i s headed for the hei ght defi ned by the rul e that i s true for
al l x 4. Substi tuti on works for thi s functi on. So, the l i mi t i s
16 5
5 4
13 764
. .
6. None of your methods wi l l appl y i n thi s probl em, so youl l need to draw a graph
(use a tabl e of val ues):
Once you do, youl l see that the l eft-hand l i mi t at x 5 0 i s 21 and the ri ght-hand
l i mi t at x 5 0 i s 1; thus, there i s no general l i mi t, and
lim
x
x
x 0
does not exi st.
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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www.petersons.com
7. You currentl y have no good methods to eval uate thi s l i mi t, so l ook at the graph as
x approaches 0 from the l eft and the ri ght:
Vi sual l y, you can determi ne that the functi on approaches a l i mi t (hei ght) of zero
as you near x 5 0.
C O NTINUITY
I have had some bad experi ences at the movi es. Perhaps you have al sori ght at the
good part of the fi l m when everythi ngs getti ng exci ti ng, the movi e fl i ckers off and the
house l i ghts come up. An usher i nforms the crowd that they are experi enci ng techni cal
di ffi cul ti es and that the movi e shoul d be up and runni ng agai n i n about 15 mi nutes. I t
rui ns the whol e experi ence, because the smooth, fl owi ng, continuousstream of events i n
the fi l m has been i nterrupted. I n cal cul us, i f a functi on experi ences a break, then i t, too,
i s sai d to be di sconti nuous. Any hol e or jump i n the graph of a functi on prevents the
functi on from bei ng cl assi fi ed as conti nuous. (Someti mes the sound i n a theater
prevents you from enjoyi ng the fi l m, but vol ume i s not di scussed unti l Chapter 9.)
Mathemati cal l y, a functi on f(x) i s sai d to be conti nuous at x 5 a i f all three of the
fol l owi ng condi ti ons are true:
(1)
lim
x a
f(x) exi sts
(2) f(a) exi sts
(3)
lim
x a
f(x) 5 f(a).
I n other words, a functi on must be headed toward some hei ght at x5 a, and when you
reach x 5 a, the functi on must actual l y exi st at the hei ght you expected.
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NOTE
Classifying functions as
continuous or discontinuous
is important, because the
continuity of a function is
often a prerequisite for
important calculus
theorems.
www.petersons.com
Example 4: On what i nterval s i s g(x) 5
x x x
x
3 2
17 15
3

+
conti nuous?
Solution: Vi sual l y, the graph i s di sconti nuous at any hol e or break, but a graphi ng
cal cul ator shows no obvi ous hol es or breaksi t l ooks l i ke a parabol a. However,
because g(x) i s a rati onal (fracti onal ) functi on, i t wi l l be undefi ned whenever the
denomi nator equal s 0. Thus, g(x) i s di sconti nuous at x 5 23, because g(23) does not
exi st, and that breaks the second requi rement for conti nui ty. There must be a hol e (or
point discontinuity) i n the graph at x 5 23, even though i t wasnt obvi ous from the
graph. So, the i nterval s of conti nui ty for g(x) are (2`,23) (23,`). Note that x 5 23
i s the onl y di sconti nui ty of the functi ong i s conti nuous at al l other val ues of x.
I n Exampl e 4, i t i s sti l l true that
lim
x3
g(x) exi sts and i s easi l y found (usi ng the
factori ng method) to be 16, even though the functi on doesnt exi st there. What i f you
rewrote the functi on as fol l ows?
h(x) 5
The new functi on, h, acts exactl y as g di d, except that h(23) 5 16. Redefi ni ng x 5 3
fi xes the di sconti nui ty i n g(x), sati sfi es the fi nal two conti nui ty condi ti ons that gdi d
not, and makes h a conti nuous functi on. Whenever you are abl e to redefi ne a fi ni te
number of poi nts l i ke thi s and make a di sconti nuous functi on conti nuous, the functi on
i s sai d to have had removable discontinuity. I f i t i s not possi bl e to fi x the di sconti -
nui ty by redefi ni ng a fi ni te number of poi nts, the functi on i s sai d to be nonremovably
discontinuous. I f i t i s possi bl e to fi x the di sconti nui ty, but you dont feel l i ke i t, you
are sai d to be a lazy bonehead.
Example 5: What type of di sconti nui ty i s exhi bi ted by r(x)5
x
x
+
2
4
2
?
Solution: Factor the denomi nator to get r(x) 5
x
x x
+
+ ( ) ( )
2
2 2
. Cl earl y, r i s undefi ned
for x 5 22 and 2, and, hence, these are the di sconti nui ti es. Next, i t i s i mportant to
determi ne i f
lim
x2
r(x) and
lim
x2
r(x) exi st, because i f a l i mi t exi sts at a poi nt of
di sconti nui ty, that di sconti nui ty i s removabl e. Remember: i f no l i mi t exi sts there, the
di sconti nui ty i s nonremovabl e. Usi ng the factori ng method of eval uati ng l i mi ts,
lim lim
x x
r x
x
( )

2 2
1
2
1
2 20
1
4
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www.petersons.com
However,
lim
x2
r(x) resul ts i n
1
0
, whi ch does not exi st. Therefore, there i s a poi nt
di sconti nui ty at x 5 22 and an i nfi ni te di sconti nui ty at x 5 2. The graph of the
functi on veri fi es these concl usi ons.
Substi tuti on i s a shortcut method for cl assi fyi ng types of di sconti nui ty of a functi on
that typi cal l y works very wel l . I n the previ ous exampl e, you substi tuted x 5 2 i nto
r and got
1
0
. I n the shortcut, a number di vi ded by zero suggests that a verti cal
asymptote exi sts there, maki ng i t an i nfi ni te (or essenti al ) di sconti nui ty (the two
terms are i nterchangeabl e). Substi tuti ng x 5 22 resul ts i n
0
0
, whi ch suggests poi nt
di sconti nui ty.
Example 6: Fi nd the val ue of k that makes f(x) conti nuous, gi ven
f(x) 5
Solution: Because f(x) i s defi ned as a radi cal and a pol ynomi al functi on, the two
pi eces of the graph wi l l be conti nuous. The onl y possi bl e di sconti nui ty i s at x 5 2,
where the graphs wi l l have to meet. Otherwi se, a jump di sconti nui ty wi l l exi st. You
know that f(2) 5 =11, accordi ng to the functi on. I n order for a l i mi t to exi st at x 5 2,
the other rul e i n the functi on x
2
2 x1 k must al so reach a hei ght of =11 when x5 2.
(2)
2
2 2 1 k 5
11
4 2 2 2
11
5 2k
2(2 2
11
) 5 k
k ' 1.3166
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TIP
Only point discontinuities
are removable, because a
limit exists.
TIP
Rational, polynomial,
radical, e xponential,
trigonometric, and
logarithmic functions are
always continuous at all
points in their domain. To
help remember this, use the
mnemonic device Red
Parrots Continuously Repeat
Everything They Learn.
www.petersons.com
The graph bel ow of f(x) vi sual l y veri fi es our resul tno hol es, gaps, or jumps when
x 5 2:
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EXERC ISE 3
DO NO T USE A G RAPHING C ALC ULATO R FO R ANY O F THESE PRO BLEM S.
For probl ems 1 through 3, expl ai n why each functi on i s di sconti nuous and determi ne i f
the di sconti nui ty i s removabl e or nonremovabl e.
1. g(x) 5
2. b(x) 5
x x
x x
3 1
3 5 2
2
+ ( )

3. h(x) 5
x x
x
2
10 25
5
+
4. Descri be the conti nui ty of the 15 functi ons you were to memori ze i n Chapter 2
wi thout consul ti ng any notes.
5. Draw the graph of a functi on, f(x), that sati sfi es each of the fol l owi ng condi ti ons.
Then, descri be the conti nui ty of the functi on:
lim
x2
f(x) 5 21
lim
x
+
0
f(x) 5 2`
lim
x

0
f(x) 5 `
f(2) 5 4
f(21) 5 f(3) 5 0
f i ncreases on i ts enti re domai n
6. Fi nd the val ue of k that makes p conti nuous i f p(x) 5 .
1. g i s made up of two pol ynomi al (l i near) segments, both of whi ch wi l l be conti nu-
ous everywhere. However, the graph has a jump di sconti nui ty at x 5 3. Noti ce
that
lim
x

3
g(x) 5 3 (you get thi s by pl uggi ng 3 i nto the x , 3 rul e). The ri ght-hand
l i mi t of g(x) at x 5 3 i s 2. Because the l eft- and ri ght-hand l i mi ts are unequal , no
general l i mi t exi sts at x 5 3, breaki ng the fi rst condi ti on of conti nui ty. Further-
more, because no l i mi t exi sts, the di sconti nui ty i s nonremovabl e.
2. Because b i s rati onal , b wi l l be conti nuous for al l x i n the domai n. However,
x 5 2
1
3
and 2 are not i n the domai n. Usi ng the factori ng method of eval uati ng
l i mi ts, you get that
lim
x
x
x

1
3
2
1
7
, so x 5 2
1
3
i s a removabl e di sconti nui ty. No
l i mi t exi sts at x 5 2, an essenti al di sconti nui ty.
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3. The numerator of the fracti on i s a perfect square, so si mpl i fy to get
h(x) 5
x
x
( )
5
5
2
Remember that the square root functi on has a posi ti ve range, so the numerator
must be posi ti ve:
h(x) 5
x
x

5
5
I t hel ps to thi nk about thi s graphi cal l y. After substi tuti ng some val ues of xi nto h,
you get the fol l owi ng graph:
Thus, h has a jump di sconti nui ty at x 5 5.
4. y 5 x: conti nuous on (2`,`)
y 5 x
2
: conti nuous on (2`,`)
y 5 x
3
y 5 =x: conti nuous on [0, `)
y 5 U xU : conti nuous on (2`,`)
y 5
1
x
: conti nuous on (2`,0) (0,`)
y 5 [[x]]: conti nuous for al l real numbers x, i f x i s not an i nteger
y 5 e
x
y 5 l n x: conti nuous on (0,`)
y 5 si n x: conti nuous on (2`,`)
y 5 cos x: conti nuous on (2`,`)
y5tan x: conti nuous for al l real numbers x, i f x ,
3
2
, 2

2
,

2
,
3
2
, (whi ch
can al so be wri tten x n + ( ) 2 1
2
i
, when n i s an i nteger)
y 5 cot x: conti nuous for al l real numbers x i f x ...,2p,0,p,... (whi ch can al so be
wri tten x np, when n i s an i nteger)
y 5 sec x: conti nuous for al l real numbers x, x n + ( ) 2 1
2
i
, when n i s an i nteger
y 5 csc x: conti nuous for al l real numbers x, x np, when n i s an i nteger
a
n
s
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x
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s
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5. There i s some vari ati on i n the possi bl e answer graphs, but your graph shoul d
match rel ati vel y cl osel y.
6. Just l i ke Number 1 i n thi s probl em set, the x 4 rul e eval uated at 4 represents
lim
x

4
, and the x . 4 rul e eval uated at 4 represents
lim
x
+
4
. I n order for p to be
conti nuous, these l i mi ts must be equal .
lim
x
+
4
p(x) 5 2(4)
2
1 11(4) 2 23 5 5
Therefore,
lim
x

4
p(x) 5 5
lim
x

4
p(x) 5 2U 4 2 2U 1 k 5 5
22 1 k 5 5
k 5 7
HANDS- O N AC TIVITY 3.2: THE EXTREM E VALUE THEO REM
Thi s and the next acti vi ty i ntroduce you totwobasi c but i mportant conti nui ty theorems.
Note that both of these are cal l ed existencetheorems. They guarantee the exi stence of
certai n val ues but donot tel l you where these val ues arei ts up toyou tofi nd them, and
theyre al ways i n the l ast pl ace you l ook (wi th your car keys, your wal l et from two years
ago, and the words to that Bon Jovi song you used to know by heart).
1. Gi ven f(x) 5 x
4
2 3x 2 4, justi fy that f(x) i s conti nuous on the x i nterval [21,2].
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NOTE
The intervals of continuity
for trigonometric functions
are the intervals that make
up their domains, as
trigonometric functions are
continuous on their entire
domains.
www.petersons.com
2. Draw the graph of f(x). Use a graphi ng cal cul ator i f you wi sh.
3. The maxi mum hei ght reached by f(x) on the i nterval [21,2] i s cal l ed the maxi-
mum of f on the i nterval . At what val ue of x does f(x) reach i ts maxi mum, and
what i s that maxi mum val ue?
4. To cal cul ate the mi ni mum val ue of f(x), use the 2
nd
Tracemi ni mum functi on
on your cal cul ator. Set bounds to the l eft and the ri ght of the mi ni mum and make
a guess, as you di d when fi ndi ng x-i ntercepts i n Chapter 2. What i s the mi ni mum
val ue of f(x) on [21,2]?
5. At what x-val ue does the mi ni mum occur? (Hint: The val ue i s di spl ayed when
you cal cul ate the mi ni mum wi th the cal cul ator.)
6. Graph g(x) 5
1
x
on the axes bel ow. Can you fi nd a maxi mum and a mi ni mum for
g(x) on the x i nterval (1,5)?
7. Why do your resul ts for f and g di ffer?
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NOTE
You are not allowed to use
the maximum/minimum
functions of your calculator
on the AP exam. We will
learn how to find them in
different ways (which are
acceptable on the test)
later.
www.petersons.com
8. Graph h(x) 5
x x x
x
3 2
4 5 +
bel ow. Why i s there no maxi mum on [0,3]?
9. Compl ete the Extreme Val ue Theorem, based on your work above:
Extreme Value Theorem: Any functi on, f(x), wi l l have a maxi mum and a
mi ni mum on the ______________ i nterval ___________ as l ong as f(x) i s
______________.
10. Vi sual l y speaki ng, where can maxi mums and mi ni mums occur on a graph?
1. f i s a pol ynomi al whose domai n i s (2`,`), and pol ynomi al s are conti nuous on
thei r enti re domai n (remember the red parrot?)
3. f reaches i ts hi ghest poi nt on [21,2] when x 5 2, and f(2) 5 6. Thus, f has a
maxi mum of 6.
4. f has a mi ni mum of 26.044261. I f you cant get thi s, use a l eft bound of 0, a ri ght
bound of 2, and a guess of 1.
5. The mi ni mum occurs at x 5 .9085621.
6. You cannot fi nd a maxi mum or a mi ni mum. Al though g(1) 5 1 and g(5) 5
1
5
would
be the maxi mum and mi ni mum val ues, respecti vel y, they are not i ncl uded on the
open i nterval (1,5). You cannot choose an x val ue whose functi on val ue i s hi gher
or l ower than every other i n the i nterval try i t!
7. You used a cl osed i nterval wi th f and an open i nterval wi th g.
8. h i s removabl y di sconti nuous at x 5 0, and because the maxi mum woul d have
occurred there, the functi on wi l l have no maxi mum.
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ALERT!
If the EVTconditions are not
satisfied, a function can still
have a maximum, a
minimum, or boththeir
existence is just not
guaranteed in that case.
www.petersons.com
9. Any functi on, f(x), wi l l have a maxi mum and mi ni mum on the closed i nterval
[a,b] as l ong as f(x) i s continuous. I f the i nterval i s not cl osed or the functi on i s
di sconti nuous, the guarantees of the Extreme Val ue Theorem do not appl y.
10. The maxi mum and mi ni mum (together cal l ed extrema, si nce they represent the
extreme hi ghest and l owest poi nts on the graph) wi l l occur at humps on the
graph (l i ke the mi ni mum of f) or at the endpoi nts of the i nterval (l i ke fs maxi -
mum).
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www.petersons.com
EXERC ISE 4
YO U M AY USE YO UR C ALC ULATO R FO R ALL O F THESE PRO BLEM S.
For each of the fol l owi ng functi ons and i nterval s, determi ne i f the Extreme Val ue
Theorem appl i es, and fi nd the maxi mum and mi ni mum of the functi on, i f possi bl e.
1. y 5 tan x, on [0,p].
2. y 5 , on [2p,
4
].
3. y 5 e
x
2 x
3
, on [22,4].
4. y 5 l n (x 2 1), on [2,5].
1. The Extreme Val ue Theorem (EVT) does not appl y because tan x i s di sconti nuous
on the gi ven i nterval , speci fi cal l y at x 5
p
2
. No maxi mum or mi ni mum val ues are
possi bl e on the cl osed i nterval , as the functi on both i ncreases and decreases
wi thout bound at x 5
p
2
.
2. The functi on i s conti nuous on the i nterval . Both parts of the functi on are tri go-
nometri c and, therefore, conti nuous on thei r domai n, and [2p,2
p
4
] i s i ncl uded i n
the domai n of each. The onl y possi bl e di sconti nui ty comes at x 5 2
p
2
, but both
functi ons have the same val ue there, guaranteei ng that the functi on i s conti nu-
ous. See the bel ow graphthere i s no break or jump. The EVT wi l l appl y. The
maxi mum i s 0 and occurs at x 5 2p, as the functi on decreases for the remai nder
of the i nterval . The mi ni mum i s
2
2
1 414 .
and occurs at x 5 2
p
4
.
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ALERT!
In problem 2, a common
mistake is to say that the
maximum of the function is
2, but that is only the
x-value at which the
maximum occurs.
www.petersons.com
3. The EVT wi l l not appl y, but the functi on sti l l has a maxi mum and mi ni mum. The
maxi mum occurs at the poi nt (22,8.135), and the mi ni mum occurs at the poi nt
(3.733,210.216). (The mi ni mum i s found usi ng the mi ni mum functi on on your
graphi ng cal cul ator.)
4. Al though l n (x2 1) i s di sconti nuous at x5 1, l n (x2 1) i s conti nuous on the gi ven
i nterval [2,5], so the EVT wi l l appl y. Because l n x i s monotoni c and i ncreasi ng,
the mi ni mum (0) wi l l occur at the begi nni ng of the i nterval , and the maxi mum
(1.386) wi l l occur at the end of the i nterval .
HANDS- O N AC TIVITY 3.3: THE INTERM EDIATE
VALUE THEO REM
Much l i ke the Extreme Val ue Theorem guaranteed the exi stence of a maxi mum and
mi ni mum, the I ntermedi ate Val ue Theorem guarantees val ues of a functi on but i n a
di fferent fashi on. Once agai n, conti nui ty i s a cornerstone of thi s theorem.
1. Consi der a continuous functi on f(x), whi ch contai ns poi nts (1,24) and (5,3). You
are not gi ven an equati on that defi nes f(x)onl y these poi nts.
Draw one possi bl e graph of f(x) on the axes above.
2. Deci de whi ch of the fol l owi ng must occur between x 5 1 and x 5 5. Justi fy your
answer.
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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(A) maxi mum
(B) mi ni mum
(C) root
(D)y-i ntercept
3. Whi ch of the fol l owi ng hei ght(s) i s the functi on guaranteed to reach, and why?
(A) 25
(B) 21
(C) 2
(D)5
4. Draw three di fferent graphs of f(x) that are discontinuous and, therefore, do not
ful fi l l the concl usi on you drew i n Number 2.
5. Based on your work above and the di agram bel ow, compl ete the I ntermedi ate
Val ue Theorem bel ow.
Intermediate Value Theorem: Gi ven a functi on f(x) that i s ___________on the
i nterval _______, i f d i s between _____and ______, then there exi sts a c between
_____and _____such that f(c) 5 ______.
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6. Rewri te the I ntermedi ate Val ue Theorem i n your own words to better i l l ustrate
i ts meani ng.
7. Gi ve one real -l i fe exampl e of the I ntermedi ate Val ue Theorems guarantees.
SO LUTIO NS TO HANDS- O N AC TIVITY 3.3
1. There are many possi bl e answers, but heres one:
2. The correct answer i s (C), root. I f the functi on i s conti nuous, i t must cross the
x-axi s at some poi nt i n the i nterval . A conti nuous functi on wi l l have both a
mi ni mum and maxi mum val ue. I f the functi on begi ns wi th negati ve val ues at
x 5 1 but eventual l y has posi ti ve val ues at x 5 5, the functi on had to equal zero
(change from posi ti ve to negati ve) somewhere i n [1,5].
3. Much l i ke the functi on must reach a hei ght of zero (as descri bed i n Number 2
above), the functi on must al so reach al l other hei ghts between 24 and 3. Thus,
the answer i s both (B) and (C).
4. There are numerous ways to draw di sconti nuous functi ons that wi l l not reach a
hei ght of zero. Bel ow are three possi bl e graphs. Thi s hi ghl i ghts the i mportance of
f(x) bei ng conti nuous.
5. Gi ven a functi on f(x) that i s continuous on the i nterval [a,b], i f d i s between f(a)
and f(b), then there exi sts a c between a and b such that f(c) 5 d.
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ALERT!
The Intermediate Value
Theorem guarantees that I
will hit each intermediate
height at least once. Note
that in my solution for
problem 1, f has 3 roots,
although only 1 was
guaranteed.
www.petersons.com
6. I f a conti nuous functi on begi ns at hei ght f(a) when x 5 a and ends at hei ght f(b)
when x 5 b, then the functi on wi l l cover every si ngl e hei ght between f(a) and f(b)
at some x between a and b.
7. I f I am two feet tal l when I am 18 months ol d and 6 feet tal l when I am 27 years
ol d, then at some age between 18 months and 27 years, I was 4 feet tal l . (I n fact,
si nce hei ght accordi ng to age i s conti nuousyou dont suddenl y jump from 3 to 4
feet tal l I wi l l cover al l hei ghts between 2 and 6 feet someti me i n that ti me
i nterval .)
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www.petersons.com
EXERC ISE 5
DO NO T USE A C ALC ULATO R FO R PRO BLEM S 1 AND 2.
1. On what i nterval must the functi on g(x) 5 2x
2
1 7x 2 1 i ntersect the l i ne y 5 7?
(A) [28,26]
(B) [24,21]
(C) [0,2]
(D)[6,9]
2. Gi ven a functi on h(x) conti nuous on [3,7] wi th h(3) 5 1 and h(7) 5 9, whi ch of the
fol l owi ng must be true?
I . There exi sts a real number p such that h(p) 5 5, 1 , p , 9
I I . h(5) 5 5
I I I . h has a maxi mum and a mi ni mum on [3,7]
(A) I onl y
(B) I I I onl y
(C) I and I I I
(D)I , I I , and I I I
YO U M AY USE YO UR C ALC ULATO R FO R PRO BLEM 3.
3. Gi ven the conti nuous functi on f(x) 5 l n (2x) 1 cos x, prove that there exi sts a
c [2p,2
p
2
] such that f(c) 5 .240 and fi nd c.
1. Thi s questi on i s onl y the I ntermedi ate Val ue Theorem (I VT) rephrased. Usi ng the
termi nol ogy of probl em 5 from the hands-on exerci se, 7 i s the d val ue between
g(a) and g(b). Each of the i nterval choi ces i s a candi date for [a,b]. You shoul d pl ug
each pai r i nto the functi on to see i f the resul ti ng pai r f(a) and f(b) contai ns 7.
Choi ce (C) resul ts i n f(a) 5 21, f(b) 5 21. Cl earl y, 7 fal l s between these numbers;
thi s i s not true for any of the other i nterval s.
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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www.petersons.com
2. I t hel ps to draw the si tuati on i n order to vi sual i ze whats bei ng asked.
Thecorrect answer is (C). Statement I i s true. The I VT guarantees that p wi l l
exi st on the i nterval [3,7]. So, i f p exi sts on [3,7], p wi l l defi ni tel y exi st on [1,9], as
[3,7] i s merel y a subset of [1,9]. Statement I I i s not al ways true; i n fact, i ts not
true i n the representati on of h i n the di agram above . Statement I I I i s true by the
Extreme Val ue Theorem si nce h i s conti nuous on a cl osed i nterval .
3. To appl y the I VT (the prerequi si tes of the theorem are met as f i s conti nuous on
a cl osed i nterval ), you note that f(2p) ' .1447 and f(2
p
2
) ' .4516. As .240 fal l s
between these val ues, a c [2p,2
p
2
] such that f(c) 5 .240 i s guaranteed. To fi nd
c, set f(x) 5 .240 and sol ve wi th your cal cul ator; c 5 22.0925.
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www.petersons.com
LIM ITS INVO LVING INFINITY
You can l earn a l ot about a functi on from i ts asymptotes, so i ts i mportant that you can
determi ne what ki nd of asymptotes shape a graph just by l ooki ng at a functi on.
Remember that asymptotes are l i nes that a graph approaches but never reaches, as the
graph stretches out forever. The two ki nds of asymptotes wi th whi ch you shoul d concern
yoursel f are verti cal asymptotes and hori zontal asymptotes; i n the graph bel ow of g(x),
x5 22 i s a verti cal asymptote and y5 4 i s a hori zontal asymptote.
lim
lim
lim
x
x
x
f x
f x
f x
+
( )
( )
( )
2
2
4
Some students are confused by thi s di agram, si nce g(x) actual l y i ntersects the hori -
zontal asymptote. I thought a graph cant hi t an asymptote, they mutter, eyes fi l l i ng
wi th tears. A graph can i ntersect i ts asymptote, as l ong as i t doesnt make a habi t of i t.
Even though gi ntersects y5 4 at (2,4), gonl y gets cl oser and cl oser to y5 4 after that
(for x . 2), and g wont i ntersect the l i ne out there near i nfi ni tyi ts the i nfi ni te
behavi or of the functi on that concerns us. I ts the same wi th the cri mi nal justi ce
systemi f you cross paths wi th the l aw a coupl e of ti mes when youre very young, i ts
not that bi g a deal , but as you get much ol der, the pol i ce tend to frown upon your
crossi ng them agai n.
Verti cal asymptotes are di sconti nui ti es that force a functi on to i ncrease or decrease
wi thout bound to avoi d an x val ue. For exampl e, consi der the graph of f(x) 5
1
x 2 1
.
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www.petersons.com
I n thi s case, the functi on has an i nfi ni te di sconti nui ty at x 5 1. As you approach
x 5 1 from the l eft, the functi on decreases wi thout bound, and from the ri ght, you
i ncrease wi thout bound. I n general , i f f(x) has a verti cal asymptote at x 5 c, then
lim
x c
f(x) 5 ` or 2`. Thi s i s commonl y cal l ed an infinite limit. Thi s termi nol ogy i s
sl i ghtl y confusi ng, because when f has an i nfi ni te l i mi t at c, f has no l i mi t at c!
Example 7: Determi ne whi ch di sconti nui ti es of p(x) 5
x
x x
+
+ +
2
5 6
2
are caused by
verti cal asymptotes.
Solution: To begi n, factor p(x) to get
x
x x
+
+ ( ) + ( )
2
3 2
. Because the denomi nator of a
fracti on cannot equal zero, p i s di sconti nuous at x 5 22 and 23. However, usi ng the
factori ng method,
lim
x2
p(x) exi sts and equal s
1
2 3 +
5 1. Therefore, the di sconti nui ty
at x 5 22 i s removabl e and not a verti cal asymptote; however, x 5 23 is a verti cal
asymptote. I f you substi tute x 5 23 i nto the p, you wi l l get 2
1
0
. Remember, a constant
di vi ded by zero i s the fi ngerpri nt of a verti cal asymptote.
Hori zontal asymptotes (or limits at infinity) are l i mi ti ng hei ghts that a graph
approaches as x gets i nfi ni tel y l arge or smal l . Consi der the graph bel ow of
s(x) 5
4 1
2 8
2
2
x
x
+
.
As x gets i nfi ni tel y l arge (the extreme ri ght si de of the graph), the functi on i s
approachi ng a hei ght of 2; i n fact, the same i s true as x gets i nfi ni tel y negati ve (the
l eft si de of the graph). I n thi s case, we wri te
lim
x
s(x) 5
lim
x
s(x) 5 2. The AP
Cal cul us test often features probl ems of the type
lim
x
f~x!
g~x!
, and there i s a handy tri ck
to fi ndi ng these l i mi ts at i nfi ni ty of rati onal functi ons. Wel l begi n wi th a generi c
exampl e to l earn the techni que.
lim
x
f~x!
g~x!
.
Solution: Let A be the degree of f(x) and B be the degree of g(x).
I f A . B, then the l i mi t i s `.
I f B . A, then the l i mi t i s 0.
I f A 5 B, then the l i mi t i s the rati o of the l eadi ng coeffi ci ents of f(x) and g(x).
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TIP
A rational function will
always approach the same
limit as x` and x2`.
www.petersons.com
Thi s techni que onl y works for rati onal functi ons when you are fi ndi ng the l i mi t as x
approaches i nfi ni ty, and al though i t may sound tri cky at fi rst, the method i s qui te
easy i n practi ce.
Example 9: Eval uate the fol l owi ng l i mi ts.
(a)
lim
x
x
4
2 3x
2
+ 1
x
2
+ 5
Because the degree of the numerator i s greater than the degree of the denomi nator
(4 . 2), the l i mi t i s `. I n other words, the functi on does not approach a l i mi ti ng hei ght
and wi l l reach hi gher and hi gher as x i ncreases.
(b)
lim
x
x x x
x x x
6 3
5 4 3
5 2 7
4 11
+ +
+
The degree of the numerator i s 3, si nce =x
6
5 x
3
, and the degree of the denomi nator
i s 5. Si nce the denomi nators degree i s hi gher, the l i mi t i s 0.
(c)
lim
x
2 7 2
5 3 1
3 4
4 2
x x
x x
+
+ +
The degrees of the numerator and denomi nator are both 4, so take the rati o of those
terms coeffi ci ents to get a l i mi t of 2
7
5
.
Example 10: Gi ve the equati ons of the verti cal and hori zontal asymptotes of
k(x) 5
2 5 12
12 32
2
2
x x
x x

+
Solution: The hori zontal asymptotes are easy to fi nd usi ng the techni que of the
previ ous two exampl es. The degrees of the numerator and denomi nator are equal , so
lim
x
k(x) 5
2
1
5 2. Therefore, k has hori zontal asymptote y 5 2. I n order to fi nd any
verti cal asymptotes, begi n by factori ng k:
k(x) 5
x x
x x
( ) + ( )
( ) ( )
4 2 3
4 8
From thi s, you can see that k has di sconti nui ti es at x 5 4 and 8. To determi ne whi ch
represents an asymptote, substi tute them both i nto k. k(4) 5
0
0
and k(8)5
76
0
. Thus,
x 5 8 i s an i nfi ni te di sconti nui ty, and x 5 4 i s a poi nt di sconti nui ty, as veri fi ed by the
graph.
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NOTE
Remember that the degree
of a polynomial is its highest
exponent, and the
coefficient of the term with
the highest exponent is
called the leading
coefficient.
NOTE
Remember: If limit equals `,
there technically is no limit,
since ` is not a real
number.
www.petersons.com
EXERC ISE 6
1. Expl ai n how hori zontal and verti cal asymptotes are rel ated to i nfi ni ty.
2. I f mi s an even functi on wi th verti cal asymptote x 5 2 and
lim
x
m(x) 5 0, draw a
possi bl e graph of m(x).
3. Eval uate:
(a)
lim
x
1 4 6
2 3 12
3 4
5 3
+
+
x x
x x
(b)
lim
x
5 7 4
3 8 7
3
2 6
x x
x x x
+ +
+ +
4. Gi ven f(x) 5
bx x
x a
2
2 2
14 6
2
+ +
( )
, a and b are posi ti ve i ntegers, f has hori zontal asymp-
tote y 5 2, and f has verti cal asymptote x 5 3:
(a) Fi nd the correct val ues of a and b.
(b) Fi nd the poi nt of removabl e di sconti nui ty on f.
5. Draw a functi on g(x) that sati sfi es al l of the fol l owi ng properti es:
Domai n of g i s (2`,22) (22,2`)
g has a nonremovabl e di sconti nui ty at x 5 22
Range of g i s [23,`)
g has one root: x 5 24
lim
x

2
g(x) 5 3
lim
x
g(x) 5 21
lim
x
g(x) 5 1
1. When a functi on approaches the verti cal asymptote x 5 c, the functi on val ues
ei ther i ncrease or decrease wi thout bound (i nfi ni tel y); for exampl e:
lim
x c
+
f(x) 5 `.
A hori zontal asymptote occurs when a functi on approaches a fi xed hei ght forever
as x approaches i nfi ni ty (for exampl e:
lim
x
f(x) 5 c).
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www.petersons.com
2. Because m i s even, i t must be y-symmetri c, and, therefore, have a verti cal
asymptote at x 5 22 as wel l . Furthermore,
lim
x
m(x) must al so equal 0. Any
sol uti on must fi t those characteri sti cs; here i s one:
3. (a) Because the degree of the denomi nator i s greater than the degree of the
numerator, the l i mi t at i nfi ni ty i s zero.
(b)
The numerator and denomi nator are both of degree 3 (si nce =x
6
5 x
3
), so
take the correspondi ng coeffi ci ents to fi nd the l i mi t of
5
7
. Note that the
radi cal remai ns around the 7.
4. (a) I f f has verti cal asymptote x 5 3, we can fi nd a. Remember the verti cal
asymptote fi ngerpri nt: a zero i n the denomi nator but not i n the numerator.
The denomi nator equal s zero when 3
2
2 a
2
5 0.
3
2
2 a
2
5 0
a
2
5 9
a 5 3 (si nce a has to be posi ti ve accordi ng to the probl em)
Substi tute a i nto the fracti on to gi ve you
bx x
x
2
2
14 6
2 18
+ +
I f f has hori zontal asymptote y 5 2, then

lim
x
f(x) 5 2. The numerator and
denomi nator have the same degree, so the l i mi t i s
b
2
5 2. Thus, b 5 4.
(b) Substi tuti ng both b and a gi ves you
4 14 6
2 18
2
2
x x
x
+ +
Factor compl etel y to get

2 2 7 3
2 9
2 1 3
3 3
2
2
x x
x
x x
x x
+ +
( )
( )

+ ( ) + ( )
+ ( ) ( )
The (x 1 3) factor can be el i mi nated, meani ng that
lim
x3
f(x) 5
5
6
. Si nce x 5
23 i s a di sconti nui ty at whi ch a l i mi t exi sts, f i s removabl y di sconti nuous at
the point (23,
5
6
).
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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5. Thi s probl em i s pretty i nvol ved, and al l sol uti ons wi l l l ook si mi l ar to the graph
bel ow.
I n order to get the range of [23,`), i ts i mportant that
lim
x
+
2
g(x) 5 `. The graph
must al so reach down to and i ncl ude the hei ght of 23, al though i t need not
happen at (26,23) as on thi s graph.
SPEC IAL LIM ITS
You have a number of techni ques avai l abl e toyou now toeval uate l i mi ts and toi nterpret
the conti nui ty that i s dependent on those l i mi ts. Before you are compl etel y profi ci ent at
l i mi ts, however, there are four l i mi ts you need to be abl e to recogni ze on si ght. (BC
students have sti l l another topi c to cover concerni ng l i mi tsLHpi tal s Rul ebut that
occurs i n Chapter 5.) I cal l these speci al l i mi ts because we accept them wi thout formal
proof and because of the speci al way they make you feel al l ti ngl y i nsi de.
Four Special Limits
1.
lim
x
c
x
n
5 0, i f c i s a nonzero constant and n i s a posi ti ve i nteger
J ustification: I n the si mpl est case (c 5 1, n 51), you are consi deri ng
lim
x
1
x
. You shoul d
know the graph of
1
x
by heart, and i ts hei ght cl earl y approaches zero as x approaches
i nfi ni ty. The same wi l l happen wi th any c val ue. Remember that the denomi nator i s
approachi ng infinity, so i t i s getti ng very l arge, whi l e the numerator i s remai ni ng
fi xed. The denomi nator wi l l eventual l y get so l arge, i n fact, that no matter how l arge
the numerator i s, the fracti on has an extremel y smal l val ue so cl ose to zero that the
di fference i s negl i gi bl e. Thi s l i mi t rul e works the same way for other el i gi bl e n val ues.
Consi der
lim
x
2
7
3
x
. The denomi nator i s growi ng l arger more qui ckl y than i n the
previ ous exampl e, whi l e 7 remai ns constant. Cl earl y, thi s l i mi t i s al so equal to 0.
2.
lim
x
S
1 1
1
x
D
x
5 e
J ustification: Usi ng the fi rst speci al l i mi t rul e,
lim
x
S
1 1
1
x
D
5 1 1 0 5 1. Techni cal l y,
S
1 1
1
x
D
i s a number very cl ose to, but not qui te, one. That smal l di fference becomes
magni fi ed when rai sed to the x power, and the resul t i s e. To vi sual l y veri fy that the
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l i mi t i s accurate, use your graphi ng cal cul ator to cal cul ate
S
1 1
1
x
D
x
for a very l arge
val ue of x. For exampl e, i f x 5 100,000,000,
S
1 1
1
x
D
x
5 2.718281815, whi ch i s ap-
proxi matel y the val ue of e, accurate to seven deci mal pl aces.
3.
lim
a0
sina
a
5 1
J ustification: Thi s i s easi l y proven by LHpi tal s Rul e, but that i s outsi de the spec-
trum of Cal cul us AB, so ABers wi l l have to sati sfy themsel ves wi th the graph of
y 5
sinx
x
as proof.
Note that the formul a above uses a i nstead of x, because the rul e hol ds true for more
than just
sinx
x
. For exampl e, you can set a 5 5x
3
and the formul a sti l l works:
lim
x0
sin5
5
3
3
x
x
5 1.
4.
lim
a0
cosa
a
1
5 0
J ustification: Agai n, LHpi tal s Rul e makes thi s easy, but the graph wi l l suffi ce as
proof; al so, any val ue of a wi l l make thi s true.
Example 11: Eval uate each of the fol l owi ng l i mi ts.
(a)
lim
x
S
3 2
4
x
+
8
x
2D
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You can do each of these l i mi ts separatel y and add the resul ts:
lim
x
3 5 3,
lim
x
4
x
5 0,
lim
x
8
2
x
5 0
lim
x
3 2
4
x
1
8
2
x
5 3 1 0 1 0 5 3
The l ast two l i mi ts are possi bl e because of Speci al Li mi t Rul e 1.
(b)
lim
x
S
5
x
3
+
4
x
22D
You can rewri te thi s as
lim
x
5
3
x
1 4x
2
Al though
5
x
3
has a l i mi t of 0 as xapproaches i nfi ni ty, 4x
2
wi l l grow i nfi ni tel y l arge. The
resul ti ng sum wi l l have no l i mi ti ng val ue, so the l i mi t i s 0 1 ` 5 `. (No l i mi t exi sts.)
(c)
lim
x0
sin3x
x
Thi s i s not qui te the form of Speci al Li mi t Rul e 3the 3x and x have to match.
However, i f you mul ti pl y the fracti on by
3
3
, you get
lim
x0
z
si n3x
3x
Now, Speci al Li mi t Rul e 3 appl i es:
lim
x0
3 z
si n3x
3x
5
lim
x0
3 z 1 5 3
Noti ce that 3 z 1 i s not affected by the l i mi t statement at al l i n the l ast step; the x may
be approachi ng 0, but there are no xs l eft i n the probl em!
(d)
lim
x
2 z
S
1 1
1
x
D
x
1 cos
p
x
By Speci al Li mi t Rul e 2,
lim
x
2 z
S
1 1
1
x
D
x
5 2 z e. Note that
p
x
wi l l fol l ow Speci al Li mi t
Rul e 1, si nce p i s a constant. Therefore, you get:
lim
x
cos
p
x
5
lim
x
cos 0 5 1
Therefore, the sol uti on i s 2e1 1.
Exampl e 11 demonstrates that the presence of addi ti on and subtracti on does not
affect the outcome of the l i mi t. Each pi ece of the l i mi t can be done separatel y and
combi ned at the end.
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NOTE
You are allowed to multiply
by
3
3
in Example 11(c)
because doing so is the
same as multiplying by
1you are not changing
the value of the fraction.
www.petersons.com
EXERC ISE 7
1.
lim
x
(4x
2
2 x 1 18)
2. lim
x0
1 7 cos x
x
3. lim
x0
3 3
9
2
2
cosx
x
4. lim
x
4
2
3
x
x

1.
lim
x
(4x
2
2 x1 18) 5 `. Some texts propose very compl i cated means to prove thi s.
However, the questi on i s very easy i f you consi der the graph of y54x
2
2x118i t
i s a parabol a faci ng upward. Therefore,
lim
x
(4x
2
2 x1 18) 5 `. I t i s al so correct to
say that no l i mi t exi sts because the functi on i ncreases wi thout bound.
2. Thi s i s al most of the form
lim
x0
cosx
x
1
. Mul ti pl y the numerator and denomi nator
by 7, and factor out a negati ve to make i t match that form:
lim
cos
x
x
x
0
7 1 7
7
lim
cos
x
x
x
( )

0
7
7 1
7
27 z 0 5 0
3. Agai n, some mi nor massagi ng i s necessary to use Speci al Li mi t Rul e 4:
lim
cos
x
x
x
( )
0
2
2
3 1
9
lim
cos
x
x
x

0
2
2
1
3
1
1
3
z 0 5 0
4. Thi s fracti on can be rewri tten to gi ve you lim
x x 0
4
5
. Accordi ng to Speci al Li mi t
Rul e 1, thi s i s of form
c
x
n
, so the l i mi t i s 0.
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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TEC HNO LO G Y: EVALUATING LIM ITS WITH A G RAPHING
C ALC ULATO R
You can sum up the whol e concept of l i mi ts i n one statement: A l i mi t i s a hei ght toward
whi ch a functi on i s headi ng at a certai n xval ue. Wi th thi s i n mi nd, a graphi ng cal cul ator
greatl y si mpl i fi es the l i mi t process. Many ti mes, the functi on you are gi ven i s bi zarre
l ooki ng, and i ts graph i s beyond the grasp of mere mortal men and women i n the ti me
al l otted to answer an AP questi on. The majori ty of these l i mi t questi ons appear on the
non-cal cul ator porti on of the AP test, forci ng you to use the substi tuti on, factori ng, and
conjugate methods to reach an answer. However, eval uati ng l i mi t probl ems wi l l some-
ti mes seep i nto the cal cul ator-acti ve secti on l i ke a vi scous, sti cky goo. I n these cases,
l i mi ts are no match for you at al l , as the cal cul ator affords you numerous tool s i n your
dual quests for a 5 on the AP test and peace i n the uni verse.
x
x
x
9
3
9
usi ng your cal cul ator.
Solution: You sol ved thi s probl em i n an earl i er exerci se usi ng the conjugate method
(whi ch works just fi ne) and got 2
1
6
. Graph i t on your cal cul atori t l ooks al most l i ke a
strai ght l i ne (but i ts defi ni tel y not l i near).
Use the [2
nd
][Trace]val ue command on your cal cul ator to fi nd the val ue of the
functi on at x 5 9. The correspondi ng y val ue shoul d come out bl ank! Thi s makes
sense, because 9 i s not i n the domai n of the functi on. Therefore, substi tuti on does not
work. However, we can use the cal cul ator to substi tute a number very closeto 9. Thi s
val ue i s a good approxi mati on of the l i mi t for whi ch you are l ooki ng. Agai n, use the
[2
nd
][Trace]val ue functi on of your cal cul ator to eval uate the functi on at
x 5 8.9999.
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ALERT!
Remember that your
calculator can only be
used to approximate limits.
Using the calculator to
approximate a limit may
not be acceptable on a
free-response question. This
method is only your
last resort!
www.petersons.com
The cal cul ator gi ves a l i mi t of x 5 2.1666671. Usi ng other x val ues even cl oser to 9
(e.g., 8.99999999999), the approxi mati on l ooks more l i ke 2.16666666667, whi ch i s
approxi matel y 2
1
6
, the exact val ue we recei ved from usi ng the conjugate method.
Example 13: Show that lim
x
x
x x
+ +

3 7
4 2 5
3
5
2
2
usi ng your cal cul ator.
Solution: Usi ng the rul e for rati onal functi ons at i nfi ni ty, the l i mi t i s cl earl y
3
5
as the
degrees of the numerator and denomi nator are the same. The graph certai nl y appears
to approach that hei ght as x approaches both ` and 2`.
To veri fy thi s numeri cal l y, press [Trace] and repeatedl y press the ri ght arrow key. The
functi ons hei ght wi l l sl owl y get cl oser to
3
5
5 .6.
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Another opti on open to you i s the [2
nd
]graph (or [Tabl e]) functi on of the cal cul ator,
whi ch l i sts functi on val ues qui ckl y.
Cl earl y, the functi on approaches a l i mi ti ng hei ght of .6 as x approaches `.
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EXERC ISE 8
1. I f
lim
x a
f(x) exi sts, what must be true?
2. Gi ven p(x) 5
x x b
x x
2
2
4
2 7 15
+ +
( )
+
( )
, fi nd the val ue of b that ensures p i s nonremovabl y
di sconti nuous onl y once on (2`,`).
3. What condi ti ons must be met i f f(x) i s conti nuous at x 5 c?
4.
lim
s
~5s + 1!~s 2 4!
~26 + 3s 2 7s
2
+ 2s
3
!
5. Desi gn two functi ons, g(x) and h(x), such that g(x) 1 h(x) 5 4x
2
1 3x 1 1 and
lim
x
g x
h x
( )
( )
5 3.
6. What three functi on behavi ors prevent a l i mi t from exi sti ng?
7. What val ue of a makes k conti nuous i f k(x) 5
8. lim
x
2
4
2 3
2
x
x
x
9. I f d(x) i s defi ned by the graph bel ow, answer the fol l owi ng questi ons:
(a)
lim
x0
d(x)
(b) lim
x 1
d(x)
(c) lim
x 1
d(x)
(d)
lim
x2
d(x)
(e)
lim
x
+
4
d(x)
(f) Li st al l x val ues where d i s di sconti nuous.
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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(g) Whi ch of your answers to part (f) represents removabl e di sconti nui ti es,
and why?
(h) What val ue(s) of b make the fol l owi ng statement true?
lim
x
d x
( )
10.
lim
x2
si n x
x
11. Gi ve the equati ons of the hori zontal and verti cal asymptotes of
g(x) 5
3 2
6
2 2 2
2 2 2
a x abx b
a x abx b
+

, i f a and b are real numbers.
12. lim
x
4 5 1 2
2
x x x +
_
,
13. The popul ati on, y, of the bacteri a Makeyoucoughus hurtyourthroatus i s model ed
by the equati on y 5 50e
.1013663t
, where t i s days and y i s the number of col oni es of
bacteri a. Use the I ntermedi ate Val ue Theorem to veri fy that the bacteri a wi l l
reach a popul ati on of 100 col oni es on the ti me i nterval [4,7].
14. I f f(x) and g(x) are defi ned by the graphs bel ow, eval uate the fol l owi ng l i mi ts (i f
possi bl e):
(a)
lim
x2
(f(x) 2 3g(x))
(b) lim
x3
f x
g x
( )
( )
(c)
lim
x1
g(f(x))
15. Fi nd the val ues of c and d that make m(x) conti nuous i f
m(x)5
16. J ames Diabolical Challenge Problem:
Gi ven j(x) 5 , j(2) 5 1, and j(x) i s everywhere conti nuous,
fi nd A and B.
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1. The three condi ti ons for a l i mi t to exi st are: (1)
lim
x a
+
f(x) exi sts, (2)
lim
x a

f(x) exi sts,
and (3) they are equal .
2. The denomi nator of p factors to (2x 2 3)(x 1 5), so p wi l l be di sconti nuous at
x 5
3
2
and 25. I f the numerator contai ns one of these factors, our goal wi l l be
achi eved. I t makes good sense to force (x 1 5) to be a factor, rather than (2x 2 3)
because the l eadi ng coeffi ci ent of the numerator i s 1. (I n other words, the nu-
merator wi l l factor i nto (x 1 A)(x 1 B) and (x 1 5) i s of thi s form.) To fi nd b, we
factor the numerator usi ng (x 1 5) as one of the factors:
(x 1 A)(x 1 5) 5 x
2
1 4x 1 b
x
2
1 5x 1 Ax 1 5A 5 x
2
1 4x 1 b
Subtract x
2
from each si de and factor to get
x(5 1 A) 1 5A 5 4x 1 b
Thus, 5 1 A (the coeffi ci ent of x on the l eft si de of the equati on) must equal 4 (the
coeffi ci ent of x on the ri ght si de of the equati on).
5 1 A 5 4
A 5 21
Therefore, (x 2 1) i s the remai ni ng factor. Thus,
x
2
1 4x 1 b 5 (x 1 5)(x 2 1)
x
2
1 4x 1 b 5 x
2
1 4x 2 5
b 5 25
Because (x 1 5) i s a factor of the numerator and denomi nator,
lim
x5
p(x) exi sts,
and the di sconti nui ty there i s removabl e. The di sconti nui ty at x 5
3
2
has no l i mi t
because p
S
3
2
D
5
S
3.25
0
D
, whi ch i ndi cates a verti cal asymptote (essenti al di scon-
ti nui ty).
3. I f f(x) i s conti nuous at x5 c, then (1)
lim
x c
f(x) exi sts, (2) f(c) exi sts, and (3) the two
are equal .
4. Mul ti pl y the bi nomi al s i n the numerator to get
lim
s
5 19 4
6 3 7 2
2
2 3
s s
s s s

+ +
.
Because thi s i s a rati onal functi on eval uated at i nfi ni ty, you can use the shortcut
method of exami ni ng thei r degrees. Because the degree of the denomi nator
exceeds the degree of the numerator, the functi ons l i mi t at i nfi ni ty i s 0. Dont be
confused because x2`. Remember that a rati onal functi on approaches the
same l i mi ts as x` and 2`.
5. Because
g x
h x
( )
( )
i s a rati onal functi on and
lim
x
5 3, we know that the l eadi ng
coeffi ci ents of g(x) and h(x) must be i n the rati o 3:1. One possi bl e g(x) i s 3x
2
1 2x
1 1. The matchi ng h(x) woul d have to be x
2
1 x. Noti ce that the sum of the two
functi ons i s 4x
2
1 3x 1 1, as di rected, and
lim
x
g x
h x
( )
( )
5 3. There are numerous
possi bl e answers, but they wi l l work i n essenti al l y the same fashi on.
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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6. I f a functi on osci l l ates i nfi ni tel y, i ncreases or decreases wi thout bound, or has
ri ght- and l eft-hand l i mi ts that are unequal , the functi on wi l l not possess a l i mi t
there.
7. Speci al Li mi t Rul e 4 gi ves us that
lim
x0
1 2 cosx
x
5 0. Thus,
lim
x0
k(x) 5 0, and the
fi rst condi ti on of conti nui ty i s met. Noti ce that k(0) 5 a, and (for k to be
conti nuous) a must equal that l i mi t as x approaches 0. Therefore, a 5 0.
8. Use Speci al Li mi t Rul e 1 to si mpl i fy the fracti on as fol l ows:
lim
x
x
x
2 0
2 3
Thi s i s a rati onal functi on bei ng eval uated at i nfi ni ty wi th equal degrees i n the
numerator and denomi nator, so the l i mi t i s equal to
2
23
5 2
2
3
.
9. (a) 0
(b) 21: Remember the key i s that you are approachi ng 21 fromthe ri ght, not to
the ri ght.
(c) 3
(d) 2: even though f(2) 5 21, the functi on l eads up to a hei ght of 2 when x 5 2
(e) 3
(f) x 5 23, 22, 2, 4
(g) x 5 2: I f you redefi ne d such that d(2) 5 2 (i nstead of 21), then the l i mi t
and the functi on val ue are equal to 2 and d i s conti nuous there. No other
di sconti nui ti es can be el i mi nated by redefi ni ng a fi ni te number of poi nts.
(h) b 5 23,`: d i ncreases wi thout bound as you approach 3 from the l eft and
the ri ght; the graph al so i ncreases wi thout bound as x approaches `.
10. You dont have to use speci al l i mi t rul es heresubsti tuti on i s possi bl e. The
answer i s
si n 2
2
, or .455.
11. Factor the fracti on ful l y to get
3
3 2
ax b ax b
ax b ax b
( ) + ( )
+ ( ) ( )
The denomi nator of g wi l l equal 0 when x 5 2
b
3a
,
b
2a
. However, the numerator
wi l l not equal zero si mul taneousl y. Thus, verti cal asymptotes are present, and
the equati ons for the verti cal asymptotes are x 5 2
b
3a
and x 5
b
2a
. To fi nd the
hori zontal asymptotes, note that the numerator and denomi nator have the same
degree, and fi nd the l i mi t at i nfi ni ty.
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www.petersons.com
lim
x
g(x) 5
3
6
2
2
a
a
5
1
2
i f a 0
From thi s, you know that the hori zontal asymptote i s y 5
1
2
.
12. I ts the revenge of the conjugate method! Mul ti pl y the numerator and denomi na-
tor of the fracti on by the conjugate of the expressi on.
lim
x
4 5 1 2 4 5 1 2
4 5 1 2
2 2
2
x x x x x x
x x x
+
_
,
+ +
_
,
+ +
lim
x
4 5 1 4
4 5 1 2
2 2
2
x x x
x x x
+
+ +
lim
x
+
+ +
5 1
4 5 1 2
2
x
x x x
Because the degrees of the numerator and denomi nator are both 1 (si nce
=x
2
5 x), you fi nd the l i mi t by taki ng the coeffi ci ents of the terms of that degree
and i gnori ng the rest of the probl em (just as youve done i n the past wi th rati onal
l i mi ts at i nfi ni ty).
lim
x

+

5
4 2
5
4 2
5
4 2
x
x x
13. The popul ati on at t 5 4 i s approxi matel y 75, and the popul ati on at t 5 7 i s
approxi matel y 101.655. The I ntermedi ate Val ue Theorem guarantees the exi st-
ence of a c [4,7] such that f(c) 5 100.
14. (a) No l i mi t:
lim
x2
f(x) does not exi st, so f(x) 2 3g(x) cannot have a l i mi t.
(b)
0:
lim
x3
f(x) 5 0 and
lim
x3
g(x) 5 2. So,
lim
x3
f x
g x
( )
( )
5
0
2
5 0.
(c) 2:
lim
x1
f(x) 5 22 and g(22) 5 2.
15. The graph wi l l begi n as a semi ci rcl e of radi us 2 centered at (23,0), wi l l become a
l i ne (si nce cx 1 d i s l i near) between the x val ues of 21 and 3, and wi l l end as the
graph of =x shi fted to the ri ght 3 and up 4. To fi nd the fi rst poi nt on the l i near
secti on, pl ug 21 i nto the fi rst rul e: 2
4 1 3
2
+ ( )
5 0. The l i ne wi l l begi n at
poi nt (21,0). The l i ne wi l l end at m(3) 5 3 3 1 4 5 4. The focus of the probl em,
then, i s to fi nd the equati on of the l i ne that passes through (21,0) and (3,4). Fi nd
the sl ope of the l i ne and use poi nt-sl ope form to get
y 2 0 5
4
4
(x 1 1)
y 5 x 1 1
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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www.petersons.com
Therefore, the correct c and d val ues are both 1. The sol uti on i s further justi fi ed
by the graph of m.
16. To begi n, factor the functi on and use the fact that j(2) 5 1.
j(x) 5
x x A
x
( ) ( )
4
4
5 x 2 A
j(2) 5 2 2 A 5 1
A 5 1
Si nce the functi on i s conti nuous,
lim
x4
f(x) must be equal to f(4). So, you get
f(4)5 4 2 1 5 B (accordi ng to the gi ven i nformati on); B 5 3.
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www.petersons.com
SUM M ING IT UP
Remember that the l i mi t of a graph at x 5 c i s the hei ght that the graph reaches
at x 5 c
Li mi ts answer the questi on Where i s a functi on headi ng?
Onl y poi nt di sconti nui ti es are removabl e, because a l i mi t exi sts.
Rati onal , pol ynomi al , radi cal , exponenti al tri gonometri c, and l ogari thmi c func-
ti ons are al ways conti nuous at al l poi nts i n thei r domai n. To hel p remember thi s,
use the mnemoni c devi ce
Red Parrots conti nuousl y Repeat Everythi ng They Learn.
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Differentiating
O VERVIEW
De riva tive a s a ra te of c ha ng e
The p owe r rule
De riva tive s to m e m orize
The c ha in rule
The p rod uc t rule
The q uotie nt rule
A word a b out re sp e c ting va ria b le s
Im p lic it d iffe re ntia tion
Ha nd s- O n Ac tivity 4.1: Ap p roxim a ting d e riva tive s
Te c hnolog y: Find ing num e ric a l d e riva tive s with the
g ra p hing c a lc ula tor
Sum m ing it up
The study of l i mi ts and conti nui ty onl y sets the stage for the fi rst meaty topi c
of cal cul us: deri vati ves and di fferenti ati on. I n fact, more than hal f of the
questi ons on the AP test wi l l i nvol ve deri vati ves i n some way or another.
Unl i ke l i mi ts, however, fi ndi ng deri vati ves i s an al most mechani cal process
ful l of rul es and gui del i nes, whi ch some students fi nd a rel i ef. Other students
dont fi nd any rel i ef i n any topi c of cal cul us; these peopl e have awful ni ght-
mares i n whi ch monsters corner them and force them to eval uate l i mi ts whi l e
poki ng them wi th spears.
DERIVATIVE AS A RATE O F C HANG E
The derivative of a functi on descri bes how fast and i n what capaci ty a
functi on i s changi ng at any i nstant. You al ready know a bi t about
deri vati ves, though you may not know i t. Consi der the graph of y 5 2x 2 1.
At every poi nt on the l i ne, the graph i s changi ng at a rate of 2. Thi s i s such
an i mportant characteri sti c of a l i ne that i t has i ts own ni fty termsl ope.
Because a sl ope descri bes the rate of change of a l i near equati on, the
deri vati ve of any l i near equati on i s i ts sl ope. I n the case of y 5 2x 2 1, we
wri te y 5 2.
c
h
a
p
t
e
r
4
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
119
Not al l deri vati ves are so easy, however. Youl l need to know the defi ni ti on of the
deri vati ve, al so cal l ed the difference quotient. The deri vati ve of a functi on f(x) i s
defi ned as thi s l i mi t:
lim
x0
f x x f x
x
+ ( ) ( )
Example 1: Use the di fference quoti ent to veri fy that

dy
dx
5 2 i f y 5 2x 2 1.
Solution: Set f(x) 5 2x 2 1, and appl y the di fference quoti ent. You need to substi tute
(x 1 Dx) i nto the functi on, subtract f(x), and then di vi de the whol e thi ng by Dx.
lim
x0
2 1 2 1 x x x
x
+ ( ) ( )
lim
x0
2 2 1 2 1 x x x
x
+ +
lim
x0
2
x
x
lim
x0
2 5 2
That wasnt so bad, now was i t? Wel l , bad newsi t gets worse. What about the graph
y5x
2
12? That graph changes throughout i ts domai n at di fferent rates. I n fact, when
x , 0, the graph i s decreasi ng, so i ts rate of change wi l l have to be negati ve. However,
when x . 0, the graph i ncreases, meani ng that i ts rate of change wi l l need to be
posi ti ve. Furthermore, can you di scuss sl ope i f the graph i n questi on i snt a l i ne?
Yes. Deri vati ves al l ow us to di scuss the sl opes of curves, and we do so by exami ni ng
tangent l i nes to those curves. The di agram bel ow shows y 5 x
2
1 2 and three of i ts
tangent l i nes.
The graph of y x + 1
and some tangent lines.
Geometri cal l y, the deri vati ve of a curve at a poi nt i s the sl ope of i ts tangent l i ne there.
I n the di agram above, i t appears that the tangent l i ne i s hori zontal when x 5 0 and
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NOTE
Differentiation is the process
of taking derivatives. If a
function is differentiable,
then it has derivatives.
NOTE
The notations y ,
dy
dx
, and Dx
all mean the derivative of y
with respect to x. Dont
concern yourself too much
with what with respect to
x actually means yet.
TIP
The difference quotient has
an alternative form for
finding derivatives at a
specific value x 5 c: f (c) 5
l i m
xc
f~x! 2 f~c!
x 2 c
.
www.petersons.com
thus has sl ope zero. I s i t true, then, that y(0) 5 0? You can use the al ternate form of
the di fference quoti ent (gi ven i n the precedi ng margi n note) to fi nd out.
Example 2: Prove that y(0) 5 0 i f y 5 x
2
1 1 usi ng the di fference quoti ent.
Solution: Set f(x) 5 x
2
1 1. I n thi s probl em, you are fi ndi ng y(0), so c 5 0; therefore,
f(c) 5 f(0) 5 1:
lim
x0
f x f
x
( ) ( )
0
0
lim
x0
x
x
2
1 1 +
lim
x0
x 5 0 (by substi tuti on)
Someti mes, the AP test wi l l ask you to fi nd the average rate of change for a functi on.
Thi s i s not the same thi ng as a deri vati ve. The deri vati ve i s the instantaneous rate of
change of a functi on and i s represented by the sl ope of the tangent l i ne. Average rate
of change gi ves a rate over a peri od of ti me and i s represented geometri cal l y by the
sl ope of a secant l i ne. The next exampl e demonstrates the di fference.
Example3: Gi ven the functi on f(x) defi ned by the graph bel ow i s conti nuous on [a,b],
put the fol l owi ng val ues i n order from l east to greatest: f (d), f (e), f (h), average rate
of change of f on [a,b].
b e d
h
a
f (x)
Solution: The functi on i s not gi ven, so you cannot use the di fference quoti ent.
Remember that deri vati ves are represented by sl opes of tangent l i nes to the graph
(drawn bel ow), and average rate of change i s gi ven by the sl ope of the secant l i ne
(drawn bel ow as a dotted l i ne).
bbbb eeee dddd
hh
aaaa
ffff ((x))))
The tangent l i ne at x 5 e has the onl y negati ve sl ope, so i t i s ranked fi rst. Of the
remai ni ng l i nes, you can tel l whi ch sl ope i s greatest accordi ng to whi ch l i ne i s the
steepest. Thus, the fi nal ranked order i s f(e), f(h), average rate of change, f(d).
C ha p te r 4: Diffe re ntia ting 121
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www.petersons.com
By now, you have an i dea of what a deri vati ve i s (a rate of change), how i t gets i ts
val ue (the di fference quoti ent), and what i t l ooks l i ke (the sl ope of a tangent l i ne). As
was the case wi th l i mi ts, there are ti mes when a deri vati ve does not exi st. No
deri vati ve wi l l exi st on f(x) at x 5 c when any of the fol l owi ng three thi ngs happen:
The graph of f has a sharp poi nt (cusp) at x 5 c;
f i s di sconti nuous at x 5 c;
The tangent l i ne to f at x 5 c i s verti cal .
I n the fi rst graph above, two l i near segments meet at a sharp poi nt at x 5c. The sl ope
of the l eft segment i s posi ti ve, whi l e the sl ope of the second i s negati ve. The deri vati ve
wi l l change suddenl y and wi thout warni ng (Stand back, my deri vati ve i s about to
change! Seek cover!) at x 5 c, and thus, i t i s sai d that no deri vati ve exi sts. The same
i s true of the case of di sconti nui ty at x 5 c i n the di agram. You wi l l justi fy the
nonexi stence of a deri vati ve at a verti cal tangent l i ne i n the probl em set.
The fi nal fact you need to know before we get our feet wet fi ndi ng actual deri vati ves
wi thout the bi g, bul ky di fference quoti ent i s thi s i mportant fact: I f f(x) i s a di fferen-
ti abl e functi on (i n other words, f has deri vati ves everywhere), then f i s a conti nuous
functi on. (Remember from the di scussi on above that i f a functi on i s di sconti nuous,
then i t does not have a deri vati ve.) However, the converse i s not true: conti nuous
functi ons do not necessari l y have deri vati ves! Expl ore thi s further i n the proceedi ng
exerci ses.
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www.petersons.com
EXERC ISE 1
1. Whi ch functi on, among those you are to have memori zed, i s conti nuous but not
di fferenti abl e on (2`,`)?
2. What i s the average rate of change of g(x) 5 si n x on [
p
2
,
11p
6
]?
3. Knowi ng that the deri vati ve i s the sl ope of a tangent l i ne to a graph, answer the
fol l owi ng questi ons about p(x) based on i ts graph.
p((x)
(a) Where i s p (x) 5 0?
(b) Where i s p (x) . 0?
(c) Where i s p (x) , 0?
(d) Where i s p(x) undefi ned?
4. Why does no deri vati ve exi st when the correspondi ng tangent l i ne i s verti cal ?
5. Set up, but do not eval uate, an expressi on that represents the deri vati ve of g(x)5
csc x i f x 5
p
4
.
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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www.petersons.com
1. y 5 U xU i s conti nuous but not di fferenti abl e at x 5 0, because i ts graph makes a
sharp poi nt there.
2. The average rate of change i s the sl ope of the l i ne segment from
S
p
2
, 1
D
to
S
11p
6
, 2
1
2
D
, as shown i n the di agram bel ow.
To fi nd sl ope, cal cul ate the change i n y di vi ded by the change i n x:
y y
x x
2 1
2 1
1
2
1
11
6 2
3
2
8
6
2
9
8p
' 2.358
3. (a) The deri vati ve i s zero when the tangent l i ne i s hori zontal . Thi s happens at
x 5 22, 1, and 3.
(b) I f you draw tangent l i nes throughout the i nterval , thei r sl opes wi l l be posi ti ve
on the i nterval s (22,1) and (3,`).
(c) Agai n, drawi ng tangent l i nes on the graph shows tangents wi th negati ve
sl ope on (2`,22) and (1,3).
(d) There are no cusps, di sconti nui ti es, or verti cal tangent l i nes, so the deri vati ve
i s defi ned everywhere.
4. The sl ope of a verti cal l i ne does not exi st, and si nce the deri vati ve i s equal to the
sl ope of a tangent l i ne, the deri vati ve cannot exi st ei ther.
5. Use ei ther form of the di fference quoti ent to get one of the fol l owi ng:
lim
x0
csc

4 4
+
( )

x
x
csc
,
lim
x

4
csc csc x
x
2
4
, or
lim
x

4
cscx
x
1
4

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TIP
Notice in 3(b) and 3(c) that
f (x) is positive when f(x) is
increasing, and f (x) is
negative when f(x) is
decreasing. More on this
laterstay tuned.
www.petersons.com
THE PO WER RULE
Many years ago, I attended a Faye Kel l erman book si gni ng wi th my father i n Cal i forni a.
The famous mystery wri ter pol i tel y asked what I di d for a l i vi ng as I handed her a copy
of her most recent book, Prayers for theDead, to si gn for me. When she found out I was
a cal cul us teacher, she confessed to taki ng many math cl asses i n col l ege and that one of
the most vi vi d thi ngs she remembered from cal cul us was how to take a deri vati ve wi th
the power rul e. Thi s senti ment i s echoed by many of the peopl e I meetbut onl y by
those who wi l l mai ntai n eye contact wi th me when they fi nd out I am a math teacher.
The Power Rul e i s the most basi c of deri vati ve techni ques, used when you encounter
a vari abl e rai sed to a constant power:
The Power Rule: I f y 5 x
c
, where c i s a real number, then y 5 c z xc
21
The Power Rul e, so named because the vari abl e i s rai sed to a power, al so works i f a
coeffi ci ent i s present. I n the case of y 5 nx
c
, you sti l l bri ng the ori gi nal exponent c to
the front and subtract one from the power, but now the c you brought to the front gets
mul ti pl i ed by the n that was al ready there. For exampl e, i f y5 5x
4
, then by the Power
Rul e, y 5 5 z 4x
3
5 20x
3
.
Thats the Power Rul e i n i ts enti rety. Someti mes, the Power Rul e wi l l appl y even
though i t i s not obvi oussome rewri ti ng wi l l be necessary fi rst, as demonstrated
bel ow.
Example 4: Use the Power Rul e to fi nd the deri vati ve of each of the fol l owi ng:
(a) y 5 x
8
Thi s i s a strai ghtforward exampl e: y 5 8x
7
.
(b) f(x) 5 2x
3
1 9x
2
Thi s probl em i s a sum, so each term can be di fferenti ated separatel ythe same woul d
be true for a di fference. Remember, when you bri ng down the powers, you need to
mul ti pl y by the coeffi ci ents that are al ready present.
f8(x) 5 3 z 2x
2
1 2 z 9x
1
f(x) 5 6x
2
1 18x
(c) y 5
5
x
2
Rewri te thi s as 5x
22
to appl y the Power Rul e:
y 5 5(22)x
23
5 210x
23
, or 2
10
3
x
.
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TIP
Visually, you pull the
exponent down in front of
the variable and subtract
one from the power.
ALERT!
The derivative of y 5 2x is
not y 5 x z 2x
21
. The Power
Rule works only when a
single, solitary variable is
raised to a constant power.
ALERT!
You cannot find the
derivatives of products or
quotients as easily as you
did in 4(b). Unlike sums and
differences, they have
special rules (the Product
and Quotient Rules) that
govern their derivatives.
www.petersons.com
(d) y 5 2
3p
2
5p
6
Thi s fracti on can be si mpl i fi ed to y 5 2
3
5
p
24
, so y 5 2
3
5
z (24)p
25
5
12
5p
5
(e) y 5 6
You can rewri te thi s as y 5 6x
0
, si nce x
0
5 1 (as l ong as x 0, but dont worry about
that). I f y5 6x
0
, then y 5 0 z 6x
21
5 0. Thi s i s an i mportant fact: Thederivativeof any
constant termis zero.
(f) y 5 7x 1 5
Thi s i s the same as 7x
1
, so y 5 1 z 7x
0
5 7 z x
0
5 7 z 1 5 7. Thi s i s another i mportant
fact: Thederivativeof a linear polynomial, y 5 ax 1 b, is a.
Now that you have some practi ce under your bel t, try some sl i ghtl y tri cki er probl ems
i n Exampl e 5. More rewri ti ng i s requi red here i n order to appl y the Power Rul e.
Example 5: Fi nd
dy
dx
for each of the fol l owi ng:
(a) y 5 (x
2
2 1)(x 1 5)
Youl l have to mul ti pl y these bi nomi al s together before you can appl y the Power Rul e.
You cannot simply find thederivativeof each factor and then multiply those. Remem-
ber, products and quoti ents have thei r own speci al rul es, and we havent gotten to
those yet.
y 5 x
3
1 5x
2
2 x 2 5
dy
dx
5 3x
2
1 10x 2 1
(b) y 5 (2x
3
)
2
Square the (2x
3
) term fi rst to get y 5 4x
6
. Cl earl y, then,
dy
dx
5 24x
5
.
(c) y 5 x (x
3
2
3
2
x
)
Some rewri ti ng and di stri buti ng i s necessary to begi n thi s probl em:
y 5 x
1/2
(x
3
2 3x
22
)
y 5 x
7/2
2 3x
23/2
Now the Power Rul e appl i es:
y 5
7
2
x
5/2
1
9
2
x
25/2
y 5
7
2
x
5/2
1
9
2x
5/2
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TIP
Even though you can find
the derivatives of 4(e) and
4(f) using the Power Rule,
its better if you can find
the derivatives immediately
using the important facts
listed there.
NOTE
The directions in Examples 1
through 5 ask you to find
the derivative but in
different ways. Be able to
recognize different kinds of
notation. More on the
notation
d
dx
and
dy
dx
in the
section entitled A Word
About Respecting
Variables.
www.petersons.com
EXERC ISE 2
1. Fi nd
dy
dx
i f y 5 12x
p
.
2. I f f(x) 5 x
4
1 3x
2
2 1, what i s f (x)?
3.
Cal cul ate
dy
dx
x
x
3
7
4
_
,
.
4. Fi nd DX [2x 2 1]
3
.
5. Fi nd y i f y 5
x x
x
3 5
2
4
+
.
6. What i s the equati on of the tangent l i ne to h(x) 5 2x
3
2 3x 1 5 at the poi nt (1,4)?
7. How many deri vati ves must you take of g(x) 5 4x
2
1 9x 1 6 unti l you get zero?
1. p i s just a real number, so you can sti l l appl y the Power Rul e:
dy
dx
5 12px
p21
.
2. Each of the terms can be di fferenti ated separatel y, so f(x) 5 4x
3
1 6x. Dont
forget that the deri vati ve of any constant (i n thi s case 1) wi l l be 0.
3. Rewri te the expressi on to get
1
4
z
1
x
4
or
1
4
x
24
. The
1
4
i s now a constant and we can
appl y the Power Rul e. The deri vati ve wi l l be
1
4
z (24)x
25
5 2
1
x
5
.
4. A common mi stake i s to assume that the deri vati ve i s 3(2x 2 1)
2
. Thi s i s not
correct. I nstead, expand the expressi on before appl yi ng the Power Rul e:
y 5 (2x 2 1)
3
5 (2x 2 1) (2x 2 1) (2x 2 1)
y 5 8x
3
2 12x
2
1 6x 2 1
y 5 24x
2
2 24x 1 6
5. Thi s one i s a l i ttl e ugl y to start wi th. Some rewri ti ng and di stri buti ng wi l l fi x
that:
y 5
1
4
z (x
21/2
)(x
1/3
1 2x
5
)
y 5
1
4
(x
21/6
1 2x
9/2
)
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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www.petersons.com
Noti ce that the 4 i n the denomi nator squi rts out easi l y to become the coeffi ci ent
1
4
.
Thi s i s not absol utel y necessary, but i t si mpl i fi es your cal cul ati ons. As i n past
exampl es, l eave the coeffi ci ent al one unti l the l ast step and then mul ti pl y i t
through:
y 5
1
4
S
2
1
6
x
27/6
1 9x
7/2
D
y 5 2
1
24x
7/6
1
9x
7/2
4
6. To create the equati on of a l i ne, you need a poi nt and a sl ope; poi nt-sl ope form
wi l l then easi l y fol l ow. You are gi ven the poi nt (1,4), and the sl ope of a tangent
l i ne may be found by the deri vati ve. Thus, the sl ope we need i s gi ven by h(1):
h(x) 5 6x
2
2 3
h(1) 5 6(1)
2
2 3 5 3
Appl y the poi nt-sl ope formul a usi ng m5 3 and (x
1
,y
1
) 5 (1,4):
y 2 y
1
5 m(x 2 x
1
)
y 2 4 5 3(x 2 1)
y 2 4 5 3x 2 3
y 5 3x 1 1
7. Each of the deri vati ves i s pretty easy: g(x) 5 8x 1 9, g(x) 5 8, g(x) 5 0. The
thi rd deri vati ve, then, wi l l gi ve you zero.
DERIVATIVES TO M EM O RIZE
Before expl ori ng other tool s of di fferenti ati on, i t i s necessary to suppl ement your
tool box. I f the Power Rul e i s the hammer of deri vati ves, i t i s pretty usel ess wi thout a
col l ecti on of di fferent ki nds of nai l sone for every purpose. Cal cul us i s ful l of deri va-
ti ves, most of whi ch cannot be nai l ed down by the Power Rul e al one. I n order to succeed
i n cal cul us and on the APtest, youl l need tobe abl e toderi ve the functi ons i n thi s secti on
automati cal l y, wi thout even a second thought. I n other words, memori ze, memori ze,
memori ze. Al though memori zi ng may not be a gl ori ous road to enl i ghtenment, i t has
pl enty of cl ean rest stops al ong the way wi th reasonabl y pri ced vendi ng machi nes.
Trig onom e tric De riva tive s
Tri gonometri c functi ons and thei r deri vati ves are al l over the AP test. By not memo-
ri zi ng these, you are cri ppl i ng yoursel f and your chance to score wel l .
d
dx
(si n x) 5 cos x
d
dx
(cos x) 5 2 si n x
d
dx
(tan x) 5 sec
2
x
d
dx
(sec x) 5 sec x tan x
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NOTE
The second derivative of
f(x) can be written as f (x)
or
d
2
y
dx
2
. Similarly, the third
derivative can be written as
f (x) or
d
3
y
dx
3
.
NOTE
The notation for each
derivative formula is
d
dx
,
which means the derivative
with respect to x.
www.petersons.com
d
dx
(cot x) 5 2csc
2
x
d
dx
(csc x) 5 2csc x cot x
Note the si mi l ari ti es between the tangent and cotangent functi ons as wel l as the
cosecant and secant functi ons. I t i s al so i mportant to note that al l the co-tri gonometri c
deri vati ves are negati ve.
Log a rithm ic De riva tive s
I n tradi ti onal courses, l ogari thmi c and exponenti al deri vati ves are not i ntroduced
unti l the end of cal cul us. However, thi s i s not the case any more. I n fact, the functi ons
are pervasi ve on the AP test, so i t i s common practi ce now to i ntroduce them ri ght
away. The resul t i s a l ot more to memori ze at fi rst, but greater success and mastery
l ater.
d
dx
(l n x) 5
1
x
d
dx
(l og
a
x) 5
1
x z ~l na!
You wi l l see far more natural l ogs on the AP test, but l ogs wi th di fferent bases
occasi onal l y make cameo appearances.
Example 6: Fi nd f(t) i f f(t) 5 4l og
3
t.
Solution: Remember, when fi ndi ng deri vati ves, you can i gnore the coeffi ci ent and
mul ti pl y through at the end. Therefore, accordi ng to the formul a,
f(t) 5 4 z
1
t a ln ( )
f(t) 5
4
t~l n3!
Exp one ntia l De riva tive s
I t doesnt get much easi er than exponenti al deri vati ves, especi al l y e
x
.
dy
dx
(e
x
) 5 e
x
dy
dx
(a
x
) 5 a
x
z l n a
Noti ce that the deri vati ve of a
x
i nvol ves mul ti pl yi ng by the natural l og of the base
used. Thi s i s si mi l ar to deri vi ng l og
a
x, i n whi ch you di vi de by the natural l og of the
base used. Thi s makes sense, because exponenti al functi ons and l ogari thmi c functi ons
are i nverse functi ons, just l i ke mul ti pl i cati on and di vi si on are i nverse operati ons.
Example 7: Fi nd y i f y 5 csc x 2 l nx 1 5
x
wi thout consul ti ng your deri vati ve
formul as.
Solution: I f you are memori zi ng these formul as as you proceed, thi s probl em i s
rel ati vel y si mpl e: y 5 2csc x cot x 2
1
x
1 (l n 5)5
x
.
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NOTE
The a in the logarithmic
and exponential derivative
formulas represents a
constant.
www.petersons.com
Inve rse Trig onom e tric Func tion De riva tive s
These functi ons revi si t you l ater, duri ng the i ntegrati on secti on of the book. Knowi ng
them now makes l i fe so much easi er down the road. Some textbooks use the notati on
si n
21
x to denote the i nverse si ne functi on, whereas many use arcsi n x. Both mean the
same thi ng. I personal l y prefer arcsi n x because si n
21
x l ooks haunti ngl y si mi l ar to
(si n x)
21
, or csc x.
d
dx
(arcsi n x) 5
1
1
2
x
d
dx
(arccos x) 5 2
1
1
2
x
d
dx
(arctan x) 5
1
1
2
+ x
d
dx
(arccot x) 5 2
1
1
2
+ x
d
dx
(arcsec x) 5
1
1
2
x x
d
dx
(arccsc x) 5 2
1
1
2
x x
Thi ngs start getti ng messy wi th arcsecant, but al l these deri vati ves have thi ngs i n
common. Noti ce that the deri vati ves contai n ~1 1 x
2
!, 1
2
x , and x
2
1 . Learn-
i ng whi ch denomi nator goes wi th whi ch i nverse functi on i s the key to recogni zi ng
these l ater. Al so note that the co- deri vati ves are agai n negati ve, as they were wi th
ordi nary tri gonometri c functi on deri vati ves.
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TIP
If anyone told you that
there was no memorizing in
calculus, they were
lying to you.
www.petersons.com
EXERC ISE 3
1. Bel ow i s a l i st of al l the functi ons whose deri vati ves were l i sted i n thi s secti on.
Compl ete the tabl e wi thout the use of notes.
Note: You may want to make a few photocopi es of thi s probl em and compl ete
them every few weeks to keep the formul as fresh i n your mi nd.
d
dx
(cos x) 5 _______________
d
dx
(e
x
) 5 _______________
d
dx
(arccsc x) 5
_______________
d
dx
(tan x) 5
_______________
d
dx
(arcsi n x) 5
_______________
d
dx
(sec x) 5
_______________
d
dx
(arctan x) 5
_______________
d
dx
~l og
a
x! 5
_______________
d
dx
(cot x) 5
_______________
d
dx
(arcsec x) 5
_______________
d
dx
(l n x) 5
_______________
d
dx
(si n x) 5
_______________
d
dx
(arccos x) 5
_______________
d
dx
(csc x) 5
_______________
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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www.petersons.com
d
dx
~a
x
! 5
_______________
d
dx
(arccot x) 5
_______________
2. Name each functi on whose deri vati ve appears bel ow:
(a) sec x tan x
(b) 2
1
x
(c)
1
x
2
1 1
(d) e
x
(e) 2
1
1
2
x
(f) csc
2
x
3. Fi nd each of the fol l owi ng deri vati ves:
(a) sec x 1 arcsec x
(b) 2x
2
1 cos x 2 8e
x
1 arccotx
(c) 4
x
1 l og
4
x 2 l n x
4. Name a functi on, g(x), other than ex such that g(x) 5 g(x).
1. Check answers wi th the formul as l i sted previ ousl y i n thi s secti on.
2. (a) sec x
(b) 2l n x: The 21 i s a coeffi ci ent, so
d
dx
(2l n x) 5 21 z
1
x
= 2
1
x
(c) arctan x: By the commutati ve property of addi ti on, 1 1 x
2
5 x
2
1 1
(d) e
x
(e) arccos x
(f) 2cot x: By the same reasoni ng as 2(b) above.
3. (a) secx tan x 1
1
1
2
x x
(b) 4x 2 si n x 2 8e
x
2
1
1
2
+ x
(c) (l n 4)4
x
1
1
4 ln ( ) x
2
1
x
4. The easi est such functi on i s g(x) 5 0, si nce the deri vati ve of any constant i s 0.
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www.petersons.com
THE C HAIN RULE
The Power Rul e, al though wonderful i n some i nstances, fal l s short i n others. For
exampl e,
d
dx
(x
3
) i s sol ved easi l y usi ng the Power Rul e, and the answer i s 3x
2
. However,
i f cos x i s cubed i nstead of just x, the Power Rul e fai l s! The deri vati ve of cos
3
x i s not
3(cos x)
2
. Another rul e i s necessary, and i t i s cal l ed the Chain (rhymes wi th pai n) Rule.
The Chai n Rul e appl i es to al l composi te functi ons (expressi ons i n whi ch one functi on
i s pl ugged i nto another functi on). For exampl e, (cos x)
3
i s the cosi ne functi on pl ugged
i nto the cubed functi on. Mathemati cal l y, you can wri te
f(x) 5 x
3
; g(x) 5 cos x
f(g(x)) 5 f(cos x) 5 (cos x)
3
To make thi ngs cl earer, you can refer to cos x as the i nner functi on and x
3
as the
outer functi on.
Example 8: Each of the fol l owi ng i s a composi ti on of functi ons. For each, i denti fy
whi ch i s the i nner and whi ch i s the outer functi on.
(a)
csc x
The i nner functi on i s csc x, and the outer functi on i s =x. Note that the outer functi on
al ways acts upon the i nner functi on; i n other words, the i nner functi on i s al ways
pl ugged i nto the outer functi on.
(b) sec 3x
Because 3x i s pl ugged i nto secant, 3x i s the i nner functi on, and sec x i s the outer.
(c) l n (x
2
1 4)
The i nner functi on i s x
2
1 4, and the outer functi on i s l n x. Agai n, you are fi ndi ng the
natural l og of x
2
1 4, so x
2
1 4 i s bei ng pl ugged i nto l nx.
(d) 3
si n x
The i nner functi on i s si n x, and the outer functi on i s 3
x
. Here, the exponenti al functi on
i s bei ng rai sed to the si n x power, so si n x i s bei ng pl ugged i nto 3
x
. Wi th thi s
termi nol ogy, the Chai n Rul e i s much easi er to transl ate and understand.
The Chain Rule: The deri vati ve of f(g(x)), wi th respect to x, i s f(g(x)) z g(x).
Translation: I n order to fi nd the deri vati ve of a composi te functi on, take the deri vati ve
of the outer functi on, l eavi ng the i nner functi on al one; then, mul ti pl y by the deri va-
ti ve of the i nner functi on.
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NOTE
It is no coincidence that
chain rhymes with pain. You
will use the Chain Rule
often for the remainder of
this course, so be sure to
understand it, or the pain
will be relentless.
www.petersons.com
Now i t i s possi bl e to fi nd the deri vati ve of f(x) 5 cos
3
x. Remember, cos
3
xi s the same as
(cos x)
3
. The outer functi on i s x
3
, so we use the power rul e to take the deri vati ve,
leaving theinner function, cos x, alone:
f(x) 5 3(cos x)
2
But, we al ready sai d that wasnt ri ght! Thats because we werent fi ni shed. Now,
mul ti pl y that by the deri vati ve of the i nner functi on:
f(x) 5 3(cos x)
2
z (2si nx)
f(x) 5 23cos
2
x si n x
Example 9: Fi nd
d
dx
for each of the fol l owi ng:
(a)
csc x
Thi s expressi on can be rewri tten (csc x)
1/2
. You al ready know the i nner and outer
functi ons from Exampl e 8. Thus, the deri vati ve i s as fol l ows:
1
2
~csc x!
21/2
z ~2csc x cot x!
= 2
cscxcotx
~2=cscx!
= 2
1
2
=cscx cot x
(b) sec 3x
The deri vati ve of sec x i s sec x tan x, so the deri vati ve of sec 3x i s as fol l ows:
sec 3x tan 3x z (3), or
3sec 3x tan 3x
si nce 3 i s the deri vati ve of the i nner functi on 3x.
(c) l n (x
2
1 4)
The deri vati ve of l n x i s
1
x
, so thi s deri vati ve wi l l be
1
~x
2
+ 4!
ti mes the deri vati ve of
(x
2
1 4):
1
4
2
x +
z 2x 5
2x
x
2
+ 4
(d) 3
si n x
Remember, the deri vati ve of 3
x
i s 3
x
z (l n 3), so the deri vati ve of 3
si n x
i s as fol l ows:
3
si n x
z (l n 3) z (cos x)
(l n3)cosx 3
si n x
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TIP
When applying the Chain
Rule, use the mantra, Take
the derivative of the
outside, leaving the inside
alone, then multiply by the
derivative of the inside. It
becomes automatic if you
say it enough.
TIP
Dont forget to leave the
inner function alone when
you begin the Chain Rule!
For example,
d
dx
~tan 4x!
sec
2
~4!. Instead, the
derivative is sec
2
~4x! z 4.
www.petersons.com
EXERC ISE 4
I n questi ons 1 through 6, fi nd
d
dx
.
1. l n(7x
3
1 2si n x)
2.
x x e
x 3 3
+
3. csc (arcsi n x
2
)
4.
4
5e
x
5. tan (cos(3x 1 4))
6.
e
6l n~arcsec e
x
!
7. Gi ven f i s a conti nuous and di fferenti abl e functi on such that f and f contai n the
val ues gi ven by the bel ow tabl e:
(a) Eval uate m(2) i f m(x) 5 (f(x))
3
.
(b) Eval uate g(3) i f g(x) 5 arctan (f(x)).
(c) Eval uate k(0) i f k(x) 5 f(e
x
).
8. Let h be a conti nuous and di fferenti abl e functi on defi ned on [0,2p]. Some functi on
val ues of h and h are gi ven by the chart bel ow:
I f p(x) 5 si n
2
(h(2x)), eval uate p

2
_
,
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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www.petersons.com
1.
1
7 2
21 2
21 2
7 2
3
2
2
3
x x
x x
x x
x x +
+
( )

+
+
sin
cos
cos
sin
2. Rewri te the expressi on as (x
3
1 x 2 e
x
)
1/3
. The deri vati ve wi l l be
1
3
(x
3
1 x 2 e
x
)
22/3
z (3x
2
1 1 2 e
x
), or
3 1
3
2
3
2 3
x e
x x e
x
x
+
+
( )
/
3. 2csc (arcsi n x
2
) cot (arcsi n x
2
) z
1 2
1
2
2
( )
x
x
5
2
2
1
2 2
4
x x x
x
csc arcsin cot arcsin
( ) ( )
. I n thi s probl em, the x

2
i s pl ugged i nto the
arcsi n xfuncti on, whi ch i s then pl ugged i nto the csc xfuncti on. The Chai n Rul e i s
appl i ed twi ce.
4. 4
5e
x
z (l n 4) z 5e
x
. When you deri ve 4u, you get 4u z (l n 4) z u. The u i s the i nner
functi on and i s l eft al one at fi rst. Once the outer functi on i s di fferenti ated, you
mul ti pl y by the deri vati ve of u, u.
5. The Chai n Rul e i s appl i ed twi ce i n thi s probl em. Begi n wi th the outermost
functi on (l eavi ng the rest al one) and work your way i nsi de:
sec
2
(cos (3x 1 4)) z (2si n(3x 1 4)) z 3 5 23sec
2
(cos (3x 1 4)) z si n (3x 1 4).
6. Usi ng l ogari thmi c properti es, rewri te the expressi on as e
l n~arc sec e
x
!
6
. Because e
x
and l n xare i nverse functi ons, they cancel each other out, and you get (arcsec e
x
)
6
.
The Chai n Rul e wi l l be appl i ed three ti mes when you di fferenti ate:
6(arcsec e
x
)
5
z
1
1
2
e e
x x
( )

z e
x
6e
x
~arcsec e
x
!
e
x
=~e
x
!
2
2 1
6e
x
~arcsec e
x
!
=~e
x
!
2
2 1
7. (a) m(x) 5 3(f(x))
2
z f(x), so m(2) 5 3(f(2))
2
z f(2) 5 3(21)
2
(6) 5 18
(b)
g(x) 5
1
1
2
+ ( ) ( ) f x
z f(x), so g(3) 5
1
1 3
2
+ ( ) f
z f(3) 5
1
1 4 +
z 4 5
4
5
(c) k(x) 5 f(e
x
) z e
x
, so k(0) 5 f(e
0
) z e
0
5 f(1) z 1 5 1 z 1 5 1
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NOTE
Problem 6 uses the
logarithmic property
log
a
x
n
5 n z log
a
x.
NOTE
It is not necessary to write
U e
x
U in the arcsecant
derivative formula because
e
x
has no negative range
elements.
www.petersons.com
8. The Chai n Rul e wi l l have to be appl i ed three ti mes i n thi s exampl e. To make i t
easi er to vi sual i ze, we have underl i ned the i nner functi ons to be l eft al one as we
fi nd the deri vati ve. Noti ce how the 2x i s l eft al one unti l the very end.
p(x) 5 2(si n (h(2x))) z cos (h(2x)) z h(2x) z 2
Because 2x 5 2
S
p
2
D
5 p, you can wri te:
p
S
p
2
D
5 2(si n (h(p))) z cos (h(p)) z h(p) z 2
p
S
p
2
D
5 2(si n
S
p
4
D
) z cos
S
p
4
D
z (21) z 2
p
S
p
2
D
5 2 z
2
2
z
2
2
z 22
p
S
p
2
D
5 22
THE PRO DUC T RULE
I f asked to fi nd the deri vati ve of f(x) 5si n x1cos x, you shoul d have no troubl e by now.
You woul dnt need to furrow your brow and scratch your chi n l i ke a gori l l a tryi ng to
determi ne how tofi l e i ts federal taxreturn. Youd know that f i s the sum of twofuncti ons,
so the deri vati ve i s si mpl y the sum of the i ndi vi dual funti ons deri vati ves:
f(x) 5 cos x2 si n x
Gi ven the functi on g(x) 5 si n x cos x, you mi ght be tempted to use the same strategy
and gi ve the deri vati ve g(x) 5 (cos x)(2si n x), but thi s i s not correct. Any ti me you
want to fi nd the deri vati ve of a product of two non-constant functi ons, you must appl y
the Product Rul e:
The Product Rule: I f h(x) 5 f(x)g(x), then h(x) 5 f(x)g(x) 1 g(x)f(x).
Translation: To fi nd the deri vati ve of a product, di fferenti ate one of the factors and
mul ti pl y by the other; then, reverse the process, and add the two resul ts together.
For exampl e, i n order to di fferenti ate g(x) 5 si n x cos x, you mul ti pl y si n x by the
deri vati ve of cos x and add to that cos x ti mes the deri vati ve of si n x:
g(x) 5 si n x (2si n x) 1 cos x (cos x)
g(x) 5 cos
2
x 2 si n
2
x
g(x) 5 cos 2x (by a doubl e angl e formul a)
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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www.petersons.com
Example 10: Fi nd
dy
dx
i f y 5 cos x l n x
2
Solution: Because you are gi ven a product of two functi ons, appl y the Product Rul e.
I have denoted whi ch deri vati ves to take bel ow wi th a pri me symbol (). I ts not
wonderful notati on, but i t gets the poi nt across:
y 5 cos x (l nx
2
) 1 l n x
2
(cos x)
y5 cos x z
1
2
x
z 2x 1 l n x
2
(2si n x)
y 5
2cos x
x
2 si n x l n x
2
Example 11: Fi nd
dy
dx
usi ng the Product Rul e i f y 5
arctan2
4
2
x
e
x
Solution: You can rewri te the expressi on as the product
y 5 (arctan 2x)~e
4x
2
!
and appl y the Product Rul e as fol l ows:
y 5 (arctan 2x)~e
4x
2
! 1 ~e
4x
2
!(arctan 2x)
y 5 (arctan 2x)~e
4x
2
!(8x) 1 ~e
4x
2
! z
1
1 4
2
+ x
z 2
y 5 8xe
4x
2
(arctan 2x) 1
2
1 4
4
2
2
e
x
x
+
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NOTE
To find the derivatives of
ln x
2
, arctan 2x, and e
4x
2
in
Examples 10 and 11, you
need to apply the
Chain Rule.
www.petersons.com
EXERC ISE 5
1. Why dont you have to use the Product Rul e to fi nd the deri vati ve of y 5 7x?
2. Fi nd
dy
dx
i f y 5 x
2
3x x + sin
3. Fi nd
dp
dx
i f p 5 sec xzarcsec x
4. Fi nd
d
dx
((x
2
1 3)
4
z (2x
3
1 5x)
3
)
5. Eval uate y(x) i f y 5 si n x cos x tan x
6. Eval uate h(2) i f h(x) 5 2x z l og
2
x
7. Gi ven functi ons f and g such that f(5) 5 1, f(5) 5 22, g(5) 5 4, and g(5) 5
2
3
, i f
k(x) 5 g(x) f x ( )
4
, eval uate k(5).
1. The Product Rul e must be appl i ed when deri vi ng the product of non-constant
functi ons. 7 i s a constant. However, the Product Rul e wi l l work when fi ndi ng
d
dx
(7x)try i t! Remember that the deri vati ve of 7 i s 0 si nce 7 i s a constant.
2.
dy
dx
x x x x x x
dy
dx
x x x
+
( )
+ +
( )
+ ( ) +
2 2
2
1 2
3 3
1
2
3 3
sin sin
sin co
/
ss sin
cos
sin
sin
x x x x
dy
dx
x x
x x
x x x
( ) + +
+ ( )
+
+ +
3 2
3
2 3
2 3
2
3. These functi ons are inverses, not reciprocals, so thei r product i s not 1.
dp
dx
x
x x
arc x x x
+
sec
sec sec tan
2
1
4. I f you wi sh, you can expand each of the pol ynomi al s and mul ti pl y them together;
onl y the Power Rul e wi l l be necessary, but youl l be mul ti pl yi ng al l day l ong. Best
to use the Power, Chai n, and Product Rul es al l combi ned:
(x
2
1 3)
4
z 3(2x
3
1 5x)
2
z (6x
2
1 5) 1 (2x
3
1 5x)
3
z 4(x
2
1 3)
3
z 2x
You can rewri te the expressi on to make i t sl i ghtl y more pretty, but that i s not
necessary.
5. You can general i ze the Product Rul e to any number of factors. The key i s to take
onl y one deri vati ve at a ti me, l eavi ng the other factors al one.
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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y 5 si n x cos x (sec
2
x) 1 si n x (2si n x) tan x 1 (cos x) cos x tan x
y 5 si n x cos x sec
2
x 2 si n
2
x tan x 1 cos
2
x tan x
6. To fi nd h(2), fi nd h(x) and substi tute 2 for x.
h~x! 5 2x z
1
xl n2
1 2 l og
2
x
=
2
l n2
+ 2l og
2
x
h~2! 5
2
l n2
+ 2 l og
2
2
= 4.885
7. The functi on can be rewri tten as
k(x) 5 g(x)(f(x))
1/4
and now the Product Rul e can be appl i ed.
k(x) 5 g(x) z
1
4
(f(x))
23/4
z f(x) 1 (f(x))
1/4
z g(x)
k(5) 5 g(5) z
1
4
(f(5))
23/4
z f(5) 1 (f(5))
1/4
z g(5)
k(5) 5 4 z
1
4
z (1)
23/4
z (22) 1 (1)
1/4
z
2
3
k(5) 5 22 1
2
3
5 2
4
3
THE Q UO TIENT RULE
Just l i ke products, quoti ents of functi ons requi re thei r own speci al method of di fferen-
ti ati on. Because mul ti pl i cati on and di vi si on are so cl osel y rel ated, you can use the
Product Rul e to devel op the Quoti ent Rul e from scratch. I n Exampl e 12, your objecti ve
wi l l be to create the Quoti ent Rul e.
Example 12: Use the Product Rul e to fi nd the deri vati ve of y5
f x
g x
( )
( )
Solution: You must rewri te the quoti ent as a product before you can begi n: y 5 f(x) z
(g(x))
21
. Now, appl y the Product Rul e and si mpl i fy compl etel y.
y 5 f(x) z (2(g(x))
22
) z g(x) 1 g(x)
21
z f(x)
y5 2
f x g x
g x
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2 1
( ) ( )
( )
f x
g x
Mul ti pl y the second term by
g~x!
g~x!
to get common denomi nators and then combi ne the
terms.
y 5
g x f x f x g x
g x
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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NOTE
On the AP test, either you
will be told what variable to
differentiate with respect
to, or it will be obvious.
TIP
The words top and bottom
refer to the fractions
numerator and
denominator, respectively.
If you refer to the
numerator of a fraction as
the top during math class,
your teacher may hit you in
the mouth with a hard
leather shoe.
www.petersons.com
The Quotient Rule: I f y 5
f x
g x
( )
( )
, then y 5
g x f x f x g x
g x
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2
Translation: I f a fracti on i s formed by two functi ons, the deri vati ve i s found by
mul ti pl yi ng the bottom by the deri vati ve of the top mi nus the top ti mes the deri vati ve
of the bottom, al l di vi ded by the bottom squared. Some peopl e use the fol l owi ng verbal
devi ce to remember the Quoti ent Rul e:
d
dx
d d Hi
Ho
Ho Hi less Hi Ho
Ho Ho
_
,

Example 13: Fi nd p(t) i f p(t) 5
3
5
2
t
t cot
Solution: Appl yi ng the Quoti ent Rul e, the deri vati ve i s as fol l ows:
p(t) 5
cot csc
cot
5 6 3 5 5
5
2 2
2
t t t t
t

( )
p(t) 5
6 5 15 5
5
2 2
2
t t t t
t
cot csc
cot
+
Example 14: Fi nd h(e) i f h(x) 5 arccot x z
3
2x
x ln
_
,
Solution: Thi s probl em begi ns wi th the Product Rul e.

h(x) 5 arccot x
3
2 x
x ln
_
,
1
3
2 x
x ln
_
,
(arccot x)
Fi ndi ng the deri vati ve of
3
2 x
x ln
_
,
wi l l requi re the Quoti ent and Chai n Rul es.

( )
( )
+
+
_
,
h x x
x
x
x
x
x
x x
x
arccot
ln ln
ln
ln
2 3 3 3
1
3 1
1
2 2
2
2
2
That sure i snt pretty. Now fi nd h(e), and remember that l n e5 1. That wi l l remove
some of the gri me.
( )

+
+
_
,
h x e
e
e
e e
e
arccot
2 3 3 3
1
1
3
1
1
1
2 2
2
2
2
ln
You can fi nd the deci mal val ue of thi s l oad usi ng your cal cul ator, but why put yoursel f
through that much agony? I f you do a si ngl e thi ng wrong when enteri ng i t i nto your
cal cul ator, you coul d l ose those poi nts you earned the hard way; be a heads-up test
takeri f si mpl i fyi ng i snt worth i t, l eave the answer unsi mpl i fi ed.
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ALERT!
There are all kinds of ways
to screw up the Quotient
Rule. Often, people
concentrate so hard on
getting the numerator of
the Quotient Rule correct,
they forget to write the
denominator. Dont forget
to square your bottom!
www.petersons.com
EXERC ISE 6
YO U M AY USE YO UR C ALC ULATO R O NLY FO R PRO BLEM 4.
1. Fi nd f(1) i f f(x) 5
x x
x
2
3
3 1
ln
2. Prove that
d
dx
(tan x) 5 sec
2
x usi ng the Quoti ent Rul e.
3. Gi ven y 5
csc2x
e
x
, fi nd
dy
dx
usi ng two different methods.
4. I f f(x) and g(x) are conti nuous and di fferenti abl e functi ons wi th some val ues gi ven
by the tabl e bel ow, fi nd h(3) i f h(x) 5
f x
g x
2
3
( )
( )
1. The deri vati ve of the numerator wi l l requi re the use of the Product Rul e, so be
cauti ous.
2. You can rewri te tan x as
sin
cos
x
x
and use the Quoti ent Rul e to fi nd the deri vati ve.
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NOTE
Remember from the graph
of ln x that ln 1 5 0.
www.petersons.com
3. Method One: Quotient Rule
Certai nl y, si mpl i fi cati on i s possi bl e, but the answer i s qui te messy wi th negati ve
exponents.
Method Two: Product Rule
Rewri te the expressi on as a product, and thi ngs are much easi er.
Both sol uti ons are equi val ent, al though i t i s not obvi ous to the naked eye. Gi ven
a choi ce, Product Rul e i s cl earl y the way to go, even though the ori gi nal probl em
was wri tten as a quoti ent.
4. You may begi n by factori ng
1
3
out of the expressi on to el i mi nate the 3 i n the
denomi nator, but that i s not requi red.
A WO RD ABO UT RESPEC TING VARIABLES
I f asked to fi nd the deri vati ve of x, you woul d probabl y gi ve an answer of 1. Techni cal l y,
however, the deri vati ve of xi s dx. (Si mi l arl y, the deri vati ve of yi s dy, etc.)The deri vati ve
of x i s onl y 1 when you are di fferenti ati ng wi th respect to x. Exami ne more cl osel y the
notati on
dy
dx
that you have unknowi ngl y used al l thi s ti me. Thi s notati on l i teral l y means
the deri vati ve of y wi th respect to x. The numerator contai ns the vari abl e you are
di fferenti ati ng, and the denomi nator contai ns the vari abl e you are respecti ng. Usi ng
thi s notati on, the deri vati ve of xwi th respect to xi s
dx
dx
, or 1.
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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www.petersons.com
Lets l ook at a more compl i cated exampl e. You know that the deri vati ve of x
3
(wi th
respect to x) i s 3x
2
. Lets be even more careful about the process and use the Chai n
Rul e. The deri vati ve of x
3
wi th respect to xi s 3x
2
ti mes the deri vati ve of whats i nsi de,
x, wi th respect to x:
dx
dx
. The fi nal answer i s 3x
2
z
dx
dx
5 3x
2
z 1 5 3x
2
. I f the vari abl e i n
the expressi on matches the vari abl e you are respecti ng, you di fferenti ate l i ke you
have i n previ ous secti ons. When the vari abl es dont match, however, thi ngs get a l i ttl e
more bi zarre.
Example 15: Fi nd
d
dx
(5y
4
), the deri vati ve of 5y
4
wi th respect to x.
Solution: Appl y the Chai n Rul e to thi s expressi on: the y i s the i nner functi on,
substi tuted i nto x
4
. Thus, take the deri vati ve of the outer functi on l eavi ng y al one,
20y
3
and then mul ti pl y by the deri vati ve of the i nsi de (y) wi th respect to x
S
dy
dx
D
. Your fi nal
answer i s
20y
3
z
dy
dx
I t i s very i mportant to noti ce when you are di fferenti ati ng wi th respect to vari abl es
that dont match those i n the expressi on. Thi s onl y happens rarel y, but i t i s i mportant
when i t happens.
The tel evi si on show TheSimpsons used thi s concept of di fferenti ati on i n the epi sode
where Bart cheats hi s way i nto a school for smart ki ds. The teacher asks the students
to determi ne what i s funny about the deri vati ve of
r
3
3
. The deri vati ve i s (techni cal l y)
r
2
dr, or r z dr z r (hardy-har-har). I n thi s probl em, dr i s the deri vati ve of r because no
respecti ng vari abl e was defi ned. Had the teacher asked for the deri vati ve of
r
3
3
wi th
respect to r, the joke woul d have been l ess funny, si nce that deri vati ve i s r
2
.
Example 16: Fi nd the deri vati ve of each wi th respect to x:
(a) t
The deri vati ve of t wi th respect to x i s wri tten
dt
dx
(b) 7x
3
si n x
Thi s expressi on contai ns two di fferent functi ons, so you need to use the Product Rul e:
7x
3
cos x 1 21x
2
si n x. There i s no fracti on l i ke the
dt
dx
from the l ast probl em, because
you are taki ng the deri vati ve wi th respect to the vari abl e i n the expressi on (they
match).
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TIP
Dont forget:
da
db
is read
the derivative of a with
respect to b. Use this
notation a b.
ALERT!
No math joke is really that
funny, so although the
Simpsons joke is pretty
amusing to us math geeks,
you risk serious physical
injury if you try to tell
it in public.
NOTE
The skill of differentiating
variables with respect to
other variables happens
most often in implicit
differentiation, related
rates, and differential
equations.
www.petersons.com
(c) cos y
2
Thi s i s a composi te functi on and wi l l requi re the Chai n Rul e: The y i s pl ugged i nto x
2
,
whi ch i s pl ugged i nto cos x. The deri vati ve, accordi ng to the Chai n Rul e, i s 2si n y
2
z 2y z
dy
dx
. Noti ce that you l eave the y al one unti l the very end, as i t i s the i nnermost
functi on.
(d) 2xy
Thi s i s the product of 2x and y, so use the Product Rul e: 2x z
dy
dx
1 y z 2. The deri vati ve
of 2x wi th respect to x i s si mpl y 2.
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www.petersons.com
EXERC ISE 7
1. What i s meant by
dg
dc
? Create an expressi on whose deri vati ve contai ns
dg
dc
.
2. Fi nd the deri vati ve of each wi th respect to y:
(a) csc 2y
(b) e
x1y
(c) cos (l n x) 1 xy
2
1.
dg
dc
i s the deri vati ve of gwi th respect to c. Thi s expressi on appears whenever you
di fferenti ate an expressi on contai ni ng gs wi th respect to c. For exampl e, the
deri vati ve of g
2
wi th respect to c (mathemati cal l y,
d
dc
(g
2
) i s 2g z
dg
dc
.
2. (a) 22csc 2ycot 2y: Dont forget to l eave the 2yal one as you fi nd the deri vati ve of
cosecant; fi nal l y, mul ti pl y by the deri vati ve of 2y wi th respect to y, whi ch i s 2.
(b)
dx
dy
e
x y
+
_
,
+
1 : Remember, you are l ooki ng for the deri vati ve of x wi th
respect to y i n thi s probl em.
(c) Thi s probl em requi res the Chai n Rul e for the fi rst term and the Product
Rul e for the second:
( ) + ( ) + sin ln x
x
dx
dy
x y y
dx
dy
1
2
2
IM PLIC IT DIFFERENTIATIO N
At thi s poi nt i n your l ong and prosperous cal cul us l i fe, you are no l onger i nti mi dated by
questi ons such as Fi nd
dy
dx
: y 5 2si n x 1 3x
2
. Wi thout a second thought (hopeful l y),
you woul d answer
dy
dx
52cos x16x. Someti mes, however, the questi ons are not sol ved
for a vari abl e l i ke the above probl em was sol ved for y. I n fact, some thi ngs you
di fferenti ate arent even functi ons, l i ke the above exampl e i s a functi on of x. I n such
ci rcumstances, you wi l l empl oy implicit differentiation. I n order to di fferenti ate i mpl i c-
i tl y, you need to have a basi c understandi ng of what i t means to di fferenti ate wi th
respect to a vari abl e (the previ ous topi c i n thi s chapter).
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www.petersons.com
Ste p s for Suc c e ss in Im p lic it Diffe re ntia tion
(These steps assume that you are fi ndi ng
dy
dx
, as i t i s your goal 85 percent of the ti me. I f
other vari abl es are used, adjust accordi ngl y.)
1. Fi nd the deri vati ve of the enti re equati on wi th respect to x.
2. Sol ve for
dy
dx
.
3. I f a speci fi c sol uti on i s requi red, substi tute i n the correspondi ng x and y val ues.
Example 17: Fi nd the equati on of the tangent l i ne to the ci rcl e
x
2
1 y
2
5 9 when x 5 1
Solution: I n order to fi nd the equati on of a l i ne, you need a poi nt and a sl ope. I t i s
very si mpl e to fi nd the poi nt. Substi tute x 5 1 i nto the formul a to fi nd i ts correspond-
i ng y val ue. Thi s coordi nate pai r (1,
8
) marks the poi nt of tangency, as shown i n the
fi gure bel ow.
Al l that remai ns i s to fi nd the sl ope of the tangent l i ne, whi ch i s gi ven by the
deri vati ve,
dy
dx
. You need to fi nd thi s deri vati ve i mpl i ci tl y, however. To do so, fi rst fi nd
the deri vati ve of everythi ng wi th respect to x:
2x 1 2y
dy
dx
5 0
To compl ete the probl em, sol ve for
dy
dx
:
2y
dy
dx
5 22x
dy
dx
5 2
2x
2y
5 2
x
y
Hence, the deri vati ve for any poi nt (x,y) on the ci rcl e i s gi ven by the formul a 2
x
y
.
Therefore, the sl ope of the tangent l i ne at (1,
8
) i s 2
1
8
. Usi ng poi nt-sl ope form for
a l i ne, the equati on of the tangent l i ne i s
y 2
8
5 2
1
8
(x 2 1)
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ALERT!
You must be at least 18 to
purchase a book that
discusses explicit
differentiation.
ALERT!
Dont forget to take the
derivative of the constant:
d
dx
(9) 5 0.
www.petersons.com
Example 18: Fi nd the equati on of the normal l i ne to si n (x) 1 e
xy
5 3 when x 5 p.
Solution: I n order to fi nd the sl ope of the normal l i ne, you need to take the opposi te
reci procal of the sl ope of the tangent l i ne (the deri vati ve), si nce they are perpendi cu-
l ar. I t i s far from easy to sol ve thi s equati on for y, so you shoul d di fferenti ate
i mpl i ci tl y. Agai n, start by fi ndi ng the poi nt on the normal l i ne by pl uggi ng i n x 5 p:
si n (p) 1 e
py
5 3
0 1 e
py
5 3
l n (e
py
) 5 l n (3)
py 5 l n 3
y 5
ln3
' .3496991526
Thus, the tangent and normal l i nes both pass through (p, .3496991526).
Now, fi nd the deri vati ve of the equati on wi th respect to x to get the sl ope of the
tangent l i ne,
dy
dx
:
cos x 1 e
xy
z
S
y 1 x
dy
dx
D
5 0
Di stri bute e
xy
and sol ve for
dy
dx
:
cos x 1 ye
xy
1 xe
xy
dy
dx
5 0
xe
xy
dy
dx
5 2cos x 2 ye
xy
dy
dx
x ye
xe
xy
xy

+ cos
Pl ug i n the coordi nate (p, .3496991526) for (x,y) to get the sl ope of the tangent l i ne
there:
I f thi s i s the sl ope of the tangent l i ne at (p, .3496991526), then the sl ope of the normal
l i ne i s the negati ve reci procal of 2.0052094021, or 191.9606091 Therefore, the equa-
ti on of the normal l i ne i s
y 2 .350 5 191.961(x 2 p)
(You are al l owed to round at the very end of the probl em on the AP test.)
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NOTE
A normal line is
perpendicular to the
tangent line at the point of
tangency.
TIP
To keep resulting answers
accurate, you shouldnt
round to .350 until the
problem is completely over.
TIP
You must use the Product
Rule to differentiate xy.
www.petersons.com
EXERC ISE 8
1. Fi nd
dy
dx
: e
y
2
1 3y 5 tan x.
2. What i s the sl ope of the tangent l i ne to l n (xy) 1 y
2
5 2y at the poi nt (e,1)?
3. Fi nd
d y
dx
2
2
i f x
2
2 y
2
5 16.
4. Denni s Franz Hi gh School (Home of the Feroci ous Prai ri e Dogs) has had a
top-notch track team ever si nce they i nstal l ed thei r el l i pti cal track. I ts di men-
si ons, major axi s l ength 536 feet and mi nor axi s l ength 208 feet, are cl ose to an
actual track. Bel ow i s a di agram of the Prai ri e Dogs track superi mposed on a
coordi nate pl ane. I f the northern boundari es of DF Hi gh are l i near and tangent to
the track at x 5 6250 feet, fi nd the equati ons of the northern property l i nes.
1. Fi nd the deri vati ve wi th respect to x.
e
y
2
z 2y
dy
dx
1 3
dy
dx
5 sec
2
x
Now, sol ve for
dy
dx
. Youl l need to factor
dy
dx
out of both terms on the l eft si de of the
equati on.
dy
dx
~2y e
y
2
1 3! 5 sec
2
x
dy
dx
=
sec
2
x
2ye
y
2
+ 3
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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www.petersons.com
2. Fi rst, fi nd
d
dx
. Remember to use the Product Rul e for
d
dx
(xy):
1
xy
z (x
dy
dx
1 y) 1 2y
dy
dx
5 2
dy
dx
Di stri bute
1
xy
and sol ve for
dy
dx
:
1
y
z
dy
dx
1
1
x
1 2y
dy
dx
5 2
dy
dx
1
y
z
dy
dx
1 2y
dy
dx
2 2
dy
dx
5 2
1
x
dy
dx
(
1
y
1 2y 2 2) 5 2
1
x
At thi s poi nt, you can sol ve for
dy
dx
, but there i s no real need to do so i n thi s
probl em. You just want the deri vati ve at (e,1), so pl ug i n those val ues for x and y:
3.
d y
dx
2
2
means the second deri vati ve, so begi n by fi ndi ng
dy
dx
, the fi rst deri vati ve:
2x 2 2y
dy
dx
5 0
dy
dx
=
x
y
Use the Quoti ent Rul e to fi nd the second deri vati ve:
d y
dx
y x
dy
dx
y
2
2 2
You al ready know that

dy
dx
5
x
y
, so pl ug i t i n:
d y
dx
y x
x
y
y
2
2 2
i
Get common denomi nators for y and
x
y
2
and si mpl i fy:
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TIP
When entering fractions
into the calculator, its a
good idea to surround the
numerator and
denominator with
parentheses.
www.petersons.com
Now, the ori gi nal probl em states that x
2
2 y
2
5 16, so y
2
2 x
2
5 216. Substi tute
thi s, and youre fi ni shed:
d y
dx y
2
2 3
16

4. Begi n by creati ng the equati on of the el l i pse. Remember, standard form of an
el l i pse i s
x
2
a
2
+
y
2
b
2
= 1, where a and bare hal f the l engths of the axes. Therefore, the
track has the fol l owi ng equati on:
x y x y
2
2
2
2
2 2
268 104
1
71824 10816
1 + + , or
Now fi nd the y that corresponds to both x 5 250 and x 5 2250:
62500
71824
+
y
2
10816
= 1
y
2
5 (1 2 .8701826687) z10816 5 1404.104255
y 5 37.47137914
Now, you have poi nts (6250,37.471379). Fi nd
dy
dx
at these poi nts to get the sl ope
of the tangent l i nes. (Because the graph of an el l i pse i s y-symmetri c, the sl opes at
x 5 250 and x 5 2250 wi l l be opposi tes.)
The property l i nes have equati ons y 2 37.414 5 21.006(x 2 250) and y 2 37.414
5 1.006(x 1 250).
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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HANDS- O N AC TIVITY 4.1: APPRO XIM ATING DERIVATIVES
Occasi onal l y, the AP wri ters can be not onl y tri cky but mani acal as wel l . One such
exampl e i s thei r new practi ce of aski ng students to fi nd deri vati ves wi thout even gi vi ng
them a functi on.
1. A functi on w(t) i s conti nuous; some of i ts val ues are l i sted i n thi s tabl e.
Draw one possi bl e graph of w(t) for 0 t 1.
2. Al though i t l i kel y wont be exact, use a rul er to draw the tangent l i ne to w(t) at
t 5 .95.
3. Descri be why i t i s i mpossi bl e to fi nd the exact val ue of w(t).
4. Draw the secant l i ne connecti ng t 5 .9 and .95. Why mi ght thi s secant l i ne be an
i mportant tool ? What other secant l i nes coul d serve the same purpose?
5. Approxi mate w(.95) usi ng three di fferent methods.
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6. I f a di fferent graph, f(t), were conti nuous on the i nterval [22,1], but you were
onl y gi ven the functi on val ues for t 5 22, 2
3
2
, 21, 2
1
2
, ,
3
2
, and 2, expl ai n how
you woul d approxi mate f(1).
3. I n order to fi nd the exact val ue of w(t), you woul d need to know what rul e defi nes
w(t), not just the resul ti ng graph.
4. The secant l i ne has a sl ope that i s very cl ose to that of the tangent l i ne. Usi ng the
very si mpl e sl ope formul a from al gebra
S
Dy
Dx
D
, you can cal cul ate the secant sl ope
and use i t as an approxi mati on for the deri vati ve (tangent sl ope). Other secant
l i nes that are good tangent approxi mators i ncl ude the secant connecti ng (.95,3.6)
to (1,3.7) and the secant l i ne connecti ng (.9,3.4) to (1,3.7). Al l of these woul d be
good approxi mati ons.
5. (a) Usi ng the secant l i ne connecti ng (.9,3.4) to (.95,3.6):
m(.95) '
3 6 3 4
95 9
. .
. .
m(.95) ' 4
(b) Usi ng the secant l i ne connecti ng (.95,3.6) to (1,3.7):
m(.95) '
3 7 3 6
1 95
. .
.
m(.95) ' 2
(c) Usi ng the secant l i ne connecti ng (.9,3.4) to (1,3.7):
m(.95) '
3 7 3 4
1 9
. .
.
m(.95) ' 3
All of these are approximations, so the answers need not be the same.
6. You coul d fi nd any of the fol l owi ng secant sl opes:
f f 1 5
5
( ) ( ) .
.
,
f f 1 5 1
5
.
.
( ) ( )
, or
f f 1 5 5
1
. . ( ) ( )
.
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EXERC ISE 9
YO U M AY USE YO UR G RAPHING C ALC ULATO R TO ANSWER THE FO LLO WING
PRO BLEM S.
Probl ems 1 through 4 refer to g(x) as defi ned by thi s graph:
1. Gi ve val ues for g(2), g(3), and g(4). Of these, whi ch can onl y be an approxi mati on?
2. Approxi mate h(2).
3. Approxi mate the average rate of change of g(x) on the i nterval [22,5].
4. Rank the fol l owi ng i n numeri cal order from l east to greatest: h(21), h(1), h(2).
1. The graph makes i t pretty cl ear that g(2) 5 1 and g(4) 5 2. Youl l have to
approxi mate g(3); accordi ng to the graph, g(3) ' .6.
2. The secant l i ne connecti ng (1,2) and (2,1) i s a good approxi mator; therefore,
g(2) '
1 2
2 1
( )
( )
5 21.
3. The average rate of change of g(x) i s gi ven by
g g 5 2
5 2
( ) ( )
( )
3 1 7
5 2
671
( )
( )

.
.
4. I f you sketch tangent l i nes at these poi nts, youl l noti ce that the tangent l i ne has
negati ve sl ope at x5 2, zero sl ope at x5 1, and posi ti ve sl ope at x5 21. Al though
you do not know what the sl opes actual l y are, you sti l l know that negatives , 0
, positives. Therefore, h(2) , h(1) , h(21).
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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NOTE
Problems 1 through 3
involve approximations.
Your answers may not be
exactly the same but may
still be correct; your answer
should be reasonably close.
www.petersons.com
TEC HNO LO G Y: FINDING NUM ERIC AL DERIVATIVES WITH THE
G RAPHING C ALC ULATO R
I f you are a studi ous person and a fri end of the envi ronment, you have al ready read
Chapter 1, whi ch di scusses when you may and may not use a graphi ng cal cul ator to
justi fy an answer. You shoul d al ready know how to graph usi ng the cal cul ator, and you
l earned how to sol ve equati ons usi ng the cal cul ator i n Chapter 2. That l eaves two topi cs,
and one of these i s cal cul ati ng a numeri cal deri vati ve.
The TI -83 can eval uate a deri vati ve at any poi nt on i ts domai n (cue bugl e fanfare).
Unfortunatel y, i t wi l l not actual l y take the symbol i c deri vati ve (cue booi ng from studi o
audi ence). For exampl e, you cannot type
d
dx
(tan x) and expect the cal cul ator to re-
spond sec
2
x (al though some cal cul ators, such as the TI -89, do have thi s capabi l i ty).
The numeri cal di fferenti ati on functi on i s cal l ed nDeri v and i s found under the
[Math] button, opti on Number 8. To l earn thi s techni que, l ets revi si t an ol d fri end:
probl em 1 i n the Quoti ent Rul e secti on.
Example 19: Fi nd f(1) i f f(x) 5
x x
x
2
3
3 1
ln
.
Solution: The correct syntax for a numeri cal deri vati ve i s
nDeri v(function of x, x, number at which to find derivative).
Be careful to type the functi on correctl y; thi s one wi l l requi re a whol e bunch of
parentheses.
When you di d thi s probl em by hand, you got an answer of
1
2
. Note that the cal cul ators
nDeri v resul t i s not the exact answer, as the cal cul ator onl y approxi mates i t, al though
i t i s a pretty darn good approxi mati on. Si nce the AP test onl y requi res three-deci mal
accuracy, a truncated or rounded answer of .500 woul d have been fi ne, but the
compl ete cal cul ator answer may have been marked incorrect, si nce the actual answer
i s
1
2
and not .5000046667. Al ways take your cal cul ators sol uti ons wi th a grai n of sal t;
theyre usual l y cl ose but not al ways ri ght.
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Example 20: Use the cal cul ator to fi nd the fol l owi ng numeri cal deri vati ves:
(a) h(0) i f h(x) 5 3
x
3
1 2.
When you type the nDeri v command, you get a very bi zzare resul t. I got 300, as shown
bel ow.
You shoul d check thi s by hand, because i t just feel s wrong. You can rewri te h as h(x) 5
3x
1/3
1 2, so h(x) 5 3 z
1
3
x
22/3
5
1
x
2/3
. Cl earl y, then, h(0) i s undefi ned, and the
deri vati ve does not exi st. (Thi s i s because h has a verti cal tangent l i ne at x 5 0, and
no deri vati ves exi st at verti cal tangent l i nes.) The cal cul ator has uni ntenti onal l y l i ed.
(b) g(3) i f g(x) 5 U x 2 3U 2 1.
Bel ow i s the graph of g and the nDeri v command requi red to fi nd g(0).
Does somethi ng about these i mages make you uncomfortabl e? g has a sharp poi nt at
(3,21), but the cal cul ator reports that the deri vati ve i s 0. You know better than
thatno deri vati ve exi sts at a sharp poi nt, so the correct answer i s g(3) does not
exi st.
These exampl es i l l ustrate a very i mportant poi nt. The cal cul ator i s a great esti mati on
tool , but i t cannot al ways repl ace good knowl edge of where deri vati ves exi st and how
to compute them. Be aware of the cal cul ators l i mi tati ons, and dont accept the
cal cul ator outputs as gospel truth.
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NOTE
The cube root symbol is
found in the [Math] menu
on the TI-83, and the
absolute value notation
abs is found in the
[Math] Num menu.
www.petersons.com
EXERC ISE 10
YO U M AY USE A G RAPHING C ALC ULATO R O NLY FO R PRO BLEM S 5 THRO UG H 12.
1. Fi nd
dy
dx
: y 5 si n x cos =x.
2. Fi nd
d
dx
(sec 3x l n(tan x)).
3. Determi ne the val ue of
dy
dx
i f x 5 0 for e
xy
1 cos y 5 1.
4. Wri te the equati on of the tangent l i ne to y 5
x
x
2
2
4 5
+
at x 5 0.
5. At what x-val ues does (3x
2
1 2x)(x2 1)
4/5
have hori zontal tangent l i nes? On what
i nterval s i s the functi on di fferenti abl e?
6. Descri be t(x) as compl etel y as you can based on i ts graph, shown bel ow.
7. I f n(x) 5 (g(x))
2
and p(x) 5 f(x)g(x), compl ete the chart bel ow knowi ng that n(2) 5
26 and p(2) 5 23.
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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8. I f b(x) has the graph shown bel ow wi th poi nts of i nterest x
1
and x
2
,
whi ch of the fol l owi ng coul d be the graph of b(x)?
9. I f f(1) 5 1, f(1) 5 23, g(1) 5 4, and g(1) 5 2
1
2
, fi nd
(a) p(1) i f p(x) 5
f x
g x
( )
( ) 2
(b) h(1) i f h(x) 5 ( f x ( )
)
3
(c) j(1) i f j(x) 5 g(f(1))
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10. I f m(x) i s an even functi on di fferenti abl e at x 5 4 and m(4) 5 0, determi ne whi ch
of the fol l owi ng statements must be true and bri efl y justi fy your answers.
(a) mi s conti nuous at x 5 4.
(b)
lim
x
+
4
m(x) exi sts.
(c) x 5 4 i s a root of m(x).
(d) mcannot have a poi nt di sconti nui ty at x 5 4.
(e) m(0) 5 4.
(f) m(4) 5 m(24).
(g) The average rate of change of m(x) on [24,4] 5 0.
11. Gi ven that the fol l owi ng graph represents an audi ence members heart rate (i n
beats per mi nute) for the l ast 16 mi nutes of the new horror fl i ck TheBloodening
(starri ng Whoopi Gol dberg and Lassi e), approxi mate the fol l owi ng val ues and
expl ai n what they represent.
(a) h(9)
(b) h(6)
(c)
h h 12 8
4
( ) ( )
12. J ames Diabolical Challenge: A parti cl e moves al ong the x-axi s such that i ts
di stance away from the ori gi n i s gi ven by s(t) 5 t
3
2 9t
2
1 24t 2 7 (where t i s i n
seconds and s(t) i s i n mi l l i meters).
(a) Fi nd the average vel oci ty of the parti cl e on [1,3].
(b) How qui ckl y i s the parti cl e movi ng at t 5 3, and i n what di recti on i s i t
movi ng?
(c) When i s the parti cl e at rest?
(d) Graph s(t) and gi ve the i nterval s of ti me duri ng whi ch the parti cl e i s
movi ng to the ri ght.
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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1. The Product Rul e shoul d be your fi rst pl an of attack (the Chai n Rul e wi l l fol l ow
wi th cos =x):
y 5 si n x z 2si n =x z
1
2 x
1 cos =x z cos x
2. Thi s probl em i s very si mi l ar to the l ast:
sec 3x z
1
tan x ( )
z sec
2
x 1 l n(tan x) z 3sec 3x tan 3x
sec 3x
sec
tan
tan ln tan
2
3 3
x
x
x x + ( )
_
,
3. Fi rst, fi nd the y that corresponds to x 5 0:

e
0
+ cos y = 1
1 + cos y = 1
y =
p
2
Now, use i mpl i ci t di fferenti ati on, but remember to appl y the Product Rul e to xy:
4. Cl earl y, the tangent l i ne wi l l i ntersect the curve at (0,f(0)), or (0,2
2
5
). Use the
Quoti ent Rul e to fi nd the sl ope of the tangent l i ne:
y 5
4 5 2 2 4
4 5
2
2
x x x
x
+ ( )( )
( )
( )
+ ( )
y(0) 5
0 8
25
( )
5
8
25
Therefore, the equati on of the tangent l i ne i s y 1
2
5
5
8
25
x.
5. Fi rst, fi nd the deri vati ve usi ng the Product Rul e:
(3x
2
1 2x)
4
5
(x 2 1)
21/5
1 (x 2 1)
4/5
(6x 1 2)
Cl earl y, the deri vati ve wi l l not exi st at x 5 1, because (x 2 1)
21/5
woul d cause a
zero i n the denomi nator. The functi on wi l l have a hori zontal tangent l i ne when i ts
deri vati ve i s 0, so use the cal cul ator to fi nd when the deri vati ve i s 0.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Hori zontal tangent l i nes shoul d occur when x5 2.366 and x5 .651; these resul ts
are supported by the graph of the functi on bel ow:
6. Thi s i s a l arge l i st of characteri sti cs of t(x), al though there are probabl y more
correct answers: t has jump di sconti nui ti es at x5 23 and 3; t has no deri vati ve at
x 5 23, 3, 21, and 1 (remember that no deri vati ve exi sts at di sconti nui ti es or
sharp poi nts); t(x) 5 0 on (21,1); t(x) 5 1 on (23,21); t(x) 5 21 on (1,3); t
appears to be an even functi on; t i s negati ve on (2`,23) (1,3); t i s posi ti ve on
(23,21) (3,`); sketch tangent l i nes and exami ne the sl opes to see that thi s i s
true; t i s decreasi ng at a decreasi ng rate on (2`,3), i ncreasi ng at a constant rate
on (23,21), constant on (21,1), decreasi ng at a constant rate on (1,3), and
i ncreasi ng at an i ncreasi ng rate on (3,`).
7. Fi rst, fi nd the deri vati ve of n(x) and use the fact that n(2) 5 26:
n(x) 5 2(g(x)) z g(x)
n(2) 5 2g(2)g(2) 5 26
2g(2) z 1 5 26
g(2) 5 23
Now, you onl y need to fi nd f(2) to compl ete the chart. Use the fact that
p(2) 5 23:
p(2) 5 f(2)g(2) 1 g(2)f(2) 5 23
9 z 1 1 (23)f(2) 5 23
(23)f(2) 5 212
f(2) 5 4
8. Draw a successi on of tangent l i nes to the graph, and exami ne the sl ope of the
tangent l i nes, as pi ctured here:
The sl opes are posi ti ve on (2`,x
1
) (x
2
,`), so the deri vati ve i s posi ti ve there al so.
Si mi l arl y, b(x) wi l l be negati ve on (x
1
,x
2
). Furthermore, b(x) wi l l have hori zontal
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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www.petersons.com
tangent l i nes at x
1
and x
2
, so deri vati ves there wi l l be 0. Al l these characteri sti cs
appl y onl y to graph D.
9. (a) Use the Quoti ent Rul e to fi nd p(1):
p(1) 5
2 1 1 1 2 1
2 1
2
g f f g
g
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
p(1) 5
224 2 ~21!
~2z4!
2
= 2
23
64
(b) Rewri te the functi on as h(x) 5 f(x)
3/2
, and then appl y the Power Rul e:
(c) Use the Chai n Rul e to fi nd j(1):
j(1) 5 g(f(1)) z f(1)
j(1) 5 g(1) z (23)
j(1) 5 2
1
2
z 23 5
3
2
10. (a) True: Di fferenti abi l i ty i mpl i es conti nui ty.
(b) True: I f conti nuous at x 5 4, the l i mi t must exi st.
(c) Fal se: m(4) 5 0; i t doesnt say that m(4) 5 0.
(d) True: I f mi s conti nuous, no di sconti nui ty exi sts.
(e) Fal se: Thi s i s wrong for so many reasons
(f) True: I t i s al so true that m(4) 5 2m(24) si nce m i s y-symmetri c (draw a
pi cture to convi nce yoursel f).
(g) True: m(4) 5 m(24) 5 0 si nce the graph i s y-symmetri c.
11. (a) h(9) ' 100 bt/mi n, whi ch i s the audi ence members heart rate at t 5 9
mi nutes.
(b) h(6) i s the rate of change of the heart rate at t 5 6. The rate of change of a
rate i s more commonl y known as the accel erati on. There i s no formul a i n
evi dence, so youl l need to approxi mate the sl ope of the tangent l i ne. Do so by
fi ndi ng the sl ope of a nearby secant l i ne. One good approxi mator i s the secant
l i ne connecti ng (4,115) and (6,103) (al though i t i s not the onl y vi abl e approxi -
mati on). That sl ope i s gi ven by
103 2 115
6 2 4
' 26
bt
mi n
mi n
or 26 bt/mi n
2
(the heart
rate i s decel erati ng) .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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NOTE
You may have noticed that
when a function increases,
its derivative is positive, and
when a function decreases,
its derivative is negative.
This is a very important
observation, and it is
discussed in depth in
Chapter 5.
www.petersons.com
(c) Thi s i s the formul a for average rate of change on [8,12], or the average rate of
change of the heart rate (average heart accel erati on). There i s no approxi ma-
ti on here; your answer wi l l be exact, as al l necessary val ues are gi ven exactl y:
140 2 97
4
=
43
4
bt/mi n
2
12. (a) I n order to fi nd vel oci ty, you need to real i ze that vel oci ty i s the rate of change
of posi ti on. Thi s makes sense; the rate at whi ch an objects posi ti on changes
tel l s you how fast that object i s movi ng. So, you are tryi ng to fi nd the average
rate of change of the posi ti on:
s s 3 1
3 1
( ) ( )
11 2 9
2
5 1 mm/sec
(b) Here, you are tryi ng to fi nd the vel oci ty (rate of change, or deri vati ve, of
posi ti on). Thus, the vel oci ty equati on wi l l be v(t) 5 3t
2
2 18t 1 24, and v(3) 5
27 2 54 1 24 5 23 mm/sec. Because vel oci ty i s negati ve, the parti cl e i s
movi ng to the l eft i nstead of the ri ght.
(c) The parti cl e i s not movi ng when i ts vel oci ty i s 0. So, set v(t) 5 3t
2
2 18t 1 24
equal to 0 and use the cal cul ator to sol ve the equati on. The parti cl e wi l l be at
rest when t 5 2 and t 5 4 sec. Factori ng or usi ng the quadrati c formul a woul d
al so have worked.
(d) s(t) i s the vel oci ty of the parti cl e, and a posi ti ve vel oci ty i mpl i es that the
parti cl e i s movi ng to the ri ght. Thus, you are si mpl y reporti ng the i nterval s
on whi ch s(t) i s posi ti ve, accordi ng to the graph.
The t-i ntercepts appear to be t 5 2 and 4, and that i s veri fi ed by your work i n
12(c), so the parti cl e i s movi ng ri ght on (2`,2) (4,`).
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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www.petersons.com
SUM M ING IT UP
The study of l i mi ts and conti nui ty onl y sets the stage for deri vati ves and di ffer-
enti ati on. More than hal f of the questi ons on the test wi l l i nvol ve deri vati ves i n
some way or another
The deri vati ve of a functi on descri bes how fast and i n what capaci ty a functi on i s
changi ng at any i nstant.
Tri gonometri c functi ons and thei r deri vati ves are al l over the AP test.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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www.petersons.com
Advanced Topics in
Differentiation
O VERVIEW
The d e riva tive of a n inve rse func tion
Ha nd s- O n Ac tivity 5.1: Line a r a p p roxim a tions
LHp ita ls Rule ( BC top ic only)
Pa ra m e tric d e riva tive s ( BC top ic only)
Pola r d e riva tive s ( BC top ic only)
Te c hnolog y: Find ing p ola r a nd p a ra m e tric d e riva tive s with
your c a lc ula tor ( BC top ic only)
Sum m ing it up
The Power, Product, Quoti ent, and Chai n Rul es al l ow you to fi nd the deri va-
ti ve of al most any expressi on or equati on you wi l l encounter. However, there
are a few excepti ons to the rul e. Thi s chapter serves to i ron out those excep-
ti ons and make you i nvi nci bl e i n the l and of deri vati ves. I n addi ti on, BC
students need to know how to di fferenti ate pol ar, paramtetri c, and vector-
val ued equati ons, and these topi cs are i ncl uded here.
THE DERIVATIVE O F AN INVERSE FUNC TIO N
Fi ndi ng the i nverse of a functi on i s an i mportant ski l l i n mathemati cs (al though
you most certai nl y never have to use thi s ski l l i n, say, the french fry department
of the fast-food i ndustry). I nverse functi ons are hel pful for so many reasons; the
mai n reason, of course, i s thei r power to cause other functi ons to di sappear. How
do you sol ve the equati on sec
3
x58? Fi nd the cube root of each si de to cancel the
exponent and then take the arcsecant of each si de to cancel the secant. (The
answer, by the way, i s

3
.) Functi ons thi s useful are bound to show up on the AP
exam, and you shoul d know how to di fferenti ate them.
Example 1: I f f(x) 5 (3x 1 4)
2
, x f x
( )
( )
4
3
1
find .
Solution: Before you can fi nd the deri vati ve of the i nverse, you need to fi nd
the i nverse functi on. Use the method outl i ned i n Chapter 2 as fol l ows:
x 5 (3y 1 4)
2
x y
f x
x
x

( )

( )
4 3
4
3
1
3
4
1
c
h
a
p
t
e
r
5
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
165
Now, fi nd
f x
( )
( )
1
: f x x
x

( )
( )
1 1 2 1
3
1
2
1
6
/
That was pretty easy, wasnt i t? However, as l ong as youve been i n math cl asses,
youve experi enced teachers uncanny abi l i ty to take easy thi ngs and make them much
more di ffi cul teasy probl ems tend to l eave you thi s uneasy feel i ng i n the pi t of your
stomach l i ke youre i n a sl asher movi e, and the ki l l er i s ri ght behi nd you, but youre
afrai d to turn around. I n the case of i nverse functi on di fferenti ati on, the ki l l er takes
the form of functi ons for whi ch you cannot easi l y fi nd an i nverse.
How can you fi nd the derivative of a functi ons i nverse i f you cant even fi nd the
i nverse? Youl l need a formul a based on a very si mpl e characteri sti c of i nverse func-
ti ons: f f x x
( ) ( )

1
. Take the deri vati ve of the equati on, usi ng the Chai n Rul e, to get
f8( f
1
(x)) z ( f
1
)8(x) 5 1
Now, sol ve the equati on for ( f
1
)8(x):
f
( )
1
8(x) 5
1
1
( ) ( )
f f x
Thi s i s an i ncredi bl y useful formul a to memori ze; i ts especi al l y handy when you
cannot fi nd an i nverse functi on, as i n the next exampl e.
Example 2: Fi nd ( g
1
)8 (3) i f g(x) 5 x
5
1 3x 1 2.
Solution: I f you try to fi nd g
21
(x) by swi tchi ng the x and y and sol vi ng for y (as i n
Exampl e 1), you get
x 5 y
5
1 3y 1 2
i n whi ch, despi te your best efforts and l ots of sweat, you cannot sol ve for y. Because
you cannot easi l y fi nd g
1
(x), you shoul d resort to the Magnum P.I . formul a:
( g
1
)8(x) 5
1
1
( ) ( )
g g x
, or i n thi s case:
( g
1
)8 (3)5
1
3
1
( ) ( )
g g
How are you goi ng to fi nd g
1
(3) i f you cant fi nd g
1
(x)? Good questi on. Ti me to be
cl ever. I f 3 i s an i nput for g
1
(x), then 3 must bean output of g(x), si nce the functi ons
are i nverses. Therefore, we shoul d fi nd the domai n el ement xthat resul ts i n an output
of 3 for g(x):
x
5
1 3x 1 2 5 3
x
5
1 3x 1 5 0
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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TIP
The formula for inverse
derivatives can be
remembered as
1
P.I.
, or
One over Prime/Inverse.
Many students remember
that Magnum P.I. was a
private inversetigator. Use
the mnemonic device to
remember the order.
www.petersons.com
Sol ve thi s equati on on your cal cul ator, and the resul t i s x 5 .33198902969. Thus, the
poi nt (.3319890296,3) fal l s on g(x), and resul ti ngl y, (3,.3319890296) bel ongs on
g
1
(x). Di d you mi ss i t? You just found that g
1
(3) 5 .3319890296. Return to the
formul a, and pl ug i n what you knowthe rest i s easy:
( g
1
)8(3) 5
1
3
1
( ) ( )
g g
( g
1
)8(3) 5
1
3319890296 ( ) g .
Because g8(x) 5 5x
4
1 3, g8(.3319890296) 5 3.060738622 and
( g
1
)8(3) 5
1
3 060738622
327
.
.
The process of fi ndi ng deri vati ves of i nverse functi ons becomes mechani cal wi th
practi ce. Even after the mi l l i onth probl em l i ke thi s, i t sti l l exci tes me to fi nd val ues of
an i nverse functi on I dont even know. What a rush!
C ha p te r 5: Ad va nc e d Top ic s in Diffe re ntia tion 167
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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www.petersons.com
EXERC ISE 1
YO U M AY USE YO UR G RAPHING C ALC ULATO R FO R PRO BLEM 2 O NLY.
1. I f g(x) 5
3 1 x
1 2,
(a)
Eval uate g
1
(4) wi thout fi ndi ng g
1
(x).
(b) Fi nd g
1
(x), and use i t to veri fy your answer to part (a).
2. I f k(x) 5 4x
3
1 2x 2 5, fi nd k
( )
1
8(4).
3. I f h(x) i s defi ned by the graph bel ow, approxi mate h
( )
1
8(2).
4. I f m i s a conti nuous and di fferenti abl e functi on wi th some val ues gi ven by the
tabl e bel ow, eval uate m
( )
1
8
1
2
_
,
.
1. (a) To fi nd g
1
(4), set g(x) 5 4 and sol ve for x.
3 1 2 4 x +
x 1
2
3
x +
4
9
1
13
9
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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www.petersons.com
(b) Swi tch x and y and sol ve for y to get g
1
(x):
x y
x
y
g x
x
g
+
( )
+
( )
+ +
3 1 2
2
3
1
2
3
1
4
4 2
3
1
4
9
1
2
2
1
2
2
( ) ,
( )
so
11
13
9
2. Accordi ng to the formul a, (k

21
)8(4) 5
1
k8~k
21
~4!!
. Fi nd k
21
(4) usi ng the same
method as i n 1(a):
4x
3
1 2x 5 5 4
4x
3
1 2x 9 5 0
k
21
(4) 5 1.183617895
Because k8(x) 5 12x
2
1 2,
1
1 183617895 ( ) k .
' .053.
3.
Agai n, the formul a di ctates that (h
21
)8(2) 5
1
h8~h
21
~2!!
. From the graph, you can
see that h
21
(2) 5 3 (the graph has an output of 2 when x 5 3), so the formul a
becomes
1
3 ( ) h
. You wi l l have to approxi mate h8(3); the secant l i ne connecti ng
(2.5,1.5) to (3,2) l ooks l i ke the best candi date. That secant l i ne sl ope i s
2 1 5
3 2 5
.
.
5 1,
so a good (and thankful l y si mpl e) approxi mati on i s h8(3) 5 1. Therefore, you have
(h
21
)8(2) 5
1
3 ( ) h
5
1
1
1
4. The Magnum P.I . formul a agai n rears i ts grotesque head: (m
21
)8
_
,
1
2
5
1
1
2
1

( )
_
,
m m
. Accordi ng to the tabl e, m
21
_
,
1
2
5 21 (si nce m(21) 5 2
1
2
). Al so
from the tabl e, you see that m8(21) 5 22. Therefore, (m
21
)8
_
,
1
2
5 2
1
2
.
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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HANDS- O N AC TIVITY 5.1: LINEAR APPRO XIM ATIO NS
Deri vati ves do so much. They report sl opes of tangent l i nes, descri be i nstantaneous
vel oci ti es, and i l l ustrate rates of change. Tangent l i nes, based so cl osel y on deri vati ves,
serve many si mi l ar purposes, but one of thei r most i mportant characteri sti cs i s that
tangent linestend toact likethefunctionstheyretangent to, at l east around the poi nt of
tangency.
1. Gi ve the equati on of the tangent l i ne to f(x) 5
1
4
(x 2)
3
1 4 at x 5 3.
2. Graph f(x) and i ts tangent l i ne on your cal cul ator; draw the resul t bel ow.
3. Zoom i n three ti mes on the poi nt of tangency (usi ng ZoomZoom i n on the TI -83).
What rel ati onshi p do you noti ce between the two graphs at thi s l evel of magni fi -
cati on?
4. Return your graph to the standard vi ewi ng wi ndow (Zoomstandard). Cal cul ate
the val ue of both functi ons at x 5 3.1 and x 5 6. What concl usi ons can you draw?
5. Descri be the speci al property of tangent l i nes that i s made cl ear i n thi s acti vi ty;
make sure to note any drawbacks or weaknesses i nherent i n thi s method.
6. Use a tangent l i ne (l i near approxi mati on) to esti mate the val ue of f(5.12) i f f(x) 5
3x
2
7
3
x
.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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NOTE
Linear approximations are
the first step in a more
complicated process
known as Eulers Method.
Whereas approximations
are on both the ABand BC
tests, Eulers Method
appears only on the
BC exam.
www.petersons.com
1. The tangent l i ne has equati on 3x 4y 5 8.
2.
3. Vari ous stages of zoomi ng are shown here:
The two graphs have very si mi l ar val ues the cl oser you zoom i n to the poi nt of
tangency. I n fact, i f you keep zoomi ng i n, i ts hard to tel l the two graphs apart.
4. I f you cal l the tangent l i ne g(x), f(3.1) 5 4.33275 and g(3.1) 5 4.325. These val ues
are extremel y cl ose. However, f(6) 5 20 and g(6) 5 6.5. These val ues arent even
i n the same bal l park. The cl ear concl usi on: the tangent l i ne onl y approxi mates
the functi ons val ues near the poi nt of tangency. Further away from thi s poi nt, al l
bets are off.
5. I drew thi s concl usi on i n number 4; cl earl y, I am an overachi ever.
6. Fi rst, fi nd the equati on of the tangent l i ne to f at x 5 5; because 5.12 i s cl ose to 5,
the functi on and the tangent l i ne at x 5 5 wi l l have si mi l ar val ues.
f8(x) 5 6x 1 21x
24
f8(5) 5 30.0336
The tangent l i newhi ch passes through (5,74.944)has sl ope 30.0336. Thus,
tangent l i ne has the fol l owi ng equati on:
y 74.944 5 30.0336(x 5)
Now, eval uate the tangent l i ne for x 5 5.12 for your approxi mati on, and you get
78.548.
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NOTE
The tendency of a graph to
look and act like its tangent
line immediately
surrounding the point of
tangency is called local
linearity. Literally, the graph
looks like a line in that
localized area, as
demonstrated by the
zooming exercise in
problem 3.
www.petersons.com
EXERC ISE 2
YO U M AY USE YO UR C ALC ULATO R FO R ALL O F THESE PRO BLEM S.
1. I n the di agram bel ow, the functi on f(x) meets i ts tangent l i ne at the poi nt (a,f(a)).
What i s the equati on of the l i near approxi mati on to f at x 5 a?
2. Use a l i near approxi mati on centered at 2 to esti mate
j(2.14) i f j(t) 5 2t
3
1
2
t
1 4l n t.
3. I f h(0) 5 4 and h8(0) 5 5, use a l i near approxi mati on to esti mate h(.25).
4. I f g(x) i s a conti nuous and di fferenti abl e functi on and contai ns the val ues gi ven
by the tabl e bel ow, esti mate g(3.2) wi th a l i near approxi mati on.
1. The equati on of the l i near approxi mati on i s si mpl y the equati on of the tangent
l i ne through the poi nt (a,f(a)) wi th sl ope f8(a): y 2 f(a) 5 f8(a)(x 2 a).
2. The l i near approxi mati on i s gi ven by the equati on of the tangent l i ne to j at
(2,18.52258872). So, fi nd the sl ope of the tangent l i ne by cal cuati ng the numeri cal
deri vati ve.
j8(t) 5 6t
2
1
2 4
3
t
t
+
j8(2) 5 24 1
1
4
1 2 5
105
4
The equati on of the tangent l i ne (l i near approxi mator) i s
y 18.52258872 5
105
4
(x 2)
Substi tute x 5 2.14 to get an approxi mati on of 22.198 for j(2.14).
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www.petersons.com
3. Begi n by fi ndi ng the equati on of the tangent l i ne to h when x 5 0 (si nce .25 i s
cl ose to 0, and al l the i nformati on we have centers around 0). You al ready know
the sl ope of the l i ne wi l l be 5 and the poi nt of tangency i s (0,4), so the equati on
of the l i ne i s y5 5x1 4. The l i near approxi mati on for x5 .25 i s gi ven by 25(.25)
1 4 5 2.75.
4. The best approxi mati on for g(3.2) wi l l be gi ven by the tangent l i ne constructed at
x 5 3. Cl earl y, the poi nt of tangency i s (3
1
2
, ), but youl l have to approxi mate the
deri vati ve at x 5 3 usi ng the secant l i ne connecti ng
5
2
7
4
,
_
,
and (3
1
2
, ). That
secant sl ope

y
x
i s
5
2
. Therefore, the best l i near approxi mati on you can make i s
y 1
1
2
5
5
2
(x 3)
Eval uate thi s equati on for x 5 3.2, and your approxi mati on i s 0.
LH PITALS RULE ( BC TO PIC O NLY)
LHpi tal s Rul e may sound l i ke the tyranni cal rul e of a French monarch, but i t i s
actual l y a way to cal cul ate i ndetermi nate l i mi ts. What i s an i ndetermi nate l i mi t, you
ask? There are numerous forms that an i ndetermi nate l i mi t can take, but you shoul d
concentrate on i ndetermi nate forms
0
0
, 0 z `, and

. Unti l now, you were unabl e to

eval uate l i mi ts that ended wi th those resul ts, but now, you wi l l face no such restri cti ons.
Al though LHpi tal s Rul e i s a BC topi c, i t i s perhaps one of the easi est thi ngs i n cal cul us
to appl y and understand, and AP students are wel l served to l earn i t al so.
To expl ore LHpi tal s Rul e, we wi l l revi si t an exampl e from the Speci al Li mi ts secti on
of Chapter 3: lim
sin
x
x
x 0
. Substi tuti on resul ted i n
0
0
, whi ch i s i ndetermi nate. None of
our other techni ques (e.g., factori ng, conjugate) appl i ed to thi s probl em ei ther, so we
used the graph of
sinx
x
to fi nd the l i mi t of 1. I f you dont have access to a graphi ng
cal cul ator, however, thi s probl em i s a l ot more di ffi cul t, as the graph i s far from tri vi al
to draw. Enter LHpi tal s Rul e.
LHpitals Rule: I f f(x) 5 g(x) 5 0 or f(x) 5 g(x) 5 `, then lim lim
x a x a
f x
g x
f x
g x

( )
( )

( )
( )
.
Translation: I f you are tryi ng to eval uate a l i mi t and you end up wi th
0
0
or

, you
can take the deri vati ves of the numerator and denomi nator separatel y. The new
fracti on wi l l have the same l i mi t as the ori gi nal probl em, so try and eval uate i t. I f you
get another i ndetermi nate answer, you can repeat the process.
Example 3: Use LHpi tal s Rul e to eval uate lim
sin
x
x
x 0
.
Solution: As stated previ ousl y, substi tuti on resul ts i n
0
0
. Appl y LHpi tal s Rul e by
deri vi ng si n x and x (wi th respect to x):
lim
sin
lim
cos
x x
x
x
x

0 0 1
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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Note that
sinx
x
and
cosx
1
are not equal, but they wi l l have the same l i mi t as x
approaches 0. The new probl em, l i m
x0
cosx, i s very easy by substi tuti on. Thanks to the
uni t ci rcl e, you know cos 0 5 1, whi ch i s the answer you memori zed back i n the day.
cos
x
x
x
0
1
.
Solution: Remember thi s one? I ts the other l i mi t you memori zed. Because substi tu-
ti on resul ts i n
0
0
, appl y LHpi tal s Rul e to get lim
sin
x
x
0 1
. Eval uate the new l i mi t by
substi tuti on, and you get
0
1
, or 0. (Another answer you probabl y expected. I f you
di dnt expect i t, i t probabl y feel s l i ke Chri stmas.)
lim
x
x
xe
.
Solution: I f you substi tute, you get ` z 0, whi ch i s an i ndetermi nate form, but you
need a fracti on to use LHpi tal and hi s fabul ous rul e. However, you can rewri te the
expressi on as
x
e
x
. Substi tuti on now resul ts i n

, and i ts ti me to whi p out LHpi tal ;

after di fferenti ati ng, you get
lim
x
x
e
1
Substi tuti on resul ts i n
1
e
or
1
, whi ch i s 0, accordi ng to our speci al l i mi t rul es from

Chapter 3.
x
x
x x
+
4 2
3 5 3
2
2
usi ng LHpi tal s Rul e.
Solution: You shoul d be abl e to get the answer si mpl y by l ooki ng at the probl emi ts
a l i mi t at i nfi ni ty of a rati onal functi on. So, you shoul d compare the degrees of the
numerator and denomi nator. Because the degrees are equal , the l i mi t i s the quoti ent
of the l eadi ng coeffi ci ents:
2
3
. You can veri fy thi s wi th LHpi tal . (Substi tuti on
resul ts i n

, so LHpi tal s Rul e i s al l owed.) Fi rst, fi nd the deri vati ves as you have
done:
lim
x
x
x
+
4
6 5
Substi tuti on still resul ts i n

, so appl y LHpi tal s a second ti me.

lim
x

4
6
2
3
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TIP
LHpitals Rule is for use
only with indeterminate
limits!
NOTE
There is no limit to how
many times LHpitals Rule
can be applied in a
problem, as long as each
preceding limit is
indeterminate.
www.petersons.com
EXERC ISE 3
YO U M AY NO T USE YO UR G RAPHING C ALC ULATO R FO R THESE.
Eval uate the fol l owi ng l i mi ts.
1. lim
x0
arcsinx
x 2
2. lim
x
x x
x
7
2
3 9
49
3. lim
cos
x
x x
x
+
+ 0 2 1
4.
lim
ln x
x
e
x
1
1
1
5.
lim
x0
x
2
cot x
6.
lim
x
1
1
+
_
, x
x (Hi nt: use natural l og)
1. Substi tuti on resul ts i n
0
0
, so LHpi tal i t to get
lim lim
x x
x
x

0
2
0
2
1
1
2
1
2 1
Now, substi tuti on wi l l work, and the answer i s
1
2
.
2. The substi tuti on of x 5 7 resul ts i n
0
0
, so use LHpi tal s Rul e; you shoul d get
lim
/
x
x
x
( ) +
7
1 2
1
2
3 1
2
. At thi s poi nt, i t i s no l onger i l l egal to substi tute 7; i n fact,
doi ng so resul ts i n the fol l owi ng:
1
2
1
2
1
2 7
5
4
14
5
56

e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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www.petersons.com
3. Were you fool ed? LHpi tal s Rul e i s not applicable to thi s probl em, because
substi tuti on resul ts i n
1
1
, so the l i mi t i s equal to 1. Remember to appl y LHpi tal s
Rul e onl y i n cases of i ndetermi nate l i mi ts.
4. Dj vu al l over agai n! I ndetermi nate form
0
0
makes i ts encore appearance.
LHpi tal i s wai ti ng i n the wi ngs to tackl e thi s probl em l i ke Kevi n Costner i n The
Bodyguard:
lim
x
x
e
x
1
1
1
lim
x
x
xe
1
1
Substi tuti on resul ts i n 1 z 1 5 1.
5. Thi s l i mi t i s of i ndetermi nate form 0 z `. I n order to appl y LHpi tal s Rul e, youl l
need a fracti on. Because tan x and cot x are reci procal s, you can rewri te the l i mi t
as lim
tan x
x
x 0
2
. Now, the i ndetermi nate form
0
0
occurs, so you know what to do:
lim
sec
x
x
x
0
2
2
Substi tuti on resul ts i n
0
1
, whi ch, of course, i s 0.
6. Thi s one i s a bi t tri cky, al though you hopeful l y recogni ze i t from the speci al l i mi ts
secti on; the answer i s supposed to be e. I n order to fi nd the answer, we make the
crazy assumpti on that there i s an answer, and we cal l i t y:
y 5
lim
x
1
1
+
_
, x
x
Heres where the hi nt comes i n. Take the natural l og of both si des of thi s
equati on:
l n y 5 l n lim
x
x
x
+
_
,
1
1
You can pul l that l i mi t out of the natural l og (dont worry so much about why you
can) and bri ng the x exponent down usi ng l og properti es:
l n y 5
lim
x
x l n 1
1
+
_
, x
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NOTE
The indeterminate form
exhibited by problem 6 is
1
`
; while
0
0
and
`
`
are, by
far, the most common
indeterminate forms on the
AP test, there is a slight
chance you may see this
form or even 0
0
as well.
www.petersons.com
Thi s l i mi t i s the i ndetermi nate form ` z 0, so you can appl y LHpi tal s Rul e as
soon as you make i t a fracti on. I f you rewri te x as
1
1
x
(whi ch i s not too obvi ous to
most peopl e), you get the i ndetermi nate form
0
0
, so appl y LHpi tal s Rul e:
l n y 5lim
ln
x
x
x
+
( )
1
1
1
l n y 5lim
x
x
x
x
+
( )

( )
1
1 1
1
2
2
i
l n y 5
lim
x
x
+
1
1
1
Fi nal l y, substi tuti on i s not i l l egal , and you can fi nd the l i mi t:
l n y 5 1
However, your ori gi nal goal was to fi nd the l i mi t expressed as y, so youl l have to
sol ve thi s equati on for y by wri ti ng eto the power of both si des of the equati on:
e
l n
y 5 e
1
y 5 e
Thi s i s the answer we expected, al though I dont know that we expected the
massi ve amount of work requi red.
PARAM ETRIC DERIVATIVES ( BC TO PIC O NLY)
I f you are not yet convi nced that deri vati ves are not onl y useful but al so more fun than
your cousi n l ast Thanksgi vi ng when he had the stomach fl u, you need onl y wai t unti l the
next chapter. At that poi nt, you wi l l l earn that deri vati ves can serve al l ki nds of
purposes, most of whi ch even have appl i cati ons i n the real worl d. Because of the
extreme handi ness of deri vati ves, i t i s i mportant that you, the BC student, can
di fferenti ate al l ki nds of equati ons; speci fi cal l y, you shoul d be abl e to fi nd deri vati ves of
pol ar, parametri c, and vector equati ons and be abl e to i nterpret these deri vati ves.
However, one thi ng at a ti me; we wi l l start wi th parametri c equati ons.
I n order to fi nd the deri vati ve,
dy
dx
, of a parametri cal l y defi ned rel ati on, we fi nd the
deri vati ves of the x and y components separatel y wi th respect to t and wri te them as
a quoti ent as fol l ows:
dy
dx
dy
dt
dx
dt
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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www.petersons.com
I f i ts a second deri vati ve youre l ooki ng for, the formul a i s a l i ttl e di fferent. The
second deri vati ve i s the deri vati ve of the fi rst deri vati ve wi th respect to t di vi ded by
the deri vati ve of the x component onl y wi th respect to t:
d y
dx
d
dt
dy
dx
dx
dt
2
2

_
,
More si mpl y, d y
dx
dy
dx
x
2
2

Example 7: Fi nd the deri vati ve,

dy
dx
, and the second deri vati ve,
d y
dx
2
2
, of the paramet-
ri c equati ons x 5 3cos, y 5 2sin.
Solution: The deri vati ves,
dy
d
5 3si n and
dy
d
5 2cos , are pretty si mpl e to fi nd,
and i ts onl y a matter of one more step to get
dy
dx
:
dy
dx
dy
d
dx
d
dy
dx

2
3
2
3
cos
sin
cot .
I n order to fi nd the second deri vati ve, fi nd the deri vati ve of the expressi on above, wi th
respect to u and di vi de i t by
dx
d
:
d y
dx
2
2
2 2
3
3
csc
sin
d y
dx
2
2
3 2
9
csc
Example 8: Fi nd the deri vati ve of the parametri c equati ons i n Exampl e 7 by a
di fferent method.
Solution:You can rewri te thi s set of parametri c equati ons i n rectangul ar form usi ng the
method descri bed i n Chapter 2. Because of the Mamma Theorem (cos
2
x1si n
2
x51), the
equi val ent rectangul ar form i s
x y
2 2
9 4
+ 5 1. I n order to fi nd
dy
dx
i n thi s equati on, youl l
have to use i mpl i ci t di fferenti ati on:
2
9
1
2
0
2
9
2
4
9
x y
dy
dx
dy
dx
x
y
dy
dx
x
y
+

i i
i
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www.petersons.com
Because you know the val ues of x and y, substi tute them i nto
dy
dx
:
dy
dx
dy
dx

12
18
2
3
cos
sin
cot
whi ch matches the answer we got i n Exampl e 7.

Example9: Fi nd the equati on of the tangent l i ne to the parametri c curve defi ned by
x 5 arcsi n t, y 5 e
3t
, when t 5
1
2
.
Solution: As al ways, we need a poi nt and a sl ope i n order to fi nd the equati on of a
l i ne. When t 5
1
2
, we get the correspondi ng poi nt (arcsi n
1
2
4
3
2
3
2
, , , or e e
. (You
may use your cal cul ator to fi nd the correspondi ng deci mal s, but remember not to
round anythi ng unti l the probl em i s compl etel y over.) To fi nd the sl ope of the tangent
l i ne, you need to cal cul ate
dy
dx
:
dy
dx
e
t
e t
t
t

3
1
1
3 1
3
2
3 2
When t 5
1
2
, the deri vati ve i s approxi matel y 17.696, whi ch l eads to the tangent l i ne
equati on of
y
e
3
2 5 17.696 x
_
,
1
2
, or
y 2 8.342 5 17.696 (x 2 .707)
Vector-val ued equati ons are very si mi l ar to parametri c equati ons. Because vector
equati ons are al ready defi ned i n terms of x and y components, we fol l ow the same
procedure to fi nd
dy
dx
. However, vector probl ems someti mes requi re us to fi nd vectors
that represent rate of change. Thi s topi c i s di scussed i n detai l i n the next chapter i n
the secti on enti tl ed Moti on i n the Pl ane.
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NOTE
We converted the
parametric equations in
Example 8 to rectangular
form in the problem set for
parametric equations in
Chapter 2. Check back if
you cannot remember how
to convert.
TIP
1
=2
is equivalent to
=2
2
;
the latter is rationalized.
www.petersons.com
EXERC ISE 4
YO U M AY USE YO UR G RAPHING C ALC ULATO R O NLY FO R PRO BLEM 5.
1. What i s the deri vati ve of the parametri c curve defi ned by x 5 tant, y 5 cot
2
t?
2. Fi nd the deri vati ve of the parametri cal l y defi ned curve x 5 1 1 2t, y 5 2 2 t
2
usi ng two di fferent methods.
3. Fi nd
d y
dx
2
2
when t 5 2 for the parametri c curve defi ned by the equati ons x 5 e
3t
,
y 5 t
2
e
3t
.
4. I f a parametri c curve i s defi ned by
x
t
t t + +
3
2
3
3 5 11 and
y
t t
t +
3 2
3 2
2 5
(a) At what poi nt(s) does the curve have hori zontal tangent l i nes?
(b) At what poi nt(s) i s the curve nondi fferenti abl e?
5. The posi ti on of a crazed l i zard, as i t runs l eft and ri ght al ong the top of a hot bri ck
wal l , i s defi ned parametri cal l y as x5 2e
t
, y5 t
3
4t 1 7 for t 0 (t i s i n seconds).
Rank the fol l owi ng val ues of t from l east to greatest i n terms of how fast the
l i zard was movi ng at those moments: t 5 0, .5, 1, 2, 3.
1. Because
dy
dt
5 csc
2
t and
dx
dt
5 sec
2
t,
dy
dx
t
t
t
t

csc
sec
cos
sin
2
2
2
2
dy
dx
t cot
2
2. Method One:
dy
dx
dy
dt
dx
dt
dy
dx
t
t

2
2
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TIP
Your calculator can find
points on a parametric
graph based on t and
calculate
dy
dt
,
dx
dt
, and
dy
dx
.
Instructions are given in the
technology section at the
end of the chapter.
TIP
Even though problems 1
through 4 would be
calculator-inactive
questions, you may want to
use your calculator to
check your work as you
progress. Make sure you
dont rely on the calculator
to complete these.
www.petersons.com
Method Two: Convert to rectangular formfirst
Begi n by sol vi ng ei ther x or y for t and substi tuti ng i t i nto the other equati on.
Because x 5 1 1 2t, t 5
x 1
2
, and you can substi tute:
y 5 2 t
2
y 52
1
4
2 1
2
+
( )
x x
Now, take the deri vati ve wi th respect to x:
dy
dx
5 2
1
2
x 1
1
2
Thi s answer doesnt seem to match the one above, but i t actual l y does; the
di fference i s that thi s sol uti on i s i n terms of x, whereas the precedi ng sol uti on
was i n terms of t. To see that they are equal , remember that x 5 1 1 2t and
substi tute:
dy
dx
5 2
1
2
~1 1 2t! 1
1
2
dy
dx
5 2
1
2
2t 1
1
2
5 2t
3. Fi rst, you need to fi nd
dy
dx
. Dont forget to use the Product Rul e when di fferenti -
ati ng t
2
e
3t
:
dy
dx
e t te
e
t t
t
+ 3 2
3
3 2 3
3
dy
dx
t t
t t
+
+
3 2
3
2
3
2
2
Now, to fi nd the second deri vati ve, di vi de
d
dt
dy
dx
_
,
by
dy
dt
:
d y
dx
2
2
5
2
2
3
3
3
t
e
t
+
The fi nal answer i s the deri vati ve eval uated at t 5 2:
4
2
3
3
6
+
e
. I ts ugl y, but i ts
ri ght. More si mpl i fi cati on can be done, but i ts not necessary and not recom-
mended.
4. (a) Fi rst fi nd
dy
dx
as you have done numerous ti mes al ready:
dy
dx
5
t t
t t
2
2
2
6 5

+ +
dy
dx
t t
t t
( ) + ( )
+ ( ) + ( )
2 1
5 1
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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www.petersons.com
Hori zontal tangent l i nes have a sl ope of 0; the deri vati ve wi l l onl y have a
val ue of 0 when t 5 2. The poi nt that corresponds wi th t 5 2 i s
41
3
5
3
,
_
,
.
(b)
dy
dx
does not exi st when t 5 1 or 5, because both val ues cause a 0 i n the
denomi nator. Whi l e the graphi ng cal cul ator shows a defi ni te sharp poi nt
when t 5 1,
the target l i ne i s verti cal when t 525. The poi nts correspondi ng to these
val ues are
_
,
40
3
37
6
, (for t 5 1) and
_
,
8
3
235
6
, (for t 5 5).
5. The deri vati ve of the parametri c curve wi l l be
dy
dx
5
3 4
2
2
t
e
t
Rather than substi tute each t val ue i n by hand, use your cal cul ator to eval uate
each. You shoul d get the fol l owi ng val ues:
dy
dx
(.5) .986,
dy
dx
(0) 5 2,
dy
dx
(1) .184,
dy
dx
(2) .541, and
dy
dx
(3) .573. Remember that the deri vati ve i s
the rate of change, so these numbers are the rate of change of the posi ti on of the
l i zard, or i ts vel oci ty. Negati ve vel oci ty i ndi cates that the l i zard i s runni ng to the
l eft, posi ti ve vel oci ty i ndi cates runni ng to the ri ght. However, when speed i s the
i ssue, di recti on does not matter, so the l i zard was movi ng the fastest at t 5 0. The
correct order i s: t 5 0, t 5 .5, t 5 3, t 5 2, t 5 1.
PO LAR DERIVATIVES ( BC TO PIC O NLY)
One of the defi ni ng qual i ti es of pol ar equati ons i s thei r si mi l ari ty to parametri c
equati ons. Remember that any pol ar functi on r 5 f(u) can be expressed parametri cal l y
by x5 rcos u, y5 rsi n u. Therefore, you di fferenti ate pol ar equati ons usi ng essenti al l y
the same method outl i ned for parametri c equati ons:
dy
dx
5
dy
d
dx
d
The deri vati ve of the y component di vi ded by the deri vati ve of the x component, both
wi th respect to u, as both shoul d contai n us.
The onl y di fference between thi s and the other formul a i s that the i ndependent
vari abl e i s i nstead of t, the typi cal parameter i n parametri c equati ons. Whi l e the
mathemati cs i nvol ved i s not too di ffi cul t, there are a l ot of pl aces to make mi stakes;
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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NOTE
Speed is defined as the
absolute value of velocity.
www.petersons.com
thi s i s the onl y thi ng that makes pol ar di fferenti ati on tri cky. Make sure to proceed
sl owl y and cauti ousl y.
Example 10: Fi nd the sl ope of the tangent l i ne to r 5 2 1 3cos u i f u 5
3
.
Solution: Fi rst, express r parametri cal l y as x 5 rcosu and y 5 rsi nu:
x 5 (2 1 3cos u)cos u y 5 (2 1 3cos u)si n u
x 5 2cos u 1 3cos
2
u y 5 2si n u 1 3cos u si n u
Now, di fferenti ate to get
dx
du
5 2si n u 6cos u si n u. Youl l have to use the Product
Rul e to fi nd
dy
du
:
dy
du
5 2cos u 1 3(cos
2
u si n
2
u)
dy
du
5 2cos u 1 3cos 2u
To fi nd the deri vati ve at u 5

3
, substi tute that i nto
dy
dx
:
dy
dx
r ( )
+

2 3 2
2 6
cos cos
sin cos sin
_
,

_
,
r

3
2
1
2
3
2
3
3 3
2
i
_
,
r

3
106 .
No parti cul ar step of thi s probl em i s di ffi cul t, but a si ngl e i ncorrect si gn coul d throw
off al l your cal cul ati ons.
Example 11: At what val ues of , 0

2
, does r 5 2cos (3 ) have verti cal or
hori zontal tangent l i nes?
Solution: Questi ons regardi ng tangent l i nes l ead you ri ght to the deri vati ve; begi n
wi th parametri c representati on: x 5 2cos (3 ) cos , y 5 2cos (3 ) si n ). Now take
the deri vati ve of each wi th respect to i n order to bui l d
dy
dx
; each wi l l requi re the
Product Rul e:
dx
du
5 2cos (3 u) si n u cos u 6si n(3 u)
dy
du
5 2cos (3 u) cos u si n u 6si n(3 u)
Remember, hori zontal tangents occur when the numerator of the sl ope i s 0 (but the
denomi nator i snt), and verti cal tangents occur when the denomi nator of the sl ope i s 0
(but the numerator i snt). Use your cal cul ator to sol ve these equati ons (but youl l have
to set i t back i nto rectangul ar mode fi rst).
dx
d
equal s 0 at 5 0, .912, and

2
; the
deri vati ve wi l l not exi st at these poi nts due to verti cal tangent l i nes.
dy
d
equal s 0 at u
5 .284 and 1.103; the deri vati ve wi l l be zero for these val ues, i ndi cati ng hori zontal
tangent l i nes.
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NOTE
cos 2u 5 cos
2
u 2 sin
2
u
according to trigonometric
double angle formulas.
Check Chapter 2 if you
dont remember these.
TIP
If
dx
du
and
dy
du
are 0 at the
same time, you cannot
draw any conclusions
concerning horizontal and
vertical asymptotes.
www.petersons.com
EXERC ISE 5
YO U M AY USE YO UR G RAPHING C ALC ULATO R FO R PRO BLEM S 3 AND 4.
1. I f r(u) 5 1 1 si n u, where i s r 8(u) defi ned on [0,2p]?
2. Fi nd the equati on of the tangent l i ne to r 5 tan u when u 5
11
6
.
3. I f r(u) 5 3 si n (3u), at what val ues of u i s r 8(u) 5 1?
4. Fi nd the sl opes of the tangent l i nes to r 5 a z si n(2u) (a . 0) at the four poi nts
furthest from the ori gi n (as i ndi cated i n the graph bel ow).
1. Fi rst, convert the pol ar equati on to rectangul ar equati ons usi ng the formul as
x = r(u)cosu and y = r(u)si nu. We have r(u) = 1 + si nu. So,
x r
y r
( )
+ ( )
+
( )
+ ( )

cos
sin cos
cos sin cos
sin
sin si
1
1 nn
sin sin

+
2
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www.petersons.com
Now, cal cul ate the deri vati ves of the x- and y-components:
dy
du
5 cos u 1 2si n u cos
u and
dx
du
5 si n u 1 cos 2u. The deri vati ve,
dy
dx
, wi l l be defi ned wherever
dx
d
0,
so set i t equal to zero to fi nd these poi nts:
si n u 1 cos 2u 5 0
si n u 1 (1 2si n
2
u) 5 0
2si n
2
u 1 si n u 1 5 0
(2si n u 1)(si n u 1 1) 5 0
u 5

6
5
6
, , and
3
2
The fi rst two val ues correspond to verti cal tangent l i nes, and the fi nal val ue
corresponds to a sharp poi nt on the graph, (as shown i n the graph bel ow).
2. I n parametri c form, r 5 tan becomes x 5 tan cos 5 si n , and y 5 tan
si n . Use these to fi nd the rectangul ar coordi nates of the poi nt of tangency
(when 5
11
6
). I f you pl ug 5
11
6
i nto both, you get the coordi nate
( )
_
,
1
2
1
2 3
, . Now, you need to fi nd the sl ope of the tangent l i ne. To do so, fi nd
the deri vati ves of x and y (usi ng Product Rul e for y8):
x8 5 cos
y8 5 tan cos 1 si n sec
2
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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.
.
www.petersons.com
Therefore,
dy
dx
11
6

_
,
5

_
,

y
x
11
6

1
3
3
2
1
2
4
3
3
2
i i

1
2
2
3
3
2

7
6
2
3
7
3 3
i
Therefore, the equati on of the tangent l i ne i s as fol l ows:
y x +
_
,
1
2 3
7
3 3
1
2
That was trul y an ugl y probl em, but doi ng i t wi thout your cal cul ator toughened
you up someadmi t i t.
3. Once agai n, i t i s i mportant to express the pol ar equati on i n parametri c form:
x 5 3 cos u 2 si n 3u cos u, y 5 3 si n u 2 si n 3u si n u. Take the deri vati ves of each
to get
dy
dx
5

y
x
bel ow:
dy
dx

+
3 3 3 3
3 3 3 3
cos sin cos cos sin
sin sin sin cos cos

You want to fi nd when that bi g, ugl y thi ng equal s one, so careful l y type i t i nto
your cal cul ator and sol ve that equati on.
There are four sol uti ons, accordi ng to the graph bel ow, and they are 5 1.834,
2.699, 3.142 (or p), and 5.678.
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TIP
Even though your graphs
are done in polar mode, all
equation-solving with the
calculator (using
x-intercepts) requires that
you switch back to
rectangular mode first.
www.petersons.com
4. You have to deci de what poi nts wi l l be the furthest from the ori gi n; i n other
words, whats the l argest a z si n(2 u) can be? To start wi th, si n (2 u) can be no
l arger than 1 and no smal l er than 1 (the range of si n x). Therefore, the graph of
a z si n(2 u) can be no further than a z 1 5 a uni ts from the ori gi n. (Note that a
di stance of a from the ori gi n i s the same, just i n the opposi te di recti on.) Set the
equati on equal to 6a to fi nd out whi ch val ues of u gi ve these maxi mum di stances:
a z si n(2 u) 5 6a
arcsi n(si n(2 u)) 5 arcsi n(61)
2 u 5

2
3
2
5
2
7
2
, , ,
u 5

4
3
4
5
4
7
4
, , ,
So, you need to fi nd the deri vati ves at these val ues. Note that the deri vati ves wi l l
not change regardl ess of as val ue. To convi nce yoursel f of thi s, you may want to
draw a coupl e of graphs wi th di fferent a val ues. Theres no shame i n usi ng your
cal cul ator to eval uate these deri vati ves si nce thi s i s a cal cul ator-acti ve questi on.
(I f youre not sure how to do that, make sure to read the technol ogy secti on at the
end of the chapter.) The deri vati ve i s 1 for 5
3
4
and
7
4
, and the deri vati ve i s

1 for 5

4
and
5
4
.
TEC HNO LO G Y: FINDING PO LAR AND PARAM ETRIC
DERIVATIVES WITH YO UR C ALC ULATO R ( BC TO PIC O NLY)
Eval uati ng pol ar and parametri c deri vati ves arent the most di ffi cul t topi cs youl l
encounter i n AP Cal cul us. However, when the heat i s on duri ng the AP test and youre
searchi ng for that needl e-i n-a-haystack error you commi tted that i s causi ng your
answer to be mortal l y and i nexpl i cabl y wrong, these deri vati ves can be pretty di ffi cul t.
As you have seen i n thi s chapter, even rel ati vel y si mpl e pol ar equati ons can have l ong
and yucky deri vati ves. There i s good newsyou can use your cal cul ator to fi nd these
deri vati ves, and the process i s very si mpl e. To prove i t to you, wel l revi si t Exampl e 9
from earl i er i n the chapter, wi th our new cal cul ator buddi es tucked snugl y i n our sweaty
pal ms.
Example12: Fi nd the equati on of the tangent l i ne to the parametri c curve defi ned by
x 5 arcsi n t, y 5 e
3t
, when t 5
1
2
.
Solution: Our overal l approach wi l l remai n the same. We sti l l need a poi nt and a
sl ope i n order to construct a l i ne. Make sure your cal cul ator i s i n parametri c mode
([Mode]Par) and graph the equati on. (You may want to adjust the graphs
[wi ndow] to see i t better; I used a wi ndow of x 5 [2,2] and y 5 [1,15].) The poi nt of
tangency occurs (accordi ng to the probl em) when t 5
1
2
. To fi nd thi s poi nt i n
rectangul ar coordi nates, press [2
nd
][Trace]val ue and i nput t 5
1
2
. The poi nt of
tangency i s (.707,8.342), just as we got previ ousl y.
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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www.petersons.com
I n order to fi nd the deri vati ve when t 5
1
2
, go back to the [Cal c] menu and thi s ti me
sel ect
dy
dx
. Enter
1
2
for t as you di d l ast ti me, and
dy
dx
5 17.696.
The equati on of the tangent l i ne, then, i s
y 8.342 5 17.696(x .707)
Pol ar deri vati ves are just as easy wi th the cal cul ator. Whos up for reruns? Lets enjoy
Exampl e 10 a second ti me, thi s ti me wi th our l i l computi ng buddy by our si de.
Example 13: Fi nd the sl ope of the tangent l i ne to r 5 2 1 3cos i f 5

3
.
Solution: Make sure to set the cal cul ator to Pol ar mode ([Mode]pol ) and graph
the equati on. Because thi s graph has tri gonometri c equati ons, i ts a good i dea to
choose [Zoom]Ztri g (wi ndow setti ngs that are fri endl y to tri gonometri c graphs).
Much l i ke Exampl e 11, you proceed to the [Cal c] menu ([2
nd
][Trace]) and sel ect
dy
dx
, the deri vati ve. The cal cul ator then prompts you to i nput u; type i n

3
(as shown
bel ow), and the deri vati ve appears as i f by magi c:
dy
dx
.115.
I ts worth repeati ng that you must know how to cal cul ate poi nts of tangency and
deri vati ves wi thout a cal cul ator, al though no one woul d argue that the cal cul ator
doesnt make i t si gni fi cantl y easi er.
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NOTE
Your calculator can find
points of tangency for polar
graphs, too. This (like
everything else) is also
found in the [Calc] menu.
www.petersons.com
EXERC ISE 6
YO U M AY USE A G RAPHING C ALC ULATO R FO R PRO BLEM S 4 THRO UG H 8 O NLY.
1. Use a l i near approxi mati on at x 5
1
2
to esti mate m(.502) i f m(x) 5
2 3
2
3
x x
x
.
2. Eval uate lim
x
x x
x
+ +
( )
3 2 5 2
5 7
2
.
*3. Fi nd
dy
dx
at u 5
7
6
for the pol ar equati on r 5 si n u cos u.

*4. At what val ues of t does
dy
dx
5
1
2
for the parametri c functi on defi ned by x 5 2 1
t
2
, y 5 3 t?
*5. I f f(x) 5 2tan x 1 x
3
and g(x) i s a conti nuous, ori gi n-symmetri c functi on that
contai ns the fol l owi ng val ues:
Esti mate lim
x
f x
g x
( )
( )
0
.
*6. Fi nd the equati on of the verti cal tangent l i ne (i n rectangul ar form) to the curve
defi ned by the parametri c equati ons x 5 et si n t, y 5 2t 1 1, 0 t , 2p.
7. I f k(x) 5 2x
3
1 x 1 2, what i s the equati on of the tangent l i ne to k
1
(x) when x 5
4.3?
*8. At what rectangul ar coordi nates do the tangent l i nes to r 5 si n
2
u at u =
p
6
and
u =
2p
5
i ntersect? (Note: Answer thi s as you woul d a free response questi on. Show
al l work, and make sure to i ncl ude the setup for any answers you gi ve based on
cal cul ator work.)
9. J ames Diabolical Challenge: Let f(x) 5
x
e
x
2
, x 0.
(a) Eval uate f
1
(0).
(b) Fi nd (f
1
) 8 (0).
*(c) What i s
lim
x
f x
( ) ?
*a BC-only question.
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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1. We have to begi n by fi ndi ng the equati on of the tangent l i ne to m at x 5
1
2
.
We determi ne the poi nt of tangency by cal cul ati ng m
S
1
2
D
:
1
2
3
2
1
8
1
1
8
8

The poi nt of tangency, therefore, i s
1
2
8 ,
_
,
. The sl ope of the tangent l i ne wi l l , as
al ways, be gi ven by the deri vati ve, so use the Quoti ent Rul e to fi nd i t:
( )
( )
( )( )
( )
m x
x x x x x
x
3 2 2
3
2
4 3 2 3 3
( )
+
+
m x
x x
x
x
x
2 6 2 6
4 3
6 3
_
,

+
m
1
2
1 6
1
8
5
1
8
40
Therefore, the equati on of the tangent l i ne i s y x +
_
,
8 40
1
2
.
Last step: Substi tute x 5 .502 i nto the tangent l i ne to get the l i near
approxi mati on:
y 1 8 5 40 (.502 .5)
y 1 8 5 .08
y 5 7.92
(I f you pl ug the answer i nto the ori gi nal equati on, m
S
1
2
D
5 8, so thi s approxi -
mati on i s rel ati vel y cl ose.)
2. LHpi tal s Rul e i s too cumbersome for thi s probl em. Noti ce that you have a
rati onal functi on wi th the same degree x x
( )
i n the numerator and denomi -
nator. Thus, the l i mi t at i nfi ni ty wi l l be the rati o of the numerator s and denomi -
nator s l eadi ng coeffi ci ents:
3
5
.
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www.petersons.com
3. I n order to fi nd
dy
dx
, you fi rst must express the equati on parametri cal l y: x 5 si nu
cos
2
u, y 5 si n
2
u cosu. Remember that
dy
dx
i s basi cal l y

y
x
. Youl l need to use the
Product Rul e to get x8 and y8:
x8 5 si nu(cos
2
u)8 1 cos
2
u (si n u)8
x8 5 2cos u si n
2
u 1 cos
3
u
y8 5 si n
2
u (cos u)8 1 cos u (si n
2
u)8
y8 5 si n
3
u 1 2cos
2
usi nu
dy
dx

+
+
sin cos sin
cos sin cos
3 2
2 3
2
2

Now, eval uate
dy
dx
for 5
7
6
:
dy
dx

+

1
8
2
3
4
1
2
2
3
2
1
4
27
8
Of course, there i s no need to si mpl i fy thi s answer, and doi ng so drasti cal l y
i ncreases your chances of maki ng a mi stake. I f you si mpl i fed further and want to
know i f you got i t ri ght, use a cal cul ator to eval uate your expressi on; i t shoul d
equal 2.887.
4. Fi rst, fi nd
dy
dx
:
dy
dx
y
x
dy
dx t
1
2
Cl earl y, the deri vati ve wi l l equal
1
2
whenever t 5 21.
5. I f you try to eval uate the l i mi t vi a substi tuti on, you wi l l get i ndetermi nate form
0
0
, so you shoul d defaul t to LHpi tal s Rul e and fi nd lim
x
f x
g x
( )
( )
0
. Si mpl e di fferen-
ti ati on yi el ds f8(x) 5 2sec
2
x 1 3x
2
, so f8(0) 5 2 z 1 1 0 5 2. To compl ete the
probl em, however, youl l al so need g8(0), and that wi l l requi re some esti mati on.
Because g i s ori gi n symmetri c, you automati cal l y know that g(.1) 5 .492 and
g(.2) 5 .942. You shoul d use one of the fol l owi ng secant l i nes to esti mate the
deri vati ve: from x 5 .1 to .1, from x 5 .1 to 0, or from 0 to .1. I f you choose the
secant l i ne from .1 to 0, the secant sl ope i s
0 493
0 1
4 93
( )

.
.
.
.
Therefore, lim
.
.
x
f x
g x
( )
( )

0
2
4 93
406
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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www.petersons.com
6. The sl opes of al l tangent l i nes, verti cal or not, are furni shed by
dy
dx
, so begi n by
fi ndi ng i t:
dy
dx
e t e t
t t
+
2
cos sin
A verti cal asymptote wi l l occur when the denomi nator i s 0 but the numerator i s
not. Thi s numerator i s al ways 2, so you need onl y determi ne where the denomi -
nator i s 0. You can use your cal cul ator to sol ve thi s, but the probl em i s pretty easy
wi thout the cal cul ator:
e
t
(cos t 1 si n t) 5 0
cos t 1 si n t 5 0
cos t 5 si n t
t
3
4
7
4

,
However, thi s i s not the answer to the questi on. I nstead, you need to gi ve the
rectangul ar equati ons of the verti cal tangent l i nes that occur at these val ues of t.
To do so, use the [2
nd
][Trace]val ue functi on of your cal cul ator. When t 5
3
4
, the correspondi ng rectangul ar coordi nate i s (7.460,5.712); when t 5

7
4
, the
correspondi ng coordi nate i s (2172.641,11.996). Therefore, the equati ons of the
verti cal tangent l i nes are x 5 7.460 and x 5 172.641.
7. Youl l need, as al ways, a poi nt and a sl ope to form a l i ne. You cannot fi nd k
21
(x)
al gebrai cal l y, so youl l need to use the Magnum P.I . formul a to fi nd the deri vati ve
of the i nverse functi on and, hence, the sl ope of the tangent l i ne:
k
k k
( )
( )
( )
( )
1
1
4 3
1
4 3
.
.
(k
21
)8(4.3) =
1
8900107776 ( ) k .
k
( )
( )
1
4 3 174 . .
Now that you have the poi nt and the sl ope, i t i s a tri vi al pursui t to wri te the
equati on of the l i ne (al though I al ways have troubl e wi th those entertai nment
questi ons):
y .890 5 .174(x 4.3)
8.
Use the cal cul ator s [2
nd
][Trace]val ue and [2
nd
][Trace]
dy
dx
functi ons to
cal cul ate the poi nts of tangency and deri vati ves for each l i ne. The tangent l i nes
shoul d be
y .125 5 1.0392309 (x .21650635), for u 5

6
, and
y .8602387 5 1.235663(x .2795085), for u 5
2
5
To fi nd the i ntersecti on of these l i nes, sol ve both for y and set them equal to each
other:
1.0392309(x .21650635) 1 .125 5 1.235663(x .2795085) 1 .8602387
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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NOTE
You need only worry about
(cos t 1 sin t) being equal
to 0 in problem 6 because
e
t
never equals 0 (the
range of e
x
is y . 0).
CAUTION
You cannot use the
[2nd][Trace]
intersection feature of
your calculator on the
free-response portion of the
test, so use the equation
solving feature of the
calculator instead.
www.petersons.com
You can now sol ve the equati on on your cal cul ator by setti ng the above equati on
equal to 0 and fi ndi ng the root:
1.0392309(x .21650635) 1 .125 1 1.235663(x .2795085) .8602387 5 0
x 5 .57392439
Substi tute thi s val ue i nto ei ther l i nes equati on to get the correspondi ng y-val ue,
and the resul ti ng coordi nate i s (.574, .496).
9. (a) To fi nd f
21
at a speci fi c x, set f equal to x and sol ve:
x
e
x
x
x
2
2
0
0
0
Therefore, f
1
(0) 5 0.
(b) Thi s requi res the i nverse functi on deri vati ve formul a. Appl y the i nforma-
ti on from 9(a), and the formul a becomes
f
f
( )
( )
( )
1
0
1
0
I f you fi nd f8(x) wi th the Quoti ent Rul e, you get
( )

f x
xe x e
e
x x
x
2
2
2
( )

f x
x x
e
x
2
2
Therefore, f8(0) 5 0; substi tute thi s i nto the i nverse functi on deri vati ve
formul a:
f
( )
( )
1
0
1
0
(f
21
)8(0) i s undefi ned; the i nverse functi on i s not di fferenti abl e there due to
a verti cal tangent l i ne.
(c) To fi nd thi s l i mi t, you must appl y LHpi tal s Rul e twi ce (due to the pres-
ence of i ndetermi nate form
`
`
):
lim
x
x
x
e
2
lim
x
x
e

2 2
0
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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www.petersons.com
SUM M ING IT UP
The Power, Product, Quoti ent, and Chai n Rul es al l ow you to fi nd the deri vati ve i n
al most any expressi on or equati on you wi l l encounter.
I nverse functi ons are hel pful i n thei r power to cause other functi ons to di sappear.
Li near approxi mati ons are the fi rst step i n a more compl i cated process known as
Eul ers Method. Whereas approxi mati ons are on both the AB and BC tests,
Eul ers Method appears onl y on the BC test.
When appl yi ng LHopi tal s Rul e, fi nd the deri vati ves of the numerator and de-
nomi nator separatel y. Do not use the Quoti ent Rul e to fi nd the deri vati ve of the
enti re fracti on.
LHopi tal s Rul e i s for use onl y wi th i ndetermi nate l i mi ts.
Even though your graphs are done i n pol ar mode, al l equati on-sol vi ng wi th the
cal cul ator (usi ng x-i ntercepts) requi res that you swi tch back to rectangul ar mode
fi rst.
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www.petersons.com
Applications of the
Derivative
O VERVIEW
Re la te d ra te s
Ha nd s- O n Ac tivity 6.1: Rolle s a nd m e a n va lue the ore m s
Ha nd s- O n Ac tivity 6.2: The first d e riva tive te st
C onc a vity
M otion
M otion in the p la ne ( BC top ic only)
O p tim iza tion
Te c hnolog y: M od e ling a p a rtic le s m ove m e nt with a
Sum m ing it up
By thi s ti me, you are begi nni ng to form an opi ni on about deri vati ves. Ei ther
you l i ke them or you dont. Hopeful l y, the two of you are at l east on speaki ng
terms. I f you are, you are goi ng to be very i mpressed by the thi ngs deri vati ves
can do. They can even hel p you in thereal world, whi ch someti mes surpri ses
math students. Before we get i nto these topi cs, i ts ti me to deci de whether or
not you are a deri vati ve fan.
You M ig ht Love De riva tive s If...
You have an oversi zed foam hand that reads Deri vati ves #1!
When your fri end fl i pped a coi n the other day, you sai d, Thats what I cal l
a rate of change. And no one l aughed but you.
You l ove i t when peopl e go off on tangents.
You took up ski i ng so you coul d l earn more about sl opes.
You l oudl y commented at the grocery store the other day that, Thi s
express l i ne l ooks more l i ke a l i near approximation.
You al ways respond to chai n l etters because they remi nd you of the Chai n
Rul e.
You have a gi ant tattoo of the Quoti ent Rul e on your back.
RELATED RATES
You al ready know that a functi on or equati on shows a cl ear rel ati onshi p
between the vari abl es i nvol ved. For exampl e, i n the l i near equati on y53x22,
each ordered pai r has an xthat i s 2 l ess than 3 ti mes as l arge as y. What you may
c
h
a
p
t
e
r
6
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
195
not know i s that when you fi nd the deri vati ve of such an equati on wi th respect to time,
you fi nd another rel ati onshi pone between the rates of change of the vari abl es. Back to
our equati on: I f you fi nd the deri vati ve of y5 3x2 2 wi th respect to t, you get
dy
dt
dx
dt
_
,
3
Thi s means that y i s changi ng at a rate 3 ti mes faster than x i s changi ng. Thi s makes
sense, because the deri vati ve,
dy
dx
, i s
3
1
. For every one uni t you travel to the ri ght, you
must travel up 3 to stay on the graph. These types of probl ems are cal l ed related rates
(for obvi ous reasons).
As we progress through the fol l owi ng exampl es, we wi l l be cl osel y fol l owi ng the pl an
bel ow. Get used to the chronol ogy of these stepsthe method of sol vi ng rel ated rates
probl ems al ways fol l ows the same pattern.
5 Ste p s to Suc c e ss with Re la te d Ra te s
I denti fy whi ch rate you are tryi ng to fi nd and what i nformati on i s gi ven to you.
Fi nd an equati on that rel ates the vari abl es to one another i f youre not gi ven one.
El i mi nate extra vari abl es, i f at al l possi bl e, by substi tuti ng i n for them (see
Exampl e 3).
Fi nd the deri vati ve of the equati on wi th respect to t.
Pl ug i n what you know, and sol ve for the requi red rate.
Example1: My brother, Dave, and I recentl y went gol fi ng. After a promi si ng start, he
l anded 3 consecuti ve bal l s i n the l ake i n front of the second green. As the fi rst bal l
entered the water, i t caused a mul ti tude of ri ppl es i n the form of concentri c ci rcl es
emanati ng from the poi nt of i mpact at a steady rate of
3
4
ft/sec.
(a) What was the rate of change of the area of the outermost ri ppl e when i ts radi us
was 3 feet?
Thi s questi on concerns area and radi us; both of these el ements are contai ned by the
formul a for area of a ci rcl e: A 5 pr
2
. To fi nd the rel ati onshi p between the rates, fi nd
the deri vati ve wi th respect to t:
dA
dt
r
dr
dt
2
You are tryi ng to fi nd
dA
dt
, the rate of i ncrease of A. You know that
dr
dt
5
3
4
accordi ng
to the gi ven i nformati on, and the probl em prompts you that r 5 3 i n thi s i nstance.
Substi tute these val ues i nto the equati on to sol ve:
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TIP
Of all the topics in AP
Calculus, students often
forget how to do related
rates by test time. Take
some extra time and make
sure that your
understanding is complete.
NOTE
dy
dt
is interpreted as the rate
of change of y with respect
to time, and
dx
dt
is the rate
of change of x with respect
to time.
www.petersons.com
dA
dt
( ) 2 3
3
4
9
2

ft
2
/sec
(b) What was the rate of change of the gol f cl ub he threw wi th a mi ghty i ni ti al vel oci ty
after drowni ng the thi rd bal l ? No one knows, but everyone knew to stay out of the
way.
As Exampl e 1 i l l ustrates, make sure that you i ncl ude the correct uni ts i n your fi nal
answer when uni ts are i ncl uded i n the probl em. Fol l owi ng are the most commonl y
requested rates (assumi ng that the probl em i ncl udes meters and seconds): area
(m
2
/sec), vol ume (m
3
/sec), l ength or vel oci ty (m/sec), and accel erati on (m/sec
2
). I f the
probl em contai ns uni ts other than meters and seconds, the format i s sti l l the same.
Example 2: Whi l e pai nti ng my house and atop a 25-foot l adder, I was horri fi ed to
di scover that the l adder began sl i di ng away from the base of my home at a constant
rate of 2 ft/sec (dont ask me how I knew that, I just di d). At what rate was the top of
the l adder carryi ng me, screami ng l i ke a 2-year-ol d chi l d, toward the ground when the
base of the l adder was al ready 17 feet away from the house?
2 m/sec
25
y
x
Solution: You fi rst need to set up a rel ati onshi p that contai ns your gi ven i nformati on
and what you need to fi nd. The ri ght tri angl e made by the l adder and my house
contai ns al l of thi s i nformati on (al though you woul dnt have to have the same vari -
abl es, of course), so by the Pythagorean Theorem:
y
2
1 x
2
5 25
2
Noti ce that the val ues of x and y wi l l change as the l adder sl i des, but the l adder wi l l
al ways be 25 feet l ong, so I can use thi s constant rather than a thi rd vari abl e.
Now, fi nd the deri vati ve wi th respect to t:
2y z
dy
dt
1 2xz
dx
dt
5 0
The base of the l adder i s sl i di ng away from the house at 2 ft/sec, so
dx
dt
5 2; the
probl em al so states that x 5 17. Youl l have to use the Pythagorean Theorem to fi nd
the val ue of y for thi s speci fi c val ue of x:
y
2
1 x
2
5 25
y
2
1 (17)
2
5 25
2
y 5
336
C ha p te r 6: Ap p lic a tions of the De riva tive 197
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ALERT!
If something is decreasing
or becoming smaller, its
rate of change will be
negative.
ALERT!
You can only insert a
constant into your primary
equation in related rates if
that constant cannot
change throughout the
problem. For example, the
ladder is constant in
Example 2.
ALERT!
Dont forget to take the
derivative of the constant,
25
2
, to get 0.
www.petersons.com
Now, you have al l the vari abl es i n questi on except for
dy
dt
, the rate that you are tryi ng
to fi nd. Substi tute al l your val ues i nto the deri vati ve you found earl i er to fi nd
dy
dt
:
2 336 2 17 2 0
( )
+ ( )( )
dy
dt
dy
dt
' 21.855 ft/sec
Noti ce that the l ength of y i s decreasi ng, si nce the l adder i s sl i di ng downward;
therefore,
dy
dt
must be negati ve.
A few years ago, I had to undergo massi ve nasal surgery, the focus of whi ch was to
scrape out al l of my si nus cavi ti es to remove di sgusti ng mucous cysts that had
gathered there l i ke col l ege students wai ti ng for a party. I wrote the next probl em soon
after that experi ence. I t was, at the ti me, the worst thi ng that coul d happen. (Thi s
probl em appeared on my Web si te as i t was just getti ng started.)
Example 3: The ni ghtmare has come to pass. Al l of Kel l eys extensi ve surgeri es and
nasal passage scrapi ngs have (unfortunatel y) gone awry, and he si ts i n the ear, nose,
and throat doctors offi ce wai ti ng area spewi ng bl oody nose dri ppi ngs i nto a coni cal
paper cup at the rate of 2.5 i n
3
/mi n. The cup i s bei ng hel d wi th the vertex down and
has a hei ght of 4 i nches and a base of 3 i nches. How fast i s the mucous l evel ri si ng i n
the cup when the l i qui d i s 2 i nches deep?
Solution: You shoul d fi rst establ i sh what you know: a cones vol ume i s V 5 pr
2
h,
dV
dt
5 2.5, hei ght of the cone i s 4, and the di ameter of the base i s 3, whi ch makes the
radi us of the base, r, equal to
3
2
. (You al so know that the mucous i tsel f wi l l be i n the
shape of a cone si nce i t i s i n a coni cal contai ner.) Whats even more i mportant i s what
you dont know. You dont know the radi us of the mucous, and you dont know i ts rate
of change. Therefore, you shoul d try to el i mi nate the vari abl e r from the vol ume
equati on. Why i ncl ude a vari abl e you know nothi ng about? To do so i s the most
compl i cated part of thi s probl em. You need to use si mi l ar tri angl es. Bel ow i s a
cross-secti on of the cup.
1.5
r
4
h
Two si mi l ar ri ght tri angl es can be formed. Look at the set of overl appi ng tri angl es on
the ri ght. The smal l er tri angl e (representi ng mucous) has unknown hei ght and ra-
di us, whereas the l arger tri angl e (the cup) has hei ght 4 and radi us 1.5. Thi s al l ows
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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NOTE
Example 3 is quite difficult
when compared to the
others. A problem of this
difficulty in related rates is
relatively rare on the
AP test.
www.petersons.com
you to set up a proporti on, si nce correspondi ng si des of si mi l ar tri angl es are i n
proporti on.
4
3
2
h r
Sol ve thi s proporti on for r and you get r 5

3
8
h
. I f you substi tute thi s for r i nto the
vol ume equati on, the probl em of knowi ng nothi ng about r i s compl etel y sol ved.
V 5
1
3
2
r h
V 5
1
3
3
8
2
h
h
_
,
V 5
3
64
3
h
Now, fi nd the deri vati ve wi th respect to t to get rol l i ng:
dV
dt
h
dh
dt
9
64
2

and substi tute i n al l the i nformati on you know to sol ve for
dh
dt
, the val ue requested by
the probl em:
2 5
9
64
2
2
. ( )
dh
dt
dh
dt
' 1.415 i n/mi n
My cup, it overfloweth.
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www.petersons.com
EXERC ISE 1
1. A parti cl e moves al ong the path y 5 x
3
2 3x
2
1 2. I f the parti cl es hori zontal rate
of change when x 5 4 seconds i s 23 ft/sec, what i s i ts verti cal rate of change at
that i nstant?
2. I f a spheri cal bal l oon i s bei ng defl ated at a rate of 5 i n
3
/sec, at what rate i s the
radi us of the bal l oon decreasi ng when r 5 5 i n?
3. Last week, I acci dental l y dropped a cube i nto a vat of nucl ear waste, setti ng off a
chai n reacti on of events that eventual l y caused the cube to possess super powers,
among them the abi l i ty to eat rocks. As the cube amassed these super powers, i t
swel l ed at a rate of 7 i n/sec. At what rate was the surface area of Super Cube
changi ng when one of i ts si des was 2 feet l ong?
4. Duri ng a real i ty show presentati on, one of the cel ebri ti es di spl ays her athl eti c
prowess by skydi vi ng out of a hoveri ng hel i copter 100 feet away from a cl i ff. I f her
posi ti on, i n feet, i s gi ven by s(t) 5 216t
2
1 15,840, fi nd the rate of change of the
angl e of depressi on (no pun i ntended) i n degrees/sec at t 5 30.9 seconds for a
vi ewer standi ng at the edge of the cl i ff, assumi ng that hi s head i s 600 feet above
the fl oor of the val l ey bel ow.
1. The equati on i s al ready gi ven, so fi nd the deri vati ve wi th respect to t and
substi tute:
dy
dt
x
dx
dt
x
dx
dt
3 6
2
dy
dt
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 3 4 3 6 4 3
2
5
dy
dt
5 272 ft/sec
BC students note:

dy
dt
dx
dt

72
3
24 , whi ch i s al so
dy
dx
when x 5 4.
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NOTE
A fall from a helicopter 3
miles in the sky is not only
dangerous but nearly
impossible. It should only be
attempted by a trained
professional or someone
re a lly famous.
www.petersons.com
2. You need to know the vol ume of a sphere. Fi nd i ts deri vati ve wi th respect to t and
pl ug i n the gi ven i nformati on:
V 5
4
3
pr
3
dV
dt
5 4pr
2
dr
dt
25 5 4p(5)
2
dr
dt
dr
dt
5 2.016 i n/sec
Noti ce that you have to make
dV
dt
negati ve because the vol ume i s decreasing.
3. The surface area of a cube i s the sum of the areas of i ts si des. The si des are al l
squares, so the surface area i s S 5 6x
2
, where x i s the l ength of a si de. Now fi nd
the deri vati ve and substi tute:
dS
dt
x
dx
dt
12
dS
dt
5 12(24)(7)
dS
dt
5 2,016 i n
2
/sec
Note that you use 24 i nches i nstead of 2 feet for x, si nce the rest of the probl em i s
to be gi ven i n terms of i nches.
4. Begi n by drawi ng a pi cture.
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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www.petersons.com
The hori zontal di stance between the spectator and Angel a wi l l remai n fi xed, but
the verti cal di stance wi l l change dramati cal l y. You need to use a vari abl e to l abel
any l ength that can change; here we used x. Youl l need an equati on that contai ns
u, si nce your goal i s to fi nd
d
dt
. The perfect choi ce i s tangent, and the equati on

shoul d be tan u 5
x
100
. Now, fi nd i ts deri vati ve wi th respect to t:
sec
2 1
100
d
dt
dx
dt
You sti l l need to fi nd u and

dx
dt
to fi ni sh thi s probl em. To fi nd x, you fi rst must
fi nd s(t) when t 5 30.9, so pl ug 30.9 i nto the posi ti on equati on:
s(t) 5 216(30.9)
2
1 15,840 5 563.04
You can tel l by l ooki ng at the di agram that x 5 600 2 s(t), so at the i nstant that
t 5 30.9, x 5 600 2 563.04 5 36.96. Fi nal l y, we can fi nd u (i n degrees as asked):
tan
.

x
100
36 96
100
u 5 20.28431249
Now you need to fi nd
dx
dt
. We just sai d x 5 600 2 s(t), so fi nd the deri vati ve wi th
respect to t when t 5 30.9:
dx
dt
5 2s(t)
dx
dt
5 2(232t) 5 32(30.9)
dx
dt
5 988.8 ft/sec
Al l of the requi red i nformati on i s fi nal l y avai l abl e, so substi tute and fi ni sh thi s
probl em:
sec
2
(20.28431249)
d
dt
5
1
100
(988.8)
d
dt
5 8.700 deg/sec
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www.petersons.com
HANDS- O N AC TIVITY 6.1: RO LLES AND M EAN
VALUE THEO REM S
The fol l owi ng acti vi ty wi l l hel p you uncover two of the most foundati onal theorems of
di fferenti al cal cul us. Rol l es Theorem i s one of those rare cal cul us theorems that makes
a l ot of sense ri ght away. The Mean Val ue Theorem i s not very di ffi cul t ei ther, and i t
usual l y appears on the APtest pretty frequentl y. Wi th your deep conceptual understand-
i ng of deri vati ves, you shoul d have no probl em at al l understandi ng.
1. Lets say that you have the conti nuous and di fferenti abl e functi on f(x) 5 x
3
2 6x
2
1 12x 2 5. Draw the porti on of the graph i ndi cated by the axes bel ow (x 5 [0,4]).
4 0
5
2. Draw the secant l i ne that connects x 5 1 to x 5 3 on the graph of f, and cal cul ate
the sl ope of the secant l i ne.
3. Are there any pl aces on the graph of f where the tangent l i ne to the graph
appears to be paral l el to the secant l i ne youve drawn? How many ti mes does thi s
happen on [0,3]? Draw these tangent l i nes that appear to be paral l el to the secant
l i ne.
4. What does i t mean geometri cal l y i f those tangent l i nes are paral l el to the secant
l i ne?
5. Wri te your concl usi on to probl em 4 as a mathemati cal formul a. I f you sol ve thi s
for x (youl l have to use your cal cul ator), you wi l l fi nd the x val ues for the tangent
l i nes. What are they?
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ALERT!
Some students confuse the
Mean Value Theorem with
the Intermediate Value
Theorem. They are similar
only in that they are both
e xiste nc e theorems, in that
they guarantee the
existence of something.
www.petersons.com
6. Ti me to be generi c. Gi ven a conti nuous, di fferenti abl e functi on g(x) on the i nter-
val [a,b], compl ete the fol l owi ng:
Gi ve the sl ope of the secant l i ne from x 5 a to x 5 b.
Gi ve the sl ope of the tangent l i ne to g(x) at any poi nt on i ts domai n.
Use your answers above to fi l l i n the bl anks and compl ete the Mean Val ue
Theorem:
Mean Value Theorem: Gi ven a functi on g(x) that i s conti nuous and di fferen-
ti abl e on a cl osed i nterval [a,b], there exi sts at l east one xon [a,b] for whi ch _____,
the sl ope of the secant l i ne, equal s ______, the sl ope of the tangent l i ne.
7. I l l ustrate the Mean Val ue Theorem graphi cal l y usi ng the graph bel ow of g on
[a,b].
8. Transl ate the Mean Val ue Theorem i nto a statement about rates of change.
9. Rol l es Theorem i s a speci fi c case of the Mean Val ue Theorem, whi ch appl i es
whenever g(a) 5 g(b). What i s the sl ope of the secant l i ne for such a functi on?
What i s guaranteed by the Mean Val ue Theorem as a resul t, and what does that
mean geometri cal l y?
10. Fi l l i n the bl anks to compl ete the theorem:
Rolles Theorem: Gi ven a functi on f(x) that i s conti nuous and di fferenti abl e on
the cl osed i nterval [a,b] and ____5 ____, then there exi sts at l east one x on [a,b]
such that ____________.
11. Draw a functi on g(x) on the axes bel ow that sati sfi es Rol l es Theorem on [a,b] but
sati sfi es i t more than one ti me.
a b
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TIP
The M e a n Value Theorem is
so named because of the
large role the average, or
m e a n, rate of change
plays in the theorem.
www.petersons.com
2. The sl ope of the secant l i ne i s
f f ( ) ( ) 3 1
3 1
4 2
3 1
1
.
3. There are two pl aces on [0,3] where the tangent l i nes appear to be paral l el one
fal l s nearl y mi dway between x 5 1 and 2 and another between x 5 2 and 3.
secant line
4. I t means that they share the same sl ope.
5. The formul a shoul d state that the secant and tangent sl opes are the same:
f f
f x
3 1
3 1
( ) ( )
( )
The l eft-hand formul a i s the secant sl ope, and the deri vati ve on the ri ght repre-
sents the tangent sl ope. You al ready know the secant sl ope, so f(x) 5 1. Fi nd f(x)
and sol ve usi ng your cal cul ator; you shoul d get x ' 1.423 and x ' 2.577.
6. The secant sl ope i s
g b g a
b a
( ) ( )
, and the tangent sl ope i s g(x).

Mean Value Theorem: ...there exi sts at l east one x on [a,b] for whi ch
g b g a
b a
( ) ( )
equal s g(x).
7. Esti mate on the graph where the secant and tangent l i nes appear to be paral l el .
secant line
tangent line
8. At l east once on the i nterval [a,b], the i nstantaneous rate of change equal s the
average rate of change for that i nterval .
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www.petersons.com
9. The sl ope of the secant l i ne i s 0, so the Mean Val ue Theorem guarantees that
somewhere on [a,b], there wi l l be a hori zontal tangent l i ne. Geometri cal l y, thi s
means that the graph reaches a maxi mum or a mi ni mum somewhere between a
and b, assumi ng, of course, that the functi on i s not merel y a hori zontal l i ne
connecti ng (a,f(a)) to (b,f(b)).
10. Rolles Theorem: ...[a,b] and f(a) 5 f(b), then there exi sts at l east one x on [a,b]
such that f(x) 5 0.
11.
a b
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NOTE
The fact that a derivative of
0 indicates a possible
maximum or minimum on
the graph is an incredibly
important fact as this
chapter progresses.
www.petersons.com
EXERC ISE 2
1. Determi ne i f each of the fol l owi ng statements i s true or fal se. I f true, justi fy your
answer. I f fal se, provi de a counter exampl e.
I f f(x) i s a conti nuous functi on on [a,b], and f(a) 5 f(b), then ...
(a) f has an absol ute maxi mi m and an absol ute mi ni mum.
(b) There exi sts a c, a c b, such that f(c) 5 0.
2. Duri ng vacati on, Jenni fer i s en route to her brothers house. Unbeknownst to her,
two pol i cemen are stati oned two mi l es apart al ong the road, whi ch has a posted
speed l i mi t of 55 mph. The fi rst cl ocks her at 50 mph as she passes, and the
second measures her speed at 55 mph but pul l s her over anyway. When she asks
why she got pul l ed over, he responds, I t took you 90 seconds to travel 2 mi l es.
Why i s she gui l ty of speedi ng accordi ng to the Mean Val ue Theorem?
3. Gi ven g(x) as defi ned by the graph bel ow, and g(b) 5 g(c).
a c b
g(x)
(a) How many ti mes does g(x) sati sfy the Mean Val ue Theorem on [a,b]?
(b) What concl usi ons, i f any, can be drawn about g(x) usi ng Rol l es Theorem?
4. At what val ue(s) of x i s the Mean Val ue Theorem sati sfi ed for m(x) 5 x
3
2
5
2
x
2
2
2x 1 1 on [22,4]?
5. I f h(0) sati sfi es the Mean Val ue Theorem for h(x) 5 l n (si n x 11) on [2
4
,b], fi nd
the smal l est possi bl e val ue of b.
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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www.petersons.com
1. (a) True: Thi s val ue i s guaranteed by the Extreme Val ue Theorem; the functi on
need onl y be conti nuous on a cl osed i nterval .
(b) Fal se: I t may sound l i ke Rol l es Theorem, but Rol l es Theorem i ncl udes the
guarantee that the functi on i s di fferenti abl e on [a,b]; the di agram bel ow
shows one possi bl e graph of f for whi ch there i s no hori zontal tangent l i ne
on the i nterval .
a b
f (x)
2. You can fi gure out Jenni fers average speed for the two mi l es between the pol i ce;
thi nk back to the ol d, fami l i ar formul a d 5 rt (di stance 5 rate z ti me). Her rate
wi l l be gi ven by r 5
d
t
. Your uni ts are hours, so 90 seconds has to be rewri tten i n
terms of hours. Because there are 3,600 seconds i n an hour, 90 seconds represents
90
3 600 ,
of an hour, or
1
40
. Cl earl y, d 5 2 from the i nformati on gi ven. Therefore, you
can fi nd the average rate of speed:
r 5
2
1
40
5 80 mph
The Mean Val ue Theorem says that on a cl osed i nterval , your i nstantaneous rate
of change (i n thi s case, vel oci ty) must equal the average rate of change (average
speed) at l east once. Therefore, ol l eadfoot Jenny had to have travel ed 80 mph at
l east once, and the pol i ceman can ti cket her.
3. (a) The tangent l i ne must be paral l el to the secant l i ne (shown dotted i n the
di agram bel ow) four ti mes i n that i nterval at approxi matel y the pl aces
marked bel ow.
a b
(b) Rol l es Theorem ensures that g(x) 5 0 at l east once between x 5 c and x 5
b. I n fact, g(x) 5 0 twi ce on the i nterval , al though you may not be abl e to
justi fy that vi sual l y unti l l ater i n thi s chapter.
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NOTE
In fact, J ennifer probably
went a whole lot faster
than 80 mph when she
thought no one was
looking, but the Mean
Value Theorem can only do
so much.
www.petersons.com
4. The Mean Val ue Theorem states that at some poi nt c between 22 and 4,
m(c) 5
m m 4 2
4 2
( ) ( )
( )
Once you fi nd m(c) and eval uate the fracti on, you can sol ve for c:
3c
2
2 5c 2 2 5
17 13
6
( )
3c
2
2 5c 2 2 5 5
3c
2
2 5c 2 7 5 0
Thi s doesnt factor, so you need to resort to the quadrati c formul a. The sol uti ons
are c 5
5 109
6
. However, onl y the sol uti ons on the i nterval [22,4] count. Wi thout
a cal cul ator, how can you tel l i f ei ther of these fal l i n the i nterval ? Wel l ,
109
i s
between
100
(10) and
121
(11). I f you eval uate the sol uti ons wi th these
esti mati ons i n pl ace, both answers fal l wi thi n the i nterval , so both val ues of c are
correct.
5. I f the Mean Val ue Theorem i s sati sfi ed at h(0), then the average rate of change
on the i nterval must be equal to that val ue; that val ue i s
h(0) 5
cos
sin
0
0 1 +
5 1
Therefore, al l you need to do i s to fi nd the average val ue and set i t equal to 1 i n
order to fi nd b:
h b h
b
( ) ( )
4
4
1
ln sin ln sin b
b
+ ( ) ( ) +
( )
+

1 1
1 0
4
4
Once you set thi s gi ganti c equati on equal to zero, you can use your cal cul ator to
sol ve, and b ' 1.07313.
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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www.petersons.com
HANDS- O N AC TIVITY 6.2: THE FIRST DERIVATIVE TEST
You mi ght suspect that there i s some ki nd of rel ati onshi p between functi ons and thei r
deri vati ves. Someti mes, l ate at ni ght, they show up hol di ng hands, i nsi sti ng that they
are just fri ends. I ts just as you suspectderi vati ves can al ways tel l what a functi on i s
doi ngthey have thi s connecti on that other peopl e envy and yearn for. Youl l l earn more
about thi s connecti on i n the fol l owi ng acti vi ty.
1. Graph the functi on f(x) 5 x
3
2
5
2
x
2
2 2x 1 1 on the axes bel ow.
2. Your goal i n thi s exerci se wi l l be to descri be where f i s i ncreasi ng and decreasi ng
wi thout dependi ng on i ts graph. I n other words, you want to descri be the direc-
tion of f. Important fact: I f a graph changes di recti on, the change wi l l occur at a
critical number, a number at whi ch the deri vati ve ei ther equal s zero or i s unde-
fi ned. What are the cri ti cal numbers for f?
3. What rel ati onshi p do you see between the cri ti cal numbers and the di recti on of f?
4. The l i ne graph bel ow i s cal l ed a wigglegraph. I t i s used i n conjucti on wi th cri ti cal
numbers to descri be a functi ons di recti on. Label the graph bel ow by marki ng off
the cri ti cal numbers you found i n probl em 2 above. They shoul d break the wi ggl e
graph i nto three separate segments.
5. Pi ck a number from each of the three segments of the wi ggl e graph and pl ug each
separatel y i nto the deri vati ve. I f the resul t i s negati ve, wri te a 2 above the
correspondi ng segment of the wi ggl e graph; i f the resul t i s posi ti ve, denote i t wi th
a 1.
6. What rel ati onshi p do you see between the wi ggl e graph you have constructed and
the graph of f?
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TIP
The relationships between a
function and its derivatives
are all over the AP test. This
is one of the most essential
concepts in AP Calculus, so
make sure to understand
itits not that hard,
actually.
ALERT!
A graph is not guaranteed
to change direction just
because it has a critical
number there. However, if
the graph changes
direction, it needs to
happen at a critical
number.
TIP
Whenever you use a wiggle
graph, it is important to
label it correctly. We will
use this graph with critical
numbers that came from
f ( x) , so the wiggle graph
must be labeled f .
www.petersons.com
7. Compl ete thi s statement based on your resul ts: I f a functi on f i s i ncreasi ng on an
i nterval , then i ts deri vati ve f wi l l be ___________there. However, i f a functi on i s
decreasi ng, i ts deri vati ve wi l l be ___________.
8. Consi der the si mpl e functi on g(x) 5 x
2
. Construct a wi ggl e graph for i t, and gi ve
the i nterval s for whi ch g i s i ncreasi ng.
9. Graph y 5 x
2
and draw two tangent l i nes to the graphone on the i nterval
(2`,0) and one on (0,`). How do the sl opes of these tangent l i nes support your
wi ggl e graph?
10. How coul d you tel l from the wi ggl e graph of p(x) 5 x
2
that x 5 0 was a rel ati ve
mi ni mum?
11. I n general , how can you tel l where a rel ati ve maxi mum or mi ni mum occurs usi ng
onl y a wi ggl e graph?
12. Form the wi ggl e graph for h(x) 5
1
x
2
. What are the rel ati ve extrema (rel ati ve
maxi mums or mi ni mums) for the graph? Why?
2. To fi nd cri ti cal numbers, you must fi rst fi nd the deri vati ve: f(x) 5 3x
2
2 5x 2 2.
Cri ti cal numbers occur wherever thi s i s zero or i s undefi ned. By factori ng, you
can see that f(x) 5 0 when x 5 2
1
3
and x 5 2.
3. At the x-val ues that represent the cri ti cal numbers, the graph seems to change
di recti on.
4.
5. You can choose any number from each of the i nterval s; the numbers 21, 0, and 3
are good, si mpl e choi ces. Pl ug each i nto the derivative: f(21) 5 6, f(0) 5 22, and
f(3) 5 10. Therefore, mark the i nterval s l eft to ri ght as posi ti ve, negati ve, and
posi ti ve:
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NOTE
Creating a wiggle graph is
a very easy thing to do. If
you are confused by the
directions, flip back and
forth between the solutions,
and it should be clear.
NOTE
It makes sense to call
maximums and minimums
e xtre m a points, because
the graph takes on its most
extreme values there.
www.petersons.com
Let the meani ng of the di agram si nk i n. You can easi l y cal cul ate that f(21) i s
posi ti ve. That means that any val ue on the i nterval (`,2
1
3
) wi l l return a posi ti ve
val ue i f substi tuted i nto the deri vati ve. Li kewi se, any number i n the i nterval
(2
1
3
,2) wi l l return a negati ve val ue when substi tuted i nto the deri vati ve, accord-
i ng to the wi ggl e graph.
6. Whenever the wi ggl e graph i s posi ti ve, f i s i ncreasi ng, and when the graph
wi ggl es negati ve, f i s decreasi ng.
7. posi ti ve, negati ve
8. g wi l l be i ncreasi ng on (0,`), si nce g i s posi ti ve on that i nterval :
9. Whenever the graph i s decreasi ng (i n thi s case (2`,0)), the tangent l i nes on the
graph wi l l have a negati ve sl ope. When the graph i s i ncreasi ng, the tangent l i nes
have a posi ti ve sl ope. The wi ggl e graph i s based on the deri vati ve, whi ch i s
defi ned by the sl ope of the tangent l i ne.
positive
slope
negative
slope
10. The wi ggl e graph shows that the deri vati ve changes from negati ve to posi ti ve at
x 5 0, whi ch means that g changes from decreasi ng to i ncreasi ng to x 5 0. I f a
graph suddenl y stops decreasi ng and begi ns i ncreasi ng, the poi nt at whi ch i t
stopped must be a mi ni mumdraw i t!
relative minimum
of g
g increasing g decreasing
11. When the deri vati ve changes si gn, the functi on changes di recti on. Therefore, i f a
wi ggl e graph changes from 1 to 2 or vi ce versa, a rel ati ve extrema poi nt has
occurred.
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NOTE
A relative maximum is
different from an absolute
maximum. A re la tive
m a xim um appears as a
little hump on the graph.
At the crest of that hump,
the graph is at a
maximumat least relative
to the points directly
around it. A re la tive
m inim um appears as a
valley in the graph.
TIP
The wiggle graph you
created in problem 5
corresponds exactly with
the graph of f (x). If you
graph f (x), youll notice
that it is a parabola that is
negative on
S
2
1
3
,2
D
but
positive elsewhere. The
wiggle graph is simply a
one-dimensional
representation of the
derivatives graph.
www.petersons.com
12. You can rewri te h as x
22
; therefore, h(x) 5 22x
23
, or
2
3
x
. The deri vati ve never
equal s zero; however, h i s undefi ned when x 5 0. Therefore, x 5 0 i s a cri ti cal
number for h. The wi ggl e graph l ooks l i ke the fol l owi ng:
I t l ooks l i ke x 5 0 shoul d be a rel ati ve maxi mum, because the functi on changes
from i ncreasi ng to decreasi ng there. However, x 5 0 i s not in the domain of the
ori gi nal functi on h! x 5 0 cannot be a maxi mum on a graph i f i ts not even i n the
domai n. Thi s i s because h(x) has a verti cal asymptote at x 5 0. Thus, x 5 0 i s not
an extrema poi nt. Because i t was the onl y cri ti cal number (and al l extrema must
occur at cri ti cal numbers), there are no extrema on h.
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www.petersons.com
EXERC ISE 3
1. Draw the graph of a functi on, b(x), that has a rel ati ve mi ni mum at x 5 23 when
b(23) does not exi st.
2. Gi ve the x-val ues at whi ch each of the fol l owi ng functi ons have rel ati ve extrema,
and cl assi fy those extrema. Justi fy your answers wi th wi ggl e graphs.
(a)
y
x x
x

+
2 9 5
3
2
(b)
y
e
x
x
+ 2 1
ln
3. Gi ven the graph bel ow of m(x), the deri vati ve of m(x), descri be and cl assi fy the
rel ati ve extrema of m(x).
4. Bel ow are the graphs of two functi ons, g(x) and g(x). Whi ch i s whi ch, and why?
5. I f f(x) i s defi ned as fol l ows:
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(a) Fi nd al l poi nts of di sconti nui ty on f(x).
(b) Determi ne i f f(p) exi sts.
(c) On what i nterval s i s f i ncreasi ng?
1.
2. (a) The deri vati ve, usi ng the Quoti ent Rul e, i s
x x x x
x
+ ( ) ( )
( )
+ ( )
3 4 9 2 9 5
3
2
2

+ + +
+ ( )
y
x x x x
x
4 3 27 2 9 5
3
2 2
2

+
+ ( )
y
x x
x
2 12 22
3
2
2
The cri ti cal numbers occur where the numerator and denomi nator equal 0.
Cl earl y, the denomi nator i s 0 when x5 23. Set the numerator equal to 0, and
use the quadrati c formul a to get x 5 23 6 20 . Pl ug test poi nts from each
i nterval i nto the deri vati ve, and you get thi s wi ggl e graph:
Thi s graph has a rel ati ve maxi mum at x 5 23 2 20 and a rel ati ve mi ni -
mum at 23 1 20.
(b) Fi rst, real i ze that the domai n of thi s functi on i s x . 0, because that i s the
domai n of the denomi nator. Once agai n, cri ti cal numbers occur wherever the
numerator or denomi nator of the deri vati ve equal s zero. The numerator i s
the natural exponenti al functi on, whi ch never equal s zero (i ts range i s (0,`)).
However, the denomi nator equal s 0 when x 5 1. Therefore, x 5 1 i s the onl y
cri ti cal number. The resul ti ng wi ggl e graph l ooks l i ke the fol l owi ng:
However, there i s no rel ati ve mi ni mum at x 5 1, even though the di recti on
of the functi on changes. Because x 5 1 i s not i n the domai n of the functi on,
i t cannot be an extrema poi nt. I n fact, x 5 1 i s a verti cal asymptote for thi s
functi on. There are no extrema poi nts for thi s functi on.
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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3. The deri vati ve changes from negati ve to posi ti ve at x ' 2 .8, meani ng that the
ori gi nal functi on m changes from decreasi ng to i ncreasi ng. Therefore, m has a
rel ati ve mi ni mum there. Usi ng si mi l ar reasoni ng, mhas a rel ati ve maxi mum at
x5 7. There are no extrema poi nts when x5 4, even though the deri vati ve equal s
0 there (maki ng i t a cri ti cal number); the deri vati ve doesnt actual l y change si gns
around x 5 4, so the functi on does not change di recti on.
4. The dotted functi on i s g(x). Note that whenever the dotted functi on reaches a
rel ati ve maxi mum or mi ni mum, the other graph has a val ue of 0 (an x-i ntercept
occurs). Furthermore, whenever the dotted functi on i s i ncreasi ng, the sol i d func-
ti on i s posi ti ve (above the x-axi s) and vi ce versa.
5. (a) The onl y possi bl e poi nt of di sconti nui ty of f i s at x 5 pi f the two graphs do
not meet at that poi nt, there wi l l be a jump di sconti nui ty. I f you substi tute x
5 p i nto each of the two pi eces of the functi on, they both resul t i n an output
of 0, maki ng f conti nuous on i ts enti re domai n [0,2p].
(b) These two functi ons coul d meet i n a sharp poi nt, causi ng a cusp, and no
deri vati ve woul d exi st. To determi ne i f a cusp occurs, you undertake a
process si mi l ar to 5(a). To be conti nuous, both pi eces had to have the same
functi on val ue. To be di fferenti abl e, both pi eces must have the same
deri vati ve at x 5 p. The deri vati ves are as fol l ows:
d
dx
(si n x cos x) 5 cos
2
x 2 si n
2
x
d
dx
(si n
2
x) 5 2si n x cos x
When x 5 p, the fi rst rul e has a deri vati ve of 1, and the second has a
deri vati ve of 0. Because these deri vati ves do not match, no deri vati ve exi sts
on f when x 5 p.
(c) I n order to determi ne di recti on, you need to set the deri vati ves found i n 5(b)
equal to zero and compl ete a wi ggl e graph. Because the fi rst rul e of the
pi ecewi se-defi ned functi on pertai ns onl y to [0,p), the wi ggl e graph on the
same i nterval wi l l be based on i ts deri vati ve. Therefore, the i nterval [0,p) has
cri ti cal numbers

4
and
3
4
. Si mi l arl y, you set 2si n x cos x 5 0 and pl ot the

resul ti ng cri ti cal numbers onl y on the i nterval [p,2p]. These cri ti cal numbers
are p,
3
2
, and 2p. The fi nal wi ggl e graph l ooks l i ke the fol l owi ng:
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Therefore, f i s i ncreasi ng on (0,

4
) (
3
4
,
3
2
). I n case you are skepti cal ,

heres the graph of f:
C O NC AVITY
Two of the major characteri sti cs used to descri be graphs are di recti on and concavi ty. You
have al ready used the si gn of the fi rst deri vati ve todetermi ne the di recti on of a functi on,
and i n thi s secti on, you wi l l use the si gn of the second deri vati ve to determi ne the
concavi ty of the ori gi nal functi on. I n 1955, pri son wardens al l over the worl d i ntroduced
fl uori de i nto the dri nki ng water of thei r pri sons i n a coordi nated effort to reduce con
cavi ti es, but thei r efforts proved to be i n vai n. Thus, concavi ty sti l l pervades functi ons
worl dwi de.
Concavi ty descri bes the curvi ness of a curve. Consi der the mouths on the faces drawn
bel ow:
+ +
The smi l e on a happy face i s descri bed as concave up, whereas the frown i s concave
down. Noti ce that frown and down rhyme. I t i s al so sai d that mi l k poured i nto a
concave up curve stays there, whereas mi l k poured on a concave down curve wi l l
spl atter on your moms cl ean fl oor and make her angry. I n thi s mnemoni c devi ce, a
cup shoul d be concaveup.
Noti ce the si gns that consti tute the eyes of the faces; these si gns remi nd us of the
most i mportant fact concerni ng concavi ty: I f a function, f(x), is concave down on an
interval, then the second derivative, f(x), will be negative there. Similarly, if a
function is concaveup, its second derivativewill bepositive.
Thi s i s haunti ngl y si mi l ar to our work wi th di recti on and the fi rst deri vati ve. I n that
case, the si gn of the first deri vati ve i ndi cated di recti on. Concavi ty, on the other hand,
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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i s di ctated by the si gn of the second deri vati ve. Thi s rel ati onshi p i s expl ored by the
di agram bel ow:
The si gn of a functi on descri bes the di recti on of the functi on one step above i t, and
that same si gn descri bes the concavi ty of the functi on two steps above.
Example 4: On what i nterval s i s the graph of the functi on g(x) 5 x
3
2 2x
2
2 4x 1 2
concave down?
Solution: The concavi ty of a functi on i s based on the si gn of i ts second deri vati ve, so
you need to begi n by fi ndi ng g(x):
g(x) 5 3x
2
2 4x 2 4
g(x) 5 6x 2 4
Here, you need to fi nd cri ti cal numbers agai n, just as you di d when you found
di recti on. Thi s ti me, the cri ti cal numbers occur when the second deri vati ve i s ei ther
zero or undefi ned. The onl y cri ti cal number i s x 5
2
3
. Use thi s to create a second
derivativewi ggl e graph, and make sure to l abel i t g. Choose test numbers from both
of the i nterval s and make sure to pl ug them i nto the second deri vati ve, as i t i s the si gn
of the second deri vati ve that provi des the i nformati on you are seeki ng. The wi ggl e
graph l ooks l i ke the fol l owi ng when you are fi ni shed:
The graph of g(x) i s concave down on (2`,
2
3
).
I n the precedi ng exampl e, the graph changed from concave down to concave up at the
poi nt (
2
3
,2
34
27
). The change of concavi ty makes thi s a point of inflection, much as a
change of di recti on caused poi nts to become extrema poi nts.
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Example 5: Gi ven the graph bel ow of h(x), the deri vati ve of h(x), descri be the
concavi ty of h(x).
Solution: Not onl y does the h(x) descri be the concavi ty of h(x), but i t al so descri bes
the direction of the h(x). (Si nce h(x) i s one step above h(x).) From the graph, you
can tel l that h(x) i s i ncreasi ng on (22,2) (3.5,`) and decreasi ng on (2`,22)
(2,3.5). Therefore, h(x) wi l l be negati ve on (2`,22) (2,3.5) and posi ti ve on
(22,2) (3.5,`), as i ndi cated on the concavi ty wi ggl e graph bel ow:
Wi thout havi ng seen a graph of h(x), we can draw from the concavi ty wi ggl e graph
that h i s concave up on (22,2) (3.5,`) and concave down on (2`,22) (2,3.5).
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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TIP
J ust as you used the wiggle
graph to describe direction
and direction changes,
youll use a second
derivative wiggle graph to
describe concavity and
concavity changes.
TIP
Do you see why its so
important to label your
wiggle graph? Without the
h label in Example 5, it
wouldnt be immediately
obvious which derivative
we were referencing.
www.petersons.com
EXERC ISE 4
1. Descri be the concavi ty of the generi c l i near functi on y 5 ax 1 b, and i nterpret
your answer.
2. On what i nterval s i s the functi on g(x) 5
sin cos
sin
2x x
x
concave up on the i nterval
[0,2p]?
3. Gi ven the di fferenti abl e graph of f(x) bel ow, answer the fol l owi ng questi ons:
(a) Descri be the concavi ty of f(x).
(b) At what x-val ues wi l l f(x) have i ts absol ute maxi mum and absol ute
mi ni mum val ues?
(c) Wi l l f(0) be posi ti ve or negati ve? What about f
(4)
(0)?
(d) On what i nterval s wi l l f(x) be concave down?
4. Gi ven the bel ow graph of h(x), descri be the concavi ty of h(x), gi ven h(x) i s
conti nuous.
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www.petersons.com
1. The concavi ty of a functi on i s descri bed by i ts second deri vati ve, so fi nd that fi rst:
y 5 a
y 5 0
I t i s di ffi cul t to i nterpret a val ue of zero i n the second deri vati ve. I n thi s case, i t
i s because a l i ne by i tsel f does not have any concavi ty. However, a second
deri vati ve of 0 does not al ways mean that no concavi ty exi sts (see probl em 4).
2. I ts necessary, agai n, to fi nd the second deri vati ve. I nstead of usi ng the Quoti ent
Rul e, use a doubl e angl e formul a to si mpl i fy the fracti on fi rst:
g(x) 5
2sin cos cos
sin
x x x
x
5 2cos
2
x
g(x) 5 24cos x si n x
g(x) 5 24(cos
2
x 2 si n
2
x)
Set the second deri vati ve equal to 0, and sol ve to get cri ti cal numbers of

4
,
3
4
,
5
4
, and
7
4
. Use these and test poi nts from each i nterval to construct the
fol l owi ng wi ggl e graph for concavi ty:
Therefore, g(x) wi l l be concave up on the i nterval s (
4
,
3
4
) and (
5
4
,
7
4
).
3. (a) f(x) i s negati ve on (23,21), so f(x) wi l l be concave down there. However, f(x)
wi l l be concave up on (21,5), si nce f(x) i s posi ti ve on that i nterval .
(b) Because f(x) i s negati ve on (23,21), you know that f(x) i s decreasi ng on
that i nterval . However, f(x) wi l l be i ncreasi ng on the i nterval (21,5) by the
same reasoni ng. Noti ce that the graph changes from decreasi ng to i ncreas-
i ng at x 5 21, so a rel ati ve mi ni mum wi l l occur there. That rel ati ve
mi ni mum wi l l al so be the absol ute mi ni mum of the graph, because the
graph onl y i ncreases once you pass that poi nt. Because the graph i ncreases
for the remai nder of i ts domai n, the absol ute maxi mum of the graph wi l l
occur at x 5 5, whi ch i s the l ast defi ned poi nt on the graph.
(c) The thi rd deri vati ve of f descri bes the di recti on of the second deri vati ve of f.
You are gi ven the graph of the second deri vati ve, and at x 5 0, f(x) i s
i ncreasi ng, so f(0) wi l l be posi ti ve. On the other hand, f
(4)
(x) descri bes the
concavi ty of f(x), and the graph of f(x) i s concave down at x 5 0. There-
fore, f
(4)
(0) wi l l be negati ve.
(d) The si gns of f(x) wi l l descri be the concavi ty of f(x). How do you determi ne
the si gns for f(x)? Remember that i t descri bes the di recti on of f(x).
Because f(x) decreases on (23,22) (2,5) and i ncreases on (22,2), you can
construct the fol l owi ng wi ggl e graph of f(x):
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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www.petersons.com
Therefore, f(x) wi l l be concave down on (2`,22) (2,`).
4. Thi s requi res some thi nki ng. The graph tel l s you that h(x) i s some functi on whose
deri vati ve i s consi stentl y 4 unti l x 5 2, and then the deri vati ve suddenl y changes
to 24. What ki nd of a functi on has a constant deri vati ve? A l i near functi on. For
exampl e, i f y 5 4x 1 3, then y 5 4. However, what sort of l i near functi on
suddenl y changes deri vati ve? Consi der the absol ute val ue graph pi ctured bel ow:
2
The sl ope of the curve i s 4 unti l x 5 2, at whi ch poi nt the sl ope turns i nto i ts
opposi te, 24. The graph of h(x) i s concave down on i ts enti re i nterval .
M O TIO N
Cal cul us has i ts l ong, threateni ng tal ons i n just about every aspect of day-to-day l i fe;
l ucki l y, most of us are bl i ssful l y i gnorant of i t and unaware of i t stal ki ng us, wai ti ng
unti l we go to sl eep, and then messi ng wi th our stuffl i ke putti ng CDs i n the wrong
cases and breaki ng al l the poi nts off your penci l s on test day. But not even cal cul us can
hi de i ts i nfl uence i n the topi c of moti on. Because a deri vati ve descri bes a rate of change,
we have al ready seen i ts i nfl uence many ti mes and al l uded to thi s very moment:
descri bi ng how a deri vati ve affects a posi ti on equati on.
Im p orta nt Fa c ts Ab out Position Eq ua tions
A posi ti on equati on i s typi cal l y denoted as s(t) or x(t); for any ti me t, i ts output i s the
objects posi ti on rel ati ve to somethi ng el se. For exampl e, output may represent how far
a projecti l e i s off the ground or how far away a parti cl e i s from the ori gi n.
The deri vati ve of posi ti on, s(t) or v(t), gi ves the velocity of the object. I n other words,
v(t) tel l s how fast the object i s movi ng and i n what di recti on. For exampl e, i f we are
di scussi ng a bal l thrown i nto the ai r and v(3 seconds) 5 24 ft/sec, when ti me equal s 3,
the bal l i s travel i ng at a rate of 4 ft/sec downward.
The deri vati ve of vel oci ty, v(t) or a(t), gi ves the acceleration of the object. Thi s ti es i n
di rectl y to the secti on you just compl eted. I f an object has posi ti ve accel erati on, then
the posi ti on equati on (two deri vati ves above a(t)) must be concave up, and the
vel oci ty equati on (one deri vati ve above a(t)) must be i ncreasi ng.
The most common moti on questi ons on the AP test focus on the moti on of a parti cl e on
a l i ne, usual l y hori zontal (al though the di recti on of the l i ne doesnt matter). For
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TIP
A relative extrema point is
the highest or lowest value
in a small interval of the
graph. An absolute
extrema point is the highest
or lowest point on the
entire domain of the graph.
Absolute extrema can
occur at relative extrema
or endpoints, if the function
has them.
NOTE
A position equation
describes an objects
motion by giving its position
at any time.
www.petersons.com
exampl e, consi der a parti cl e movi ng al ong the x-axi s whose posi ti on at any ti me t i s
gi ven by s(t) 5 t
3
2 10t
2
1 25t 21, t .0. The graph of the posi ti on equati on l ooks l i ke
s(t )
but the parti cl e i tsel f never l eaves the x-axi s. Lets l ook at thi s probl em i n depth to
better understand a typi cal parti cl e moti on probl em.
Example 6: I f the posi ti on (i n feet) of a parti cl e movi ng hori zontal l y al ong the x-axi s
i s gi ven by the equati on s(t) 5 t
3
2 10t
2
1 25t, t . 0 seconds, answer the fol l owi ng:
(a) Eval uate s(1), s(4), and s(5), and i nterpret your resul ts.
By si mpl e substi tuti on, s(1) 5 16, s(4) 5 4, and s(5) 5 0. I n other words, when 1
second has el apsed, the parti cl e i s 16 feet to the ri ght of the ori gi n, but 3 seconds l ater
at t 5 5, the parti cl e i s back to the ori gi n.
(b) At what ti me(s) i s the parti cl e temporari l y not movi ng, and why?
The parti cl e wi l l be temporari l y stopped when i ts vel oci ty equal s 0thi s makes a l ot
of sense, doesnt i t? Si nce the deri vati ve of posi ti on i s vel oci ty, take the deri vati ve and
set i t equal to 0:
v(t) 5 s(t) 5 3t
2
2 20t 1 25 5 0
Now, factor the quadrati c equati on to compl ete the sol uti on:
(3t 2 5)(t 2 5) 5 0
t 5
5
3
, 5
Therefore, at these two moments, the parti cl e i s stopped because i t i s i n the process of
changi ng di recti on. (Remember, part (a) showed you that i t changed di recti on between
t 5 1 and t 5 4.)
(c) On what i nterval of ti me i s the parti cl e movi ng backward?
The parti cl e moves backward when i t has negati ve vel oci ty. Therefore, we wi l l draw a
vel oci ty (fi rst deri vati ve) wi ggl e graph. We al ready know the cri ti cal numbers from
part (b), so al l that remai ns i s to choose some test poi nts from among the i nterval s.
Because v(.5) i s posi ti ve, v(3) i s negati ve, and v(6) i s posi ti ve (of course you woul dnt
have to pi ck the same test poi nts), you get the fol l owi ng wi ggl e graph:
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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ALERT!
Some students dont
believe me when I say that
it is necessary to briefly stop
when changing direction,
and in demonstrating their
point, many of these
students end up with neck
injuries.
www.petersons.com
Therefore, the parti cl e i s movi ng backward on (
5
3
,5). Thi s makes sense i f you consi der
the graph of s(t). Remember, thi s posi ti on graph tel l s how far the parti cl e i s away from
the ori gi n. On the i nterval (
5
3
,5), the parti cl es di stance from the ori gi n i s decreasing,
i ndi cati ng backward movement. I t shoul d be no surpri se that the vel oci ty i s negati ve
then, si nce vel oci ty i s the deri vati ve of that graph, and deri vati ves have a nasty habi t
of descri bi ng the di recti on of thi ngs.
(d) How far does the parti cl e travel i n i ts fi rst 4 seconds of moti on?
You may be tempted to answer 4 feet, si nce s(4) 5 4; however, that i s whats cal l ed the
displacement of the parti cl e. The di spl acement i s the net change i n posi ti on. Because
s(0) 5 0 and s(4) 5 4, no matter what happened i n between, the parti cl e ended up a
total of 4 uni ts from where i t started. However, the probl em doesnt ask for di spl ace-
menti t asks for total distancetraveled. We need to measure how far i t swung out to
the ri ght of the ori gi n when i t changed di recti on at t 5
5
3
and then how far back
toward the ori gi n i t came. We al ready know s(0) 5 0, but i t i s essenti al to know that
s(
5
3
) ' 18.518518518, because i t tel l s us that the parti cl e travel ed 18.518518518 feet
i n the fi rst 1
2
3
seconds. At thi s poi nt, the parti cl e changes di recti on and ends up 4 feet
from the ori gi n. I n the return tri p, then, i t travel ed 18.518518518 2 4 5 14.518518518
feet. The total di stance i t travel ed was 18.518518518 1 14.518518518 '33.037 feet.
The other type of moti on probl em the AP test enjoys i nfl i cti ng upon you i s the dreaded
trajectory probl em. Di d you know that anythi ng thrown, ki cked, fi red, or otherwi se
si mi l arl y propel l ed fol l ows a predetermi ned posi ti on equati on on the earth? I ts true,
negl ecti ng ai r resi stance of course. The generi c projecti l e posi ti on equati on i s
s(t) 5 2
g
2
t
2
1 v
0
t 1 h
0
where g i s the gravi tati onal accel erati on constant (32 ft/sec
2
i n the Engl i sh system
and 9.8 m/sec
2
i n the metri c), v
0
i s the objects i ni ti al vel oci ty, and h
0
i s the objects
i ni ti al hei ght. I t i s probabl y a good i dea to memori ze thi s equati on i n case you ever
need i t, al though the questi ons typi cal l y asked for thi s sort of probl em are extremel y
si mi l ar to those asked i n Exampl e 6.
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NOTE
Air resistance has been
neglected for so long in
theoretical mathematics
that it is rumored to have
joined a 12-step program.
www.petersons.com
EXERC ISE 5
YO U M AY USE A G RAPHING C ALC ULATO R FO R BO TH O F THESE PRO BLEM S.
1. A very neuroti c parti cl e moves up and down the y-axi s accordi ng to the posi ti on
equati on y 5 (t
2
2 6t 1 8) z si n t, t . 0, where posi ti on i s i n centi meters and ti me
i s i n seconds. Knowi ng thi s, answer the fol l owi ng questi ons:
(a) When i s the parti cl e movi ng down on the i nterval [0,5]?
(b) At what val ues of t i s the parti cl e movi ng at a rate equal to the average
rate of change for the parti cl e on the i nterval [0,5]?
(c) At what ti me(s) i s the parti cl e exactl y 2 cm away from the ori gi n on the
i nterval [0,5]?
(d) What i s the accel erati on of the parti cl e the fi rst ti me i t comes to rest?
2. The practi ce of shooti ng bul l ets i nto the ai rfor whatever purposei s extremel y
dangerous. Assumi ng that a hunti ng ri fl e di scharges a bul l et wi th an i ni ti al
vel oci ty of 3,000 ft/sec from a hei ght of 6 feet, answer the fol l owi ng questi ons
(negl ecti ng wi nd resi stance):
(a) How hi gh wi l l the bul l et travel at i ts peak?
(b) How l ong wi l l i t take the bul l et to hi t the ground?
(c) At what speed wi l l the bul l et be travel i ng when i t sl ams i nto the ground,
assumi ng that i t hi ts nothi ng i n i ts path?
(d) What verti cal di stance does the bul l et travel i n the fi rst 100 seconds?
1. (a) The parti cl e i s movi ng down when i ts posi ti on equati on i s decreasi ngwhen
the vel oci ty i s negati ve. You shoul d make a fi rst deri vati ve wi ggl e graph, so
begi n by fi ndi ng the cri ti cal numbers of the deri vati ve:
v(t) 5 (t
2
2 6t 1 8)(cos t) 1 (2t 2 6)(si n t) 5 0
I ts best to sol ve thi s usi ng your graphi ng cal cul ator. The sol uti ons are t 5
.738, 2.499, and 3.613. The wi ggl e graph i s
Therefore, the parti cl e i s movi ng down on (.738,2.499)

(3.613,5).
(b) The average rate of change of the parti cl e wi l l be
y y 5 0
5
( ) ( )
5 2.5753545648
cm/sec. To determi ne when the parti cl e travel s thi s speed, set the vel oci ty
equal to thi s val ue and sol ve wi th your cal cul ator. Thi s i s actual l y the
Mean Val ue Theorem i n di sgui se; we know at l east one t wi l l sati sfy the
requi rements i n the questi on, but i t turns out that the i nstantaneous rate
of change equal s the average rate of change threeti mes, when t 5 .813,
2.335, and 3.770 sec.
(c) The parti cl e wi l l be two cm away from the ori gi n when i ts posi ti on i s 2 (two
cm above) or 22 (2 cm bel ow). So, you need to sol ve both the equati ons
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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www.petersons.com
(t
2
2 6t 1 8)si n t 5 2 and (t
2
2 6t 1 8)si n t 5 22 wi th your cal cul ator. The
sol uti ons are t 5 .333, 1.234, and 4.732 sec.
(d) The parti cl e fi rst comes to rest at i ts fi rst cri ti cal number, t 5 .73821769.
To fi nd accel erati on, you need to di fferenti ate the vel oci ty and substi tute i n
the cri ti cal number. Rather than doi ng thi s by hand, why not use the
graphi ng cal cul ator and the nDeri v functi on? You woul d type the fol l owi ng
on your TI -83: nDeri v((x
2
2 6x 1 8)(cos (x)) 1 (2x 2 6)(si n (x)),x,.73821769).
The resul ti ng accel erati on i s 28.116 cm/sec
2
.
2. (a) You wi l l need to appl y the projecti l e posi ti on equati on. The i ni ti al hei ght and
vel oci ty are stated by the probl em, and si nce the questi on uses Engl i sh
system uni ts (feet), you shoul d use g 5 32 ft/sec
2
as the accel erati on due to
gravi ty. You put your l eft foot i n, you take your l eft foot out, you put your l eft
foot i n, shake i t al l about, and the posi ti on equati on i s
s(t) 5 216t
2
1 3,000t 1 6
The bul l et wi l l reach i ts peak at the maxi mum of the posi ti on equati on (si nce
i t i s an upsi de-down parabol a, there wi l l be onl y one extrema poi nt). To fi nd
the t val ue at whi ch the peak occurs, fi nd the deri vati ve and set i t equal to 0
(si nce the bul l et wi l l have a vel oci ty of 0 at i ts hi ghest poi nt before i t begi ns to
fal l toward the ground):
v(t) 5 s(t) 5 232t 1 3,000 5 0
t 5 93.75 seconds
Thi s, however, i s not the answer. The height the bul l et reaches at thi s poi nt i s
the sol uti on: 140,631 feet, or 26.635 mi l es.
(b) The bul l et wi l l hi t the ground when s(t) 5 0l i teral l y, when the bul l et i s 0
feet off of the ground. So, set the posi ti on equati on equal to 0, and sol ve (i f
you use the cal cul ator, youl l have to ZoomOut a few ti mes before the graph
appearsthese are bi g numbers). The bul l et wi l l remai n i n the ai r 187.502
seconds, or 3.125 mi nutes.
(c) U s(187.502) U 5 3,000.064 ft/sec (si nce speed i s the absol ute val ue of
vel oci ty, the answer i s not negati ve). The bul l et wi l l hi t at a speed sl i ghtl y
greater than that at whi ch i t was fi red. Therefore, bei ng hi t by a bul l et that
was fi red i nto the ai r wi l l have the same i mpact as bei ng hi t by a bul l et at
poi nt-bl ank range.
(d) You al ready know that the bul l et travel s 140,631 feet i n the fi rst 93.75
seconds. Because s(100) 5 140,006, the bul l et fal l s 140,631 2 140,006 5
625 feet between t 5 93.75 and t 5 100. Therefore, the bul l et travel s a total
verti cal di stance of 140,631 feet up 1 625 feet down 5 141,256 feet.
M O TIO N IN THE PLANE ( BC TO PIC O NLY)
Al though these questi ons are l ess frequent, the AP test someti mes contai ns questi ons
concerni ng movement al ong a parametri cal l y defi ned or vector path. Vector defi ned
functi ons are qui te easy todi fferenti ate, maki ng thi s topi c rel ati vel y si mpl e i n the grand
scheme of BC topi cs. Before you read on, you shoul d l ook back at the i ntroducti on to
vector functi ons i n Chapter 2.
I n order to di fferenti ate a vector functi on s 5 f(t)i 1 g(t)j, fi nd the deri vati ves of the
components separatel y:
d
dt
(s) 5 f (t)i 1 g(t)j
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www.petersons.com
Vector posi ti on equati ons work si mi l arl y to the posi ti on equati ons we just di scussed.
The vel oci ty vector i s gi ven by the fi rst deri vati ve of the posi ti on equati on, and the
accel erati on vector i s gi ven by the second.
Example7:A parti cl e moves i n the pl ane such that the posi ti on vector from the ori gi n
to the parti cl e i s
s 5 (cos t si n 2t)i 1 (2t 1 1)j, for al l t on the i nterval [0,2p]
(a) Fi nd the vel oci ty and accel erati on vectors for any ti me t.
To fi nd the vel oci ty vector, take the deri vati ve of the x and y components separatel y:
v 5 (2cos t cos 2t 2 si n t si n 2t)i 1 2j
I n order to fi nd the accel erati on vector, take the deri vati ve agai n:
a 5 (24cos t si n 2t 2 2si n t cos 2t 2 2si n t cos 2t 2 cos t si n 2t)i
(b) What i s the vel oci ty vector when t 5

2
, and what i s the speed of the parti cl e
there?
Pl ug t 5

2
i nto the vel oci ty vector to get the speci fi c answer for that val ue of t:
v 5 (0 z 21 2 1 z 0)i 1 2jv 5 2j
The graph and i ts vel oci ty vector at t 5

2
are shown bel ow. The vel oci ty vector has no
hori zontal component because the graph i s changi ng di recti on at that poi nt (ki nd of
l i ke a si deways extrema poi nt).
The speed of the parti cl e i s gi ven by the norm of the vel oci ty vector. Remember, you
fi nd the norm wi th the equati on
v

_
,
+

_
,
dx
dt
dy
dt
2 2
I n thi s case
v + 0 2 2
2
.
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www.petersons.com
EXERC ISE 6
YO U M AY USE YO UR G RAPHING C ALC ULATO R FO R PART ( B) O F PRO BLEM 1 AND
ALL O F PRO BLEM S 2 AND 3.
1. A parti cl e moves al ong the graph defi ned by x 5 cos t, y 5 cos 3t, for t on the
i nterval [0,2p].
(a) What i s the vel oci ty vector, v, when t 5
7p
4
?
(b) Draw the path of the parti cl e on the coordi nate pl ane, and i ndi cate the
di recti on the parti cl e moves. Draw the vel oci ty vector for t 5
7p
4
.
(c) What i s the magni tude of the accel erati on when t 5
7p
4
?
2. A parti cl e moves al ong a conti nuous and di fferenti abl e path that i ncl udes the
coordi nates (x,y) bel ow for the correspondi ng val ues of t:
Approxi mate the speed of the parti cl e at t 5 3.
3. Create a posi ti on equati on i n vector form for a parti cl e whose speed i s 15 when
t 5 1.
1. (a) The general posi ti on vector i s gi ven by s 5 (cos t)i 1 (cos 3t)j. Therefore, the
vel oci ty vector wi l l be v 5 (2si n t)i 1 (23si n 3t)j. The vel oci ty vector when
t 5
7p
4
wi l l be v 5
2
2
_
,
i 1
3 2
2
_
,
j, si nce 3
7
4

_
,
5
21
4
, whi ch i s cotermi -
nal wi th
5
4
.
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www.petersons.com
(b)
The graph proceeds from (1,1) to (21,21) on [0,] and then returns to
(1,1) on [,2].
(c) The magni tude of the accel erati on i s found by cal cul ati ng the norm of the
accel erati on, much l i ke the speed i s the magni tude (norm) of the vel oci ty.
Therefore, you shoul d begi n by fi ndi ng the accel erati on vector by di fferenti -
ati ng the vel oci ty vector:
a 5 (2cos t)i 1 (29cos 3t)j
The magni tude of the accel erati on i s the norm of that vector, so cal cul ate i t
when t 5
7p
4
:
a
_
,
+
_
,
cos cos
7
4
9
21
4
2 2

a +
1
2
81
1
2
a 41
2. Recal l the generi c formul a for speed as the norm of vel oci ty:
v
( )
+
( )
dx
dt
dy
dt
2
2
.
Because you do not have the posi ti on vector, you cannot fi nd v. However, you can
use sl opes of secant l i nes to approxi mate
dx
dt
and
dy
dt
:
dx
dt

5 02 4 91
3 2 5
22
. .
.
.
dy
dt

4 73 4 35
3 2 5
76
. .
.
.
Therefore,
v + . . . 22 76 791
2 2
.
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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www.petersons.com
3. From the gi ven i nformati on, we know that
dx
dt
dy
dt
_
,
+

_
,

2 2
15
so therefore,
dx
dt
dy
dt
_
,
+

_
,

2 2
225
There are numerous approaches to take, but we wi l l di scuss the easi est. Because
we can do anythi ng we l i ke (as l ong as i t works), wel l set
dx
dt
5 15 and
dy
dt
5 0.
Noti ce that the sum of thei r squares equal s our goal . Next, we need an expressi on
for x whose deri vati ve, eval uated at 1, i s 15. What about x 5
15
2
t
2
? The tri ck i s
taki ng hal f of the number you want to end up wi th and usi ng i t as the coeffi ci ent,
si nce the Power Rul e di ctates that you wi l l mul ti pl y by 2: x 5 2 z
15
2
t 5 15t.
Cl earl y, thi s has a val ue of 15 when t 5 1. You can use any constant for your y
component, si nce i ts deri vati ve wi l l be 0. One possi bl e answer for thi s probl em,
therefore, i s s 5 (
15
2
t
2
)i 1 19j. Check i t to convi nce yoursel f that i ts ri ght.
O PTIM IZATIO N
Opti mi zati on, l i ke rel ated rates, i s one of the most useful topi cs i n cal cul us because of i ts
di rect ti e to real -worl d appl i cati ons. However, just l i ke rel ated rates, i t i s one of the
topi cs many students forget about by test ti me. There are many theori es that coul d
account for thi s forgetful ness i n students. One theory i s that rel ated rates and opti mi -
zati on, unl i ke many other cal cul us topi cs, requi re students tofol l ow a stri ct al gori thm i n
order to arri ve at a correct answer (you must proceed from one step to the next, and
there are fewer al ternati ve sol uti ons possi bl e than i n other cal cul us topi cs).
Another l ess wi del y hel d theory i s that the concepts of rel ated rates and opti mi zati on
are i mpri nted on smal l er memory mol ecul es than other cal cul us topi cs. These
smal l er mol ecul es are, then, shaken l oose from the brai n and escape through smal l
l esi ons i n i ts surface every ti me you sneeze. I , mysel f, am torn as to whi ch i s actual l y
true, but i t does expl ai n the common student phrase Good l uck on the AP Cal cul us
test, and try not to sneeze, whi ch has puzzl ed schol ars for decades.
Optimization i s the process of fi ndi ng an opti mal val ue, ei ther maxi mum or mi ni mum,
under stri ct condi ti ons. You may be asked to mi ni mi ze area, maxi mi ze vol ume,
mi ni mi ze cost, or maxi mi ze profi t, just to name a few appl i cati ons. But, we wi l l start
out wi th a si mpl er exampl e.
Example8: What two posi ti ve real numbers gi ve the smal l est possi bl e product i f one
number i s two l ess than three ti mes the other?
Solution: The fi rst step i n an opti mi zati on probl em i s to desi gn an equati on that
represents what you are actual l y tryi ng to opti mi ze. I n thi s case, you want the
mi ni mum product of two numbers.
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NOTE
The entire concept of
optimization is based on our
ability to find maxs and
mins using critical numbers
and wiggle graphs.
www.petersons.com
We wi l l set up the equati on
P 5 xy
whi ch si mpl y means that some product P i s equal to two di fferent numbers, x and y,
mul ti pl i ed. We want a mi ni mum val ue for P. One probl em stands i n our way. Optimi-
zation problems requirea singlevariablein theexpression. We have two vari abl es, so
we need to go back to the ori gi nal probl em for more i nformati on. There i s another
rel ati onshi p between the vari abl es: one (i t doesnt matter whi ch) i s two l ess than
three ti mes the other, so we can wri te:
y 5 3x 2 2
Now, substi tute thi s y val ue i nto our ori gi nal equati on for P to get
P 5 x z (3x 2 2) 5 3x
2
2 2x
We now have an equati on for the product i n a si ngl e vari abl e! Do you real i ze how
wonderful that i s? We al ready know how to fi nd a maxi mum or mi ni mumtake the
deri vati ve and construct a wi ggl e graph:
P 5 6x 2 2 5 0
x
2
6
1
3
From the wi ggl e graph, i t i s si mpl e to see that the functi on P wi l l have a mi ni mum
when x 5
1
3
. What i s the correspondi ng y? Pl ug i t back i nto our secondary equati on
y 5 3x 2 2:
y 5 3
1
3
_
,
2 2
y 5 1 2 2 5 21
Therefore, the numbers 21 and
1
3
have the smal l est possi bl e product, gi ven our
i ni ti al defi ni ng condi ti on of one bei ng two l ess than three ti mes the other (21 i s 2 l ess
than 3 z
1
3
).
To be honest, thi s l ooks l i ke a compl i cated process, but the method i s real l y qui te
strai ghtforward and repeti ti ve.
3 Ste p s for Suc c e ss with O p tim iza tion Prob le m s
Wri te an equati on that represents what you are tryi ng to maxi mi ze or mi ni mi ze
(thi s i s cal l ed the primary equation).
I f more than one vari abl e i s present, use other i nformati on i n the probl em (i n the
form of secondary equati ons l i ke y 5 3x 2 2 i n Exampl e 8) to el i mi nate the excess
vari abl es.
Fi nd the deri vati ve of your pri mary equati on so that you can i denti fy the cri ti cal
numbers and draw a wi ggl e graph to fi nd the answer.
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TIP
You can tell that this is an
optimization problem
because it asks for the
smallest possible number.
If the problem is asking for
an extreme value (whether
large or small), its an
optimization problem.
www.petersons.com
I f you remember these steps, you are wel l on your way to succeedi ng at opti mi zati on
probl ems.
Example 9: What poi nt on the graph of y 5 si n x i s the cl osest to (0,1)?
Solution: You are tryi ng to mi ni mi ze di stance, so use the di stance formul a as your
pri mary equati on:
D x x y y ( ) + ( )
2 1
2
2 1
2
Al though i t doesnt matter whi ch i s whi ch, wel l set (x
1
,y
1
) equal to the stati onary
poi nt (0,1) and set (x
2
,y
2
) equal to the poi nt on the graph of si ne (x, si n x). Substi tute
these poi nts i n to get
D x x + ( )
2
2
1 sin
D x x x + +
2 2
2 1 sin sin
Ti me to fi nd the deri vati ve and set i t equal to zero to fi nd cri ti cal numbers:

+
+ +
D
x x x x
x x x
1
2
2 2 2
2 1
0
2 2
sin cos cos
sin sin
The cri ti cal number wi l l be x 5 .4787224241. You have to graph the deri vati ve to fi nd
thi s val ue, so whi l e you have D on your cal cul ator screen, noti ce that i t i s negati ve
before the cri ti cal number and posi ti ve after. Therefore, x 5 .4787224241 i s a mi ni -
mum. (Thi s i s a qui ck cal cul ator shortcut for constructi ng wi ggl e graphs wi thout the
tedi ous test poi nt substi tuti on.) I n order to fi ni sh the probl em, however, we need to
gi ve the coordinatethat i s cl osest to si n x, so pl ug x i nto si n x to get the y val ue. The
fi nal answer i s (.479,.461).
Example 10: You have i nvented a new and del i ci ous beverage cal l ed Schwop!, whi ch
tastes i nexpl i cabl y l i ke cotton bal l s. Deemed the l east refreshi ng dri nk i n the known
uni verse, i t i s nonethel ess fl yi ng off the shel ves. I f you wi sh each cyl i ndri cal can of
Schwop! to contai n 100 i n
3
of beverage, what hei ght must each can be to mi ni mi ze the
amount of al umi num you use to manufacture the cans?
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ALERT!
Because optimization
problems have numerous
steps, students sometimes
stop too early and dont
actually answer the
question posed to them.
When youre done, reread
the question and make
sure youve answered it.
NOTE
By the way, 100 in
3
is a
freakin lot of Schwop! In
fact, there is so much
beverage in each can that
consumers have coined the
phrase Sc hwop! buc ke ts
when referring to your
product.
www.petersons.com
Solution: Each can i s made up of a rectangl e and two ci rcl es (you cant forget the top
and bottom of the can!), as shown bel ow:
The construction of a can of Schwop!
You fi rst need to wri te an equati on representi ng what you want to mi ni mi ze (al umi -
num), whi ch i n thi s case i s the surface area of the can pl us the area of the top and
bottom of the can:
A 5 2prh 1 2pr
2
Danger! There are two vari abl es present. To recti fy thi s, use the other i nformati on
gi ven by the probl emthe vol ume of Schwop! i n each can:
V 5 pr
2
h 5 100
You can sol ve thi s for h to el i mi nate that pesky extra vari abl e:
h
r
100
2
Substi tute back i nto the ori gi nal equati on to get

A r
r
r
A
r
r
_
,
+
+
2
100
2
200
2
2
2
2
As i s typi cal of opti mi zati on probl ems, the hardest part was fi ndi ng the equati on; now,
fi nd the deri vati ve and set up a wi ggl e graph:
+ A
r
r
200
4
2

r 5 2.515397996 i nches
Thi s i s the radi us of the smal l est possi bl e can. Be careful the probl em does not ask
for thi s val ue. I t asks for the hei ght that corresponds to i t. That hei ght i s
h
( )
100
2 515397996
2
.
5 5.031 i nches
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NOTE
The top of the Schwop!
can has circumference 2pr,
which is why the rectangle
of aluminum has that as its
length when the can is
cut apart.
www.petersons.com
EXERC ISE 7
1. (A classic maximization problem) Farmer Rogendoger breeds cows that cant
swi m. Nonbuoyant cows just taste better, dadgum i t, he i nsi sts (and i ts best not
to questi on hi m further). Because the cows are l andl ocked, i t saves hi m fence
costs. I f Rogendoger sets up a rectangul ar pasture that i s bordered on one si de by
a ri ver (whi ch requi res no fence, for obvi ous reasons), what i s the maxi mum area
he can encl ose wi th 1,000 feet of fence? (Food for thought: How does he prevent
cattl e theft by ri verboat-ri di ng marauders?)
2. What poi nt(s) on the graph of y 5 cot x i s cl osest to the coordi nate pai r (p,0)?
3. Fi nd the maxi mum area of a rectangl e that has two verti ces on the x-axi s and two
verti ces on the graph of y 5 x
2
2 8.
4. To cel ebrate our fi rst anni versary, I am commi ssi oni ng the constructi on of a
four-i nch-tal l box made of preci ous metal s to gi ve to my bri de, Li sa. The jewel ry
box wi l l have rectangul ar si des and an open top. The l onger si des of the box wi l l
be made of gol d, at a cost of $300/i n
2
; the shorter si des wi l l be made of pl ati num,
at a cost of $550/i n
2
. (Lets cal l i t practical, not cheap, that the shorter si des are
more expensi ve). The bottom wi l l be made of pl ywood, at a cost of $.02/i n
2
. What
di mensi ons provi de me wi th the l owest cost i f I am adamant that the box have a
vol ume of 50 i n
3
?
1. You shoul d begi n thi s probl em wi th a di agram, i ncl udi ng al l rel evant i nforma-
ti on, l i ke so:
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You want to maxi mi ze the area, so your pri mary equati on must be the area of the
rectangl e: A 5 xy. However, there are two vari abl es, so consi der the secondary
equati on based on the l i mi ted amount of fence: 2x 1 y 5 1,000 (i ts not 2x 1 2y
because you dont need to fence the ri ver). Sol ve the secondary equati on for y to
get y 5 1,000 2 2x and substi tute that i nto the area equati on:
A 5 x (1,000 2 2x) 5 1,000x 2 2x
2
Now, fi nd the maxi mum of thi s equati on through the usual channel s:
A 5 1,000 2 4x 5 0
4x 5 1,000
x 5 250
The opti mum val ue for x i s 250, and the correspondi ng y wi l l be
y 5 1,000 2 2(250) 5 500
Therefore, the maxi mum area i s 500 z 250 5 125,000 ft
2
. As far as the ri verboat
marauders, answers may vary.
2. Thi s i s si mi l ar to Exampl e 9, so theres no need to go i nto a great deal of detai l
here. Use the same process wi th poi nts (p,0) and (x, cot x):
D x x ( ) + ( )
2 2
cot

( )
( ) + ( )
D
x x x
x x
1
2
2 2
2
2 2
cot csc
cot
There are two cri ti cal numbers to worry about, si nce onl y two of them are cl ose to
(p,0): 2.163306396 and 4.119878911. (Dont forget that p i s al so a cri ti cal number
si nce cot x i s undefi ned there.)
I n order to fi gure out whi ch i s cl oser, youl l need to pl ug them both i nto the
di stance formul a. Remember, we have desi gned thi s formul a to tel l us how far
away somethi ng i s from (p,0) merel y by substi tuti ng i n the x val ue. I t turns out
that they both are a di stance of 1.187534573 uni ts away, so both are correct
answers. The probl em does ask for points however, so pl ug both x val ues (dont
round unti l the very end!) i nto cot x to get your fi nal answer of (2.163,2.673) and
(4.120,.673), shown bel ow.
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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www.petersons.com
3. You shoul d agai n begi n by drawi ng a pi cture:
Because the parabol a i s y-symmetri c, our rectangl e shoul d be, too, i n order to
maxi mi ze area. The wi dth of the rectangl e i n the di agram i s 2x, and i ts l ength i s
2f(x), i f we set f(x) 5 x
2
2 8. Thi s i s because f(x) wi l l be negati ve, and you dont
want a negati ve l ength. Your overal l goal i s to maxi mi ze area, so your equati on
shoul d be the area of a rectangl e:
A 5 l z w
A 5 2(x
2
2 8)(2x) 5 22x
3
1 16x
Onl y one vari abl e i s i n the equati on, so proceed as pl anned, and cri ti cal l y
wi ggl e:
A5 26x
2
1 16 5 0
x
8
3
Therefore,
8
3
i s the opti mum val ue for x, so the maxi mum wi dth of the
rectangl e i s 2
8
3
2
3
4
_
,
. The correspondi ng l ength wi l l be

l

_
,
1
]
1
1
8
3
8
16
3
2
. Fi nal l y, the maxi mum area wi l l be
A
16
3
2
3
64
3
2
3
17 419
4
. .
4. Bel ow i s a graphi c representati on of the box i n questi on:
y
x
wood
4
P P
G
G
As drawn, the si de toward you and i n the back are the l arger, gol d si des, and the
l eft and ri ght si des are the smal l er, pl ati num si des. I n addi ti on, x represents the
l ength of the gol d si de and y represents the l ength of the pl ati num si de. As stated
i n the probl em, the hei ght of the box i s 4 i nches. Remember that your overal l goal
i s to fi nd the mi ni mum cost, so you need to desi gn a cost equati on based on how
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www.petersons.com
expensi ve the box wi l l be to create. To do so, fi nd the area of each si de of the box,
and mul ti pl y i t by how expensi ve the materi al s woul d be for that si de. For
exampl e, the si de faci ng you i s made of gol d and has an area of 4x. Therefore, the
cost of the si de wi l l be 4x z 300. There are two of those si des, so you mul ti pl y by
two to get 2,400x. Fi nal l y, add i n the pl ati num si des and the bottom to get
C 5 2,400x 1 4,400y 1 xy(.02)
Somethi ngs wrongthere are two vari abl es. Ti me to use the l ast bi t of i nforma-
ti on from the probl em: the box must have a vol ume of 50 i n
3
. That i s wri tten as
4xy 5 50. I f you sol ve for y, you get y 5
25
2x
. Substi tute thi s back i nto the cost
equati on to get
C 5 2,400x 1 4,400 z
25
2x
+
25
2
S
2
100
D
C = 2,400x + 55,000x
21
+
1
4
Take the deri vati ve and do the wi ggl e thi ng:
C5 2,400 2
55,000
x
2
5 0
55,000
x
2
5 2,400
2,400x
2
5 55,000
x
275
12
Onl y the posi ti ve answer makes sense (your box cannot have a negati ve l ength
wi thout ri ppi ng apart ti me and space, creati ng a bl ack hol e, and swal l owi ng
everyone wi thi n 2 l i ght years i n i ts di abol i cal gapi ng open top).
Therefore, the opti mal val ue for x wi l l be 4.787135539, whi ch makes the opti mal
val ue for y
y
25
2 4 787135539
2 611
.
.
Therefore, the di mensi ons provi di ng the l owest cost are 4.787 i n 3 2.611 i n 3 4
i n. (By the way, the l owest cost wi l l be nearl y $23,000. Do you thi nk I sti l l need to
buy a card?)
TEC HNO LO G Y: M O DELING A PARTIC LES M O VEM ENT WITH
A G RAPHING C ALC ULATO R
The TI -83 i ncl udes a neat feature that al l ows you to vi ew parti cl e moti on probl ems qui te
si mpl y. I f you are an AB student, youl l need to del ve i nto the worl d of parametri c
equati ons (just for a second, and i t wont hurt a bi tI promi se). Al though a l ot of
i nformati on can be gathered from a parti cl es posi ti on equati on, nothi ng beats seei ng
the parti cl e runni ng back and forth across the x-axi s, worki ng up parti cl e sweat and
checki ng i ts parti cl e pul se. Lets revi si t Exampl e 6 from our not-too-di stant past to see
how thi s works.
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
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s
e
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Example11: I f a parti cl e moves al ong the x-axi s accordi ng to posi ti on equati on s(t) 5
t
3
2 10t
2
1 25t, how many ti mes does the parti cl e change di recti on for t 0?
Solution: Swi tch your cal cul ator to parametri c mode. Thi s i s done by pressi ng
[Mode], arrowi ng down to the Par opti on, and pressi ng [Enter]. Noti ce that the Y5
screen has changed; every equati on now requi res an x and a y component to graph. I n
the
X1
T 5 l i ne, type the posi ti on equati on, pressi ng [x,t,u] for each vari abl e. I n the
Y
1T
5 l i ne, type 0thi s ensures that the parti cl e wi l l al ways have a hei ght of 0 and
never l eave the x-axi s. Fi nal l y, use the arrows to make your way to the l i ttl e \ symbol
next to X
1T
5. Thi s chooses what the graph wi l l l ook l i ke. Pressi ng [Enter] twi ce on
thi s symbol changes i t to 2O. Your cal cul ator screen shoul d l ook l i ke the graphi c
bel ow before you conti nue:
Now, press the [Wi ndow] button. Make sure your Tmi n val ue i s 0, si nce the probl em
requi res that t 0. A good val ue for Tmax i s 10. Now, press [Graph]. The l i ttl e
parti cl e shoul d zi p off to the ri ght, turn around, and then move off to the ri ght
agai nthi s ti me forever. Thus, i t changed di recti on twi ce. I f the parti cl e moved off the
screen, you can al ways i ncrease the Xmi n and Xmax val ues of the graph.
You may be wonderi ng how mi nd-boggl i ngl y useful thi s tri ck i s i n the grand scheme of
thi ngs. The answer i s not very. However, i f youve had di ffi cul ty i magi ni ng the
movement of a parti cl e on a hori zontal axi s, thi s exerci se can be very enl i ghteni ng. I f
the parti cl e i s movi ng on the y-axi s, reverse the val ues you typed, maki ng the X
1T

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www.petersons.com
val ue 0 and the Y
1T
the equati on. I f the parti cl es movement i s not restri cted to a
l i ne, the process i s even easi er, as demonstrated i n the next exampl e.
Example 12: Cl everl y i nstruct your cal cul ator to model the moti on of a cannonbal l
whose posi ti on equati on i s s(t) 5 216t
2
1 20t.
Solution: Set your cal cul ator back to Func mode by pressi ng the [Mode] button and
type the above equati on on the Y5 screen. (Thi s ti me, the vari abl es wi l l be xs
i nstead of ts, but that wont affect the graph one bi t.) Make sure to arrow over to the
\ symbol , and change i t to a 2O. Go ahead and [Graph] the equati on. You may
want to adjust the wi ndow a l i ttl e bi t. The graph bel ow (wi th the cannonbal l i n
mi d-ai r) has the fol l owi ng setti ngs: Xmi n 5 0, Xmax 5 1.5, Ymi n 5 0, Ymax 5 7.
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www.petersons.com
EXERC ISE 8
1. Draw the graph of a functi on, g, that sati sfi es the fol l owi ng condi ti ons: g has
domai n [25,8], ghas rel ati ve mi ni ma at x5 23 and x5 4, ghas rel ati ve maxi ma
at x 5 21 and x 5 6, g has i ts absol ute maxi mum at x 5 25, and gs absol ute
mi ni mum occurs at x 5 4.
2. The graphs of h(x), h(x), and h(x) are gi ven bel ow. Determi ne whi ch graph i s
whi ch, and justi fy your answer.
B
C
A
3. Draw the graph of f(x) based on the fol l owi ng chart of the si gns of fs deri vati ves,
gi ven that f i s conti nuous, a , b , c , d , e, and f(a) 5 f(e) 5 0. (Note: DNE
means does not exi st.)
4. Bel ow i s a graph of a cars velocity. Answer the fol l owi ng questi ons based on the
graph.
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(a) On what i nterval s i s the car movi ng forward?
(b) When i s the cars speed the greatest?
(c) When i s the car decel erati ng?
5. A parti cl e moves al ong the y-axi s accordi ng to the conti nuous, di fferenti abl e curve
s(t), whi ch contai ns the val ues gi ven i n the tabl e bel ow.
What i s the approxi mate vel oci ty of the parti cl e at t 5 5?
6. Bel ow i s a graph of h(x). Answer the fol l owi ng questi ons based on the graph.
(a) On what i nterval s i s h concave up?
(b) On what i nterval s i s h concave down?
(c) What are the i nfl ecti on poi nts of h?
7. I f a parti cl e moves al ong the x-axi s accordi ng to the posi ti on equati on s(t) 5 t
4
2
4t
2
1 3 (for t 0). I f s i s measured i n feet and t i n seconds, answer the fol l owi ng
questi ons:
(a) What i s the val ue of t guaranteed by the Mean Val ue Theorem for the
i nterval [0,3]?
(b) What i s the parti cl es vel oci ty and accel erati on when t 5 3?
(c) When i s the parti cl e movi ng forward?
8. (For fans of the movi e Willie Wonka and the Chocolate Factory): Naughty chi l -
dren. No one wi l l l i sten to Mr. Wonkas i nstructi ons. Now Vi ol et has gone and
chewed the three-course-meal gum, and shes begun to turn bl ue. I n fact, shes
swel l i ng to the si ze of a gi ant bl ueberry! I f her torso swel l s such that her radi us
i s i ncreasi ng at a constant rate of 2 i n/sec, at what rate i s the surface area of her
berry body i ncreasi ng when her radi us i s 36 feet?
9. What i s the vol ume of the l argest ri ght ci rcul ar cyl i nder that can be i nscri bed i n
a sphere of radi us 4 feet?
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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10. Two cars move on strai ght roads that are at a 50 angl e to each other, as pi ctured
bel ow.
I f car A moves at a constant rate of 40 mph, car B moves at a constant rate of 35
mph, and they started from the i ntersecti on at the same ti me, what i s the rate of
change of the di stance between the cars once car A has travel ed 25 mi l es? (Hint:
the Law of Cosi nes)
*11. A parti cl e moves al ong the path defi ned by x 5 cos t, y 5 si n 2t.
(a) Fi nd the accel erati on vector for the parti cl e at t 5
7p
6
.
(b) When i s the speed of the parti cl e
1
2
?
12. J ames Diabolical Challenge: You are contracted to bui l d an ani mal cage for
the Di scovery Channel . One of the si des of the cage wi l l be a ri ver, wi th the
remai ni ng boundari es bei ng constructed of fenci ng. You are gi ven 400 feet of
fence and are requi red to i ncorporate at l east 100 feet of coastl i ne. You can bui l d
ei ther a rectangul ar fence or a semi ci rcul ar one. Fi nd the di mensi ons of the cage
that gi ve the greatest area, and justi fy your answer mathemati cal l y.
*a BC-only problem
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1. There are numerous possi bl e sol uti ons to thi s probl em, but they al l l ook very
si mi l ar. Remember, rel ati ve extrema are l i ttl e hi l l s and val l eys i n the graph,
and absol ute extrema (guaranteed by the Extreme Val ue Theorem) are the
hi ghest and l owest poi nts on a cl osed i nterval . Al so, remember that absol ute
extrema must occur ei ther at a rel ati ve extrema (l i ke x 5 4) or at an endpoi nt
(l i ke x 5 25).
2. Graph B i s h(x), graph C i s h(x), and graph A i s h(x). Noti ce that C has a val ue
of 0 each ti me B has a rel ati ve extrema poi nt. Furthermore, C i s posi ti ve when-
ever B i s i ncreasi ng and negati ve when B i s decreasi ng. Noti ce that A i s negati ve
whenever B i s concave down and posi ti ve whenever B i s concave up. (Therefore,
A has a val ue of 0, or an x-i ntercept, each ti me B has an i nfl ecti on poi nt, and each
ti me C has an extrema poi nt.) You dont need to appl y every one of these
connecti onsjust enough to di fferenti ate (no pun i ntended) among the three.
3. Lets take the i nterval a , x , b as an exampl e. On that i nterval , both f (x) and
f (x) are negati ve. Therefore, f(x) wi l l be decreasi ng and concave down. Theres
onl y one way to draw such a curve, and i t l ooks l i ke the fol l owi ng:
You know that f i s conti nuous, but no deri vati ve exi sts at x 5 b and x 5 d. As you
draw the graph, you can tel l that no deri vati ve exi sts because both val ues of x
resul t i n a cusp. A correct graph l ooks somethi ng l i ke the fol l owi ng:
a b e c d
4. (a) The cars movi ng forward whenever i ts vel oci ty i s posi ti ve. We are gi ven the
graph of vel oci ty, and i t i s posi ti ve on (0,8). The cars vel oci ty i s cl earl y
decreasi ng on (6,10), but the vel oci ty i s not negati ve unti l t . 8.
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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(b) Because speed i s the absol ute val ue of vel oci ty, the di recti on of the car i s
i rrel evant. Therefore, the speed of the car i s greatest at t 5 10. The speed
there i s a l i ttl e more than 3, whereas the top speed the car reached whi l e
travel i ng forward was at t 5 6, when the speed and vel oci ty were both 3.
(c) Accel erati on i s based on the second deri vati ve. The car wi l l decel erate when
the posi ti on functi on i s concave down and when the velocity functi on i s
decreasi ng. Therefore, the car i s decel erati ng on (6,10). Thi s may confuse
you, si nce the car i s travel i ng i ts fastest at t 5 10. The magni tude (absol ute
val ue) of the cars accel erati on there i s actual l y pretty hi gh, but the car sti l l
i s travel i ng backward, so the accel erati on i s becomi ng more and more
negati ve (techni cal l y decel erati ng).
5. The questi on i s aski ng you to approxi mate s(5). To do so, cal cul ate the sl ope of
the secant l i ne connecti ng the poi nts (3,9) and (5,11)thi s i s the best approxi ma-
ti on we can use. Therefore, s(5) ' 1.
6. (a) h i s concave up whenever h i s posi ti ve, so the answer i s (b,d) (f,`).
(b) I n order to determi ne the concavi ty of h, you need to move down two
deri vati ves to h (si nce the si gns of the second deri vati ve of a functi on
descri be i ts concavi ty). You al so know that the si gns of h wi l l descri be the
di recti on of h. The questi on i s essenti al l y aski ng you where h i s negati ve,
and that wi l l happen wherever h i s decreasi ng. Therefore, the answer i s
(0,a) (c,e).
(c) The i nfl ecti on poi nts of h occur whenever h equal s 0 and the concavi ty
actual l y changes (much l i ke an extrema poi nt i s where the deri vati ve
equal s 0 and the di recti on changes). You al so know that h descri bes the
di recti on of h. Therefore, whenever h changes di recti on, h wi l l have an
i nfl ecti on poi nt: x 5 a, x 5 c, and x 5 e.
7. (a) The Mean Val ue Theorem states that there exi sts some c on the i nterval such
that
( )
( ) ( )
s c
s s 3 0
3 0
I n other words, there exi sts a tangent l i ne at some c that has the same sl ope
as the secant l i ne over the enti re i nterval .
4c
3
2 8c 5
48 2 3
3
4c
3
2 8c 5 15
c ' 1.975
(b) The vel oci ty i s the fi rst deri vati ve of posi ti on, and accel erati on i s the
second:
v(t) 5 s(t) 5 4t
3
2 8t
v(3) 5 84 ft/sec
a(t) 5 v(t) 5 12t
2
2 8
a(3) 5 100 ft/sec
2
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(c) The parti cl e i s movi ng forward whenever i ts fi rst deri vati ve i s posi ti ve, so
construct a wi ggl e graph for v:
v(t) 5 4t
3
2 8t 5 0
4t(t
2
2 2) 5 0
Cri ti cal numbers: t 5 0, 6=2
Accordi ng to the wi ggl e graph, the parti cl e i s movi ng forward on the
i nterval ~=2,`!. Dont forget that the ori gi nal probl em sti pul ates t 0.
Wi thout that restri cti on, the answer woul d al so have i ncl uded ~2=2,0!.
8. Thi s i s a rel ated rates probl em. Begi n wi th the formul a for surface area of a
sphere, and take the deri vati ve wi th respect to ti me:
S 5 4pr
2
dS
dt
5 8pr
dr
dt
Now, pl ug i n the gi ven i nformati on to sol ve for
dS
dt
:
dS
dt
5 8p(36)(2) 5 576p i n
2
/sec
9. Your ul ti mate goal i s to maxi mi ze the vol ume of a cyl i nder, so your pri mary
equati on shoul d be the fol l owi ng formul a:
V 5 pr
2
h
However, you have two vari abl es, and i ts goi ng to requi re some cl everness to
el i mi nate one of them. Bel ow i s a di agram of our si tuati on. On i t i s drawn a
tri angl e, whi ch connects the center of the sphere to the i ntersecti on poi nt of the
cyl i nder and sphere to a poi nt on the cyl i nder at hei ght
h
2
.
4
r
222
By the Pythagorean Theorem, you have
r
2
1
h
2
4
5 16
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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Sol ve thi s equati on for r
2
to el i mi nate the r
2
i n the pri mary equati on:
r
2
5 16 2
h
2
4
Substi tute thi s i nto the pri mary equati on, and you can use the fami l i ar methods
to maxi mi ze the vol ume:
V 5 p(16 2
h
2
4
) h
V 5 16ph 2
p
4
h
3
V 5 16p 2
3p
4
h
2
5 0
h 5 4.618802154 ft
The wi ggl e graph veri fi es that 4.618802154 i s the maxi mum hei ght. The corre-
spondi ng radi us wi l l be
r 16
4 618802154
4
2
.
r 5 3.265986324
so the maxi mum vol ume i s V 5 pr
2
h ' 154.778 ft
3
.
10. The fi rst questi on to be answered i n thi s rel ated rates di l emma i s how much ti me
has passed i f the fi rst car has travel ed 25 mi l es. A si mpl e proporti on hel ps you to
fi gure thi s out. I f a car travel s 40 mi l es i n an hour (60 mi nutes), then how many
mi nutes, m, does i t requi re to travel 25 mi l es?
40
60
25
m
40m5 1500
m5 37.5 mi nutes
Now you can fi gure out how far car B has travel ed usi ng the same method:
35
60 37 5
d
.
60d 5 1312.5
d 5 21.875 mi l es
Wi th al l thi s fabul ous i nformati on, you can construct the di agram bel ow.
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I t i s qui te easy to fi gure out z usi ng the Law of Cosi nes:
z
2
5 25
2
1 21.875
2
2 2(25)(21.875)cos 50
z 5 20.01166352 mi l es
To ti e thi s probl em up i nto a ni ce bundl e, you shoul d use the Law of Cosi nes
(si nce the tri angl e i s obl i quenot a ri ght tri angl e) and deri ve wi th respect to t:
z
2
5 x
2
1 y
2
2 2xy cos 50
2 2 2 2 50 50 2 z
dz
dt
x
dx
dt
y
dy
dt
x
dy
dt
y
dx
dt
+ (cos ) ( cos )
2(20.01166352)
dz
dt

2(25)(40) 1 2(21.875)(35) 2 2(25)(cos 50)(35) 2 (21.875)(cos 50)(2)(40)
dz
dt
' 32.019 mph
11. (a) The posi ti on vector i s gi ven by s 5 (cos t)i 1 (si n 2t)j. Take two deri vati ves to
get the accel erati on vector: a 5 (2cos t)i 1 (24si n 2t)j. The accel erati on
vector at t 5
7p
6
wi l l be
a 5 (2cos
7p
6
)i 1 (24si n
7p
3
)j
a 5
=3
2
i 2 2=3j
(b) Fi rst, fi nd the vel oci ty vector by taki ng the deri vati ve of posi ti on:
v 5 (2si n t)i 1 (2cos 2t)j
The speed of the parti cl e i s gi ven by the norm of the vel oci ty vector, so set
i ts norm equal to
1
2
and sol ve for t:
v + sin cos
2 2
4 2
1
2
t t
si n
2
t 1 4cos
2
2t 5
1
4
I f you try to sol ve thi s equati on by graphi ng, youl l see that the graph never
crosses the x-axi s, so there are no sol uti ons. The parti cl e never travel s at a
speed of
1
2
.
12. Thi s probl em asks you to fi nd the maxi mum area, wi th the condi ti on that a
non-fenced coastl i ne be used (i gnore the 100 feet of coastl i ne requi rement for
now). Bel ow are the two cages whose area you want to maxi mi ze:
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Here are the opti mi zati on probl ems, one at a ti me:
Rectangular cage:
You want to maxi mi ze area, so i t i s your pri mary equati on:
A 5 xy
You al so know that 2x 1 y 5 400, so use that i nformati on to el i mi nate a vari abl e
by sol vi ng for x or y:
2x 1 y 5 400
y 5 400 2 2x
Now, substi tute back i nto the area equati on to fi nd the maxi mum:
A 5 x(400 2 2x)
A 5 400x 2 2x
2
A 5 400 2 4x 5 0
x 5 100
y 5 400 2 2(100) 5 200
Therefore, the maxi mum di mensi ons of the rectangul ar cage are 100 ft 3 200 ft,
for an area of 20,000 ft
2
. (By the way, thi s meets the 100 ft coastl i ne requi rement
wi thout any troubl e at al l . See? I tol d you not to worry about i t!)
Semicircular fence:
Thi s probl em does not requi re the process of opti mi zati on at al l . I f you know that
the ci rcumference of the semi ci rcl e i s 400, then pr 5 400 and r 5
400
p
. Therefore,
the encl osed area wi l l be
A
r
A
2
2
2
160 000
2
,
A ' 25,464.791 ft
2
You shoul d defi ni tel y go wi th the semi ci rcul ar fence. You get more than 5,000 ft
2
extra space.
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SUM M ING IT UP
I f somethi ng i s decreasi ng or becomi ng smal l er, the rate of change wi l l be
negati ve.
You can onl y i nsert a constant i nto your pri mary equati on i n rel ated rates i f that
constant cannot change throughout the probl em.
Some students confuse the Mean Val ue Theorem wi th the I ntermedi ate Val ue
Theorem. They are si mi l ar onl y i n that they are both exi stence theorems, i n that
they guarantee the exi stence of somethi ng.
Two of the major characteri sti cs used to descri be graphs are di recti on and con-
cavi ty.
Opti mi zati on i s the process of fi ndi ng an opti mal val ue, ei ther maxi mum or
mi ni mum, under stri ct condi ti ons. You may be asked to mi ni mi ze area, maxi mi ze
vol ume, mi ni mi ze cost, or maxi mi ze profi t, just to name a few appl i cati ons.
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Integration
O VERVIEW
Ba sic a ntid e riva tive s
Ha nd s- O n Ac tivity 7.1: Ap p roxim a ting a re a with Rie m a nn
sum s
The tra p e zoid a l rule
The fund a m e nta l the ore m of c a lc ulus
Ha nd s- O n Ac tivity 7.2: Ac c um ula tion func tions
The M e a n Va lue The ore m for Inte g ra tion, a ve ra g e va lue of
a func tion
U- Sub stitution
Inte g ra ting inve rse trig onom e tric func tions
Te c hnolog y: Eva lua ting d e finite inte g ra ls with your
Sum m ing it up
Now that you know just about everythi ng there i s to know about taki ng
deri vati ves, i ts ti me to pul l the rug out from under you. The thi rd major topi c
of cal cul us (l i mi ts and deri vati ves bei ng the fi rst two) i s integration, or antid-
ifferentiation. Thats ri ght, Mr. Prefi x; anti- means the opposi te of, so i ts
ti me to expl ore the process of deri vati ves reversed. Previ ousl y, you woul d be
asked to fi nd
d
dx
(x
3
); cl earl y, the answer i s 3x
2
. Now, youl l be gi ven 3x
2
and
requi red to come up wi th the antiderivative, x
3
.
But, i ts never that easy, i s i t? As a matter of fact, x
3
1 1 i s al so an anti deri va-
ti ve of 3x
2
! So i s x
3
2 14. Therefore, we say that the anti deri vati ve of 3x
2
i s x
3
1 C, where C can be any number at al l . But, were getti ng ahead of oursel ves.
Lets jump ri ght i nthe waters fi ne.
BASIC ANTIDERIVATIVES
Just as the notati on
dy
dx
or y i ndi cated to you that di fferenti ati on was neces-
sary, the notati on
cos x dx
i ndi cates the same for i ntegrati on. The above i s read the i ntegral (or an-
ti deri vati ve) of f(x) wi th respect to x. Respecti ng vari abl es i n di fferenti ati on
was someti mes a compl i cated procedure. Remember i mpl i ci t di fferenti ati on
c
h
a
p
t
e
r
7
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
251
and rel ated rates? Lucki l y, respecti ng vari abl es i s not nearl y as di ffi cul t i n i ntegra-
ti on; you just have to make sure the dx gets mul ti pl i ed by everythi ng i n the i ntegral .
But, enough tal kl ets get down to busi ness.
Thi nk back for a moment: The Power Rul e (one of your earl i est and dearest cal cul us
fri ends) deal t wi th deri vi ng si mpl e expressi onsa si ngl e vari abl e to a constant power.
There i s an equi val ent rul e for i ntegrati ng, so wel l cal l i t (get thi s) the Power Rul e for
I ntegrati on. Cl ever, eh?
The Power Rule for Integration: I f a i s a constant,
+
+
+
x dx
x
a
C
a
a 1
1
.
Translation: I n order to fi nd the i ntegral of x
a
, add 1 to the exponent and di vi de the
term by the new exponent.
Example 1: Eval uate x dx
3
.
Solution: Add one to the exponent (1 1 3 5 4), and di vi de by the new exponent, 4:
x
C
4
4
+ .
More about that wei rd C now. I t i s cal l ed the constant of integration. I t i s si mpl y a real
number, and we have no i dea exactl y what that number i s (for now). However,
x
4
4
2 + ,
x
4
4
1 113.4, and
x
4
4
2 p al l have a deri vati ve of x
3
(si nce the deri vati ve of the
constant i s 0). Therefore, when we wri te 1 C at the end of an anti deri vati ve, we are
admi tti ng that there may have been a constant there, but we do not know i t.
Now, l ets di scuss the two major properti es of i ntegral s; both of them are very si mi l ar
to deri vati ves:
1. a f x dx a f x dx ( ) ( )

I f a constant or coeffi ci ent i s present i n your i ntegral , you may i gnore i t, l i ke you
di d wi th deri vati ves. I n fact, you may pul l the constant compl etel y out of the
i ntegral .
2. f x g x dx f x dx g x dx ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

I f an i ntegral contai ns numerous terms bei ng added or subtracted, then these
terms can be spl i t apart i nto separate i ntegral s. I n di fferenti ati on, gi ven the
probl em
d
dx
(x
3
2 5x), you coul d fi nd the deri vati ves of the terms separatel y:
3x
2
2 5. The same goes for i ntegrati on. For exampl e,
x x dx x dx x dx C
x x 3 5 3 5
4 6
4 6
+
( )
+ + +

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NOTE
When deriving x
b
, you
multiplied by b and
subtracted 1 from the
power. When integrating x
b
,
you add 1 to the power
and divide. The processes
are complete opposites of
each other.
NOTE
It is not always impossible to
find C. In fact, it is
sometimes incorrect to
write 1 C. For now,
however, make it a habit to
automatically add the
1 C when you integrate.
Youll learn more about the
exceptions later.
www.petersons.com
I n Exampl e 2, wel l appl y these properti es of i ntegrati on to some more compl ex
i ntegrati on probl ems.
Example 2: Eval uate the fol l owi ng anti deri vati ves:
(a)
5
3
2
x
dx
Thi s expressi on can be rewri tten as

5
3
2
x dx
The
5
3
i s merel y a coeffi ci ent, so we can appl y the fi rst rul e of anti deri vati ves and pul l
i t out of the i ntegral :
5
3
2
x dx
Now, appl y the power rul e for i ntegral s, but make sure to add 1 to the ori gi nal power
of 22.
5
3 1
5
3
1
+
+
x
C
x
C
(b) x x dx 3
4
( )
Thi s i ntegral must fi rst be rewri tten as

*(x
1/2
2 3x
4
)dx
Because the two terms are bei ng added, we can spl i t the above i nto two separate
i ntegral s (and pul l out the coeffi ci ents):
*x
1/2
dx 2 3*x
4
dx
Now, appl y the Power Rul e for I ntegrati on:
x x
C
3 2 5
3
2
3
5
+
2
3
3
5
3 2 5
x x C +
The
3
2
power i s the resul t of addi ng 1 to the ori gi nal exponent
S
1
2
D
.
C ha p te r 7: Inte g ra tion 253
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ALERT!
You can only pull
coefficients out of integrals.
For example, it would be
incorrect to rewrite *
~x
4
+2x!dx as x*~x
3
+2!dx.
ALERT!
Once you integrate, make
sure to stop writing the *
and dx symbols. They only
hang around until youre
done integrating. When
their work is done, they
vanish.
www.petersons.com
(c)
7 5
2
5 3
x x
x
dx
+
/
Agai n, rewri ti ng the i ntegral i s the fi rst order of busi ness. I nstead of one fracti on,
rewri te as the sum of two fracti ons wi th the same denomi nator. Al so, appl y the
i ntegrati on properti es:
7 5
2
5 3 5 3
x
x
dx
x
x
dx +

Remember way back to al gebra and exponent properti es:
x
x
x
a
b
a b

. Therefore,
x
x
x x
2
5 3
2 5 3 1 3

, and
x
x
x
x
x x
5 3
1
5 3
1 5 3 2 3

. Use thi s to rewri te the
probl em as
7*x
1/3
dx 1 5*x
22/3
dx
and appl y the Power Rul e for I ntegral s to get
7
3
4
5
3
1
4 3 13
+ + x x C
21
4
15
4 3 13
x x C + +
Do you see the shortcut for i ntegrati ng fracti onal exponents? When you i ntegrate x
1/3
,
i nstead of wri ti ng the step
x
4 3
4
3
, remember that di vi di ng by
4
3
i s the same as
mul ti pl yi ng by
3
4
. Therefore, the answer i s
3
4
4 3
x C + .
Wel l , the Power Rul e for I ntegral s i s al l wel l and good, but there i s one i nstance i n
whi ch i t i s compl etel y usel ess. Consi der the i ntegral :
1
x
dx
Thi s can be rewri tten as *x

21
dx, but i f you try to i ntegrate, you get
x
C
0
0
+ , and the
zero i n the denomi nator spoi l s everythi ng. How, then, are you to i ntegrate
1
x
? Bel i eve
i t or not, you al ready know the answer to thi syou just have to di g i t out of your
l ong-term memory. Remember, i ntegrati on i s the opposi te of di fferenti ati on, so the
expressi on that has the derivativeof
1
x
wi l l be the integral of
1
x
. You l earned i n Chapter
4 that
d
dx
x
x
1
1
n ( ) . Therefore,
1
1
x
dx x C +
n
(You need to use the absol ute val ue si gns si nce l n x has domai n (0,`)the functi on
woul dnt know what to do wi th negati ve i nputs.)
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ALERT!
Although the Power Rule for
Integrals is relatively easy, it
is also easy to make
mistakes when the
exponents are fractions or
have negative powers.
Be careful.
www.petersons.com
I f you have forgotten the l arge l i st of deri vati ves you were to have memori zed, i ts
ti me to refresh your memory. Onl y two of the i ntegral s l ook a l i ttl e di fferent from thei r
deri vati ves. We have al ready l ooked at the fi rst:
1
x
dx
(i ts i ntegral has that unexpected absol ute val ue). One other probl em shows a
sl i ght di fference i n i ts absol ute val ues:
dx
x x
x C
2
1
+
arcsec
You see arcsec x so i nfrequentl y on the test, i ts hardl y worth menti oni ng, but i t i s
i mportant. I n addi ti on, we wi l l take a cl oser l ook at i nverse tri gonometri c and expo-
nenti al i ntegral s a l i ttl e l ater i n thi s chapter. Here are a few probl ems to get you
brushed up on the throwback i ntegral s.
Example 3: Eval uate the fol l owi ng i ntegral s:
(a) *2si n x dx
Thi s probl em asks, What has a deri vati ve of 2si n x? The answer i s, of course, cos x
1 C, si nce
d
dx
(cos x 1 C) 5 2si n x. I f the probl em had been *si n x dx, the answer
woul d have been 2cos x 1 C, si nce
d
dx
(2cos x 1 C) 5 2(2si n x) 5 si n x.
(b)
1
2
sin x
dx
Fi rst, rewri te thi s probl em as *csc

2
x dx. What has a deri vati ve of csc
2
x? Wel l ,
d
dx
(cot x) 5 2csc
2
x, and thats onl y off by a negati ve si gn. Therefore, add a negati ve
si gn to cot x to account for the mi ssi ng si gn, and the answer i s
*csc
2
x dx 5 2cot x 1 C
(c)
1
1
2
x
dx
Thi s i s si mpl y the deri vati ve of arcsi n x, so the answer i s arcsi n x 1 C.
(d) *e
x
dx
I f the deri vati ve of e
x
i s e
x
, then *e
x
dx 5 e
x
1 C.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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NOTE
You need to learn a
technique called
u-substitution before we
can get too hot and heavy
into integration. Thats later,
though.
TIP
If youre not sure that your
integral is correct, take its
derivative to check and
see if you get the original
problem. Because
integration and
differentiation are inverses,
they should cancel each
other out.
www.petersons.com
EXERC ISE 1
Eval uate each of the fol l owi ng i ntegral s.
1.
2
3
5
3
7
2 3
x
x
x dx +
_
,
2. bx dx
a
, i f a and b are real numbers

3. x
x
dx
2
2 3
4
7
_
,
4. *(x
2
2 1)(x 1 2)dx
5.
2 3 3
4 2
3
m m m
m
dm
+ +

6.
sin
cos
x dx
x

2
7. tan
2
1 x dx
( )
8.
x x
x x
2
2
1 1
1

1. Begi n by spl i tti ng the i ntegral i nto pi eces and rewri ti ng i t so that you can appl y
the Power Rul e for I ntegral s:
2
3
5
3 7 2 3
x dx x dx x dx

+

I ts ready to be power rul ed, so go to i t:
2
3 4
5
6
3
5
4 6
5 3

+ +
x x
x C
x
x
x
C
4
6
5 3
6
5
6
3
5
+ + +
2. Because b i s a coeffi ci ent, i t can be pul l ed out of the i ntegral .
b * x
a
dx
b
x
a
C
a
+
+
+
1
1
b
a
x C
a
+
+
+
1
1
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www.petersons.com
3. Rewri te thi s i ntegral before starti ng, and remember that 2p i s just a constant, so
the Power Rul e for I ntegral s sti l l appl i es (just l i ke i t di d to the a exponent i n
probl em 2).
x dx x dx
2 2 3
4
7
+

x
x C
2 1
1 3
2 1
12
7
+
+
+ +
4. Before you can i ntegrate, you need to mul ti pl y the bi nomi al s together. There i s no
Product Rul e for I ntegrati on (whi ch makes thi ngs tri cky l ater) but for now, we
can avoi d the probl em by mul ti pl yi ng.
*(x
3
1 2x
2
2 x 2 2)dx
x x x
x C
4 3 2
4
2
3 2
2 + +
5. You can begi n by wri ti ng each of the terms of the numerator over the denomi na-
tor. Thi s i s a l ong step, and i f you can do i t i n your head, you are encouraged to do
socareful l y! So that you can see exactl y whats happeni ng, the step i s i ncl uded:
2 3 3
4
3
2
3 3 3
m
m
m
m
m
m m
dx + +
_
,

*(2m1 3m
21
2 m
22
1 3m
23
)dx
m x
m
m
C
2
2
3
1 3
2
+ + + ln
6. Thi s probl em l ooks pretty compl i cated, but i f you are cl ever (and who doesnt l i ke
bei ng cl ever now and agai n?), i t becomes qui te easy. The tri ck i s to rewri te the
fracti on as fol l ows:
sin
cos cos
x
x x
dx
1
I f you mul ti pl y those two fracti ons together, you sti l l get
sin
cos
x
x
2
, so we havent
actual l y changed anythi ngs val ue. However, now we can rewri te
sin
cos
x
x
as tan x
and
1
cos x
as sec x:
* tan x sec x dx
Perhaps youl l remember i t better i f i ts wri tten thi s way:
* sec x tan x dx
You know that i s the deri vati ve of sec x, so the fi nal answer i s
sec x 1 C
7. That negati ve si gn l ooks l i ke i ts just beggi n to get factored out, so wel l obl i ge i t
(and bri ng i t out of the i ntegral as the coeffi ci ent 21):
2* (tan
2
x 1 1)dx
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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www.petersons.com
Now that l ooks fami l i ar. I n fact, i t i s most of the Pappa Theorem! (Remember
your Pappa: tan
2
x 1 1 5 sec
2
x.) Therefore, wel l use a Pappa substi tuti on to
rewri te i t:
2* sec
2
x dx
Because tan x has a deri vati ve of sec
2
x, the answer i s
2tan x 1 C
8. Even though thi s l ooks ugl y, begi n the same way you di d wi th probl em 5wri te
each term of the numerator over the denomi nator:
x x
x x x x
dx
2
2 2
1
1
1
1
_
,
The fi rst gi ganti c fracti on si mpl i fi es to 1, maki ng thi ngs much, much happi er i n
the worl d:
1
1
1
2
+
_
,

x x
dx
The i ntegral of 1 i s si mpl y x(si nce
d
dx
(x) 5 1), and the other term i s the deri vati ve
of arcsec x (dont forget the absol ute val ue si gns we di scussed earl i er i n thi s
secti on):
x x C + + arcsec
HANDS- O N AC TIVITY 7.1: APPRO XIM ATING AREA WITH
RIEM ANN SUM S
There i s an essenti al cal cul us ti e between the i ntegral and the area that i s captured
beneath a graph. You may, i n fact, al ready know what i t i s. I f you do, wel l , pi n a rose on
your nose. Those of you who dont know wi l l be kept i n the dark for a coupl e of secti ons
so that some suspense wi l l bui l d (I am nothi ng i f not a showman). For now, l ets focus on
usi ng archai c and si mpl i sti c means to esti mati ng the area under a curve. (The means
are so si mpl i sti c that some students are actual l y di sappoi nted. Thi s i s cal cul us? they
ask, brows furrowed and tears formi ng i n the corners of thei r eyes. My advi ce: embrace
the easy. Just because a l ot of cal cul us i s tri cky, not al l of i t has to be.) By the way, you
may use your cal cul ator freel y on thi s acti vi ty.
1. Draw the graph of f~x! = 2
1
10
x
2
+ 3 on the axes bel ow.
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2. We are goi ng to approxi mate the area between f and the x-axi s from x 5 0 to x 5
4 usi ng rectangl es (the method of Ri emann sums). Thi s i s not the enti re area i n
the fi rst quadrant, just most of i t. Draw four inscribed rectangl es of wi dth 1 on
the i nterval [0,4] on your graph above.
3. What are the hei ghts of each of the four rectangl es? What i s the total area of the
rectangl es? Thi s area, al though not the same as the area beneath the curve, i s an
approxi mati on for that area cal l ed the lower sum.
4. The actual area between f and the x-axi s on the i nterval [0,4] i s
28
3
. Why i s one
area greater?
5. How coul d you get a better approxi mati on for the area beneath the curve i f you
sti l l used i nscri bed rectangl es?
6. On the axes bel ow, graph f agai n. Thi s ti me, draw four rectangl es of wi dth 1 that
ci rcumscri be the graph. Use the area of the ci rcumscri bed rectangl es to approxi -
mate the area beneath the curve. Thi s approxi mati on i s cal l ed the upper sum.
7. Compare the approxi mati on you got i n number 6 to the actual area.
8. On the axes bel ow, graph f agai n, and thi s ti me draw four rectangl es of wi dth one
such that the hei ght of each rectangl e i s gi ven by the mi dpoi nt of each i nterval .
The approxi mate area i s cal l ed the midpoint sum.
9. Now you have found an i nscri bed sum, a ci rcumscri bed sum, and a mi dpoi nt sum.
Expl ai n what i s l i kel y meant by each of the remai ni ng sums, and draw a sampl e
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NOTE
We are not really finding
the area under a curve.
For most graphs, there is
infinite area under the
curve. Instead, we will be
calculating the area
between the given curve
and the x-axis. Keep that in
the back of your mind.
NOTE
Consider only the
endpoints heights when
drawing the inscribed and
circumscribed rectangles
because you can compare
their heights very easily.
Choose the lower of the
two heights for the
inscribed and the larger of
the two heights to draw
circumscribed rectangles.
www.petersons.com
rectangl e on [a,b] that you woul d use wi th the techni que to approxi mate the area
beneath g.
10. Use 5 rectangl es of equal wi dth and the techni que of mi dpoi nt sums to approxi -
mate the area beneath the curve h(x) 5 x
3
2 2x
2
2 5x 1 7 on [0,4].
Hint: To fi gure out the wi dth, Dx, of n rectangl es on the i nterval [a,b], use the
formul a x
b a
n

.
2. The rectangl es cannot cross the graph si nce they are i nscri bed. Thus, l ook at the
endpoi nts of each i nterval , and choose the l ower of the two endpoi nts hei ghts.
That wi l l be the hei ght of the i nscri bed rectangl e for that i nterval .
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NOTE
Every rectangle below
the x-axis counts as
negative area.
www.petersons.com
3. The hei ghts of the four rectangl es are f(1) 5 2.9, f(2) 5 2.6, f(3) 5 2.1, and f(4) 5
1.4. The area of each rectangl e i s hei ght z wi dth, and each of the wi dths i s 1.
Therefore, the total combi ned area i s 2.9 z 1 1 2.6 z 1 1 2.1 z 1 1 1.4 z 1 5 9.
4. The actual area i s 9
1
3
. Our area approxi mati on i s l ess than the actual area
because i t excl udes l i ttl e sl i vers of area between the curve and the rectangl es.
The most area i s omi tted on the i nterval [3,4]. Thus, the approxi mati on i s l ower,
hence the term lower sums.
5. I f you used more rectangl es, the approxi mati on woul d be much better. I n fact, the
more rectangl es you used, the l ess space woul d be omi tted and the cl oser the
approxi mati on.
6. I n order to draw rectangl es that ci rcumscri be the graph, l ook at each i nterval
separatel y and choose the hi gher endpoi nt hei ghti t wi l l gi ve the hei ght for that
rectangl e.
The rectangl es total area wi l l be 3 z 1 1 2.9 z 1 1 2.6 z 1 1 2.1 z 1 5 10.6
7. Thi s area i s too l arge, whi ch was expected (upper sum). The rectangl es contai n
more area than the curve. I n fact, the error i n the ci rcumscri bed rectangl e
method was greater than the error i n the i nscri bed rectangl e method.
8. I n thi s case, the hei ghts of the rectangl es wi l l be gi ven by the functi on val ues of
the mi dpoi nts of the fol l owi ng i nterval s: f
1
2
( )
, f
3
2
( )
, f
5
2
( )
, and f
7
2
( )
.
The wi dths of the rectangl es are sti l l 1, so the total Ri emann mi dpoi nt sum i s 1 z
2.975 1 1 z 2.775 1 1 z 2.375 1 1 z 1.775 5 9.9.
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9. The rectangl e i n a ri ght-hand sum has the same hei ght as the functi on at the
ri ght-hand endpoi nt of each i nterval . Si mi l arl y, a l eft-hand sum rectangl e has the
hei ght of the functi on at the l eft-hand endpoi nt on each i nterval .
10. Accordi ng to the gi ven formul a, each rectangl e wi l l have wi dth x
4 0
5
4
5
, as
pi ctured i n the bel ow graph.
The fi ve i nterval s i n thi s graph are
S
0,
4
5
D
,
S
4
5
,
8
5
D
,
S
8
5
,
12
5
D
,
S
12
5
,
16
5
D
, and
S
16
5
,4
D
.
Because youre doi ng mi dpoi nt sums, you shoul d draw rectangl es whose hei ghts
are gi ven by the functi on val ues of the mi dpoi nts of those i nterval s: h
S
2
5
D
, h
S
6
5
D
,
h(2), h
S
14
5
D
, and h
S
18
5
D
. The total area of these rectangl es (and i ts no si n to use
your cal cul ator to hel p you out here) i s
4
5
4 744
4
5
152
4
5
3
4
5
728
4
5
9 736 8 48 + + + + . . . . .
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TIP
The right-hand sum is not
always the same as the
lower sum and vice versa.
That is only true if the graph
is monotonic decreasing, as
g is in problem 9.
TIP
Because the width of each
interval is
4
5
in problem 10,
you can factor that value
out to simplify your
arithmetic.
www.petersons.com
EXERC ISE 2
YO U M AY USE YO UR G RAPHING C ALC ULATO R FO R ALL O F THESE PRO BLEM S.
1. What type of Ri emann sum i s bei ng appl i ed i n each of the fol l owi ng di agrams? I f
there i s more than one correct answer, gi ve both.
2. Approxi mate the area bounded by f(x) 5 si n x and the x-axi s on the i nterval [0,p]
usi ng 4 rectangl es and upper sums.
3. I f g(x) i s a conti nuous functi on that contai ns the val ues i n the fol l owi ng tabl e,
approxi mate the area bounded by g(x) and the x-axi s on [0,8] usi ng
(a) 8 rectangl es and ri ght-hand sums
(b) 4 rectangl es and mi dpoi nt sums
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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1. (a) Upper sums, ci rcumscri bed rectangl es: On the fi rst two rectangl es, the ri ght-
hand endpoi nt i s used to determi ne hei ght, whereas the l eft-hand endpoi nt i s
bei ng used for the thi rd and fourth rectangl es. Thus, i t cannot be ri ght- or
l eft-hand sums.
(b) Lower sums, ri ght-hand sums, i nscri bed rectangl es: Al l these descri pti ons
appl y to thi s di agram si nce the ri ght-hand endpoi nt of each i nterval forms
the i nscri bed rectangl es.
(c) Lower sums, i nscri bed rectangl es: The l ower of the two endpoi nts hei ghts
i s chosen each ti me, not the ri ght- or l eft-hand endpoi nt on a consi stent
basi s.
(d) Mi dpoi nt sums: That ones pretty cl ear from the di agram. The functi on
val ue at each i nterval mi dpoi nt di ctates the hei ght of the rectangl e there.
2. (a) I f 4 rectangl es are used, the wi dth of each i nterval wi l l be x
0
4 4
.
Therefore, the i nterval s wi l l be
S
0,
p
4
D
,
S
p
4
,
p
2
D
,
S
p
2
,
3p
4
D
, and
S
3p
4
,p
D
. Because
upper sums (ci rcumscri bed rectangl es) are speci fi ed, the hei ghts of the rect-
angl es, from l eft to ri ght, wi l l be si n
p
4
, si n
p
2
, si n
p
2
, and si n
3p
4
, as these are
the hi gher of the two endpoi nt functi on val ues for each i nterval .
The upper sum i s

4
2
2
1 1
2
2
2 682 + + +
_
,
. .
3. (a) I f 8 rectangl es are used, the wi dth of each wi l l be 1. Because ri ght-hand sums
are speci fi ed, the functi on val ue at the ri ght endpoi nt of each i nterval di ctates
the hei ght. Thus, the ri ght-hand sum wi l l be
1 z (g(1) 1 g(2) 1 g(3) 1 g(4) 1 g(5) 1 g(6) 1 g(7) 1 g(8))
3.6 1 5.1 1 6.3 1 6.9 1 7.2 1 7.3 1 4.0 1 3.2 5 43.6
(b) Each rectangl e wi l l have wi dth Dx 5 2, so the i nterval s are (0,2), (2,4),
(4,6), and (6,8). The mi dpoi nts of these i nterval s are si mpl e, and the
hei ghts come from thei r functi on val ues, so the mi dpoi nt sum i s
2 z (g(1) 1 g(3) 1 g(5) 1 g(7))
2(3.6 1 6.3 1 7.2 1 4.0) 5 42.2
THE TRAPEZO IDAL RULE
Sure, Ri emann sums gi ve some approxi mati on of the area under a curve, but they sure
as heck dont gi ve a terri fi c approxi mati on. I n fact, theyre as cl umsy as your cousi n
I rene that ti me she fel l down the stai rs at your parents barbeque. There are other, more
accurate, methods and thi s secti on focuses on one of them. (The other major method,
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NOTE
g(0) is not used in 3(a)
because it is not the
right-hand endpoint of any
interval.
www.petersons.com
Si mpsons rul e, i s no l onger on the AP test. Doh! I t used i nterval s wi th l i ttl e parabol as
on the end to approxi mate area.)
Consi der the fol l owi ng graph and the method of upper sums used to approxi mate the
area i t bounds.
Theres no avoi di ng i t or i gnori ng i t any l onger: Those rectangl es just contai n way too
much extra space. Enter (to thunderous appl ause) the Trapezoi dal Rul e. I nstead of
l i ttl e rectangl es, we wi l l use l i ttl e trapezoi ds to approxi mate the area.
These trapezoi ds are formed by marki ng the functi on val ues at both endpoi nts of an
i nterval and connecti ng the two dots. See how al l that extra area di sappears i n just
one appl i cati on, returni ng the ori gi nal showroom shi ne to the cars fi ni sh? You al so
may have noti ced that the two trapezoi ds at the edges are real l y tri angl es. Thats
okay. Bel i eve i t or not, a tri angl e i s just a speci al ki nd of trapezoi d (a trapezoi d wi th
one base that has l ength 0). These arent the pretty trapezoi ds youre used to seei ng,
but remember, a trapezoi d i s a quadri l ateral wi th exactl y one pai r of paral l el si des,
and the verti cal si des of these trapezoi ds are thei r bases.
Accordi ng to geometry (and the voi ces echoi ng i n my head), the area of a trapezoi d i s
A h b b + ( )
1
2
1 2
where h i s the hei ght of the trapezoi d and b
1
and b
2
are the l engths of i ts paral l el
si des, or bases.
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The bases i n the above trapezoi d have l ength f(c) and f(d), and the hei ght, h (the
di stance between the bases), i s d 2 c, or Dx.
Lets return to the di agram above, enti tl ed, A Cunni ng Trapezoi dal Rul e Probl em,
and determi ne the area accordi ng to the Trapezoi dal Rul e. I n that probl em, we know
there are 5 trapezoi ds, but l ets pretend we dont and say that there are n trapezoi ds.
Thi s way, we can devel op the Trapezoi dal Rul e from scratch.
The area of the fi rst trapezoi d (conveni entl y l abel ed trapezoi d 1) wi l l be
5
h
f a f w
2
( ) + ( ) ( ). To fi nd the hei ght, remember the formul a from the secti on on
Ri emann sums:
x h
b a
n

therefore,
h b a
n 2 2

The area of the second trapezoi d i s
1
2
h f w f x ( ) + ( ) ( ). (The h wi l l have the same val ue,
si nce our i nterval s wi l l al ways be of equal measure.) So far, the area i s
b a
n
f a f w f w f x
+ + + ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
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Lets ski p ahead to the sum of al l the trapezoi ds.
b a
n
f a f w f w f x f x f y f y f z f z f b
( ) + ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + ( ) ( )
2
b a
n
f a f w f x f y f z f b
( ) + ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + ( ) ( )
2
2 2 2 2
Thi s, i n essence, i s the Trapezoi dal Rul e, but l ets defi ne i t careful l y:
The Trapezoidal Rule: I f f i s a conti nuous functi on on [a,b] di vi ded i nto n equal
i nterval s of wi dth x
b a
n

, as pi ctured i n the di agram bel ow, then the area between
the curve and the x-axi s i s approxi matel y
b a
n
f a f x f x f x f b
n
+ + + + + ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
2
2 2 2
1 2 1
Translation: I n order to approxi mate the area beneath the curve f(x), fi nd the wi dth of
one i nterval x
b a
n

and di vi de i t by 2. Then mul ti pl y by the sum of al l the
functi on val ues doubl ed, but dont doubl e f(a) or f(b), the begi nni ng and endi ng
functi on val ues.
Example 4: Use the Trapezoi dal Rul e to approxi mate the area beneath the curve
f(x) 5 x
3
2 2x 1 5 on [22,2] usi ng n 5 8 subi nterval s.
Solution: I f 8 subi nterval s are used, then the wi dth of each wi l l be
x
b a
n

( ) 2 2
8
4
8
1
2
You can then appl y the Trapezoi dal Rul e, usi ng the x val ues 22, 2
3
2
, 21, 2
1
2
, 0,
1
2
, 1,
3
2
, and 2:
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ALERT!
Even though the
Trapezoidal Rule contains
b 2 a
2n
, the width of the
trapezoids is still
b 2a
n
. Know
when to use each
expression.
www.petersons.com
Area

+ + +
+
( )
( )

_
,
( )

_
,
+
( )
2 2
2 8
2 2
3
2
2 1 2
1
2
2 0 2
f f f f
f ff f f f
1
2
2 1 2
3
2
2
_
,
( )

_
,
( )
_
,
+ + +
A ( )
1
4
80 20
I n fact, thi s i s the exact area beneath the curve, al though you dont know how to veri fy
thi s yetthats i n the next secti on.
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www.petersons.com
EXERC ISE 3
1. The Trapezoi dal Rul e can gi ve the exact area beneath what types of functi ons?
2. Use the Trapezoi dal Rul e to approxi mate the area beneath the curve h(x) 5 x
2
1 1
on the i nterval [0,4] usi ng
(a) 2 subi nterval s
(b) 4 subi nterval s
(c) 3 subi nterval s
3. (Based on the Stephen Ki ng book TheGirl whoLoved TomGordon) Ni ne-year-ol d
Tri sha McFarl and i s hopel essl y l ost i n the woods, and the efforts of those l ooki ng
for her have turned up nothi ng. The graph bel ow shows the woods i n whi ch she i s
l ost and measurements of the wi dth of the woods (i n mi l es) at regul ar i nterval s.
(a) Use the Trapezoi dal Rul e to approxi mate the area of the woods.
(b) Assumi ng that one person can search 15 mi
2
i n one day, how many peopl e
wi l l i t take to scour the enti re woods i n a si ngl e day?
1. The Trapezoi dal Rul e gi ves the exact area beneath l i near functi ons, si nce the tops
of the trapezoi ds used to make the approxi mati ons are l i near.
2. (a) Dx 5 2
4 0
2 2
0 2 2 4
+ + ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
h h h
1 z (1 1 10 1 17) 5 28
(b) Dx 5 1
4 0
2 4
0 2 1 2 2 2 3 4
+ + + +
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
h h h h h
1
2
1 4 10 20 17 26 + + + + ( )
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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www.petersons.com
(c) Dx 5
4 0
3
4
3
4 0
2 3
0 2
4
3
2
8
3
4
( )
( ) +

_
,
+

_
,
+ ( )
_
,
h h h h
2
3
1
50
9
146
9
17 + + +
_
,
2
3
358
9
716
27
_
,

By the way,
716
27
i s approxi matel y 26.519.
3. I t mi ght confuse you that the woods wi ggl e around as they do. I f i t hel ps, you can
smoosh the woods agai nst the x-axi s to l ook somethi ng l i ke thi s:
Ei ther way, i t i s cl ear that f(100) 5 87, f(350) 5 133, and so on. The Trapezoi dal
Rul e i s actual l y qui te easy to appl y; you dont even have to pl ug i nto a functi on to
get i ts val ues, as you di d i n number 2. The graph cl earl y i s defi ned on the i nterval
[0,500], and there are 10 subi nterval s, each wi th a l ength 50 mi l es.
Area '
500 2 0
2 z 10
[(f(0) 1 2f(50) 1 2f(100) 1 2f(150) 1 2f(200) 1 2f(250) 1 2f(300) 1
2f(350) 1 2f(400) 1 2f(450) 1 f(500))]
Area ' 25(140 1 174 1 252 1 280 1 270 1 284 1 266 1 182 1 226) 5 51,850 mi
2
(b) Even though 15mi
2
i s a generous esti mate of how much area one person
can search, i t woul d take
51,850
15
= 3456.667
at l east 3,457 peopl e to conduct the search si mul taneousl y.
THE FUNDAM ENTAL THEO REM O F C ALC ULUS
I once had a Korean professor i n col l ege named Dr. Oh. He once sai d somethi ng I
remember to thi s day: Fundamental theorems are l i ke the begi nni ng of the worl d.
Yesterday, not very i nteresti ng. Today, i nteresti ng. Thi s i s qui te accurate, i f not a l i ttl e
understated. I n thi s theorem l i es the fabl ed connecti on between the anti deri vati ve and
the area beneath a curve. I n fact, the fundamental theorem has two major parts.
Mathemati ci ans cant seem to agree whi ch i s the more i mportant part and, therefore,
number them di fferentl y. Some even refer to one as the Fundamental Theorem and the
other as the Second Fundamental Theorem. I l ove them both equal l y, as I woul d my own
chi l dren.
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TIP
The number of terms you
add in the Trapezoidal Rule
is always one more than
the n you are using.
www.petersons.com
The fi rst part of the Fundamental Theorem deal s wi th definite integrals. These are
sl i ghtl y di fferent from the i ntegral s weve been deal i ng wi th for two reasons: (1) they
have boundari es, and (2) thei r answers are not functi ons wi th a 1 C tacked on to the
endthei r answers are numbers. These are, i ndeed, two gi ant di fferences, but youl l
be surpri sed by how much they actual l y have i n common wi th our previ ous i ntegral s,
whi ch we wi l l now refer to by thei r proper name, indefiniteintegrals.
The Fund a m e nta l The ore m , Pa rt O ne
I f f(x) i s a conti nuous functi on on [a,b] wi th anti deri vati ve g(x), then
f x dx g b g a
a
b
( ) ( ) ( )
Translation: I n order to eval uate the defi ni te i ntegral f x dx

a
b
( )
, fi nd the anti deri va-

ti ve of f(x). Once youve done that, pl ug the upper bound, b, i nto the antideri vati ve.
You shoul d get a number. From that number, subtract the resul t of pl uggi ng the l ower
bound i nto the anti deri vati ve.
What i s the purpose of defi ni te i ntegral s? They gi ve the exact area beneath a curve.
Lets return to a probl em from the Trapezoi dal Rul e secti on. You used 2, 3, and 4
subi nterval s to approxi mate the area beneath y 5 x
2
1 1 on [0,4]. Lets fi nd out what
the exact area i s.
Example 5: Fi nd the exact area beneath y 5 x
2
1 1 on [0,4].
Solution: The speci fi ed area i s the resul t of the fol l owi ng i ntegral :
x dx
2
0
4
1 +
( )
So, you need to fi nd the anti deri vati ve of x

2
1 1. When you do, drop the i ntegrati on
si gn and dx, as you di d before.
x
x
3
3
+
_
,
4
0
The probl em i s not yet over, and you si gni fy that the boundari es of i ntegrati on sti l l
must be eval uated wi th the verti cal l i ne (or ri ght bracket, i f you prefer) and the
boundari es next to the anti deri vati ve. To fi ni sh the probl em, then, you pl ug the upper
l i mi t of i ntegrati on i nto the expressi on (both xs!) and then subtract the l ower l i mi t
pl ugged i n:
4
3
4
0
3
0
3 3
+
_
,
_
,
64
3
4
76
3
25 333 + . uni ts squared
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NOTE
Remember, you cant spell
Fundamental Theorem
without fun!
NOTE
The a and b in definite
integrals are called the
limits of integration.
However, they have little to
do with the limits of
Chapter 3, so dont worry.
www.petersons.com
Example 6: Fi nd the area beneath si n x on [0,p].
Solution: Thi s area i s found by eval uati ng the defi ni te i ntegral
sin x dx
0
I ntegrate si n x to get
cos x
0
Now, substi tute i n p and 0 and subtract the two resul ts:
2cos p 2(2cos 0)
2(21) 1 1 5 2 uni ts squared

0
cosx dx, and expl ai n the answer geometri cal l y.

Solution: To begi n, appl y the Fundamental Theorem.
sin x
0
si n p 2 si n 0 5 0 2 0 5 0
How can a curve have no area beneath i t? Consi der the graph of y 5 cos x on [0,p]:
The area i s made up of two separate areas, marked A and B on the di agram. Lets fi nd
those two separate areas:
Area A x dx
cos
0
2
sin
/
sin sin x

2
0
2
0 1 0
Area A = 1
Area B x dx
cos
2
sin
/
sin sin x

2
2
0 1
Area B 5 21
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www.petersons.com
These answers shoul d not be too surpri si ng. They are the same, al though one i s
l ocated under the x-axi s, so i ts signed area i s the opposi te of the other. When you add
these two areas together, you get 0. So, the geometri c expl anati on i s that the areas are
opposi tes, and the resul ti ng sum i s 0.
Exampl e 7 i s a great segue to a few defi ni te i ntegral properti es that are essenti al to
know:
f x dx f x dx f x dx a b c
a
c
a
b
b
c
( ) ( ) + ( )

, if
Translation: You can spl i t up an i ntegral i nto two parts and add them up separatel y.
I nstead of i ntegrati ng from a to c, you can i ntegrate from a to b and add the area from
b to c. We di d thi s i n Exampl e 7. I n that case, a 5 0, c 5 p, and b 5
p
2
.
f x dx
a
a
( )
0
Translation: I f you start and end at the same x val ue, you are techni cal l y not coveri ng
any area. Therefore, i f the upper and l ower l i mi ts of i ntegrati on are equal , the
resul ti ng area and defi ni te i ntegral have a val ue of 0.
f x dx f x dx
a
b
b
a
( ) ( )

Translation: I n a typi cal defi ni te i ntegral , the upper bound, b, i s greater than the
l ower bound, a. I f you swi tch them, the answer you get wi l l be the opposi te of your
ori gi nal answer. For exampl e, l ets redo Exampl e 6 wi th the l i mi ts of i ntegrati on
swi tched:
sin cos x dx x
0 0
2cos 0 2(2cos p)
21 21 5 22
I n essence, swi tchi ng the boundari es of i ntegrati on has the effect of commuti ng
(swi tchi ng the order of) the subtracti on probl em di ctated by the Fundamental Theo-
rem, maki ng i t g(a) 2 g(b) i nstead of g(b) 2 g(a). Thi s causes the si gn change.
Thedefiniteintegral represents accumulated change.
Translation: I n the same way that deri vati ves expressed a rate of change, the i ntegral
goes i n the other di recti on and reports accumul ated change. For exampl e, consi der the
graph bel ow of a cars vel oci ty:
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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NOTE
You may argue that no
area is technically
negative. Thats true.
However, any area that falls
beneath the x-axis is
considered negative. To
avoid this logical dilemma,
the area bounded by
definite integrals is often
referred to as signed
areaarea that is positive
or negative based on its
position with relation to
the x-axis.
www.petersons.com
At any ti me t, the graph tel l s how fast the car was goi ng. (Thi s i s the graph of the rate
of change of posi ti on, vel oci ty.) However, defi ni te i ntegral s gi ve accumul ated change.
Therefore, v t dt
a
b
( )
actual l y gi ves the di stance the car travel ed between ti me a and b.

I f the graph represented the rate of sal e of socks over ti me, then the defi ni te i ntegral
represents the number of socks sol d over that ti me. More appropri ate for me, i f the
graph represents the rate of hai r l oss over ti me, then the defi ni te i ntegral represents
the actual amount of hai r l ost over the i nterval of ti me. Get the pi cture? More on thi s
i n Chapter 9.
Now that you know qui te a bi t about defi ni te i ntegral s, i ts ti me to spri ng Part Two of
the Fundamental Theorem on you. I n essence, thi s theorem shows that di fferenti ati on
and i ntegrati on are opposi tes of one another.
The Fund a m e nta l The ore m , Pa rt Two
I f ci s a constant and t and xare vari abl es,
d
dx
x
c
f t dt f x ( )
_
,
( )
Translation: Thi s theorem i s very speci fi c i n i ts focus and purpose. I t appl i es onl y i f (1)
you are fi ndi ng the deri vati ve of a defi ni te i ntegral , (2) you are di fferenti ati ng wi th
respect to the same vari abl e that i s i n the upper l i mi t of i ntegrati on, and (3) the l ower
l i mi t of i ntegrati on i s a constant. I f al l these condi ti ons are met, the deri vati ve of the
i ntegral i s si mpl y the functi on i nsi de the i ntegral (the deri vati ve and i ntegral cancel
each other out) wi th the upper bound pl ugged i n.
Al though thi s part of the Fundamental Theorem may sound awful l y compl i cated (and
some books make i t sound nearl y i mpossi bl e), i t i s real l y qui te easy. The fol l owi ng
exampl e wi l l l ead you through the process.
Example 8: Eval uate the fol l owi ng deri vati ves:
(a)
d
dx
t dt
x
cos
3
_
,
You are taki ng the deri vati ve of an i ntegral wi th respect to the vari abl e i n the upper
l i mi t of i ntegrati on. I n addi ti on, the l ower l i mi t i s a constant. Because al l these thi ngs
are true, you may appl y Part Two. I n order to do so, si mpl y pl ug the upper bound, x,
i nto the functi on to get cos x. Thats al l there i s to i t.
I f you forgot thi s handy tri ck, you can sti l l i ntegrate as i n the past:
d
dx
x
t dt
d
dx
t
x
3 3
cos sin
_
,
_
,
d
dx
x sin sin ( ) 3
cos x
Because si n 3 i s a constant, i ts deri vati ve i s 0. Thi s i s why the l ower boundary must
be a constant for the theorem to work and al so why i t doesnt matter what that l ower
boundary i s.
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NOTE
If the upper bound is
something other than a
single variable, according
to the Chain Rule, you must
multiply by its derivative.
NOTE
I will refer to Part Two of the
Fundamental Theorem as
Part Two to avoid
repeating myself. However,
refer to it as merely the
Fundamental Theorem if
justifying an answer on the
AP test.
www.petersons.com
(b)
d
dh
x x dx
h
2
5
2
2
( )
_
,
The upper bound i s h

2
rather than just h, but the vari abl e you are deri vi ng wi th
respect to sti l l matches, so you can sti l l appl y Part Two. Si mpl y pl ug the upper bound
i nto the functi on to get
(h
2
)
2
2 2(h
2
)
However, thi s i s not the fi nal answer. Because the upper bound i s not merel y h, you
have to mul ti pl y by i ts deri vati ve accordi ng to the Chai n Rul e. I n thi s case, just
mul ti pl y your previ ous answer by
d
dh
h h
2
2
( )
:
(h
4
2 2h
2
) z 2h
2h
5
2 4h
3
I f you l i ke, you can veri fy thi s by usi ng Part One of the Fundamental Theorem.
(c)
d
dx
t dt
x
x
2
3
Bad news: The l ower bound of thi s i ntegral i s not a constant. Therefore, we cannot
appl y Part Two. So, we defaul t back to Part One of the Fundamental Theorem. I t
hel ps to rewri te t t as
1 2
before you begi n.
d
dx
t
x
x 2
3
3 2
2
3
_
,
d
dx
x x
2
3
2
3
3 2
3 2
( )
( )
( )
1
]
1
/
/
d
dx
x x
2
3
2
9 2
3 2
/
/
( )
( )
1
]
1
Dont forget to take the deri vati ve once youre fi ni shed i ntegrati ng.
2
3
9
2
3
2
2 2
7 2
x x
/

_
,
3 2 2
7 2
x x
/

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NOTE
There is no 1 C on your
answer because you are
finding a derivative, even
though its the derivative of
an integral.
www.petersons.com
EXERC ISE 4
1. Eval uate the fol l owi ng defi ni te i ntegral s:
(a) x x
x
dx
1 3 4
2
6
2
1 /
_
,

(b) sec sec tan x x x dx ( )
0
3 4
(c)
x dx
1
2
2. I f f(x) i s defi ned by the graph bel ow and consi sts of a semi ci rcl e and numerous
l i ne segments, eval uate the fol l owi ng:
(a)
f x dx ( )
0
3
(b)
f x dx ( )
4
4
(c)
f x dx ( )
0
10
(d)
f x dx ( )
4
0
3. Fi nd the verti cal l i ne x 5 c that spl i ts the area bounded by y x , y 5 0, and
x 5 8 exactl y i n hal f.
4. Eval uate the fol l owi ng deri vati ves:
(a)
d
dx
t t dt
x
sin cos
3
9
2 ( )
(b)
d
dy
mdm
y
y

( )
1
3
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www.petersons.com
1. (a) Begi n by rewri ti ng the expressi on and di stri buti ng the x
1/3
.
2
13 3 1 3 1 2
2
6
x x dx
/ / /
( )
2
13 3 1 6
2
6
x x dx
/ /
( )
3
8
6
5
16 3 5 6
2
6
x x
/ /
3
8
6
6
5
6
3
8
2
6
5
2
16 3 5 6 16 3 5 6
( )
_
,
( ) ( )
_
,
/ / / /
Wi thout a cal cul ator, theres real l y no need to conti nue si mpl i fyi ng. What was
the purpose of a probl em that doesnt si mpl i fy? Get used to getti ng wei rd
answers that dont work out evenl y. Have confi dence i n answers that l ook and
feel wei rd.
(b) Di stri bute the sec x to get
sec sec tan
/
2
0
3 4
x x x dx
( )

You can i ntegrate each of those terms.
tan sec
/
x x ( )
3 4
0
_
,
( ) 1
2
2
0 1
2
2
2 or if you rationalize ,
( )
(c) Even though we never di scussed absol ute val ue defi ni te i ntegral s, the answer
i s as si mpl e as l ooki ng at the graph:
The area beneath the graph i s composed of two ri ght tri angl es, and al l you
need to fi nd the area of a tri angl e i s
1
2
bh. Therefore, the area of both
tri angl es i s
1
2
1 1
1
2
2 2
1
2
2
5
2
+ +
Not bad, eh? Look at the probl ems at the end of the chapter to practi ce
nonl i near absol ute val ue defi ni te i ntegral s.
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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www.petersons.com
2. Your work on 1(c) shoul d make thi s easi er. I n order to cal cul ate the defi ni te
i ntegral s, use geometri c formul as for tri angl es and semi ci rcl es.
(a) 23: Thi s i s a tri angl e wi th base 3 and hei ght 2. I t i s al so bel ow the x-axi s,
so i ts si gned area i s negati ve.
(b) 0: One of the properti es of defi ni te i ntegral s stated that an i ntegral wi th
equi val ent upper and l ower l i mi ts of i ntegrati on has zero val ue, as no area
i s accumul ated.
(c) 2p 2 1: The area from 0 to 4 i s 24. The area from 4 to 8 i s a semi ci rcl e of
radi us 2, whi ch has area
1
2
p(2)
2
5 2p. The area from 8 to 10 i s a ri ght
tri angl e of area 3. The sum i s 2p 2 1.
(d)
5
2
: I n order to do thi s probl em, you fi rst need to fi nd the x-i ntercept of the
l i ne segment from (24,3) to (21,21). To do thi s, fi nd the equati on of the
l i ne by fi ndi ng the sl ope
slope

( )

1 3
1 4
4
3
and substi tuti ng a poi nt.
y x ( )

( ) ( ) 1
4
3
1
y x + 1
4
3
4
3
3 3 4 4 y x +
Then, set the y equal to 0 i n order to fi nd the x-i ntercept:
3 5 24x 2 4
x
7
4
Therefore, the area from 24 to 0 consi sts of two ri ght tri angl es: one wi th
posi ti ve area (hei ght 5 3 and base 5 4 2
7
4
5
9
4
) and one wi th negati ve
area (hei ght 5 1 and base 5
7
4
). Therefore, the total area wi l l be
1
2
9
4
3
1
2
7
4
1
27
8
7
8
5
2

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www.petersons.com
3. The regi on bounded by al l those graphs i s si mpl y
and thi s area i s gi ven by
xdx
0
8
2
3
8
0
3 2
x
/
2
3
8
3 2
i
/
We are l ooki ng for a cbetween 0 and 8 that has exactl y hal f of the area, or an area
of
1
3
3 2
8
/
. I n other words,
xdx
c
0
3 2
1
3
8

/
I ntegrate the l eft si de to get
2
3
0
1
3
8
3 2 3 2
x
c
/ /
i
2
3
1
3
8
3 2 3 2
c
/ /
i
2c
3/2
5 8
3/2
Square both si des to sol ve
4c
3
5 8
3
c
3 512
4
128
c 128 4 2
3 3
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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4. (a) You cannot appl y Part Two ri ght away si nce the l ower bound i snt a constant.
However, one of the properti es of defi ni te i ntegral s says that you can swi tch
the order of the bounds i f you take the opposi te of the i ntegral :
_
,
d
dx
t t dt
x
sin cos
9
3
2
Appl y Part Two and be fi ni shed. Dont forget to mul ti pl y by the deri vati ve of
the upper bound.
26x(si n 3x
2
cos 3x
2
)
(b) No Part Two here, as the l ower bound agai n i snt a constant, and thi s ti me
you cant do much about i t. Just use the Fundamental Theorem Part One:
d
dy
m
y
y
2
2
1
3
_
,
d
dy
y y 9
2
1
2
2
2
( )
_
,
d
dy
y y y
9
2
1
2
2 1
2 2
+
( )
_
,
Agai n, dont forget to take the deri vati ve to fi ni sh!
9
1
2
2 2 y y ( )
9 1 8 1 y y y ( ) +
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TIP
Ever wonder when to
calculate area and when
to calculate signed area?
When computing definite
integrals, its always
signed area.
www.petersons.com
HANDS- O N AC TIVITY 7.2: AC C UM ULATIO N FUNC TIO NS
Accumul ati on functi ons are a new emphasi s on the AP test. Not al l books refer to them
by thi s name, but the l eaders i n cal cul us reform have begun to use thi s termi nol ogy.
Therefore, I wi l l bend to peer pressure and use i t as wel l . Accumul ati on functi ons are
natural (and neato) extensi ons to defi ni te i ntegral s.
1. Gi ven a functi on f x g t dt
x
( ) ( )
0
and the functi on g(t) defi ned by the graph
eval uate f(1). Pl ug 1 i nto f(x), even though i t may feel strange, and eval uate the
defi ni te i ntegral .
2. How di d the functi on f get i ts val ue?
3. Eval uate f(21). Why i s your answer posi ti ve?
4. For what i ntegral val ue(s) of cdoes f(c) 5 21? Compl ete the chart bel ow to deci de.
5. Based on the tabl e you created i n number 4, graph f(x).
6. Fi nd f(x), and justi fy your answer.
7. What rel ati onshi p do you noti ce between f(x) and g(x), and why?
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www.petersons.com
8. Eval uate f(23).
1. f g t dt 1
0
1
( ) ( )
. I n other words, f(1) i s the area beneath g(t) on the i nterval [0,1].
That area i s a smal l trapezoi d wi th hei ght 1 and bases of l ength 1 and 2. (You
coul d al so cal cul ate the area as the sum of the square and tri angl e that make up
the trapezoi d.) Ei ther way, the si gned area i s 2
3
2
(negati ve because i t i s bel ow the
x-axi s).
2. f got i ts val ue from the amount of area above g(t) on the i nterval 0 to whatever
the i nput was (i n thi s case, 1). I n other words, by accumul ati ng si gned area, f i s
an accumul ati on functi on.
3.
f g t dt ( ) ( )
1
0
1
. Noti ce that the l ower number i s on top, whi ch i s wei rd, si nce
i t i s usual l y on the bottom. Therefore, you shoul d change i t so that the l ower l i mi t
of i ntegrati on i s on the bottom, but remember that doi ng so makes the defi ni te
i ntegral i ts opposi te, si nce f x dx f x dx
a
b
b
a
( ) ( )

.
( )
g t dt
1
0
The tri angl e between 21 and 0 i s bel ow the x-axi s, so i t shoul d have area 2
1
2
so
the i ntegral equal s:

_
,

1
2
1
2
4. Use geometri c formul as to cal cul ate the areas. Dont forget that
f g t dt 4
0
4
( ) ( )
, whi ch i s all of the accumul ated area from x 5 0 to x 5 4. The

area from x 5 0 to x 5 1 i s 2
3
2
, as weve sai d. The area from x 5 1 to x 5 2 i s a
ri ght tri angl e of area 21. The area from x 5 2 to x 5 4 i s a ri ght tri angl e wi th
base 2 and hei ght
2
3
(si nce the sl ope of the l i ne from x5 2 to x5 5 i s
1
3
). Therefore,
al l of the accumul ated area from x 5 0 to x 5 4 i s 2
3
2
2 1 1
1
2
z 2 z
2
3
5 2
11
6
.
The correct answers are c 5 24 and 5.
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www.petersons.com
5.
6.
d
dx
x
g t dt g x ( )
_
,
( )
0
, accordi ng to Fundamental Theorem Part Two. Dont mi ss
the i mportance of thi s: the graph of f(x) i s the graph you were gi ven i n the fi rst
pl ace, g(t). (The fact that theres a t i nstead of an x makes no di fference i n the
graph, but you shoul d use g(x) to keep your notati on consi stent.)
7. The graph of g(x) acts l i ke any fi rst deri vati ve graph. g(x) i s posi ti ve when f(x) i s
i ncreasi ng (l ook at the i nterval (24,21) on each). g(x) i s 0 whenever f(x) has a
rel ati ve extrema poi nt (l ook at x 5 21 and 22).
8. f(23) i s the sl ope of the tangent l i ne to f(x) at x 5 23. Si nce g(x) i s f(x), you are
tryi ng to fi nd the sl ope of the tangent l i ne to g(x) at x 5 23. Lucki l y, g(x) i s l i near
at x 5 23, and the sl ope of the l i ne segment i s
1
2
. Remember, the sl ope of a
tangent l i ne to a l i near graph i s si mpl y the sl ope of that l i near graph. Therefore,
f(23) 5
1
2
.
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www.petersons.com
EXERC ISE 5
1. I f f x g x dx ( ) ( )
0
3
, why i s f not an accumul ati on functi on?
2. One famous functi on gets i ts val ue by accumul ati ng area beneath the graph of
y 5
1
x
.
(a) I f we cal l the famous functi on f(x) and defi ne i t as f x dt
t
x
( )
1
1
, fi nd f(2).
(b) What i s the name of the famous functi on?
(c) Eval uate f(10), and veri fy that the resul t matches the output of the famous
functi on.
3. I f g x
x
( )
sec
/
2
0
4
t dt , eval uate g(3p), g(3p), and g(3p).
4. I f h(t) i s defi ned by the bel ow graph and m x h t dt
x
( ) ( )
1 2 /
,
(a) Approxi mate m
S
3
2
D
.
(b) Eval uate m(2).
(c) Descri be the concavi ty of m(x) for [0,2].
(d) Wri te the fol l owi ng functi on val ues i n order from l east to greatest: m
S
1
2
D
,
m(1), and m(2).
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www.petersons.com
1. An accumul ati on functi on has an x i n i ts l i mi ts of i ntegrati on.
2. (a)
f dt
t
2
1
1
2
( )
. You know that the i ntegral of

1
t
i s l n t , so you get
ln t
2
1
l n 2 2 l n 1
and si nce l n 1 5 0, the answer i s l n 2. Noti ce, f(2) 5 l n 2.
(b) The name of thi s famous functi on i s the natural logarithm! f(x) 5 l n x. I t
makes sense si nce f(x) 5
1
x
.
(c) f
t
dt 10
1
1
10
( )
. So,
f(10) 5 l n 10 2 l n 1 5 l n 10
Thi s works every ti me, si nce the l ower l i mi t of i ntegrati on i s al ways 1 and
l n 1 i s 0.
3. Lets do one at a ti me and start wi th g(3p).
g t dt 3
2
0
3 4

( )
sec
/
g t 3
3 4
0

( ) tan
/
g 3
3
4
0 1 0 1

( ) tan tan
Accordi ng to Fundamental Theorem Part Two, g(x) 5
1
4
sec
2
S
x
4
D
. (Dont forget to
mul ti pl y by the deri vati ve of the upper l i mi t of i ntegrati on, whi ch i s
1
4
.) Therefore,
( )

_
,
g 3
1
4
3
4
2

sec
( )

_
,
g 3
1
4
2
2
2
i
( ) g 3
1
2
Fi nal l y, use the Chai n Rul e to fi nd g(x):

( ) g x
x x x 1
2 4 4 4
1
4
sec sec tan
( ) g x
x x 1
8 4 4
2
sec tan
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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www.petersons.com
( )

_
,
_
,
g 3
1
8
3
4
3
4
2

sec tan

( )
g 3
1
8
2 1
1
4
4. (a) m h t dt
3
4 1 2
3 2
_
,

( )
/
/
. Because there i s no functi on, you cannot fi nd thi s exact
area. However, you do know that the area from x5
1
2
to x5 1 i s negati ve, and
the area from x 5 1 to x 5
3
2
i s posi ti ve. You coul d use Ri emann sums or the
Trapezoi dal Rul e to approxi mate; however, these methods are mostl y used
when you happen to know the functi on. Si nce there i s no functi on, why not
make i t a total approxi mati on and count boxes of area? Each box on the graph
of the functi on i s one square uni t. Therefore, the negati ve area i s approxi -
matel y 21.9 (your answer may be di fferent but shoul d be rel ati vel y cl ose),
and the posi ti ve area shoul d be 2.
Therefore, m
3
2
0 3
_
,
.
(b) Accordi ng to Fundamental Theorem Part Two, m(x) 5 h(x). Therefore,
m(2) 5 h(2) 5
3
2
, accordi ng to i ts graph.
(c) The concavi ty of m(x) i s descri bed by the si gns of m(x). I n addi ti on, m(x)s
si gns descri be the di recti on of m(x), or h(x). Therefore, whenever h(x) i s
i ncreasi ng, m(x) wi l l be posi ti ve and vi ce versa. To summari ze, m(x) wi l l be
concave up whenever h(x) i s i ncreasi ng:
S
1
2
,2
D
, and m(x) wi l l be concave down
wherever h(x) i s decreasi ng:
S
0,
1
2
D
.
(d) Usi ng the method of counti ng boxes, we have al ready determi ned that m(1) '
21.9. We al so sai d that m
S
3
2
D
' .3, so i t makes sense to say that m(2) . m
S
3
2
D
, si nce maccumul ates a l ot of addi ti onal positivearea from x5
3
2
to x5 2.
Therefore, we know that m(2) i s posi ti ve (i f you count boxes, m(2) ' 4).
Fi nal l y, m
S
1
2
D
i s 0, si nce m h t
1
2 1 2
1 2
_
,

( )
/
/
(accordi ng to a property of defi ni te
i ntegral s). Wi th al l thi s i n mi nd, we know that m(1) , m
S
1
2
D
, m(2).
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NOTE
Counting boxes to
approximate area may feel
inaccurate, but its often
more accurate than
Riemann sums and, since
youd be approximating
function values to use the
Trapezoidal Rule in this case
anyway, why bother? Sure
its a guess, but the
directions do say
approximate.
www.petersons.com
THE M EAN VALUE THEO REM FO R INTEG RATIO N, AVERAG E
VALUE O F A FUNC TIO N
The Mean Val ue Theorem for I ntegrati on (MVTI ) i s an exi stence theorem, just l i ke the
Mean Val ue Theorem (MVT)was for di fferenti ati on. The MVTguaranteed the exi stence
of a tangent l i ne paral l el to a secant l i ne. The MVTI guarantees somethi ng compl etel y
di fferent, but because i t i nvol ves i ntegrati on, you can guess that the theorem i nvol ves
area and, therefore, defi ni te i ntegral s.
Al though the MVTI i s a very i nteresti ng theorem (and I m not l yi ng just to try to keep
you i nterested), i t i s not wi del y used. I cal l the MVTI the fl our theorem, because i t has
everythi ng to do wi th maki ng cooki es, a necessary precursor to one of my favori te
hobbi es, eati ng cooki es.
The Mean Value Theoremfor Integration: I f f(x) i s a conti nuous functi on on the
i nterval [a,b], then there exi sts a real number c on that i nterval such that
f x dx f c b a
a
b
( ) ( ) ( )
.
Translation: You can create a rectangl e whose base i s the i nterval and whose hei ght i s
one of the functi on val ues i n that i nterval . Thi s i s a very speci al rectangl e because i ts
area i s exactl y the same as the area beneath the curve on that i nterval .
Look at the graph of f(x) bel ow. I f you count the boxes of area beneath i t on the
i nterval [1,9], you wi l l get approxi matel y 36.
Al so on the graph i s a rectangl e wi th l ength 9 2 1 5 8. I t stretches across the i nterval
at a hei ght of 4.5, and i ts area i s 36. Noti ce that f(c) 5 4.5; thi s i s the val ue promi sed
by the MVTI . Lets break down the parts of the theorem:
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www.petersons.com
The hei ght of the rectangl e, f(c), i s al so cal l ed the averagevalueof f(x). I n the exampl e
above, the average val ue i s f(c) 5 4.5. I magi ne that the graph of f(x) represents the
fl our i n a measuri ng cup whose wi dth i s the i nterval [a,b]:
I f you shake the measuri ng cup back and forth, the fl our wi l l l evel out to i ts average
hei ght or average val ue. The resul ti ng fl our wi l l have the same vol ume as the hi l l i er
versi on of i ti ts just fl attened out. The same thi ng happens i n two di mensi ons wi th
the MVTI .
The AP test l oves to ask questi ons about the average val ue of a functi on. Because of
thi s, i t hel ps to have the MVTI wri tten i n a di fferent waya way that l ets you get
ri ght at the average val ue wi th no hassl e. You get thi s formul a qui te easi l y; just
mul ti pl y both si des of the MVTI by
1
b 2 a
, and youve got i t.
TheAverageValueof aFunction: I f f(x) i s conti nuous on [a,b], the average val ue of
the functi on, f(c), i s gi ven by
f c
b a
f x dx
a
b
( ) ( )
1
Example 9: Fi nd the average val ue of the functi on g x x x ( ) + on [4,9].
Solution: The average val ue, g(c), wi l l be gi ven by
g c
b a
g x dx
a
b
( ) ( )
1
g c x x dx ( )
( )
+
1
5
1 2
4
9
g c x
x
( )

_
,
+
1
5
2
3 2
3 2
2
4
9
g c ( )

_
,
_
,
_
,
+ +
1
5
2
3
27
81
2
2
3
8 8
g c ( )

_
,
_
,
+ +
1
5
36
2
81
2
16
3
24
3
g c ( )

_
,

1
5
117
2
40
3
271
30
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ALERT!
Although the average
value occurs at x 5 5 in this
example (and 5 is the
midpoint of [1,9]), the
average value does not
always occur at the
midpoint of the interval.
TIP
Make sure you memorize
the average value formula.
It is guaranteed to be on
the test at least two or
three times.
ALERT!
271
30
is a tiny bit more than
270
30
5 9, so in this case
(although it was close), the
average value is not
halfway between the
absolute maximum (12)
and absolute minimum (6)
for the closed interval.
Some students assume that
the average value always
falls exactly in the middle.
www.petersons.com
One fi nal note before a parti ng exampl e: Students someti mes get the average val ue of
a functi on confused wi th the average rate of change of a functi on. Remember, the
average val ue i s based on defi ni te i ntegral s and i s the fl our fl atteni ng hei ght of a
functi on. The average rate of change i s the sl ope of a secant l i ne and descri bes rate
over a peri od of ti me. Probl em 4 fol l owi ng thi s secti on addresses thi s poi nt of confu-
si on.
Example10:(a) Use your graphi ng cal cul ator to fi nd the average val ue of h(x) 5xcos x
on the i nterval [0,p].
We have no good techni ques for i ntegrati ng x cos x, and wel l need to do so to fi nd the
average val ue of the functi on. The method i s the same, but the means wi l l be
di fferent:
h c x x dx ( )

1
0 0
cos
Type the above di rectl y i nto your cal cul ator, usi ng the fnI nt functi on found under
the [Math] menu. I f you do not know how to use your cal cul ator to eval uate defi ni te
i ntegral s, i mmedi atel y read the technol ogy secti on at the end of thi s chapter. The
average val ue turns out to be h(c) 5 2.6366197724. I n fact, the actual answer i s
2
2
p
.
(b) Fi nd the c val ue guaranteed by the Mean Val ue Theorem for I ntegrati on.
The MVTI guarantees the exi stence of a c whose functi on val ue i s the average val ue.
I n thi s probl em, there i s one i nput c whose output i s 2
2
p
; i n other words, the poi nt
S
c,2
2
p
D
i s on the graph of h(x). To fi nd the c, pl ug the poi nt i nto h(x):
h(c) 5 c cos c
2
2
p
5 c cos c
Sol ve thi s usi ng your cal cul ator, and you get: c 5 1.911.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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www.petersons.com
EXERC ISE 6
YO U M AY USE YO UR C ALC ULATO R FO R PRO BLEM S 3 AND 4 O NLY.
1. Fi nd the average val ue of g x x ( ) sec
2
on the cl osed i nterval
3
4
5
4

1
]
1
, .
2. I f f x dx ( )
2
5
10 and f x dx ( )
14
2
29 , what i s the average val ue of f(x) on the
i nterval [5,14]?
3. Fi nd the val ue c guaranteed by the Mean Val ue Theorem for I ntegral s for the
functi on h(x) 5 x
2
2
1
x
on the i nterval [2,6].
4. A parti cl e travel s al ong the x-axi s accordi ng to the posi ti on functi on
s t t
t
( ) sin cos
3
.
(a) What i s the parti cl es average vel oci ty from t 5
p
2
to t 5 2p?
(b) What i s the vel oci ty of the parti cl e at any ti me t?
(c) Fi nd the average val ue of the vel oci ty functi on you found i n part (b) on the
i nterval

2
2 ,
1
]
1
, and veri fy that you get the same resul t you di d i n
part (a).
1. The average val ue, g(c), i s gi ven by
g c xdx ( )

1
2
2
3 4
5 4
sec
/
/
g c x ( ) ( )
2
5 4
3 4
tan
/
/
g c ( ) ( ) ( )

2
1 1
4

2. Fi rst of al l , you can rewri te the second defi ni te i ntegral as
14
2
29 f x dx
( )
Usi ng another property of defi ni te i ntegral s, you know that
f x dx f x dx f x dx
f x dx
( ) ( ) ( )
( )

+
+
2
5
5 2
14
5
14
14
10 29
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NOTE
We have to integrate
* x cos x dx by parts. This is
a BC-only topic.
NOTE
The MVTI guarantees that
at least one such c will
exist, but multiple cs could
be lurking around.
www.petersons.com
Therefore, f x dx ( )
19
5
14
. Wi th thi s val ue, you can compl ete the average val ue
formul a:
f c f x dx ( ) ( )

1
14 5 5
14
f c ( )
1
9
19
19
9
3. Fi rst, you shoul d fi nd the average val ue of the functi on:
h c x
x
dx ( )

_
,
1
6 2
1
2
2
6
h c
x
x ( )

_
,

1
4 3
3
2
6
ln
h c ( ) ( )

_
,
_
,

1
4
72 6
8
3
2 ln ln
Al though thi s i s the average val ue of the functi on, i t i s not the c guaranteed by
the MVTI . However, i f you pl ug c i nto h(x), you shoul d get that resul t. Therefore,
c
c
2
1
17 05868026 .
Sol ve thi s wi th your graphi ng cal cul ator to fi nd that c ' 4.159.
4. (a) The average vel oci ty i s gi ven by the sl ope of the secant l i ne to a position
function, just as the tangent l i nes to position functions gi ve i nstantaneous
vel oci ty. The sl ope of the secant l i ne i s
3
2
2
1837762985
2
.
(b) Si nce s i s the posi ti on functi on, the vel oci ty, v(t), i s the deri vati ve. Use the
Product Rul e (and the Chai n Rul e) to get
v(t) 5 2si n
t
3
si n t 1
1
3
cos t cos
t
3
(c) Use your cal cul ators fnI nt functi on to fi nd the average val ue of v(t):
1
3
1
3 3
3 2
2
2
_
,
sin sin cos cos

t
t t
t
dt 5 .1837762985
Therefore, you can fi nd the average rate of change of a functi on two ways:
(1) cal cul ate the sl ope of the secant l i ne of i ts ori gi nal functi on, or (2) fi nd a
functi on that represents the rate of change and then cal cul ate the average
val ue of i t. Pi ck your favori te techni que. Col l ect em and trade em wi th your
fri ends!
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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www.petersons.com
U- SUBSTITUTIO N
Unti l thi s poi nt, you have been abl e to i ntegrate pai nful l y few thi ngs. For exampl e, you
can sol ve cosx dx
, but not cos5x dx
. I f you thought cos5x dx
= sin5x dx
, al l you
have to do i s take the deri vati ve (to check):
d
dx
x C x sin cos 5
1
5
5 +
( )
Si nce the resul t was not cos 5x, our anti deri vati ve of si n 5x doesnt check out. How-
ever, we were pretty cl ose.
I n order to i ntegrate thi ngs l i ke cos 5x or e
2
x, you need to empl oy a method cal l ed
u-substitution. Thi s method al l ows you to i ntegrate composi te functi ons, sort of l i ke
the Chai n Rul e al l owed you to di fferenti ate composi te functi ons. Heres a good rul e of
thumb: I f you woul d use the Chai n Rul e to take the deri vati ve of an expressi on, you
shoul d use u-substi tuti on to i ntegrate i t. How i mportant i s u-substi tuti on? I t i s al l
over the AP test, and i t i s an essenti al ski l l youl l use for the remai nder of the year.
Lets begi n by i ntegrati ng the above exampl es usi ng u-substi tuti on.
Example 11: I ntegrate the fol l owi ng:
(a) cos5x dx
I f thi s were cos x, you coul d i ntegrate i t. Therefore, we wi l l i ntroduce a new vari abl e,
u, l i ke so: u 5 5x. Thi s way, the expressi on wi l l become cos u, and we know the
i ntegral of cos ui t i s si n u. However, before we get ahead of oursel ves, we need to
fi nd the deri vati ve of u (wi th respect to x); thi s i s the al l -i mportant second step.
du 5 5 dx
We want to sol ve thi s for dx. Why? We wi l l be repl aci ng xs wi th us i n the i ntegral , so
we want to repl ace dxs wi th dus so al l the vari abl es match. Sol vi ng for dx i s very
easy:
du
dx
5

Now, substi tute u 5 5x and
du
dx
5
i nto the ori gi nal i ntegral to get
cosu
du
5
At thi s poi nt, you can pul l the

1
5
out of the i ntegral si nce i ts just a constant and the
resul t i s beauti ful :
1
5
cosu du
The i ntegral of cos u i s si n u, so you get

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NOTE
Remember, there is no
u-substitution without you.
Isnt that nice? Do you feel
all fuzzy inside? No? Me
neither, so get used to it.
www.petersons.com
1
5
si n u 1 C
However, your fi nal answer cant i ncl ude us si nce the ori gi nal probl em di dnt i ncl ude
us. To fi ni sh, substi tute i n the ori gi nal val ue for u, u 5 5x.
1
5
si n 5x 1 C
(b) e dx
x 2
We can i ntegrate e
x
, but not e
2x
. Because the 2x i s not a si ngl e vari abl e (whi ch we
want), we repl ace i t wi th a si ngl e vari abl e, u:
u 5 2x
du 5 2dx
Agai n, sol ve for dx so we can repl ace i t i n the i ntegral and make the vari abl es match.
du
dx
2

Now, substi tute i nto the i ntegral , make those xs a bad memory, and factor out that
1
2
.
e
du
u
2
1
2
e du
u
Nothi ng i s easi er to i ntegrate than e

u
! e e C
u u
+ .
1
2
e
u
1 C
Get everythi ng back to xs and youre fi ni shed.
1
2
e
2x
1 C
I f you dont feel confi dent that these answers are correct, take thei r deri vati ves and
check them.
So far, youve seen that u-substi tuti on can take the pl ace of the i nner functi on of a
composi te functi on and make the i ntegral si mpl er by repl aci ng that troubl esome i nner
functi on wi th a si ngl e vari abl e. But, thi s i s onl y one good use of u-substi tuti on. Often,
youl l see a compl ex i ntegral probl em wi th thi s speci fi c characteri sti c: part of the
i ntegral s deri vati ve i s al so i n the probl em. For exampl e, consi der thi s i ntegral :
ln x
x
dx
. Of the two pi eces i n the i ntegral , whose deri vati ve i s present? The answer i s
l n x. We can rewri te the i ntegral to l ook l i ke thi s:
ln x
x
dx
1
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The deri vati ve of l n x i s
1
x
, and i ts i n the i ntegral ! Why i s thi s i mportant? Watch
and see.
lnx
x
dx
Solution: Because, as we sai d above, l n x has i ts deri vati ve i n the i ntegral , we set i t
equal to u (and take the deri vati ve as we di d each ti me i n Exampl e 11).
u 5 l n x
du
x
dx
1
Thats why i ts i mportant that the deri vati ve was al so present. Because we coul d
rewri te the ori gi nal i ntegral expressi on as
ln x
x
dx
1
(as we showed above), we can now repl ace
1
x
dx wi th du. Why? Because we found out
they were equal when we di fferenti ated the statement u 5 l n x. By substi tuti on, our
ori gi nal i ntegral becomes
u du
Thi s i s real l y easy to i ntegrate:

u
C
2
2
+
Si mpl y repl ace the us wi th xs, and youre fi ni shed. The fi nal answer i s
ln x
C
( )
+
2
2
The hardest part of u-substi tuti on i s deci di ng what the u shoul d be. I f you try a few
thi ngs and they dont work, dont get di scouraged. Try other thi ngs. Eventual l y, youl l
fi nd somethi ng that works.
5 Ste p s to Suc c e ss with U- Sub stitution
Choose part of the i ntegral expressi on to be your u. Thi s i s the di abol i cal part. I f
youre deal i ng wi th a composi te functi on, you mi ght want to set u equal to the
i nner functi on. I f an expressi on f(x) and i ts deri vati ve f(x) are both i n a functi on,
set u equal to f(x). There are no hard and fast rul es. Practi ce i s the key.
Fi nd the deri vati ve of the u expressi on wi th respect to x(or whatever the vari abl e
present i s).
I f necessary, sol ve the deri vati ve you found i n step 2 for dx.
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NOTE
If you cant integrate by
simple means (like the
Power Rule for Integration),
immediately try
u-substitution. Make it your
on-deck batter.
www.petersons.com
Substi tute back i nto the ori gi nal i ntegral and i ntegrate.
Repl ace your us usi ng your ori gi nal u statement from number 1.
Example 13: Sol ve the fol l owi ng i ntegral s usi ng u-substi tuti on.
(a)
x
x x
dx
2
3
1
3
+
+
Thi s l ooks compl i cated. You mi ght try a coupl e of thi ngs for u, but i f you set u 5 x
3
1
3x, watch what happens:
du x dx +
( )
3 3
2
du
x dx
3
1
2
+
( )
The enti re numerator and the dx get repl aced wi th
du
3
, and the ori gi nal i ntegral
expressi on becomes
1
3
1
u
du
and you can i ntegrate thi s qui te easi l y.

1
3
lnu C +
1
3
3
3
ln x x C + +
(b)
tan
cos
x
x
dx
2
There are at l east two good ways to sol ve thi s, both usi ng u-substi tuti on.
Method One: Rewri te tan x as
sin
cos
x
x
.
sin
cos
x
x
3
u 5 cos x
du 5 2si n x dx
2du 5 si n x dx
1
3
u
du
u du
3
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TIP
If you cannot figure out
what u should be and the
integral expression is a
fraction, try to set u equal
to the denominator, as in
Example 13(a).
www.petersons.com
1
2
2
u C
+
1
2
2
cos x
C +
Method Two: Rewri te
1
2
cos x
as sec
2
x.
tan sec x x dx
2
u 5 tan x
du 5 sec
2
x dx
u du
u
C
2
2
+
tan
2
2
x
C +
Al though those answers do not i mmedi atel y l ook the same, they are equi val ent. I f you
need proof, here i t i s:
1
2
2
cos x
C +
1
2
2
sec x C +
Use Pappa to substi tute 1 1 tan
2
x for sec
2
x.
1
2
1
2
+
( )
+ tan x C
1
2 2
2
+ +
tan x
C
Real i ze that
1
2
1 C i s si mpl y another constant, or a di fferent C, and the expressi ons are
equal . There i s never a guarantee that two Cs are equal , even though we use the
same vari abl e to represent themC i s an arbi trary constant.
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www.petersons.com
tan
2
2
x
C +
You can al so use u-substi tuti on i n defi ni te i ntegral s. The onl y adjustment you must
make i s that your l i mi ts of i ntegrati on (whi ch are x l i mi ts) must become u l i mi ts. I ts
very easy to accompl i sh thi s.
Example 14: Eval uate 4 3 5
2 3
2
3
x x dx
Solution: Begi n by pul l i ng the constant 4 out of the i ntegral to get

4 3 5
2
2
3
3
x x dx
. Now, set u equal to the val ue i nsi de the radi cal .

u 5 3x
3
2 5
du 5 9x
2
dx
du
x dx
9
2
At thi s poi nt, i t i s i ncorrect to wri te

4
9
1 2
2
3
u
. The boundari es 2 and 3 are x bound-

ari es. We have to make al l the vari abl es match (whi ch i s why dx has to become du.)
Therefore, pl ug each of these x val ues i nto the u expressi on u 5 3x
3
2 5 to get the
correspondi ng u boundary:
u 5 3(2)
3
2 5 5 19
u 5 3(3)
3
2 5 5 76
Therefore, we can rewri te the ori gi nal i ntegral as
4
9
1 2
19
76
u du
I ntegrate and appl y the Fundamental Theorem to fi ni sh.

4
9
2
3
3 2
19
76
u
8
27
76 19 171 773
3 2 3 2

_
,
.
The l ast i mportant topi c of thi s secti on (and i t was a l ong one, wasnt i t?) i s i ntegrat-
i ng tri gonometri c functi ons. You al ready know the i ntegral s of si n x and cos x, but you
dont know the other four, and i ts i mportant that you know al l si x. I t i s actual l y qui te
easy to fi nd * tan x dx. I f you rewri te i t i n terms of si ne and cosi ne, you can i ntegrate
usi ng u-substi tuti on:
tan
sin
cos
x dx
x
x
dx

u 5 cos x, du 5 2si n x dx
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ALERT!
When you change the x
boundaries to u
boundaries, the lower
bound might end up higher
than the upper bound. If
this happens, dont panic
and dont change them!
Leave them as is, and
complete the problem.
TIP
It sometimes is useful to set
u equal to the part of your
integral that is raised to a
power. In Example 14, 3x
3
2
5 is raised to the
1
2
power.
www.petersons.com
2du 5 si n x dx
1
u
du
+ ln cos x C
You can i ntegrate cotangent i n a si mi l ar way to get
cot ln sin x dx x C
+
I ntegrati ng sec x and csc x are a l i ttl e more di ffi cul t and requi re a tri ck or two, so we
wont get i nto that. However, i t i s i mportant that you know what thei r i ntegral s are,
i f not where they came from:
sec ln sec tan x dx x x C
+ +
csc ln csc cot x dx x x C
+ +
Just l i ke you memori zed the deri vati ves of these functi ons, i ts equal l y i mportant to
memori ze thei r i ntegral s. Except for si ne and cosi ne, al l of the tri g i ntegral s contai n
l n. To hel p memori ze sec x dx
, remember i ts deri vati ve.

d
dx
x x x sec sec tan ( ) ,
and sec ln sec tan x dx x x C + +
.
One mul ti pl i es the terms, and the other adds them. The same goes for csc x. You real l y
shoul dnt need a tri ck to memori ze the i ntegral s for tan x and cot x; as youve seen
wi th tan x, they are very easy to fi nd wi th u-substi tuti on.
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www.petersons.com
EXERC ISE 7
Eval uate the fol l owi ng i ntegral s.
1. 3 14
0
3
x dx +
2.
sine
e
dx
x
x
3. cos sin
2
5 5 x x dx
4. csc cot
x x
dx
2 2 4
3
5. e x dx
x sin
cos
3
3
6.
x
x
dx
ln3 4
2
( )
( )
+

1. Thi s i s a composi te functi on, so set u 5 3x 1 14, the i nner functi on. (Thi s al so
fol l ows the earl i er ti p that somethi ng to a power can be the u.)
u 5 3x 1 14
Therefore, the deri vati ve i s du 5 3dx and
du
3
5 dx. The new u boundari es wi l l be
u 5 3(0) 1 14 5 14 and
u 5 3(3) 1 14 5 23
The i ntegral then becomes
1
3
1
3
2
3
2
9
23 14
1 2
3 2
3 2 3 2
14
23
14
23
u du
u
( )
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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2. Thi s i s a fracti on that contai ns a composi te functi on. The i nner functi on i s e
2x
, so
make that your u:
u 5 e
2x
2du 5 e
2x
dx
du
dx
e
x
The 2du wi l l repl ace the denomi nator as wel l as dx so you can i ntegrate.
sinu du
2(2cos u) 1 C
cos e
2x
1 C
3. The best u i n thi s probl em i s u 5 cos 5x. Therefore, du 5 25 si n 5x dx, and 2
1
5
du
5 si n 5x dx.
+
+
1
5
1
15
1
15
5
2
3
3
u du
u C
x C cos
4. Another composi te functi on: Set u
x
2
, so du 5
1
2
dx and 2du 5 dx. The new
u-boundari es wi l l be
u
u

3
4
2 6
2 8
and the new i ntegral wi l l be
2
2
2
6
2
8
8
6
8
6
csc cot
csc
csc csc .
u u du
u

+
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5. You coul d set u 5 si n 3x, but i f you set u 5 e
si n 3x
, watch what happens:
du 5 3e
si n 3x
z cos 3 x dx
du
e xdx
x
3
3
3

sin
cos
All of the i ntegral di sappears, to be repl aced wi th
du
3
.
1
3
du
Of course, the i ntegral of du i s u, so the answer i s

1
3
1
3
3
u C e C
x
+ +
sin
Thi s i s a great techni que for i ntegrati ng any ki nd of exponenti al functi on; i t
works l i ke magi c.
6. The
1
3 ln
i s merel y a constant we can pul l out of the i ntegral ; next, set u 5 x
2
1 4.
Thi s resul ts i n du 5 2x dx, and
du
2
= x dx. When you substi tute back you get
1
2 3
1
2 3
4
2
+ +
( )
ln
ln
ln
du
u
x C
Theres no need to use absol ute val ues for the natural l og, si nce x
2
1 4 wi l l al ways
be posi ti ve. You mi ght al so appl y l og properti es and wri te the answer as
1
9
4
2
ln
ln x C + +
( )
INTEG RATING INVERSE TRIG O NO M ETRIC FUNC TIO NS
You al ready know a l ot about i ntegrati ng i nverse tri gonometri c functi ons. I n fact, you
know so much that your parents pul l pi ctures of you from thei r wal l et and drone on and
on about your i nti mate knowl edge of arcsi n. I n fact, they wi sh you were goi ng out wi th
arcsi n i nstead of that no-good youre currentl y dati ng. Wel l , i ts ti me to gi ve them even
more to brag about.
You al ready know that
1
1
2
x
dx x C arcsin . However, a radi cal i n the denomi
-
nator does not have to contai n a 1, and the squared term does not have to be x
2
. You
can i ntegrate any expressi on of the form
1
2 2
a u
to get arcsi n
u
a
(where a i s a constant and u i s a functi on of x).
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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5
9
4
x
x
dx
Solution: Fi rst of al l , pul l that 5 out of the numerator. The numerator has to be 1,
accordi ng to the formul a above. Dont worry about the presence of the x for now. . . .
That wi l l take care of i tsel f l ater.
5
9
4
x
x
dx
We sti l l have the arcsi n form

a u
2 2
i n the denomi nator; a

2
5 9 and u
2
5 x
4
.
Therefore, a 5 3 and u 5 x
2
. The presence of a u remi nds you to do usubsti tuti on.
u 5 x
2
du 5 2x dx
Therefore,
du
2
wi l l repl ace the xdxi n the denomi nator when we substi tute. (See? I tol d
you the x woul d take care of i tsel f.)
5
2
2 2
du
a u
Accordi ng to the formul a above, thi s equal s arcsi n

u
a
, whi ch i s
5
2 3
2
arcsin
x
C +
Thats al l there i s to i t. Recogni ze the pattern of number variable
2 2
i n the
denomi nator, and i ts a good cl ue to try to i ntegrate usi ng arcsi n x. However, there are
two other patterns you want to memori ze as wel l (not fi ve, as you mi ght have feared).
Here are the remai ni ng two (and they l ook remarkabl y si mi l ar to the deri vati ves you
found earl i er i n the book).
1 1
2 2
a u
du
a
u
a
C
+
+
arctan
Pattern tolook for: The sum of a number and a vari abl e to a power i n the denomi nator.
1 1
2 2
u u a
du
a
u
a
C
arcsec
Pattern to look for: A radi cal i n the denomi nator and the di fference of a vari abl e to a
power and a number. Arcsec i s very cl ose to arcsi n, but the order of the subtracti on i s
reversednot to menti on the presence of that extra x i n the arcsec formul a.
Both of these formul as have a
1
a
i n front of the i nverse tri gonometri c formul a,
whereas arcsi n x does not. I t does not change the procedure at al l ; just dont forget i t.
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NOTE
You dont have to
memorize a pattern for
arccos x, arccot x, or
arccsc x, since their
patterns differ only by a
negative sign (remember
from the derivatives
section?). Dont even worry
about using them.
www.petersons.com
Example 16: I ntegrate the fol l owi ng:
(a)
2
2
3 6
4
x
x
dx
x
Thi s i s a job for arcsec. The u u a

2 2
pattern i s evi dent i n the denomi nator: u 5 x
3
and a 5 2. Dont forgetthe u remi nds you to do u-substi tuti on. I f u 5 x
3
, then du 5
3x
2
and
du
3
5 x
2
. Thi s gi ves you
2
3
2
3
1
1
3 2
2 2
3
du
u u a
a a
C
C
u
x
+
+
arc
arc
sec
sec
(b)
sin
cos
x
x
dx
( ) ( )
+
2
3
Thi s one may not l ook l i ke arctan, but i t i s. The denomi nator has the form u
2
1 a
2
,
where u 5 cos x and a 3
. The constant does not have to be a perfect square. Thi s
works exactl y the same way. Dont forget about u-substi tuti on, though. I f u 5 cos x,
du 5 2si n x, and 2du 5 si n x.
+
+
du
u a
a
u
a
C
2 2
1
arctan
+
1
3 3
arctan
cos x
C
You can rati onal i ze thi s, i f you wi sh, to get
+
3
3
3
3
arctan
cos x
C
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EXERC ISE 8
EVALUATE EAC H O F THE FO LLO WING WITHO UT A C ALC ULATO R.
1.
1
4 7
2
0
6
x +
2.
dx
x +
7
3.
4
64 16
2
dx
x
4.
tan
sin cot
x
x x
dx
2 2
16

1.
Thi s i s a cl ear arctan probl em wi th u 5 2xand a 5 =7. Therefore, du 5 2dxand
du
2
5 dx.
1
2
2 2
3
0
du
u a +
1
2 7
7
0
3
arc an t
u
_
,

1
2 7 3 7
arctan

2. You cannot use i nverse tri g formul as to sol ve thi s. I f you tri ed, you woul d have set
u 5
1
=x
, but the resul ti ng u-substi tuti on woul d have been i mpossi bl eyoud
need another
1
=x
i n the probl em. I nstead, thi s i s a si mpl e u-substi tuti on prob-
l em. Set u 5 x 1 7 and du 5 dx. You can then rewri te the i ntegral as
du
u
whi ch i s si mpl y
ln
ln

u C
x C
+
+ + 7
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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3. Thi s i s defi ni tel y an arcsi n probl em, but i ts much easi er i f you factor out a 16
from the denomi nator and si mpl i fy fi rst.
4
16 4
2
dx
x
dx
x 4
2
Thi s coul d hardl y be more strai ghtforward now. Set u 5 x and a 5 2, so du 5 dx

and the i ntegral becomes
du
a u
x
C
2 2
2
arcsin
4. Your i nsti nct shoul d tel l you that thi s i s an arcsec probl em, si nce there i s a
radi cal i n the denomi nator and the order of subtracti on i s variable 2 constant.
However, i f u 5 cot x, shoul dnt there be a cot xi n front of the radi cal to match the
correct denomi nator form of x x u
2 2
? Watch what happens when you rewri te
the tri g functi ons usi ng the reci procal i denti ti es:
csc
cot cot
2
2
16
x dx
x x

Now, i f u 5 cot x (and a 5 4), du 5 2csc

2
x dx, so 2du 5 csc
2
x dx. Rewri te the
i ntegral to get
du
u u a
2 2
whi ch i s the exact formul a for arcsec, and everybodys happy.
+
1
4 4
arcsec
cot x
C
TEC HNO LO G Y: EVALUATING DEFINITE INTEG RALS WITH
YO UR G RAPHING C ALC ULATO R
The fi nal of the four cal cul ator ski l l s (al so known as the four ski l l s of the apocal ypse by
those l acki ng technol ogi cal know-how)you are requi red to know for the APtest i s how to
cal cul ate a defi ni te i ntegral . As was the case wi th deri vati ves, the TI -83 cannot fi nd
symbol i c i ntegral s. I n other words, i t does not know that
x dx
x
C
2
3
3
+
. However, i t
can fi nd a darn good approxi mati on for the area beneath a curve. Al ways remember and
never forget that youl l have to be abl e to sol ve defi ni te i ntegral s wi thout your graphi ng
cal cul ator, so dont come to rel y so much on the tool that you forget the Fundamental
Theorem i n al l i ts gl ory.
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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www.petersons.com
Example 17: Eval uate x x
x
dx
1 3 4
2
6
2
1 /
_
,

Solution: Thi s was probl em 1(a) from the Fundamental Theorem probl em set; al -
though i t wasnt very hard, there are l ots of pl aces to make a mi stake. To use your
cal cul ator, press [Math], [9], or just press [Math] and arrow down to the 9
th
opti on,
fnI nt. The correct syntax for eval uati ng defi ni te i ntegral s on the TI -83 i s
fnI nt(integral,x,lower limit,upper limit)
Type thi s i nto your cal cul ator,
and you get 5,280.402. Are you convi nced that thi s i s the same thi ng as the answer we
got back i n the pre-cal cul ator day?
3
8
6
6
5
6
3
8
2
6
5
2
16 3
5 6
16 3 5 6
( )
_
,
( ) ( )
_
,

/
/
/ /
To make sure they are the same (i f you feel the need, are masochi sti c, or are, by
nature, dubi ous of others), you can type the above number i nto your cal cul ator, and
see what happens.
Oh, ye of l i ttl e fai ththeyre the same.
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EXERC ISE 9
YO U M AY USE A G RAPHING C ALC ULATO R FO R PRO BLEM S 11 THRO UG H 13 O NLY.
1. tan
2
x dx
2.
e
x
dx
x tan
sin 1
2
3.
f x dx ( )
0
3
10 and g x dx ( )
3
0
12 , eval uate the fol l owi ng:
(a)
g x f x dx ( ) ( ) ( )
3
0
3
(b)
f x dx ( ) + ( )
2
0
3
4. Eval uate
sin
1
4
5
x
x
dx
.
5. What i s the average val ue of the functi on v(x) 5 4
2sec x
z
sin
cos
x
x
2
on [0,
p
3
]?
6. Set up, but do not eval uate, x x dx
2
3
10
4 5
.
7.
I f j x y dy
x
( )
ln
cos
3
3
, j
_
,
4
= ?
8. What expressi on has an i ntegral of 3 3 ln m x C ( ) + , i f mi s a functi on of x?
9. tan sec ln cos x x dx
( )
10. The fol l owi ng graph, r(t), represents the rate of sal es of the Furby toy (i n
hundreds of thousands of toys per month) from January 1998 to June 1999.
(a) Wri te a defi ni te i ntegral that represents total sal es from February 1998 to
March 1999.
(b) Wri te, but do not eval uate, an expressi on that represents the average rate
of sal es over the enti re peri od of ti me.
(c) Where wi l l the graph of total sal es be concave up?
11. I f x
a
x
dx
b
1 3
2
2
11
_
,
(a and b are real numbers), fi nd a i n terms of b.

e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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www.petersons.com
12. I f i t takes NASCAR dri ver Dal e Jarrett 1 mi nute to compl ete a l ap around a track
and hi s speed i s measured every 10 seconds (i n mph) as i ndi cated bel ow, answer
the fol l owi ng.
(a) Accordi ng to mi dpoi nt sums and n 5 3 rectangl es, approxi matel y how l ong
i s one l ap on the track?
(b) What esti mati on of Dal es di stance travel ed i s gi ven by the Trapezoi dal
Rul e wi th n 5 6 trapezoi ds?
(c) Usi ng your resul ts from part (b), approxi mate Dal es average speed.
13. J ames Diabolical Challenge:A parti cl es vel oci ty over ti me (i n i nches/sec) as i t
moves al ong the x-axi s i s governed by the functi on v(t) 5 3t
2
2 10t 1 15.
(a) I f the parti cl es posi ti on at t 5 1 second i s 8 i nches, fi nd the exact posi ti on
equati on of the parti cl e, s(t).
(b) What i s the di stance travel ed by the parti cl e from t 5 0 sec to t 5 5 sec?
(c) At what ti me(s) from t 5 0 sec to t 5 5 sec i s the parti cl e travel i ng i ts
average vel oci ty?
1. I f you use the Pappa Theorem to rewri te tan
2
x as sec
2
x 2 1, you can easi l y
i ntegrate:
sec sec
tan
2 2
1 x dx xdx dx
x x C
( )

+

2. Another tri gonometri c substi tuti on i s needed i n thi s probl em. Accordi ng to the
Mamma Theorem, 1 2 si n
2
x 5 cos
2
x. Therefore, the i ntegral can be rewri tten as
sec
tan 2
x e dx
x
Thi s i s especi al l y useful si nce the deri vati ve of tan x i s sec

2
x, whi ch prods you to
use u-substi tuti on. I f u 5 tan x, du 5 sec
2
x dx:
e du e C
e C
u u
x
+
+
tan
3. Fi rst of al l , get the boundari es to match up. Accordi ng to defi ni te i ntegral prop-
erti es, g x dx ( )
0
3
12 .
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(a)
g x f x dx g x dx f x dx ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

3 3 12 3 10 42
0
3
0
3
0
3
(b) Thi nk about the graph of f(x) 1 2 when compared to f(x). The graph i s the
same, onl y moved up two uni ts. The effect i s demonstrated by the di agram
bel ow:
The new graph has an addi ti onal rectangl e of area 6 (l ength 3 and hei ght
2) beneath the ori gi nal area of 10. Therefore,
0
3
(f(x) 1 2)dx 5 16.

4. I f u 5 x
24
, then du 5 24x
25
dx, so
du
x
dx
4
1
5
. Thi s u-substi tuti on makes the
i ntegral
+ +
1
4
1
4
1
4
1
4
sin
cos cos
u du
u C
x
C
5. I n order to fi nd the average val ue, youl l need v x dx ( )
0
3
. Hopeful l y, your
i nsti nct i s pushi ng you toward u-substi tuti on. When i ntegrati ng exponenti al
functi ons, i ts best to set u equal to the enti re exponenti al functi on, so
u
du x x dx
du
x x
x
x
x

4
4 2 4
2 4
4
2
2
2
sec
sec
sec
sec tan ln
ln
sec tan

dx
That seems al l wel l and good, but where i s the sec x tan x i n the ori gi nal
probl em? Do you see i t? Rewri te
sin
cos
x
x
2
as
sin
cos cos
x
x x
1
, and the ori gi nal func-
ti on becomes
v(x) 5 4
2sec x
sec x tan x
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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Now i ts ti me to actual l y fi nd the average val ue of v:
v c
b a
v x dx
v c x x dx
a
b
x
( ) ( )
( )
1
1
3
4
2
0
3
sec
sec tan
Now, do the u-substi tuti on, as outl i ned above, to get
v c du ( )
3 1
2 4 16
256
ln
Dont forget to get the new boundari es of 16 and 256 by pl uggi ng 0 and
p
3
i nto the
u statement.
v c u
v c
( )
( ) ( )
3
16
3
16
240
16
256
ln
ln

6. The graph of x
2
2 4x2 5 wi thout the absol ute val ues i s a concave-up parabol a. To
fi nd the roots, factor and set each equal to zero. The roots are, therefore, 21
and 5.
The graph of x x
2
4 5 i s the same, except that i ts negati ve porti on fl i ps
above the x-axi s, as the absol ute val ue cannot have a negati ve output. Therefore,
to fi nd the area beneath the ri ght graph above, we wi l l fi nd the area beneath the
l eft graph and take the opposi te of the area between 21 and 5 (si nce that area
wi l l be negati ve as i t i s bel ow the x-axi s).
x x dx x x dx x x dx x x dx
2
3
10
2
3
1
2
1
5
2
5
10
4 5 4 5 4 5 4 5
( )

( )
+
( )

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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NOTE
If number 6 had asked for
*
3
10
~x
2
2 4x 2 5!dx, you
would not have taken the
opposite of the negative
signed area between x 5
21 and x 5 5. The absolute
value signs mandate that
all of the signed area must
be turned positive.
www.petersons.com
7. You shoul d use Fundamental Theorem Part Two. Pl ug i n the upper bound, and
mul ti pl y by i ts deri vati ve to get j(x):

( ) ( ) ( )
_
,
_
,
j x x x
j
ln cos sin
ln
3
3
4
2
2
2
2
8. Fi nd
d
dx
m x C 3 3 ln ( )
( )
+ ; whatever you get must i ntegrate to get the ori gi nal
expressi on. You dont have to worry about the absol ute val ue si gns at al l theyre
onl y there for the benefi t of the l n functi on.
3
1
3
3 3
9 3
3

( )
( )
( )
( )
m x
m x
m x
m x
9. Thi s probl em was much easi er i f you memori zed your tri g i ntegral s. Fi rst of al l ,
youd noti ce that tan x and i ts i ntegral s opposi te, l n cos x , are both i n the
expressi on. Therefore, you shoul d do a u-substi tuti on wi th u 5 ln cos x . That
makes du 5 2tan x dx, and 2du 5 tan x dx. The i ntegral now becomes
secu du
Youre not out of the woods yet! You sti l l have to remember what the i ntegral of
sec u i s. Are you thi nki ng that you shoul d have memori zed those si l l y thi ngs? Do
i t now!
+ +
+ +
( ) ( )
ln sec tan
ln sec ln cos tan ln cos
u u C
x x C
10. (a) Because the defi ni te i ntegral represents accumul ated change, i t gi ves you
total sal es (not total rate of sal es or anythi ng wei rd l i ke that). I f January 1998 5
0, then February 1998 5 1 and March 1999 5 15, and the correct defi ni te i ntegral
i s r t dt ( )
1
15
.
(b) The average rate of change over the i nterval [0,18] i s
1
18 0
18
( )
r t dt.
(c) r(t) i s the rate of change, or deri vati ve, of the total sal es functi on. Therefore,
the total sal es functi on wi l l be concave up whenever r(t) i s i ncreasi ng, whi ch i s on
the i nterval [0,12].
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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11. Use the Fundamental Theorem i n order to eval uate the defi ni te i ntegral :
x ax dx
x
a
x
b
a
b
a
b
b
1 3
4 3
4 3 4 3
2
2
2
11
3
4
11
3
4
3
4
2
2
11

+
+ +
( )
_
,
_
,
_
,
Al l that remai ns i s to sol ve the equati on for a:

a
b
b
a
b
b
1 1
2
11
3
4
2
11 2
4 3 4 3
4 3 4 3
3
4
1 1
2

_
,
( )
( )
12. (a) We can assume that Dal e stuck to the i nner l anes as much as possi bl e to cut
down on hi s ti me, so you are basi cal l y fi ndi ng the l ength of the i nnermost
l ane of the track, si nce the defi ni te i ntegral of vel oci ty i s di stance travel ed.
Before you begi n, you must standardi ze the uni ts. Si nce the speed i s i n mph,
you shoul d transform the seconds i nto hours to match. For exampl e, si nce
there are 60
2
5 3,600 seconds i n an hour, 10 seconds are equal to
10
3,600
=
1
360
hours. I f you convert al l the ti mes, the chart becomes
Usi ng mi dpoi nt sums, the wi dth of each i nterval wi l l be
x
b a
n

1
60
3
1
180
. The mi dpoi nts of the i nterval s occur at t 5 10, 30,
and 50 seconds, or
1
360
,
1
120
, and
1
72
hours. Therefore, the mi dpoi nt sum i s
gi ven by
1
180
98 225 228 3 061 + + ( ) . miles.
(b) The Trapezoi dal Rul e esti mati on for thi s probl em i s
1
60
12
0 2 98 2 117 2 225 2 233 2 228 241
1
720
2043 2 8375
+ + + + + +
( )
. miles.
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NOTE
Even though you are only
given velocity values and
not the actual velocity
function, you are still
approximating the area
beneath the velocity
function in 12(a) and (b).
Therefore, we call that
mystery function v(t) in
12(c), even though we
dont know what it is.
www.petersons.com
(c) Dal es average speed i s the average val ue of the vel oci ty functi on. The fact
that speed i s the absol ute val ue of vel oci ty i s i rrel evant i n thi s probl em, as
Dal es vel oci ty i s al ways posi ti ve.
Averagespeed =
1
1
60
0
1 60
v t dt ( )
/
I n part (b), you found that v t dt ( ) .
/
2 8375
0
1 60
. Pl ug thi s val ue i nto the
average speed formul a.
Averagespeed 5 60 z 2.8375 ' 170.250 mph
13. (a) Si nce posi ti on i s the i ntegral of vel oci ty, you know that
s(t) 5 t
3
2 5t
2
1 15t 1 C
But, you al so know that s(1) 5 8, so pl ug that i nto the functi on to fi nd C.
s(1) 5 1
3
2 5 z 1
2
1 15 z 1 1 C 5 8
1 2 5 1 15 1 C 5 8
C 5 23
Therefore, the exact posi ti on equati on i s
s t t t t ( ) +
3 2
5 15 3
(b) The di stance travel ed i s not just v t dt ( )
0
4
! That gi ves you the total displace-
ment of the functi on. I f the parti cl e changes di recti on and comes back toward
the ori gi n, your answer wi l l be wrong. For exampl e, i f the parti cl e moves
ri ght 15 i nches unti l t 5 3 and then moves l eft 8 i nches from t 5 3 to t 5 5, the
defi ni te i ntegral above wi l l gi ve a resul t of 7 i nches, whereas the parti cl e
real l y moved 15 1 8 5 23 i nches. So, you have to make sure the parti cl e does
not change di recti on on [0,5]. How do you do that? Dust off the wi ggl e graph.
s(t) 5 v(t) 5 3t
2
2 10t 1 15 5 0
Lucki l y, v(t) .0, and the parti cl e never stops or turns backward (accordi ng to
i ts graph). Therefore, the total di stance travel ed wi l l be
3 10 15 75
2
0
5
t t dt +
( )

inches
I n fact, because the parti cl e never turns around, you coul d say that the total
di stance travel ed i s s(5) 2 s(0), where i t stopped mi nus where i t started,
whi ch i s 78 2 3 5 75.
(c) The average vel oci ty i s the average val ue of the vel oci ty functi on (most of
whi ch youve al ready fi gured out):
1
5
3 10 15
1
5
75 15
2
0
5
( )
t t dt
in/ sec
When i s the parti cl e actual l y travel i ng at a rate of 15 i n/sec? Set the vel oci ty
equati on equal to 15, and sol ve.
3 10 15 15
3 10 0
0
10
3
2
2
t t
t t
t
+

,
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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www.petersons.com
SUM M ING IT UP
The thi rd major topi c of cal cul us (l i mi ts and deri vati ves are the two) i s integra-
tion or antidifferentiation.
You can onl y pul l coeffi ci ents out of i ntegral s.
Al though the Power Rul e for I ntegral s i s rel ati vel y easy, i t i s al so easy to make
mi stakes when the exponents are fracti ons or have negati ve powers. Be careful .
I f you ever wonder when to cal cul ate area and when to cal cul ate signed area,
when computi ng defi ni te i ntegral s, i ts always si gned area.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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www.petersons.com
Advanced Methods of
Integration
O VERVIEW
M isc e lla ne ous m e thod s of inte g ra tion
Pa rts ( BC top ic only)
Powe rs of trig onom e tric func tions ( BC top ic only)
Pa rtia l fra c tions ( BC top ic only)
Im p rop e r inte g ra ls ( BC top ic only)
Te c hnolog y: Dra wing d e riva tive a nd inte g ra l g ra p hs with
your c a lc ula tor
Sum m ing it up
Occasi onal l y, youl l encounter an i ntegrati on probl em that smel l s l i ke troubl e.
AB students need onl y compl ete the fi rst secti on of thi s chapter, whereas BC
students have to pl od al l the way through i t. Happy trai l s.
M ISC ELLANEO US M ETHO DS O F INTEG RATIO N
Most of the i ntegrati on on the AP test i s done usi ng the Power Rul e and
u-substi tuti on. Occasi onal l y, the test wri ters (whi l e devi ousl y twi sti ng thei r
thi n moustaches) wi l l throw i n a tri cky i ntegral or two and cackl e uproari ousl y.
I ntegrati on i s unl i ke di fferenti ati on i n a fundamental way: Usi ng the Power,
Product, Quoti ent, and Chai n Rul es, you can di fferenti ate just about anythi ng
that comes your way. I ntegrati on requi res many more methods, some of whi ch
onl y work i n very speci fi c ci rcumstances. However, dont be di scouraged. Bel ow
are fi ve thi ngs you can try i f al l el se has fai l ed and you si mpl y cannot i ntegrate
the probl em at hand. One of these wi l l hel p you i f nothi ng el se can.
Use a trigonometric substitution
Al though the probl em cot
2
x dx
l ooks just about as i mpossi bl e as can be,

you can use the Baby Theorem to rewri te cot
2
x and change the i ntegral to
csc
2
1 x dx
( )
. Thi s i s substanti al l y easi er because i t i s now possi bl e. I n the

same way, tan x dx
was i mpossi bl e unti l we rewrote i t as

sin
cos
x
x
dx
and used
u-substi tuti on. I f the probl em i s tri gonometri c, youve got opti ons.
Split up the integral
I f an i ntegral l ooks too compl i cated, rewri te i t i n pi eces, i f possi bl e. I n the case
of a fracti on, rewri te each term of the numerator over the denomi nator, as i n
the fol l owi ng exampl e.
c
h
a
p
t
e
r
8
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
315
x
x
dx
2
9
2
Solution: Al though the denomi nator certai nl y l ooks l i ke an arcsi n i s i n your future,
the numerator makes thi ngs too compl i cated. However, spl i t thi s i nto two separate
fracti ons, and the work i s hal f done.
x
x
dx
dx
x 9
2
9
2 2

Lets do the l eft i ntegral fi rst by u-substi tuti on. I f u 5 9 2 x
2
, du 5 22xdx, and

du
xdx
2
.
+
+
1
2
1
2
2
9
1 2
1 2
2
u du
u C
x C
The second i ntegral i s an arcsi n probl em wi th a 5 3 and u 5 x. Si nce du 5 dx, you
have
+ 2
3
arcsin
x
C
Therefore, the fi nal answer i s
+
_
,
+ 9 2
3
2
x
x
C arcsin
Long division
I f the i ntegral at hand i s a fracti on made up of pol ynomi al s, and the degree of the
numerator is greater than or equal to thedegreeof thedenominator, you can use l ong
di vi si on on the probl em before you begi n to si mpl i fy the i ntegral :
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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TIP
If none of these techniques
works, theres always
weeping, cursing, and
breaking things. Although
they wont help you solve
the problem, youll feel a
whole lot better when
youre through.
www.petersons.com
x x
x
3
2
1
1

+
Solution: Because the degree of the numerator i s greater than (or equal to) the
degree of the denomi nator, you can si mpl i fy the probl em by l ong di vi si on fi rst:
We are not fi ni shed by any means, but our i ntegral can now be rewri tten as
x
x
x
dx
+
+
_
,
2 1
1
2
. I n order to fi ni sh thi s probl em, youl l have to separate i t i nto pi eces,
just as you di d i n Exampl e 1. Once separated, you get
xdx
x
x
dx
x
dx

+

+
2
1
1
1
2 2
Youl l use the Power Rul e for I ntegral s, u-substi tuti on, and arctan, respecti vel y, to
sol ve thi s, and the fi nal answer wi l l be
x
x x C
2
2
2
1 +
( )
+ ln arctan
Complete the square
Thi s techni que i s useful when you have quadrati c pol ynomi al s i n the denomi nator of
your i ntegral and, typi cal l y, onl y a constant i n the numerator. Once you compl ete the
square, you are abl e to defaul t back to an i nverse tri g formul a.
3
2 8 10
2
x x
dx
+ +
Solution: The quadrati c i n the denomi nator and no vari abl es i n the numerator al ert
us to compl ete the square. To do so, youl l have to factor 2 out of the terms i n the
denomi nator (si nce the x
2
must have a coeffi ci ent of 1).
3
2
1
4 5
2
x x
dx
+ +
When you compl ete the square, youl l add

1
2
2
4
( )
and subtract i t i n the denomi nator
to ensure that the val ue of the fracti on does not change.
3
2
1
4 4 5 4
3
2
1
2 1
2
2
x x
dx
x
dx
+ + +
+ ( ) +
C ha p te r 8: Ad va nc e d M e thod s of Inte g ra tion 317

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NOTE
Dont forget you are
subtracting the entire
second integral. Thats why
it is negative.
NOTE
When you add C 1 C, you
do not get 2C. Since each
C is some number, when
you add them, youll get
some other number, which
we also call C. Handy, eh?
ALERT!
When using long division,
remember to use place
holders of 0 for terms that
are not present, like 0x
2
or 0x.
www.petersons.com
Thi s i s now a pretty easy arctan functi on wi th u 5 x1 2, du 5 dx, and a 5 1. The fi nal
answer i s
3
2
2 arctan x C + ( ) +
Add and subtract (or multiply and divide) the same thing
Thi s exerci se mi ght sound frui tl ess. I f you add and subtract the same thi ng, you get
zero. Whats the poi nt? I n the above exampl e, you saw how addi ng and subtracti ng 4
al l owed you to compl ete the square. So, i ts not a compl ete waste of ti me. Thi s method
i s used most often when you are tryi ng to do a u-substi tuti on and the probl em wont
cooperate wi th you. I f you need somethi ng i n the probl em that i snt there to fi ni sh a
u-substi tuti on, why not just add i t ri ght i n (as l ong as you remember to subtract i t as
wel l ).
dx
e
x
+
1
Solution: We cant compl ete the square (not a quadrati c denomi nator), we cant l ong
di vi de (thats just crazy), we cant do a tri g substi tuti on, we cant separate (we can
onl y separate terms i n the numeratorthe expressi on
1 1
1
e
x
+
i s not the same as
1
1 e
x
+
), and u-substi tuti on comes up short. What are we to do? Try u-substi tuti on
agai n, and force i t.
Lets set u 5 e
x
1 1, so du 5 e
x
dx. Weve got a probl em: There i s no e
x
dx present i n the
numeratoronl y the dx i s there. So, we wi l l add and subtract e
x
i n the numerator
l i ke so:
1+
+
e e
e
dx
x x
x
1
(Dont forget that there was a 1 i n the denomi nator to start wi th. I t wasnt 0dx up
there.) I f we spl i t thi s i ntegral up, somethi ng magi cal transpi res.
1
1 1
+
+

+

e
e
dx
e
e
dx
x
x
x
x
The fi rst fracti on cancel s out, si nce the numerator and denomi nator are equal . The
second fracti on i s i ntegrated wi th a si mpl e u-substi tuti on of u 5 e
x
1 1. After taki ng
these steps, you get
1dx
du
u

and the fi nal answer wi l l be
x e C
x
+
( )
+ ln 1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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TIP
You should leave off the
absolute value signs around
the ~e
x
1 1! since e
x
has to
be positive, and that value
only becomes more
positive when you add 1.
www.petersons.com
EXERC ISE 1
DO NO T USE A G RAPHING C ALC ULATO R TO INTEG RATE THE FO LLO WING .
1.
x
x x
dx
2
5 9 + +
2.
4
6 12
2
+
x x
dx
3.
x x
x
dx
3
4 3
2
+ +
4. Each of the fol l owi ng i ntegral s vari es just sl i ghtl y from the others. However, each
requi res a compl etel y di fferent i ntegrati on method. Di scuss the method you
woul d use to begi n each.
(a)
1
3 10
2
x x
dx
+ +
(b)
x
x x
dx
2
3 10 + +
(c)
x
x x
dx
3
2
3 10 + +

1. (Thi s ones pretty tough.) I f you set u 5 x
2
1 5x 1 9, du 5 (2x 1 5)dx. I n order to
use u-substi tuti on, the numerator needs to be 2x1 5. Fi rst, get the 2xup there by
mul ti pl yi ng by 2 and
1
2
at the same ti me:
1
2
2
5 9
2
x
x x
dx
+ +
Now, you can add and subtract 5 to get that requi red 2x 1 5:
1
2
2 5 5
5 9
2
x
x x
dx
+
+ +
Spl i t the i ntegral up now

1
2
2 5
5 9
5
2
1
5 9
2 2
x
x x
dx
x x
dx
+
+ +

+ +

and the fi rst pi ece can be sol ved by u-substi tuti on (now that you have arranged
i t). The second i ntegral requi res you to compl ete the square.
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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www.petersons.com
1
2
1 5
2
1
5 9
2
25
4
25
4
u
du
x x
dx

+ + +
1
2
5 9
5
2
1
2
5
2
2
11
4
ln x x C
x
dx + +
( )
+
+
( )
+
ln arctan x x
x
C
2
5
2
5 9
5
11
2
11
+ +
+
( )
+
2. Thi s i s a compl eti ng-the-square questi on. Begi n by factori ng the negati ve out of
the fi rst two terms i n the denomi nator so that the coeffi ci ent of x
2
i s 1:
4
1
1 6 12
2
( ) +
( )
+
x x
dx
Now, compl ete the square i n the denomi nator:
4
1
1 6 9 12 9
2
( ) + +
( )
+ +
x x
dx
Even though i t l ooks l i ke you are addi ng 9 twi ce, remember that the 9 i n
parentheses gets mul ti pl i ed by that 21, so i ts real l y 29.
4
1
21 3
2
+ ( )
x
dx
Thi s i s the arcsi n form wi th a 21 and u 5 x 1 3. Si nce du 5 dx, you can
rewri te the i ntegral as
4
1
2 2
a u
du
and the answer i s

4
3
21
arcsin
x
C
+
+
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www.petersons.com
3. The numerator degree i s l arger, so use l ong di vi si on (or even syntheti c di vi si on
si nce the denomi nator i s a l i near bi nomi al ).
Ei ther way, the quoti ent i s x x
x
2 19
2
2 8 + + +
. So, the i ntegral can be rewri tten as

x x dx
x
dx
2
2 8 19
1
2
+ +
( )
+

whi ch you can i ntegrate usi ng the Power Rul e and a u-substi tuti on of u 5 x 2 2
to get
x
x x x C
3
2
3
8 19 2 + + + + ln
4. (a) Because the denomi nator i s a quadrati c wi th a constant numerator, you wi l l
compl ete the square i n the denomi nator to i ntegrate.
(b) You wi l l use u-substi tuti on to i ntegrate, wi th u 5 x
2
1 3x 1 10. Si nce du 5
(2x 1 3)dx, youl l have to make the numerator match i t, as you di d i n
number 1.
(c) Because the degree of the numerator i s greater than that of the denomi nator,
l ong di vi si on wi l l be your fi rst step. I have a si nki ng feel i ng that there wi l l be
other methods requi red before that one i s done, though.
PARTS ( BC TO PIC O NLY)
I ntegrati on by parts i s a techni que based compl etel y on the Product Rul e. However, i ts
unl i kel y that youl l recogni ze that fami l i ar and happy rul e once were done mangl i ng i t.
Thi s i ntegrati ng method was made famous i n the movi e StandandDeliver, when Jai me
Escal ante stands i n front of the chal kboard and chants Come on, i ts ti c-tac-toe. That
smal l cameo rol e catapul ted i ntegrati on by parts to fame, and i t eventual l y ended up on
General Hospital pl ayi ng a handsome gangster doctor. However, one day, everyone
noti ced i t was just a math formul a, and i t was i mmedi atel y fi red. The formul a i s sti l l
very bi tter.
Wel l begi n by usi ng the Product Rul e to fi nd the deri vati ve of the expressi on uv,
where both u and v are functi ons:
d uv u v v u ( ) + , or
d uv u dv v du ( ) +
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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www.petersons.com
I f you i ntegrate both si des of the equati on, you get
uv u dv v du +

Fi nal l y, sol ve thi s for u dv
and you get the formul a for i ntegrati on by parts:

u dv uv v du

The focus of thi s method i s spl i tti ng your di ffi cul t i ntegral i nto two parts: a u and a dv
l i ke the l eft si de of the above equati on. The u porti on must be somethi ng you can
di fferenti ate, whereas the dv must be somethi ng you can i ntegrate. After that, i ts al l
downhi l l .
Example 5: Eval uate x x dx cos
Solution: None of the methods weve di scussed so far can handl e thi s baby. Wel l use
parts i nstead. Fi rst of al l , set u 5 x (because you can easi l y fi nd i ts deri vati ve) and
dv 5 cos x dx (because you can easi l y fi nd i ts i ntegral ). I ts true that you coul d have
set u 5 cos x and dv 5 x dx, but i f at al l possi bl e, you shoul d choose a u whose
deri vati ve, i f you kept taki ng i t agai n and agai n, woul d eventual l y equal 0. The
deri vati ve of cos x wi l l jump back and forth between cos x and si n x wi thout ever
becomi ng 0.
Si nce u 5 x, du 5 dx, and i f dv 5 cos x dx, v x dx x
cos sin . (Dont worry about

1 Cs for nowwel l take care of them l ater.) Accordi ng to the parts formul a,
u dv uv v du

and we know what u, du, v, and dv are, so pl ug them i n.
x x dx x x x dx cos sin sin

Our ori gi nal i ntegral , on the l eft, equal s (and can be rewri tten as) the expressi on on
the l eft, whi ch contai ns a very si mpl e i ntegral i n sin x dx
. The fi nal answer i s

x si n x 1 cos x 1 C
I f you dont bel i eve that thi s i s the answer, take i ts deri vati ve, and you get
x cos x 1 si n x 2 si n x 5 x cos x
whi ch i s the ori gi nal i ntegral .
That wasnt so bad, was i t? Someti mes, however, i ts l ess ti dy. For exampl e, i f you
are i ntegrati ng x x dx
2
cos
by parts, youd set u 5 x

2
and dv 5 cos x dx. Therefore,
du 5 2xdx and v 5 si n x. Accordi ng to the formul a,
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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NOTE
Youll see why its important
to pick a u that, through
differentiation, eventually
becomes 0 in Example 6.
www.petersons.com
x x dx x x x x dx
2 2
2 cos sin sin

Do you see whats troubl i ng i n thi s equati on? You cannot i ntegrate x si n x dx easi l y. I n
fact, guess what method youl l have to use? Parts! Youl l have to set asi de the x
2
si n x
porti on for now and expand the i ntegral usi ng the parts formul a agai n, thi s ti me
setti ng u 5 x and dv 5 si n x dx. These sorts of thi ngs happen when the du term i snt
somethi ng pretty and fri l l y l i ke 1, as i t was i n Exampl e 5. But dont gi ve up hope
theres a handy chart you can use to i ntegrate by parts that feel s l i ke no work at al l .
The onl y l i mi tati on i t has i s that the u term must eventual l y di fferenti ate to 0.
Example 6: Eval uate x x dx
2
cos
Solution: To set up the chart, make a u col umn, a dv col umn, and a col umn l abel ed
1/2 1. I n the fi rst row, l i st your u, your dv, and a 11. I n the second row, l i st du, v,
and a 21. I n the thi rd row, take another deri vati ve, another i ntegral , and change
the si gn agai n. Conti nue unti l the u col umn becomes 0, but take the si gns col umn one
row further than that. (Youl l see why i n a second).
Now draw di agonal arrows begi nni ng at the x
2
and conti nui ng down and to the ri ght.
Do thi s unti l you get to the 0 term. Mul ti pl y each of the terms al ong the arrow (for
exampl e, i n the fi rst arrow, you mul ti pl y x
2
si n x 11) to get a term i n the answer
(x
2
si n x). You wi l l make three arrows i n thi s chart, so the answer has three terms.
(Mul ti pl yi ng anythi ng by 0 resul ts i n 0, so theres no need for a fourth arrow.) The
fi nal answer i s
x
2
si n x 1 2x cos x 2 2 si n x 1 C
Thi s method i s preferred by students. I n fact, l ook how easy Exampl e 5 i s i f you use
the chart:
x si n x 1 cos x 1 C
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TIP
You always start the signs
column with a 11 sign.
www.petersons.com
However, as wonderful as the chart i s, i ts not so handy when the u terms deri vati ve
does not eventual l y become 0. The fi nal exampl e i s about as compl i cated as i ntegra-
ti on by parts gets.
Example 7: Eval uate e x dx
x
sin
.
Solution: I ts wi se to choose u 5 si n x and dv 5 e
x
dx, si nce the i ntegral of dv i s very
easy. I f you do so, du 5 cos x dx and v 5 e
x
.
e x dx e x e x dx
x x x
sin sin cos

Thi s i s unfortunate. We have to use parts agai n to eval uate the new i ntegral . Sti ck
wi th i t, thoughi t wi l l pay off. For now, wel l i gnore the e
x
si n x (even though i t wi l l
be part of our eventual answer) and focus on e x dx
x
cos
. As before, we set u 5 cos x

and dv 5 e
x
dx; so, du 5 2si n x dx and v 5 e
x
.
e x dx e x e x dx
x x x
cos cos sin +

Watch careful l y now. The ori gi nal i ntegral , e x dx
x
sin
, i s equal to e
x
si n x mi nus
what we just found e x dx
x
cos
to be:
e x dx e x e x e x dx
x x x x
sin sin cos sin +
( )

I t l ooks hopel ess. The ori gi nal probl em was e x dx
x
sin
, and that same expressi on

appears again on the ri ght si de of the equati on! Heres what you do: di stri bute that
negati ve si gn on the ri ght-hand si de and add e x dx
x
sin
to both si des of the

equati on.
2 e x dx e x e x
x x x
sin sin cos
To get your fi nal answer, just di vi de by 2.

e
x
x dx
e x e x
x x
sin
sin cos

2
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www.petersons.com
EXERC ISE 2
1. x x dx
2
4 sin
2. 10x x x dx sec tan
3. e x dx
x
cos
4. x e dx
x 3
5. lnx dx
(Hint: So far, you know of no easy i ntegral for l n x.)

1. I f u 5 x
2
and dv 5 si n 4x dx, the deri vati ve of u wi l l eventual l y become 0, so you
can use a chart to fi nd the i ntegral .
+ + +
1
4
4
1
8
4
1
64
4
2
x x x x x C cos sin cos
2. I ts smart to put dv 5 sec x tan x dx, si nce the resul ti ng v i s sec x. Therefore,
u 5 10x and du 5 10dx. Use a chart or the formul a; ei ther works fi ne.
10 10 10 x x x dx x x x dx sec tan sec sec

+ + 10 10 x x x x C sec ln sec tan
3. Thi s one i s tri cky, l i ke Exampl e 7. Let u 5 cos x and dv 5 e
x
dx; therefore,
du 5 2si n x dx and v 5 e
x
.
e x dx e x e x dx
x x x
cos cos sin +

The ri ghtmost i ntegral must be eval uated usi ng parts agai n, thi s ti me wi th
u 5 si n x (du 5 cos x dx) and dv 5 e
x
dx (v 5 e
x
).
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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e x dx e x e x dx
x x x
sin sin cos

Therefore, the ori gi nal i ntegral becomes
e x dx e x e x e x dx
x x x x
cos cos sin cos +

Add e x dx
x
cos
to both si des of the equati on to get

2 e x dx e x e x
x x x
cos cos sin +
e x dx
e x e x x
x x
cos
cos sin
+
2
4. Thi s baby i s a pri me candi date for the chart, wi th u 5 x
3
and dv 5 e
x
dx.
e
x
(x
3
23x
2
1 6x 26) 1 C
5. I f you dont know an i ntegral for l n x, then you cannot set i t equal to dv. So,
u 5 l n x and du 5
1
x
dx. Therefore, the dv must be dx; i ts the onl y thi ng l eft! I f
dv 5 dx, then v 5 x.
ln ln
ln
ln
x dx x x x
x
dx
x x dx
x x x C

+
1
POWERS OF TRIGONOM ETRIC FUNCTIONS ( BC TOPIC ONLY)
I f weve done anythi ng, weve done a l ot of tri gonometri c i ntegrati on, so heres a l i ttl e
more to throw on the top of the pi l e. I n thi s secti on, you l earn a few more copi ng
strategi es for when al l of our other methods fai l . These methods, l i ke others weve
covered, often hel p out when u-substi tuti on does not quitework out. The fi rst of these i s
somethi ng I cal l the Odd Man Out Rule, and i t works for si ne and cosi ne.
Odd Man Out Rule: I f an i ntegral contai ns posi ti ve powers of si ne and cosi ne, and
onl y one of the powers i s odd, keep one of the odd-powered factors and convert the rest
to the other tri gonometri c expressi on usi ng the Mamma Theorem. I s there anythi ng
your Mamma cant do?
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NOTE
This is not universally called
the Odd Man Out Rule,
so dont refer to it as such
on the test; this rule has no
universally accepted name.
www.petersons.com
Example 8: Eval uate sin cos
2 3
x x dx
.
Solution: I n thi s i ntegral , cos x i s the odd man out, si nce i t has the odd power of the
two factors. Therefore, we want to l eave behi nd onl y one cos x and convert the other
cosi nes to si nes (trul y maki ng cos x the odd man out).
sin cos cos
2 2
x x x dx
The Mamma Theorem tel l s you that cos

2
x 5 1 2 si n
2
x, so repl ace the cos
2
x to get
sin sin cos
2 2
1 x x x dx
( )

Di stri bute the si n
2
x and the cos x to both terms, and spl i t the i ntegral to get
sin cos sin cos
2 4
x x dx x x dx

Now, you can perform u-substi tuti on i n each expressi on wi th u 5 si n x to get

u u
C
x x
C
3 5
3 5
3 5
3 5
+
+
sin sin
What i f you have only si nes or cosi nes i n the probl em and not both? I n thi s case, you
cannot count on the odd man out to hel p wi th u-substi tuti on. I f thi s occurs, you wi l l
have to resort back to the power-reduci ng formul as from way back i n Chapter 2. Once
appl i ed, they make the probl em al most a tri vi al pursui t.
Example 9: Eval uate sin
2
x dx
.
Solution: The power-reduci ng formul a for si n
2
x i s
1 2
2
cos x
so you can substi tute
that i nto the i ntegral and factor out
1
2
.
1
2
1 2 ( )
cos x dx
Spl i t the i ntegral up,
1
2
1
2
2 dx x dx

cos
and use u-substi tuti on (wi th u 5 2x) to i ntegrate cos 2x.
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1
2
1
4
2 x x C + sin
The fi nal rul e for tri gonometri c powers works for secants and tangents i n the same
i ntegral . I cal l i t the Steven and Todd Rule, si nce i t has to do wi th secants bei ng even
and tangents bei ng odd.
Steven andToddRule: I f an i ntegral contai ns posi ti ve powers of secant and tangent
and the power of secant i s even, save a sec
2
x and convert the remai ni ng secants to
tangents usi ng Pappa. I f, however, the power of tangent i s odd, save a sec x tan x and
convert the remai ni ng tangents to secants usi ng Pappa.
Thi s mi ght be the opposi te of your fi rst i nsti ncts. I f you are focusi ng on an even power
of secant, you are prepari ng a sec
2
xterm, whi ch i s the deri vati ve of tangent. I f you are
focusi ng on the odd power of tangent, then you are prepari ng a sec x tan x term, the
deri vati ve of secant. However backward i t may seem, i t works l i ke a charm.
Example 10: Eval uate tan sec
2 4
x x dx
.
Solution: Steven i s i n thi s probl em, wavi ng to you, eati ng a hotdog, and wai ti ng unti l
you see hi m (si nce secant i s even). Therefore, you prepare a sec
2
x term and convert
the remai ni ng sec
2
x term to 1 1 tan
2
x usi ng Pappa.
tan sec
tan tan sec
2 2
2 2 2
1
x x x dx
x x dx
sec
2
+
( )
Di stri bute the tan
2
x sec
2
x, and spl i t the i ntegral to get
tan sec tan sec
2 2 4 2
x x dx x x dx

+
Use u-substi tuti on wi th u 5 tan x to fi ni sh.
u u
C
x x
C
3 5
3 5
3 5
3 5
+ +
+ +
tan tan
Thi s answer l ooks haunti ngl y si mi l ar to Exampl e 8, and thats no real coi nci dence.
Odd Man Out and Steven-Todd are techni ques that set you up for a si mpl e
u-substi tuti on and di ffer onl y i n very mi nor ways.
There may be i nstances i n whi ch you cannot use any of the techni ques outl i ned here.
Do not pani c. Try some ol d-fashi oned el bow grease, and experi ment unti l somethi ng
works. Break the i ntegral i nto smal l er pi eces, and bri ng Mamma, Papa, and Baby i nto
the pi cture.
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TIP
If the problem had
contained sin x to an odd
power, you would have left
a sin x behind and
converted the remaining
sines to cosines using
Mammathe same
procedure.
www.petersons.com
Example 11: Eval uate cos
3
x dx
.
Solution: No u-substi tuti on i s possi bl e yet. I f you set u 5 cos x, theres no si ne to hel p
out on the du. So, l ets i ntroduce a si ne (or two) i nto the probl em wi th Mamma.
cos cos cos
sin cos
cos sin cos
3 2
2
2
1
x dx x x dx
x x dx
x dx x x dx

( )

The l eft i ntegral i s easy, and the ri ght i ntegral i s a si mpl e u-substi tuti on (u 5 si n x).
sin
sin
x
x
C +
3
3
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www.petersons.com
EXERC ISE 3
EVALUATE THE FO LLO WING WITHO UT A G RAPHING C ALC ULATO R.
1.
cos sin
2 3 3
x x dx
2. tan sec
3 5
x x dx
3. tan sec x x dx
6
4. cos
4
x dx
5. csc cos
3 3
x x dx

1. You need to use the Odd Man Out Rul e for thi s i ntegral (even though the cosi ne
i s to a wei rd power). Save a si n x, and transform the remai ni ng si n
2
x to
(1 2 cos
2
x):
cos cos sin
cos sin cos sin .
/
/ /
2 3 2
2 3 8 3
1 x x x dx
x x dx x x dx

( )
Both of these i ntegral s requi re u-substi tuti on wi th u 5 cos x (dont forget that
du 5 2si n dx).
+ +
3
5
3
11
5 3 11 3
cos cos
/ /
x x C
2. I ts Todd (tangent i s odd), so save a sec x tan x term and transform al l the
tangents to secants usi ng Pappa.
sec tan tan sec
sec tan sec sec
sec sec tan sec sec tan
x x x x dx
x x x x dx
x x x dx x x x dx

( )
( )
( )

2 4
2 4
6 4
1
Now, use u-substi tuti on wi th u 5 sec x to fi ni sh.
sec sec
7 5
7 5
x x
C +
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3. Both Steven and Todd are i n thi s probl em, so you can do the probl em ei ther way.
However, Todd provi des the easi er way (si nce savi ng a sec x tan x term l eaves no
other tangents to transform to secants). Bri ng i t home, Todd.
sec sec tan
5
x x x dx
Use u-substi tuti on wi th u 5 sec x (just as i n number 2).

sec
6
6
x
C +
4. There i s no si ne i n thi s probl em to hel p wi th u-substi tuti on. So, do we use the
techni que of Exampl e 9 or Exampl e 11? Because the power i s even, wel l use the
techni que of Exampl e 9, where the power al so was even.
cos cos
4 2
2
x dx x dx
( )

Now, use the power-reduci ng formul a for cos
2
x.
1 2
2
1
4
1 2
1
4
1 2 2 2
2
2
2
2
+ ( )
+ ( )
+ +
( )
cos
cos
cos cos
x
dx
x dx
x x dx
The fi rst two i ntegral s are easy, but you have to use another power-reduci ng
formul a for cos
2
2x. Lets focus on that for a moment. (Dont forget the
1
4
that
needs to be di stri buted to each i ntegral easy and hard al i ke.)
1
4
2
1
4
1 2 2
2
1
8
1 4
2
cos
cos
cos
xdx
x
dx
x dx
+ ( )
+ ( )
Al l together (dont forget the two easy i ntegrati on terms above), the answer i s
1
4
1
4
2
1
8
1
32
4
3
8
1
4
2
1
32
4
x x x x C
x x x C
+ + + +
+ + +
sin sin
sin sin
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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www.petersons.com
5. Hol y smokes, thi s doesnt match a si ngl e one of the techni ques weve covered! To
begi n, rewri te as si ne and cosi ne to see i f thi ngs get any easi er.
cos
sin
cot
3
3
3
x
x
dx
x dx

That l ooks a l i ttl e more compact, i f nothi ng el se. Thi s, however, l ooks a l ot l i ke
Exampl e 11; i n fact, i t di ffers by onl y a si ngl e l etter. Try that techni que on a
whi m, and see what pans out.
cot cot
cot csc
cot csc cot
x x dx
x x dx
x x dx x dx

2
2
2
1
( )
The l eft i ntegral i s a u-substi tuti on, and you shoul d have the ri ght i ntegral
memori zed.
+
cot
ln sin
2
2
x
x C
PARTIAL FRAC TIO NS ( BC TO PIC O NLY)
I ntegrati on by parti al fracti ons i s a method used to si mpl i fy i ntegral s based on a very
cool tri ck. The tri ck i s so uni que that i t tends to sti ck wi th you, so you shoul dnt have any
troubl e rememberi ng how i ts done come test ti me. Thats good news, especi al l y si nce
the test i s such a hi gh-pressure si tuati on that most peopl e forget i mportant thi ngs, such
as what thei r name i s, when the Magna Carta was si gned, what the current exchange
rate i s between major worl d currenci es, and what exactl y that l i ttl e symbol i s that
became The Arti st Formerl y Known as Pri nces new name.
Parti al fracti on decomposi ti on al l ows you to break a rati onal (fracti onal ) expressi on
i nto the sum of a coupl e of smal l er fracti ons. Heres the great thi ng: The denomi nators
of the smal l er fracti ons are the factors of the ori gi nal denomi nator. The numerators of
those smal l er fracti ons are just constants. I ts your job to fi nd out what they are
exactl y.
x
x x
dx
+

3
2 9 5
2
.
Solution:You may be tempted to try a u-substi tuti on wi th u 52x
2
29x25 and to try
and force the numerator i nto du 5 (4x 2 9)dx (as we di d earl i er i n thi s chapter).
However, you shoul d use parti al fracti ons becausethedenominator is factorable.
x
x x
dx
+
+ ( )( )
3
2 1 5
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Parti al fracti on decomposi ti on tel l s us that
x
x x
A
x
B
x
+
+

+
+
( )( )
3
2 1 5 2 1 5
I n other words, we can fi nd two constants A and B such that the sum of the two ri ght
fracti ons equal s the l arger fracti on on the l eft. How do you do that? Fi rst, el i mi nate
the fracti ons by mul ti pl yi ng both si des of the above equati on by (2x 1 1)(x 2 5).
x 1 3 5 A(x 2 5) 1 B(2x 1 1)
Now, di stri bute the constants.
x 1 3 5 Ax 2 5A 1 2Bx 1 B
Youre al most fi ni shed; factor the x out of the Ax and 2Bx terms.
x 1 3 5 (A 1 2B)x 2 5A 1 B
Stop and l ook at that for a second. I f the two si des are equal , then A 1 2B (the
coeffi ci ent of the x on the ri ght si de) must be equal to 1 (the coeffi ci ent of the x on the
l eft si de). Si mi l arl y, 25A 1 B must equal 3. Therefore, you get the system of equa-
ti ons:
A 1 2B 5 1
25A 1 B 5 3
Use whatever techni que you want to si mul taneousl y sol ve these equati ons (l i near
combi nati on, substi tuti on, matri ces, etc.) to fi gure out that A
5
11
and B
8
11
.
Therefore,
x
x x
x x
+
+

+
+
( )( )
3
2 1 5
2 1 5
5
11
8
11
and i nstead of i ntegrati ng the ugl y l eft si de, we can i ntegrate the sl i ghtl y l ess ugl y
ri ght si de.
+
+

5
11
1
2 1
8
11
1
5 x
dx
x
dx
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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NOTE
When you integrate by
partial fractions on the AP
test, the denominators will
always have linear factors.
This technique is slightly
modified when the factors
have higher degrees, but
you dont have to worry
about that for the AP test.
www.petersons.com
Use u-substi tuti on i n each i ntegral wi th u 5 the denomi nator of each and the resul t i s
+ + +
5
22
2 1
8
11
5 ln ln x x C
or i f you feel l i ke getti ng common denomi nators and goi ng nuts wi th l og properti es,
you can rewri te as
ln
x
x
C
_
,
+
5
2 1
22
16
5
I have no i dea why you woul d ever want to do that, but hey, whatever fl oats your boat.
I n concl usi on, you shoul d i ntegrate by parti al fracti ons i f you can factor the denomi -
nator. Create a sum of new fracti ons such that the denomi nators of the new fracti ons
are the factors of the ori gi nal denomi nator and the numerators of the new fracti ons
are constants. Once you determi ne what those constants must be, al l that remai ns i s
to i ntegrate the stri ng of smal l er fracti ons, whi ch i s typi cal l y very easy.
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TIP
Even though the A and B
ended up looking kind of
gross, integrating was still
quite easy. Thats why
integrating by partial
fractions is so great.
www.petersons.com
EXERC ISE 4
DO NO T USE A C ALC ULATO R WHEN YO U INTEG RATE THE FO LLO WING .
1.
x
x x
dx
+ +
3
9 20
2
2.
x
x x
dx
+

2
2 8
2
3.
4
3 14
2
x x
dx
+
4.
2 1
6
3 2
x
x x x
dx
+
+

1. The denomi nator factors to (x 1 4)(x 1 5); to begi n parti al fracti ons, you set up
the fol l owi ng equati on:
x
x x
A
x
B
x
+ +
+
+ +
3
9 20
2
4 5
Mul ti pl y through by (x 1 4)(x 1 5) to el i mi nate fracti ons, and then fi nd A and B.
x 2 3 5 A(x 1 5) 1 B(x 1 4)
x 2 3 5 (A 1 B)x 1 5A 1 4B
Thi s resul ts i n the system of equati ons:
A 1 B 5 1 and 5A 1 4B 5 23
A 5 27, B 5 8
The ori gi nal i ntegral now becomes
+
+
+
+ + + +

7
1
4
8
1
5
7 4 8 5
x
dx
x
dx
x x C ln ln
2. Thi s probl em does not requi re parti al fracti ons. I f you factor the denomi nator, the
fracti on si mpl i fi es.
x
x x
dx
x
dx
+
+
( )( )
2
4 2
1
4
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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www.petersons.com
Thi s i s an easy u-substi tuti on probl em i f u 5 x 2 4.
ln x C + 4
3. You can pul l the 4 out of the i ntegral i f you want (and repl ace i t wi th a 1), but that
doesnt make the probl em si gni fi cantl y easi er. Because there i s no x i n the
numerator, i ts coeffi ci ent must be 0 (thatl l be i mportant i n a few seconds).
Factori ng the denomi nator may be the hardest part of thi s probl em.
4
3 14
3 7 2
4 2 3 7
4 3 2 7
2
x x
A
x
B
x
A x B x
A B x A B
+

+
+
+ +
+ + +
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
Thi s l eads to the system A 1 3B 5 0 and 22A 1 7B 5 4, whose sol uti on i s
A
12
13
and B
4
13
.
+
+

12
13
1
3 7
4
13
1
2 x
dx
x
dx
+ + +
4
13
3 7
4
13
2 ln ln x x C
4. The denomi nator has three factors thi s ti me, but the techni que stays exactl y
the same.
2 1
6 3 2
2 1 3 2 2 3
2 1 6 2 3
2 1 2 3 6
3 2
2 2 2
2
x
x x x
A
x
B
x
C
x
x A x x Bx x Cx x
x A x x B x x C x x
x A B C x A B C x A
+
+
+
+
+
+ + + + +
+ + + + +
+ + + + +
( )( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
The onl y constant term on the ri ght i s 26A, so 26A 5 1 and A 5 2
1
6
. There i s no
squared term on the l eft, so (after substi tuti ng i n the val ue of A) you have the
system
+ + +
+ +
1
6
0
1
6
2 3 2
1
6
2 3
13
6
B C B C
B C B C
and
and
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www.petersons.com
After sol vi ng the system, you get A 5 2
1
6
, B 5 2
1
3
, and C 5
1
2
, maki ng the i ntegral

+
+
+ + +

1
6
1 1
3
1
3
1
2
1
2
1
6
1
3
3
1
2
2
x
dx
x x
x x x C ln ln ln
IM PRO PER INTEG RALS ( BC TO PIC O NLY)
I mproper integrals are bi zarre i ntegral s that have at l east one of the three fol l owi ng
qual i ti es: (1)one of the l i mi ts of i ntegrati on i s i nfi ni ty, (2)the curve bei ng i ntegrated has
an i nfi ni te di sconti nui ty between the l i mi ts of i ntegrati on, or (3) the i ntegral has an
obsessi on for frui t-scented candl es. As the fi nal condi ti on i s often di ffi cul t to measure,
most mathemati ci ans are sati sfi ed wi th the fi rst two.
Consi der the i ntegral
1
9 0
3
2
x
. The upper l i mi t of i ntegrati on causes the expressi on
to be undefi ned. How can you fi nd the area beneath a curve when x 5 3 i f the curve
doesnt exi st at 3? Thi s i s an i nteresti ng questi on. To counter the di l emma, we wi l l
eval uate the limit as x approaches 3. To be compl etel y mathemati cal l y accurate, we
wi l l eval uate the l i mi t as xapproaches 3 fromtheleft (si nce those l eft-hand val ues are
i n our i nterval of [0,3] but the ri ght-hand val ues are not).
1
9
2 0
3
x
dx
Solution: Si nce the i ntegrati on l i mi t of 3 causes troubl e, you substi tute a constant
(we wi l l use b si nce i t i s the upper l i mi t) for i t and rewri te the i ntegral as fol l ows:
lim
b
b
x
3
2 0
1
9
For now, i gnore the l i mi t and eval uate the i ntegral .
lim arcsin
lim arcsin arcsin
|
b
b
b
x
b
_
,
_
,
3
0
3
3
3
0
3
Si nce arcsi n 0 5 0, the i ntegral i s si mpl y arcsi n
b
3
. I ts ti me to bri ng that l i mi t back
i nto the pi cture (to eval uate i t, you just substi tute 3 i n for b).
lim arcsin arcsin
arcsin
b
b
3 3
3
3
1
2
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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www.petersons.com
As you can see, the method was qui te easy. The probl em l i mi t i s repl aced by a
constant, and you l et that constant approach the probl em l i mi t. The next exampl e
i nvol ves another tri cky i ntegrati on boundary, but the resul ti ng l i mi t i s a l i ttl e more
compl i cated.
Example 14: Eval uate lnx dx
0
1
.
Solution: Thi s i s an i mproper i ntegral because l n x has an i nfi ni te di sconti nui ty
when x 5 0. Therefore, we repl ace the 0 boundary wi th a constant as fol l ows:
lim ln
a
a
x dx
_
,
0
1

We know the i ntegral of l n x from probl em 5 of the i ntegrati on by parts secti on.
ln ln x dx x x x C +
lim ln
lim ln
lim ln
|
a
a
a
a
x x x
a a a
a a a

+
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
0
1
0
0
1 0 1
1

Now i ts ti me to l et a approach 0. The onl y di ffi cul t part of the above i s
lim ln
a
a a
+
0

.
Di d you noti ce that thi s i s the i ndetermi nate form of
0
? You can rewri te the
l i mi t as
lim
ln
a
a
a
+
0
1
and appl y LHpi tal s Rul e. Thi s i s the onl y di ffi cul t step i n the probl em, but i ts a
doozy. I f you fi nd the deri vati ve of the numerator and denomi nator, you get

whi ch i s defi ni tel y 0. That el i mi nates the hardest part of the expressi on.
lim ln
a
a a a
+
+ ( )
0
1
lim
a
+
( )
0
1 0 0 1
The fi nal answer i s 21. I f thi s seemed l i ke a bunch of smoke and mi rrors rather than
a real magi c tri ck, eval uate the i ntegral wi th your graphi ng cal cul ator to see that
were ri ghtremember that the cal cul ator onl y gi ves you an approxi mati on!
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NOTE
The fact that we were
finding the limit from the left
really didnt affect the
integral at all.
www.petersons.com
We have yet to di scuss the other major type of i mproper i ntegral an i ntegral that
actual l y has ` as one of the l i mi ts of i ntegrati on. Youl l be gl ad to hear that the process
used to sol ve those i ntegral s i s i denti cal to the process we have used i n the previ ous
two exampl es.
1
4
1
x
dx
.
Solution:You may thi nk that the answer i s automati cal l y `. We are i ntegrati ng from
x 5 1 al l the way to x 5 `, for goodness sakes! Can a shape wi th an i nfi ni te boundary
have a fi ni te area? Thi s one wi l l . (I hope I di dnt rui n the suspense. I f you thi nk I di d,
the answer i s
1
3
so there, I rui ned even more of the suspense.)
The fi rst step to sol vi ng thi s probl em i s to i ntroduce a constant i n pl ace of the
troubl esome boundary.
lim
b
b
x dx
_
,
4
1
I ntegrate as usual and then appl y the l i mi t.
lim
lim
|
b
b
x
b
b
_
,
_
,
1
3
1
3
1
3
3
1
3
As b goes to i nfi ni ty, 3b
3
wi l l become mega-gi ganti c, whi ch makes
1
3
3
b
real l y ti ny, or
essenti al l y 0.
0 1
1
3
Therefore, the defi ni te i ntegral i s equal to
1
3
, and I m sorry I rui ned the surpri se.
Exampl e 15 hi ghl i ghts a very i mportant characteri sti c of i mproper i ntegral s. Any
i mproper i ntegral of the form
1
0
x
dx
p
(where the exponent p i s a real number) wi l l al ways converge (resul t i n a fi ni te or

numeri cal answer) i f p . 1. I f, however, p 1, the i ntegral wi l l not have a numeri cal
answer (the correspondi ng area i s i nfi ni te), and the i ntegral i s termed divergent.
Therefore, you can tel l wi thout any work that
1
0
2
x
dx
converges (al though youl l

have to work i t out to determi ne the actual val ue), whereas
1
0
x
dx
wi l l di verge.
Thi s i s someti mes cal l ed the p-test.
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TIP
Not all shapes with infinite
boundaries have finite
area. If the area is not
finite, the integral is said to
diverge, whereas a finite
integral is said to converge.
www.petersons.com
The fi nal thi ng the AP test expects you to do wi th i mproper i ntegral s i s to compare
them wi th other i mproper i ntegral s. I n such cases, the test wi l l not ask you to
eval uate an i ntegral but rather ask you to determi ne i ts convergence or di vergence.
Rather than spendi ng the ti me to i ntegrate these, i ts best to fi nd an i ntegral that i s
extremel y si mi l ar to those that are much easi er to work wi th.
Example 16: Does e x dx
x
sin
0
converge or di verge?
Solution: Compare thi s to e dx
x
0
(whi ch i s si mi l ar but much easi er to i ntegrate).
Because the range of si n x i s [21,1], mul ti pl yi ng e
2x
by si n x wi l l never gi ve you a
resul t l arger than e
2x
. The most you are mul ti pl yi ng e
2x
by i s 1, and that wi l l return
the same val ue (of course). Otherwi se, you are mul ti pl yi ng e
2x
by a number smal l er
than one, and the resul t wi l l be l ess than e
2x
. Therefore, we can unequi vocal l y
say that
e x dx e dx
x x

sin
0 0
Why i s thi s i mportant? We can show that e
x
0
i s a fi ni te area, so i f the ori gi nal
area i s l ess than a fi ni te area, i t must al so be a fi ni te area and, therefore, converge.
Al l that remai ns i s to actual l y show that e
x
0
i s fi ni te through i mproper
i ntegrati on.
lim
lim
lim
|
b
x
b
b
x b
b
b
e dx
e
e e
( )
+
( )
0
0
0
2e
2`
i s essenti al l y 0 (to vi sual i ze thi s, graph 2e
x
and l et x approach 2`), but e
0
equal s 1, so the l i mi t i s
0 1 1 5 1
Because e dx
x
0
converges, then e x dx
x
sin
0
(bei ng smal l er) must converge.
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NOTE
For fans of bathroom
humor, it should come as
no surprise that the p-test
relies so heavily on number
one. I will not elaborate...
www.petersons.com
EXERC ISE 5
USE A G RAPHING C ALC ULATO R TO C HEC K YO UR WO RK O N THESE PRO BLEM S
O NLY.
For probl ems 1 through 4, determi ne whether or not the i mproper i ntegral s converge; i f
they do, eval uate them.
1.
1
1
3
1
0
x
dx
+
2.
1
6 8
2
2
0
x x
dx
+ +
3.
1
1 2
3
x
dx
+
4.
dx
x
2 3
0
5. Determi ne whether or not

+
1 6
dx
e
x
converges by compari ng i t to another,
si mpl er i mproper i ntegral .
1. The l ower l i mi t of i ntegrati on, 21, i s the troubl emaker here. Repl ace i t wi th a
constant and eval uate the l i mi t:
lim
a a
x
dx
+
+
1
3
0
1
1
To i ntegrate, use u-substi tuti on wi th u 5 (x 1 1):
lim
lim
|
a
a
u du
u
a
a
+
+
+
+
_
,
1
1
1 3
1
1
2 3
1
1
3
2
Dont forget the u boundari es.
lim
/
a
a
+
+ ( )
_
, 1
2 3
3
2
3
2
1
When you eval uate the l i mi t, you essenti al l y pl ug 21 i n for a to get
3
2
2 0 5
3
2
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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www.petersons.com
2. I f you factor the denomi nator i nto (x 1 4)(x 1 2), you can see that the i ntegrati on
l i mi t of 22 wi l l cause the fracti on to be undefi ned, maki ng the i ntegral i mproper.
lim
a
x x
dx
a
+
+ + ( )( )
2
1
4 2
0
Youl l have to use parti al fracti ons to i ntegrate.
1
4 2 4 2
2 4 1
2 4 1
x x
A
x
B
x
A x B x
x A B A B
+ +

+
+
+
+ + +
+ + +
( )( )
( ) ( )
( )
Thi s creates the system A 1 B 5 0 and 2A 1 4B 5 1. The sol uti on to the system
i s A 5 2
1
2
and B 5
1
2
. Substi tute these i nto the expanded i ntegral and sol ve to get
lim ln ln
|
a
x x
a
+
+ +
_
,
2
1
2
2
1
2
4
0
There i s sti l l a probl em, however. When you substi tute 22 i nto ln x + 2 , the
expressi on i s sti l l undefi ned. Our method coul d not correct the probl ems i nherent
i n the i ntegral , so the i ntegral i s di vergent.
3. The i nfi ni te di sconti nui ty i n thi s i ntegral does not occur at the endpoi nts but
rather when x 5 21. However, you need the di sconti nui ty to exi st at an endpoi nt
to use the method youve practi ced and know so wel l . Therefore, you can rewri te
the i ntegral (usi ng a property of defi ni te i ntegral s) as a sum of smal l er i ntegral s,
each wi th 21 as a l i mi t of i ntegrati on:
1
1
1
1
1
1 1
3
2
1
2
3
x
dx
x
dx
x
dx
+

+
+
+

Each of these i ntegral s needs to be done separatel y.
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
2
1
2
x
dx
x
dx
x
b
b
b
b
+
+
+
lim
lim ln
|
As you conti nue to sol ve thi s, you wi l l end up wi th l n (21 1 1) 5 l n 0, whi ch i s
undefi ned. Therefore, thi s i ntegral i s di vergent. (The same probl em wi l l occur as
you i ntegrate the second i ntegral .)
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4. Repl ace that i nfi ni te boundary wi th a constant and i ntegrate.
lim
lim
lim
|
b
b
b
b
b
x dx
x
b
_
,
( )
2 3
1 3
1 3
0
0
3
3 0
The functi on 3b
1/3
(three ti mes the cube root functi on) wi l l grow i nfi ni tel y l arge
as b`, so thi s i ntegral di verges.
5. Compare thi s i ntegral to
dx
e
x
1
. Because e
x
1 6 . e
x
,
1
6
1
e e
x x
+
<
. Therefore, i f
you can prove
dx
e
x
1
has a fi ni te area (and i s thus convergent), our ori gi nal

i ntegral must al so be convergent.
lim
lim
lim
|
b
x
b
b
x b
b
b
e dx
e
e e
( )
+
1
1
1
You know from Exampl e 16 that
lim
b
b
e
0
lim
b
e
e
1
1
Therefore, the ori gi nal i ntegral
dx
e
x
+
6
1
must al so converge.
TEC HNO LO G Y: DRAWING DERIVATIVE AND INTEG RAL
G RAPHS WITH YO UR C ALC ULATO R
I n past chapters, you were asked to descri be characteri sti cs of functi ons based on the
graphs of thei r fi rst and second deri vati ves. Your cal cul ator (al though sl ow) i s abl e to
draw a functi ons deri vati ve or i ntegral graph, even i f you cannot fi gure out what i t i s.
Thi s i s not an extraordi nari l y useful tool for the AP test, but i t gi ves you an i nfi ni te
amount of practi ce drawi ng the graphs of deri vati ves and i ntegral s (and sol vi ng each
one for you).
Example 17: Draw the graphs of *cos x dx and
d
dx
x cos ( ).
Solution: You al ready know what the i ntegral of cos x i si ts si n x. However, the
process you use wi th any functi on wi l l be the same. Before we begi n, l ets set up a good
[Wi ndow] for thi s probl em. Press [Zoom]Ztri g, and then adjust the [Wi ndow] so
that Xmi n i s 0 and Xmax i s 4p. Thi s wi l l set up a very pretty wi ndow for cos x.
Now, go to the [Y5] screen and assi gn Y
1
5 cos (x). We want Y
2
to be the graph of the
i ntegral , so i ts equati on i s
Y
2
5 fnI nt(Y
1
,x,0,x)
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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Thi s i s the area beneath the Y
1
curve wi th respect to x from x 5 0 to x 5 whatever the
current x i s. I n other probl ems, you may want to adjust the l ower l i mi t of i ntegrati on
(i n thi s exampl e 0) to match the Xmi n val ue on your graph.
I ts al so a good i dea to darken the graph of the i ntegral so you can tel l them apart.
Press [Graph], wai t a bi t, and the graph of the i ntegral sl owl y scrawl s i tsel f across the
axes. No bi g surpri se here; i ts the graph of si n x, the i ntegral of cos x.
I f you want to draw the deri vati ve of cos x, enter
Y
2
5 nDeri v(Y
1
,x,x)
Just as we suspected, the graph of the deri vati ve of cos x i s the hori zontal refl ecti on of
si n x, or 2si n x.
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NOTE
This chapter doesnt need
a specific technology
component, so an
unrelated but important
calculator topic is included.
NOTE
In order to get Y
1
into the
equation of Ysb2, press
[Vars] Y-vars
Function... Y
1
.
www.petersons.com
I f you are sti l l confused about the rel ati onshi p between a graph and i ts deri vati ves,
thi s techni que can gi ve you al l the practi ce you need. Make up any functi on at al l , and
enter i t as Y
1
. Predi ct, based on that graph, what i ts i ntegral and deri vati ve graphs
l ook l i ke, and use the above commands to check yoursel f.
Example 18: Show that l n x gets i ts val ue by accumul ati ng area beneath
1
x
.
Solution: Enter Y
1
5
1
x
. Remember that l n x gets i ts val ue from the accumul ati on
functi on
ln x
x
dx
x
_
,
1
1
So, Y
2
5 fnI nt(Y
1
,x,1,x). Make sure to set your Xmi n to a number sl i ghtl y l arger than
0 (si nce 0 i s undefi ned for
1
x
). I chose a val ue of .001 for Xmi n.
Thi s acti vi ty sheds a whol e new l i ght on why l n x i s negati ve from x 5 0 to x 5 1: l n x
i s based on an i ntegral wi th i nverted l i mi ts of i ntegrati on on that i nterval . For exampl e,
ln
1
2
1
1
1 2
x
dx
Because those l i mi ts are backward (wi th the l arger l i mi t i n the l ower posi ti on), the
resul t i s negati ve (based on a property of defi ni te i ntegral s).
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EXERC ISE 6
DO NO T USE A G RAPHING C ALC ULATO R O N A SING LE, SO LITARY O NE O F THESE
PRO BLEM S.
Eval uate each of the fol l owi ng i ntegral s, i f possi bl e.
1.
1
1+
cos x
dx
*2.
x
x x x
dx
2
3 2
1
7 6
*3. x x dx ln
*4.
6
6
2
6
+
x
x
dx
5. sec tan
2 5
x x dx
6.
x dx
x

+
3
7.
x x x
x
dx
3 2
6 2 4
7
+ +
+
*8. cos sin

4 3
3 3 x x dx ( ) ( )

*9.
x x dx sin
1
*10.J ames Diabolical Challenge: x x dx

4
3 cos
*a BC-only question.
1. The best way to i ntegrate thi s i s usi ng a method cal l ed the conjugate. I t hasnt
been i ncl uded unti l now because i t i s much easi er than the other methods. To
appl y i t, mul ti pl y the numerator and denomi nator by the conjugate of the de-
nomi nator (1 2 cos x); you wi l l get
1
1
2
cos
cos
x
x
dx
Use Mamma to change the denomi nator and spl i t the i ntegral i nto two parts.
1
2 2
2
2
sin
cos
sin
csc
cos
sin
x
dx
x
x
dx
xdx
x
x
dx


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TIP
Although no one
integration method is
extremely difficult, it can be
tricky trying to decide
which one to use. Make
sure you know why and
when to use the methods
youre using.
www.petersons.com
The fi rst i ntegral i s easy, and the second i s a si mpl e u-substi tuti on (wi th u 5
si n x).
+
+ +
+ +
cot
cot
cot csc
x u du C
x
u
C
x x C
2
1
2. Thi s i s not a l ong-di vi si on probl em because the degree of the denomi nator i s
greater than the degree of the numerator. I nstead, because the denomi nator i s
factorabl e, you shoul d use parti al fracti ons.
x
x x x
A
x
B
x
C
x
x A x x Bx x Cx x
x x A B C x A B C A
2
2 2
2 2
1
1 6
1 6
1 7 6 6 1
1 7 6 6
+ + +
+ + + +
( )( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
Therefore, A 5 2
1
6
, B 5 0, and C 5
7
6
. The i ntegral i s now wri tten as
+
+ +

1
6
1 7
6
1
6
1
6
7
6
6
x
dx
x
dx
x x C ln ln
3. I ntegrati on by parts i s the way to go here. I ts best to set u 5 l n x; al though you
probabl y have memori zed i ts i ntegral , youd have to i ntegrate twi ce i f you set
dv 5 l n x, so that rul es out the chart. I nstead, set u 5 l n x and dv 5 xdx, whi ch
makes du =
1
x
dx and v =
x
2
2
.
x x dx
x x
xdx
x xdx
x x x
C
ln
ln
ln
ln

+

2
2 2
2
1
2
2 4
4. (Thi s i s a toughi e.) Thi s i s an i mproper i ntegral si nce the boundary of 6 wreaks
havoc i n the denomi nator.
lim
b
b
x
x
dx
6
2
6
6
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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The best method to use i s the conjugate method (si nce the denomi nator i s a
radi cal surroundi ng a bi nomi al ). Mul ti pl y the top and bottom of the fracti on by
6 + x to get
lim
b
x
x
dx
b
6
6
36
2
2
Thi s i ntegral must be broken i nto two parts. Wel l sol ve them one at a ti me. The
fi rst i s
lim
lim arcsin
arcsin
b
b
x
dx
x
b
b
_
,
_
,
6
6
6
1
36
6
6
2
6 1
2 2
6
1
3
6
2
6
1
3
3 6
1
3
arcsin
arcsin
arcsin
The second i ntegral i s compl eted usi ng u-substi tuti on.

lim
lim
b
b
b
x
x
dx
u x du xdx
du
xdx
_
,
6 2
6
36
36 2
2
2
2
, ,
_
,
_
,
1
2
3
1 2
32
36
2
1 2
32
36
2
6
6
u du
u
b
b
b
b
lim
lim
|
66 32
32
2
+
( )
b
The fi nal answer i s the sum of the two i ntegral s:
3 6
1
3
32 + arcsin
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5. Thi s i s a si mpl e u-substi tuti on probl em; BC students can al so use Steven or Todd
(al though Steven, i n thi s case, i s essenti al l y u-substi tuti on).
u x du xdx
u du
x
C

+
tan sec
tan
,
2
5
6
6
6. There are two good ways to do thi s. I f you use l ong di vi si on (si nce the degrees of
top and bottom are equal ), you get
1
3
3
3 3
+
+ +
_
,
x
dx
x x C ln
whi ch i s qui te easy. You can al so do a bi zarre u-substi tuti on. I f you set u 5 x 1 3,
du 5 dx and the i ntegral becomes
x du
u

How do you get ri d of that pesky x i n the numerator? Remember that you just set
u 5 x 1 3. Therefore, x 5 u 2 3. I f you substi tute that val ue i n for x, you get
u
u
du
3
whi ch can be spl i t up, resul ti ng i n
du
u
du
u u C
x x C
x x C

+
+ + +
+ +
( )
3
1
3
3 3 3
3
3
ln
ln
ln
, or
(si nce the 3 i s just a constant and can be added to the C). Both methods resul t i n
the same answer.
7. You need to begi n thi s probl em wi th l ong or syntheti c di vi si on (syntheti c di vi si on
i s shown bel ow).
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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The i ntegral can be rewri tten as
x x
x
dx
x x
x x C
2
3 2
9
67
7
3 2
9 67 7
+
+
+ + +
_
,
ln
8. The odd man out i n thi s probl em i s si n (3x). Therefore, save one si n (3x), and
change the others to cosi nes.
cos sin sin
cos cos sin
cos sin cos sin
4 2
4 2
4 6
3 3 3
3 1 3 3
3 3 3 3
x x x dx
x x x dx
x x dx x x dx
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

Both i ntegral s requi re u-substi tuti on wi th u 5 cos (3x) and 2
du
3
5 si n (3x)dx.
( )
( )
_
,
+
1
3
3
5
3
7
5 7
cos cos x x
C
9. Thi s i s an i mproper i ntegral due to the i nfi ni te upper l i mi t.
lim sin
b
b
x x dx

1
You shoul d i ntegrate xsi n xby parts wi th u 5 xand dv5 si n xdx. I n fact, you can
use the parts chart.
lim cos sin
lim cos sin cos sin
|
b
b
b
x x x
b b b
+ ( )
+ + ( )
1
1 1
As b approaches i nfi ni ty, nei ther cos b nor si n b approaches any one hei ght. They
both osci l l ate i nfi ni tel y between 21 and 1. Therefore, there i s no l i mi t as b
approaches i nfi ni ty, and thi s i ntegral di verges.
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10. Thi s i s one mother of an i ntegrati on by parts probl em. I f you dont use the chart,
you are just masochi sti c.
Mul ti pl y al ong the di abol i cal di agonal s (and si mpl i fy fracti ons, i f you feel the
urge) to get the fi nal answer:
1
3
3
4
9
3
4
9
3
8
27
3
8
81
3
4 3 2
x x x x x x x x x C sin cos sin cos sin + +
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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SUM M ING IT UP
Most of i ntegrati on on the AP test i s done usi ng the Power Rul e and
u-substi tuti on.
I ntegrati on by parts i s a techni que based on the Product Rul e (BC topi c onl y).
When you i ntegrate by parti al fracti ons on the AP test, the denomi nators wi l l
al ways have l i near factors. Thi s techni que i s sl i ghtl y modi fi ed when the factors
have hi gher degrees, but you dont have to worry about that for the AP test.
I mproper integrals are i ntegral s that have the fol l owi ng qual i ti es: one of the
l i mi ts of i ntegrati on i s i nfi ni ty and the curve bei ng i ntegrated has an i nfi ni te
di sconti nui ty between the l i mi ts of i ntegrati on (BC topi c).
Not al l shapes wi th i nfi ni te boundari es have fi ni te area. I f the area i s not fi ni te,
the i ntegral i s sai d to diverge, whereas a fi ni te i ntegral i s sai d to converge.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Applications of
Integration
O VERVIEW
Ha nd s- O n Ac tivity 9.1: Are a b e twe e n c urve s
The d isk a nd wa she r m e thod s
The she ll m e thod
Find ing the volum e of re g ions with known c ross se c tions
Arc le ng th ( BC top ic only)
Pola r a re a ( BC top ic only)
Te c hnolog y: Using your c a lc ula tor e ffic ie ntly
Sum m ing it up
Learni ng how to i ntegrate, al though a fun adventure i n and of i tsel f (yeah
ri ght), i s just the begi nni ng. Just as deri vati ves had keen appl i cati ons such as
rel ated rates and opti mi zati on, i ntegrati ng has i ts own appl i cati ons, whi ch
are pri mari l y concerned wi th fi ndi ng area and vol ume generated by graphs.
These topi cs al ways remi nd me of one thi nggetti ng cl ose to the AP test!
Al though BC students have an extra chapter (and what a fun chapter that i s),
AB students are neari ng the home stretch for the AP test. Dont gi ve up, and
keep your focusyoure al most done.
HANDS- O N AC TIVITY 9.1: AREA BETWEEN C URVES
You can al ready fi nd the area between a curve and the x-axi s (thanks to the
Fundamental Theorem). Now, you wi l l l earn how to fi nd the area between any
two i ntegrabl e curves. I can tel l that youre exci ted. Lets get ri ght to i t.
1. I f a ci rcl e i s i nscri bed i n a square whose si de l ength i s 9, fi nd the area of
the shaded regi on.
c
h
a
p
t
e
r
9
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353
2. Descri be the techni que you used to compl ete probl em 1.
3. Bel ow are the graphs of y 5 4 and y 5 x
2
i n the fi rst quadrant. Where do these
two graphs i ntersect?
4.
Eval uate the defi ni te i ntegral s 4
0
2
dx
and x dx
2
0
2
. Usi ng those two i ntegral s,

how can you fi nd the shaded area? (Use a techni que si mi l ar to the ci rcl e and
square probl em from number 1.)
5. Fi l l i n the bl anks bel ow to compl ete the statement:
When fi ndi ng the area encl osed by two curves that contai n x vari abl es, you are
addi ng the sum of the areas of an i nfi ni te number of verti cal
_______________________s. I n practi ce, you subtract the defi ni te i ntegral of the
_________________________ from the defi ni te i ntegral of the
_____________________. The l i mi ts of i ntegrati on for those i ntegral s shoul d be the
x-val ues of the ____________________.
6. Graph the curves y5 2 2 x
2
and y5 x
2
2 3. Li ghtl y shade the total area between
the curves (not just i n the fi rst quadrant thi s ti me). Set up the i ntegral that
represents the area, but do not i ntegrate i t.
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NOTE
The fact that some of the
area is below the x-axis will
not matter. The area
between curves will always
be positiveit is not signed
area. If you get a negative
answer, you subtracted in
the wrong order.
www.petersons.com
7. I f your functi ons both contai n ys, how wi l l your techni que for fi ndi ng the area
between them di ffer?
8. Fi l l i n the bl anks bel ow to compl ete the statement:
When fi ndi ng the area encl osed by two curves that contai n y vari abl es, you are
addi ng the sum of the areas of an i nfi ni te number of _______________________. I n
practi ce, you subtract the defi ni te i ntegral of the __________________________
fromthe defi ni te i ntegral of the __________________. The l i mi ts of i ntegrati on for
those i ntegral s shoul d be the __________________________.
9. Fi nd the area in thefirst quadrant encl osed by the curves x 5 y
2
and x y .
1. The radi us of the ci rcl e must be
9
2
si nce i ts di ameter i s the same as the si de of the
square. The shaded area i s 81
81
4

.
2. You fi nd the area of the square and subtract the area of the ci rcl e.
3. You can fi nd thi s answer by setti ng them equal to one another.
x
2
5 4
x 5 62
They i ntersect at the poi nt (2,4).
C ha p te r 9: Ap p lic a tions of Inte g ra tion 355
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4.
4 8
0
2
dx
and x dx
2
0
2
8
3
, as shown i n the fol l owi ng di agrams.

Noti ce that the l eft area mi nus the ri ght area equal s the shaded area i n the
probl em. Therefore, the answer i s 8 2
8
3
=
16
3
.
5. When fi ndi ng the area encl osed by two curves that contai n x vari abl es, you are
addi ng the sum of the areas of an i nfi ni te number of verti cal rectangl es. I n
practi ce, you subtract the defi ni te i ntegral of the l ower curve from the defi ni te
i ntegral of the hi gher curve. The l i mi ts of i ntegrati on for those i ntegral s shoul d
be the x-val ues of the i ntersecti on poi nts.
6.
The di agram contai ns a si ngl e, dark verti cal rectangl e, whi ch i s one of the i nfi ni te
number of rectangl es that make up the shaded area. Thi s makes i t easy to see
that you wi l l i ntegrate the top curve mi nus the bottom curve, or (2 2 x
2
)2(x
2
2 3),
as that i s the l ength of the rectangl e.
Fi nd the i ntersecti on val ues by setti ng the functi ons equal .
2 2 x
2
5 x
2
2 3
2x
2
5 5
x
5
2
Therefore, the area i s gi ven by
2 3
2 2
5 2
5 2
( )

( ) ( )
x x dx
/
/
7. When functi ons contai n ys i nstead of xs, the rightmost functi on i s the greater
i nstead of the hi gher functi on. Al so, you woul d use the y-coordi nate of the
i ntersecti on poi nt rather than the x-coordi nate.
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8. hori zontal rectangl es, l eftmost curve, ri ghtmost curve, y-coordi nates of the poi nts
of i ntersecti on.
9.
Because these functi ons both contai n ys, you are usi ng hori zontal rectangl es of
l ength (ri ght 2 l eft) 5 =y 2 y
2
. The functi ons i ntersect at (1,1) and (0,0). Dont
forget that you have to use the y-coordi nate (even though i ts the same as the x i n
thi s case).
y y dy
y
y
( )
_
,
2
0
1
3 2
3
2
3 3
0
1
1
3
/

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TIP
If you have problems
drawing functions of y, plot
points to construct the
graph.
www.petersons.com
EXERC ISE 1
DO NO T USE A G RAPHING C ALC ULATO R FO R PRO BLEM S 1 AND 4.
1. Cal cul ate the area bounded by f(x) 5 x
5
2 5x
3
and the x-axi s. What i mportant
concl usi on can be drawn from thi s probl em?
2. Cal cul ate the area bounded by y 5 x
3
2 4x and y 5 (x 1 2)
2
i n the second
quadrant.
3. Cal cul ate the area i n the fi rst quadrant bounded by x 5 5 and y 5 x
2
1 2
twi ceonce wi th hori zontal rectangl es and once wi th verti cal ones.
4. Cal cul ate the area bounded by x 5 y
2
1 4y 2 5 and y 5 2
1
2
x 1 1.
5. Cal cul ate the area bounded by y 5 3x
3
2 8x, y 5 10x
2
, x 5 0, and x 5 21.
1. Fi rst, you need to fi nd the poi nts of i ntersecti on of the graphs by setti ng them
equal .
x
5
2 5x
3
5 0
x
3
(x
2
2 5) 5 0
x 0 5 ,
Thi s probl em must be spl i t i nto two separate i ntegral s. On [
5
,0], f(x) i s the
top functi on, whereas on [0,
5
], the x-axi s (y 5 0) i s the top functi on.
However, you onl y need to cal cul ate one of these regi ons si nce f(x) i s odd and
therefore ori gi n-symmetri c (both of the regi ons wi l l have the same area).
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TIP
Remember that vertical
rectangles relate to x
variables and horizontal
rectangles relate to y
variables. This will help you
immensely in the next
section.
www.petersons.com
We wi l l cal cul ate the area of the regi on on [0,
5
]. Dont forget that y 5 0 i s the
top functi on.
0 5
5 3
0
5

( ) ( )
x x dx
+
( )
x x dx
5 3
0
5
5
_
,
+
x
x
6
4
6
5
4
0
5

+
_
,

125
6
125
4
125
12
Therefore, the enti re regi on between the two curves i s
125
12
125
6
2 . The i mportant
concl usi on to be drawn? The Fundamental Theorem of Cal cul us i s just an exten-
si on of thi s method. (Before, our unstated l ower curve was al ways 0, si nce
upper curve2 0 5 upper curve.)
2. These are both functi ons of x, so you use x-boundari es and i ntegrate top2 bottom.
(You al so use verti cal rectangl es wi th x functi ons.) Graph them to see whi ch i s
whi ch.
The top functi on i s x
3
2 4x. Now, fi nd the i ntersecti on poi nts of the graphs.
x
3
2 4x 5 x
2
1 4x 1 4
x
3
2 x
2
2 8x 2 4 5 0
Sol ve thi s equati on usi ng your cal cul ator to get x 5 22 and 2.5615528128 (the
other sol uti on corresponds to an i ntersecti on poi nt i n the fi rst quadrant). The
area wi l l be
x x x dx
3
2
2
5615528128
4 2
( )
+ ( )
( )
.
The area i s approxi matel y 2.402 square uni ts.
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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3. Usi ng verti cal rectangl es i s much easi er i n thi s probl em, al though both gi ve you
the same sol uti on.
Vertical rectangles (using xs):
The area of the regi on i s found usi ng the Fundamental Theorem.
x dx
2
0
5
2
155
3
+
( )

Horizontal rectangles (using ys):

From y 5 0 to y 5 2, the ri ght-hand functi on i s x 5 5, and the l eft-hand functi on
i s x 5 0. I n fact, that area i s si mpl y a rectangl e of area 10.
How do you fi nd that upper i ntersecti on poi nt? You cannot just set the equati ons
equal , because one i s an equati on i n terms of x. I f you want to use hori zontal
rectangl es, you have to go whol e hog and change everythi ng to ys.
y 5 x
2
1 2
y 2 2 5 x
2
x y 2
Now you can set the two equal to fi nd the boundari es.
y 2 5
y 2 2 5 25
y 5 27
The i ntersecti on poi nt i s (5,27). Noti ce that the hori zontal rectangl es from y 5 2
to y 5 27 have a ri ght-hand boundary of x 5 5 and a l eft-hand boundary of
x y 2 . Si nce we al ready know the l ower rectangul ar area i s 10, l ets fi nd the
other area.
5 2
125
3
2
27

( )

y dy
The total area i s 10
125
3
155
3
+ , and the answer matches our verti cal rectangl e
answer.
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NOTE
Remember, you should use
right-left with horizontal
rectangles, and the limits of
integration are ys.
NOTE
The reason we had to split
the problem into two
integrals was the change of
boundaries at y 5 2. With
vertical rectangles, the
boundaries stayed the
same the whole time. Thats
why it was easier.
www.petersons.com
4. You have to use hori zontal rectangl es here. One of the functi ons i s i n terms of y,
and there i s no changi ng that one i nto terms of x easi l y. Therefore, you need to
change the other and put i t i n terms of y al so.
y 5 2
1
2
x 1 1
y 2 1 5 2
1
2
x
2 2 2y 5 x
The i ntersecti on poi nts wi l l be
y
2
1 4y 2 5 5 2 2 2y
y
2
1 6y 2 7 5 0
y 5 1, 27
On the enti re i nterval from y 5 1 to y 5 27, the l i ne forms the ri ght-hand
boundary, so the area between the curves wi l l be
2 2 4 5
2
7
1
( ) +
( ) ( )
y y y dy
7 6
2
7
1

( )
y y dy
7 3
3
7
1
256
3
2
3
y y
y

_
,

a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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5. Both of these functi ons are i n terms of x, so you shoul d use verti cal rectangl es
and x boundari es for i ntegrati on.
This graph is stretched to featurethearea in question.
These graphs i ntersect i n the i nterval [21,0]. Fi nd that poi nt.
3x
3
2 8x 5 10x
2
3x
3
210x
2
2 8x 5 0
x(3x 1 2)(x 2 4) 5 0
x 5 0, 2
2
3
, and 4
Cl earl y, 2
2
3
i s the val ue we need. However, we wi l l need two separate i ntegral s.
On the i nterval [21, 2
2
3
], the quadrati c functi on i s on top. However, on [ 2
2
3
,0],
the cubi c functi on i s on top. Therefore, the total area i s
10 3 8 3 8 10
235
324
52
81
44
2 3 3 2
2 3
0
1
2 3
x x x dx x x x
( ) ( )
+
( )
+

/
/
33
324
1 367 or .
THE DISK AND WASHER M ETHO DS
My students are al ways surpri sed when I tel l them that cal cul us can hel p them fi nd the
vol ume of a butternut squash. However, when they see how i ts done, they are often
di sappoi nted. Thats not cal cul us! they excl ai m. I s too! I cl everl y retort. I s not! they
protest. Such academi c debates are essenti al to produci ng enl i ghtened and wel l -spoken
students.
There i s no formul a i n your textbook concerni ng the vol ume of produce, so you need to
break the squash i nto smal l er, more manageabl e pi eces.
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A squashs cross-secti on
I f you sl i ce the squash i nto thi n di sks (cyl i nders), you can fi nd the approxi mate
vol ume of each and then add those vol umes. Sound fami l i ar? I ts basi cal l y a three-
di mensi onal Ri emann sum.
The vol ume of a di sk i s pr
2
h. However, i f we want to fi nd the exact vol ume of a
three-di mensi onal shape, we have to use an i nfi ni te number of di sks (l i ke we used an
i nfi ni te number of rectangl es to fi nd the exact area when we appl i ed the Fundamental
Theorem). Thi s formul a i s cal l ed the Disk Method.
TheDisk Method: I f the area beneath a functi on i s rotated i n three di mensi ons and
the resul ti ng sol i d has no hol es or gaps, i ts vol ume i s gi ven by
V r x dx
a
b
( ) ( )
2
where a and b are the endpoi nts of the ori gi nal area and r(x) i s the radi us of the
three-di mensi onal sol i d.
Thi s sounds mi ghty compl i cated, but i t i s real l y qui te si mpl e. (And thats no typi cal
math teacher mumbo jumbo.) One thi ng to keep i n mi nd: The Di sk Method uses
rectangl es that are perpendicular to the rotati onal axi s. I f you remember that, the
process i s much si mpl er.
Example 1: Fi nd the vol ume generated i f the regi on bounded by f(x) 5 si n x on [0,p]
i s rotated around the x-axi s.
Solution: Draw the ori gi nal regi on fi rst (you dont have to be abl e to pi cture i t i n
three di mensi ons to get the probl em ri ght.) The x-axi s (the rotati onal axi s speci fi ed by
the probl em) i s hori zontal , so we wi l l have to use rectangl es perpendi cul ar to that
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(verti cal rectangl es) to compl ete the probl em. Remember from the l ast secti on that
verti cal rectangl es mean that everythi ng i s i n terms of x.
To fi nd r(x), just draw one sampl e verti cal rectangl e on the i nterval . How do you fi nd
i ts hei ght? Use top 2 bottom l i ke we di d i n the l ast secti on. So, r(x) 5 si n x 2 0.
Accordi ng to our formul a, the vol ume of the resul ti ng sol i d wi l l be
V x dx

sin
2
0

AB students wi l l have to use thei r cal cul ators to i ntegrate thi s, but BC students
shoul d be abl e to do i t by hand. The answer i s
p
2
2
or approxi matel y 4.935.
Example 2: Fi nd the vol ume of the regi on bounded by x 5 2y
2
1 4y 2 2 and x 5 1
rotated about the l i ne x 5 1.
Solution: Thi s ti me, the rotati onal axi s i s verti cal , so you have to use hori zontal
rectangl es (whi ch shoul d be very easy, si nce the functi on i s al ready i n terms of y). Al l
you have to do i s fi nd a, b, and r(y) and pl ug them ri ght i nto the formul a. The
endpoi nts are y 5 1 and y 5 3 (they have to be y val ues). Once agai n, you can draw a
sampl e rectangl e i n order to fi nd the radi us.
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ALERT!
Dont forget to multiply by
the p outside the integral.
NOTE
The Disk Method is the
same for horizontal
rectangles, except a and b
are now y endpoints and
the radius is in terms of
y, not x.
www.petersons.com
To fi nd l ength wi th hori zontal rectangl es, you take ri ght 2 l eft, so the radi us i s gi ven
by (2y
2
1 4y 2 2) 2 1.
+
( )
y y dy
2
2
1
3
4 2 1
y y y y dy
4 3 2
1
3
8 22 24 9 + +
( )

+ +
_
,
y
y y y y
5
4 3 2
1
3
5
2
22
3
12 9
The rotati onal vol ume i s
16p
15
, whi ch i s much pretti er an answer than you thought i t
woul d be, i snt i t?
Someti mes, rotati onal sol i ds arent al l that sol i d. Consi der the regi on bounded by the
hori zontal l i nes y 5 1 and y 5 2 on the i nterval [0,3].
I f thi s fi gure i s rotated about the x-axi s, the empty space between y5 0 and y5 1 gets
rotated, too, creati ng a three-di mensi onal doughnut. The more practi cal -mi nded
mathemati ci ans of the days of yore thought i t l ooked more l i ke a washer (hence the
name Washer Method).
The Washer Method works the same way as carvi ng a pumpki n for Hal l oween. I f you
want to fi nd the vol ume of a jack-o-l antern, what woul d you have to do? Fi rst, youd
have to fi nd the vol ume of the whol e pumpki n (i ncl udi ng pumpki n guts). Second,
youd have to fi nd the vol ume of the hol l owed-out space i nsi de the pumpki n and
subtract that from the ori gi nal vol ume (sort of l i ke the shaded area probl em i n the
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NOTE
You can also use the
Washer Method with ys by
adjusting the same way
you did with the Disk
Method.
www.petersons.com
begi nni ng of thi s chapter). I n the Washer Method, you use the Di sk Method twi ce,
once to fi nd the overal l vol ume and once to fi nd the vol ume of the hol e.
The Washer Method: The rotati onal vol ume of the area bounded by two functi ons,
f(x) and g(x), on [a,b] i f f(x) g(x) on [a,b]) i s gi ven by
V R x r x dx
a
b
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
2 2
where R(x) i s the outer radi us (the radi us of the outer edge of the regi on) and r(x) i s
the i nner radi us (the radi us of the hol e of the regi on).
Agai n, thi s method l ooks i nsanel y di ffi cul t, but i t i s not bad i f youve been payi ng
attenti on si nce the begi nni ng of thi s chapter.
Example 3: Fi nd the vol ume generated by revol vi ng the area bounded by the curves
y 5 =x 1 1, x 5 4, and y 5 1 about the x-axi s.
Solution: I f you rotate the gi ven area around the l i ne y 5 1, there i s no hol e i n the
rotati onal sol i d. However, si nce you are revol vi ng around the l i ne y 5 0, there i s a
gapi ng hol e there.
We are usi ng verti cal rectanges, si nce the axi s of revol uti on (the x-axi s) i s hori zontal .
Noti ce that the outer radi us, R(x), reaches from the axi s of rotati on to the outer edge
of the regi on. The i nner radi us, r(x), reaches from the axi s of revol uti on to the outer
edge of the gap between the regi on and the axi s. You can fi nd the l ength of each by
subtracti ng top 2 bottom:
R(x) 5 =x 1 1
r(x) 5 1 2 0
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NOTE
Use rectangles
perpendicular to the
rotational axis with the
Washer Method, just like
you did with the disk.
Washer 5 perpendicular.
Remember that both words
growl at the end (just like
you do after you eat chili).
www.petersons.com
The boundari es of the regi on are x 5 0 and x 5 4. Throw al l these components
together, and you get the vol ume accordi ng to the Washer Method:
V x dx
V x x dx
V x x dx
V x x
V
+
( )
( )
_
,
+ +
( )
( )
( )
+
( )
+
_
,
_
,

1 1
2 1 1
2
1
2
4
3
0
4
8
32
3
56
3
2
2
0
4
2
0
4
0
4
2 3 2 /

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ALERT!
Dont forget to square the
radii in the Disk and Washer
Methods; the formula is
based on pr
2
, as you saw
at the beginning of the
section. I forget to square
all the timedont let
yourself get into the habit.
www.petersons.com
EXERC ISE 2
1. Fi nd the vol ume generated by revol vi ng the area i n the fi rst quadrant bounded by
y 5 x
2
and x 5 3 about the l i ne x 5 3.
2. True or Fal se: I f f x dx g x dx
c
d
a
b
( ) ( )

, then the vol ume generated by revol vi ng
each of those regi ons about the x-axi s i s equal . Gi ve an exampl e that supports
your posi ti on.
3. I f you rotate the l i ne segment bel ow about the y-axi s, you get a ri ght ci rcul ar cone
of hei ght h and radi us r. Veri fy that the cone has a vol ume of
1
3
pr
2
h.
4. Fi nd the vol ume, V, generated by revol vi ng the regi on bounded by y 5 (x 1 2)
3
,
y 5 0, and x 5 0 about x 5 1.
5. Fi nd the vol ume, V, generated by revol vi ng the regi on bounded by y 5 tan x,
y 5 0, and
p
4
about the x-axi s. Then, fi nd the val ue of c on [0,
p
4
] such that a pl ane
perpendi cul ar to the x-axi s at x 5 c di vi des V exactl y i n hal f.
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www.petersons.com
1. Because you are revol vi ng about a verti cal axi s, you need to use hori zontal
rectangl es. Wi th such rectangl es, everythi ng must be i n terms of y, so you have to
rewri te y 5 x
2
as x 5 =y.
The l ength of the exampl e rectangl e i s gi ven by right 2 left, or 3 2 =y.
Therefore, the vol ume i s
3
2
0
9
( )
y dy
9 6
1 2
0
9
+
( )
y y dy
/
+
_
,
9 4
2
0
9
3 2
2
y y
y
/

+
_
,
81 108
81
2
27
2
2. The probl em proposes that two regi ons of equal area resul t i n the same vol ume
once rotated about the x-axi s. Thi s i s fal se. Consi der the two regi ons pi ctured
bel ow, both of area 1.
Both revol uti ons are sol i d di sks wi th known radi i and hei ghts, so we can appl y
the formul a V 5 pr
2
h to fi nd thei r vol umes. The sol i d of revol uti on generated by
regi on A has hei ght 5 1 and radi us 5 1; the vol ume i s p. Regi on B generates a
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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www.petersons.com
di sk of hei ght
1
8
and radi us 8; i ts vol ume wi l l be p z 8
2
z
1
8
5 8p. The vol umes are
very di fferent.
3. To start, you need to fi nd the equati on of that l i ne segment. Because i t passes
through (0,0) and (r,h), i t has sl ope
h
r
and y-i ntercept 0. Thus, the equati on i s
y
h
r
x
However, you are revol vi ng about a verti cal axi s, so the rectangl es need to be
hori zontal , and the equati on needs to be i n terms of y:
x
r
h
y
Therefore, the vol ume generated after revol uti on wi l l be

_
,
r
h
y dy
h
2
0

r y
h
dy
h
2 2
2
0
You can pul l out the constants to si mpl i fy the i ntegral .
r
h
y dy
h
2
2
2
0
r
h
y
h
2
2
3
3
0

r
h
h
2
2
3
3
r h
2
3

4. Thi s sol i d of revol uti on wi l l have a hol e i n i t, so you have to use the Washer
Method. Agai n, a verti cal axi s of revol uti on means hori zontal rectangl es. There-
fore, the functi on must be rewri tten as x 5 y
3
2 2. The i nner radi us (from the
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NOTE
In problem 3, remember
that h and r are constants;
treat them like numbers.
www.petersons.com
axi s of revol uti on to the outsi de of the regi on) i s 1 2 ( y
3
22), and the outer
radi us (from the axi s of revol uti on to the outsi de of the hol e) i s 1 2 0 5 1.
V y dy
( )
( )
( )
1 2 1
3
2
2
0
8
V ' 35.186
You mi ght as wel l use your cal cul ator to fi nd the answer. You shoul d know how to
use the Fundamental Theorem by now.
5. Fi nal l y, a probl em i n whi ch we dont have to convert the functi on i n terms of y!
Verti cal rectangl es are perpendi cul ar to the x-axi s, so the vol ume, V, wi l l be
V x dx

tan
/
2
0
4

We can i ntegrate tan
2
x by hand i f we repl ace i t wi th (sec
2
x 2 1) usi ng Pappa.
However, save ti me by usi ng your cal cul ator si nce i ts al l owed on thi s probl em.
V ' .6741915533
We want to fi nd a revol uti onary vol ume that i s exactl y hal f of that, so we shoul d
set up thi s equati on:
tan .
2
0
1
2
6741915533 x dx
c

Unl ess you have a symbol i c i ntegrator (l i ke a TI -89), youl l have to i ntegrate the
l eft si de by hand.
sec .
2
0
1 3370957767 x dx
c
( )

tan .
|
x x
c
( )
0
3370957767
p(tan c 2 c) 5 .3370957767
(tan c 2 c) 5 .1073009183
Use your cal cul ator to sol ve thi s equati on; you get
c ' .645
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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THE SHELL M ETHO D
I must confess: I real l y dont l i ke basebal l al l that much. I used to l ove playingbasebal l ,
but watchi ng i t on tel evi si on (or even i n the stadi um, I am sad to say) just doesnt cut i t
for me. A bunch of guys standi ng around i n ti ght pants sounds l i ke Broadway musi cal
tryouts. At l east i n footbal l , the guys i n ti ght pants are tryi ng to hurt one another, so we
can forgi ve the nothi ng l eft to the i magi nati on atti re.
One of the more i nteresti ng pi eces of mi nuti ae i n basebal l (whi ch i s far from tri vi al to
the avi d fan) i s the desi gnated hi tter rul e. You see, the Ameri can League al l ows
coaches to repl ace the pi tchers (who are general l y very poor batters) wi th other
pl ayers, whose onl y job i s to hi t for the pi tcher i n the l i neup. I ts a good concept: al l ow
one person good at somethi ng to stand i n for someone el se.
The Shel l Method i s the desi gnated hi tter for cal cul us, and theres no debate about
whether or not i t i s good for basebal l . When the Di sk or Washer Method i s hard (or
even i mpossi bl e) to use, the Shel l Method steps i n and hi ts one out of the park. The
Shel l Method doesnt even care i f the rotati onal sol i d has a hol e i n i t or not (whereas
that scares the Di sk Method off). The Shel l Method uses rectangl es that are parallel
to the rotati onal axi s, so i t can even save you ti me wi th vari abl e conversi ons. The rul e
i tsel f i s a l i ttl e bi zarre, though. I fi nd i t di ffi cul t to vi sual i ze, so spend more ti me on
memori zi ng and appl yi ng i t than tryi ng to fi gure out i ts pl ace i n the cosmos.
The Shell Method: I f a regi on i s rotated about a hori zontal or verti cal axi s on an
i nterval [a,b], the resul ti ng vol ume i s gi ven by
2 d x h x dx
a
b
( ) ( )
or
2 d y h y dy
f a
f b
( ) ( )
( )
( )

Now, you probabl y see why I cal l thi s the Desi gnated Hi tter; i t hel ps you memori ze
the formul a. But what do the two functi ons stand for?
d(x) i s the di stance from the rotati onal axi s to a rectangl e i n the regi on.
h(x) i s the hei ght of that rectangl e.
Example 4: Consi der the fol l owi ng regi on, bounded by functi ons f(x) and g(x), that
i ntersect at x 5 a and x 5 b. What i s the vol ume of thi s regi on i f rotated about the
y-axi s?
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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NOTE
There are no places on the
AP test in which you have
to apply the Shell Method,
according to the College
Board. However, the Shell
Method can save you time,
so its good to know.
TIP
Remember, in the Shell
Method, the rectangles will
be parallel to the
rotational axis.
www.petersons.com
Solution: The key to the Shel l Method i s drawi ng the darkened rectangl e i n the
regi on (whi ch i s paral l el to the rotati onal axi s). The functi on d(x) represents how far
that rectangl e i s from the y-axi s. We coul d have drawn that rectangl e anywhere on the
i nterval , and we cant be sure exactl y where i t i s, so we wi l l say that i t i s a di stance of
x away. Thus, d(x) 5 x. Secondl y, what i s the hei ght of that rectangl e? You fi nd i t the
same way you have al l chapter: top 2 bottom. Thi s i s how h(x) gets i ts val ue, so
h(x) 5 f(x) 2 g(x). Therefore, the vol ume of the i ndi cated regi on i s
2 d x h x dx
a
b
( ) ( )

2 x f x g x dx
a
b
( ) ( ) ( )
Someti mes, students are confused about how to fi nd d(x). I ts not compl i cated, so dont
get frustrated. Thi nk about i t thi s way: I f you are gi ven the graph bel ow and asked to
gi ve the coordi nates of the poi nt, how woul d you respond?
The onl y correct response woul d be very generi c: (x,s(x)). I n thi s i nstance, you assi gn
an unknown hori zontal di stance a val ue of x. Thats al l youre doi ng wi th the Shel l
Method. However, d(x) i s not al ways just x (or y), as youl l see i n the next exampl e.
Example 5: What vol ume resul ts i f you rotate the regi on i n the fi rst quadrant
bounded by y 5 x
2
1 1, x 5 1, and y 5 1 about the l i ne y 5
1
2
?
Solution: To begi n, breathe deepl y, and draw the regi on. Then, draw a dark rectangl e
i n the regi on paral l el to the rotati onal axi s.
Al l of the rectangl es are hori zontal now, so al l of the equati ons must be i n terms of y.
Therefore, you must rewri te y 5 x
2
1 1 as x 5 =y 2 1. How far i s that darkened
rectangl e from the x-axi s? Because you dont know exactl y, you must say that i t i s y
uni ts away. However, thats not d(y). To fi nd i t, we need to know how far the rectangl e
i s from the rotational axi s. Because the rectangl e i s y uni ts above the x-axi s and the
rotati onal axi s i s
1
2
uni t above the x-axi s, d(y) 5 y2
1
2
. Thi s i s much easi er to vi sual i ze
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NOTE
You do not have to adjust
the Shell Method at all if
the rotational solid has a
hole in it. The method
remains exactly the same.
NOTE
You can use the Washer
Method to solve Example 5,
but well use the Shell
Method, since thats the
name of this section.
www.petersons.com
than to expl ai n; l ook at the graph above for hel p. Al l you have l eft to do i s to determi ne
the val ue of h(y), the hei ght (or l ength) of the rectangl e. I ts l ength i s gi ven by right 2
left and i s h(y) 5 1 2 =y 2 1. Therefore, the vol ume wi l l be
2
1
2
1 1
1
2
y y dy
_
,

( )
You can mul ti pl y thi s out and i ntegrate each separatel y, but l ets embrace cal cul ator
technol ogy for the ti me bei ng. The answer i s approxi matel y 1.676.
Thi s i s the same answer you get usi ng the Washer Method. I f you dont bel i eve me, I l l
show you. The outer radi us wi l l be R(x) 5 (x
2
1 1) 2
1
2
, and the i nner radi us i s r(x) 5
1
2
. Therefore, the vol ume i s
x dy
2
2 2
0
1
1
2
1
2
1 676 +
_
,

_
,
_
,
.
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EXERC ISE 3
YO U M AY NO T USE A G RAPHING C ALC ULATO R FO R THESE PRO BLEM S.
1. Fi nd the vol ume generated by rotati ng the area i n the fi rst quadrant bounded by
y 5 x
2
and x 5 2 about the l i ne x 5 22. Use the Shel l Method.
2. Fi nd the vol ume generated by rotati ng the area bounded by y 5
16
2
x
and
y 5 2 about the x-axi s. Use the most appropri ate method.
3.
Fi nd the vol ume generated by rotati ng the area bounded by y 5 =x, x 5 4, and
y 5 0 about the l i ne y 5 23 usi ng the
(a) Shel l Method.
(b) Washer Method.
4. Fi nd the vol ume generated by rotati ng the area bounded by y5 x
3
1 x1 1, y5 0,
and x 5 1 about the l i ne x 5 1, and expl ai n why the Shel l Method must be used.
1. Fi rst, graph the regi on and draw your rectangl e.
I n thi s case, d(x) i s more than just x; i n fact, i t i s exactl y two uni ts more, so
d(x) 5 x 1 2. Even easi er, h(x) 5 x
2
2 2
2
0
2
x x dx + ( )
( )
2 2
3 2
0
2
x x dx +
( )
2
4
2
3
0
2
4
3
+
_
,
x
x
2 4
16
3
56
3
_
,

e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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2. The Shel l Method i s not your best bet i n thi s probl em. Youd have to use hori zon-
tal rectangl es, so the functi on woul d have to be put i n terms of y, and the probl em
woul d onl y get more compl i cated from there.
Because the rotati onal sol i d wi l l have a hol e, youl l need to use the Washer
Method (whi ch requi res perpendi cul ar rectangl es; i n thi s case, xs). Fi rst, you
need to fi nd the i ntersecti on poi nts of the graphs.
16 2
2
x
16 2 x
2
5 4
x
2
5 12
x 5 62 =3
R(x) 5
16
2
x
and r(x) 5 2; therefore, the vol ume i s
16 4
2
2 3
2 3

( )
x dx
12
2
2 3
2 3
( )
x dx
24 3 8 3 24 3 8 3
( )
+
( ) ( )
32 3
3. (a) The Shel l Method wi l l use hori zontal rectangl es and requi res that you re-
wri te y 5 =x as x 5 y
2
.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Based on the di agram, d(y) 5 y1 3 and h(y) 5 4 2 y
2
2 3 4
2
0
2
y y dy + ( )
( )
2 4 3 12
3 2
0
2
y y y dy +
( )
2 2
4
12
2
4
3
0
2
y
y
y y +
_
,
|
2p(8 2 4 2 8 + 24) 5 40p
(b) The Washer Method uses verti cal rectangl es and the functi on i n terms of x.
The outer radi us i s R(x) 5 =x2 (23) and the i nner radi us i s r(x) 5 0 2 (23).
x dx +
( )

_
,
3 9
2
0
4
x x dx +
( )
6
0
4
x
x
2
3 2
0
4
2
4 +
_
,
|
8 32 40 +
( )
4. Even though the sol i d of revol uti on wi l l have no hol e i n i t, you cannot use the
Di sk Method. To do so, you woul d have to use hori zontal rectangl es and put the
y 5 x
3
1 x 1 1 i n terms of y, whi ch i s i mpossi bl e (you cannot sol ve that equati on
for x). Therefore, the Shel l Method i s the onl y way to go (si nce that requi res
verti cal rectangl es).
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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The di stance from the axi s of revol uti on to the rectangl e i n the regi on i s 1 2 x,
and the hei ght of the rectangl e i s x
3
1 x 1 1. So, the vol ume generated wi l l be
2 1 1
3
0
1
( ) + +
( )
x x x dx
2 1
4 3 2
0
1
+ +
( )
x x x dx
2
5
5
4
4
3
3
0
1
+ +
_
,
x x x
x
|
2
1
5
1
4
1
3
1
43
30

+ +
_
,
FINDING THE VO LUM E O F REG IO NS WITH KNO WN

C RO SS SEC TIO NS
Unti l now, al l of our rotati onal sol i ds have had ci rcul ar cross secti ons. Thi s secti on
di scusses fi gures whose cross secti ons are, perhaps, tri angl es, squares, or semi ci rcl es
i nstead. Thi s concept seems i ncredi bl y hard unti l you real i ze i ts i nherent si mpl i ci ty.
Thi s i s just an extensi on of the Di sk Method, and nobody hates the Di sk Method! Even
many of the most evi l peopl e throughout hi story harbored a fondness for the Di sk
Method, among them Jesse James, Dracul a, and the guy who cancel ed Star Trek.
I n order to fi nd the vol ume wi th the Di sk Method, you i ntegrated the area of one cross
secti on. Because the cross secti on was ci rcul ar, you i ntegrated the formul a for the area
of a ci rcl e (pr
2
). So, i f a new probl em has squares as cross secti ons i nstead (for
exampl e), you wi l l i ntegrate the formul a for the area of a square (side
2
).
There i s one other di fference i n these types of probl ems. Nonci rcul ar cross secti ons are
not the resul t of a rotati on, as every other probl em has been so far. (You have been
rotati ng about the x- or y-axi s or a l i ne such as x 5 1.) I nstead, these sol i ds grow out
of a baseon thecoordinateplaneintothethird dimension. I ts not as hard as i t sounds.
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Consi der a ci rcul ar base on the coordi nate axes wi th equati on x
2
1 y
2
5 9. Thi s ci rcl e
i s actual l y made up of two functi ons (i f you sol ve for y):
y x 9
2
and
y x 9
2
Heres where your i magi nati on and vi sual i zati on come i n to pl ay. Thi s ci rcl e i s sort of
l i ke how a pedestal i s anal ogous to a statue. A three-di mensi onal form wi l l si t on top
of i t and come out of your paper. I magi ne that the darkened rectangl e i n the fi gure
above i s the bottom of a square that i s si tti ng on the base. That i s not the onl y square,
however. There are squares al l al ong the ci rcl e at every possi bl e verti cal rectangl e.
The resul ti ng three-di mensi onal shape woul d l ook somethi ng l i ke thi s:
Our job i n the next exampl e wi l l be to fi nd the vol ume of thi s shape.
Example6: I f a sol i d has square cross secti ons perpendi cul ar to the x-axi s and has a
base bounded by x
2
1 y
2
5 9, what i s the vol ume of that sol i d?
Solution: We must use verti cal rectangl es, si nce they are perpendi cul ar to the x-axi s.
As stated earl i er, al l we have to do i s to i ntegrate the formul a for the area of the fi gure
i n questi on. The formul a for the area of a square (wi th si de s) i s s
2
. Therefore, the
i ntegral we use to fi nd the vol ume i s
s dx
2
3
3

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(The 23 and 3 boundari es are the x-boundari es of the regi on.) How l ong i s one si de of
the square? Wel l , we know that the darkened rectangl e i n the precedi ng di agram i s
the bottom si de of the square, and i t has l ength top 2 bottom5
9 9 2 9
2 2 2

( )
x x x . Therefore, the total vol ume i s
2 9
2
2
3
3
_
,
x dx
4 9
2
3
3
( ) ( )
x dx
36
4
3
144
3
3
3
x x
_
,

|
Thi s process i s a l i ttl e bi zarre, but i t i s easy to l earn.
3 Ste p s to Suc c e ss with Known C ross Se c tions
Draw the graph of the base on the coordi nate pl ane and darken a sampl e rect-
angl e on i t (be careful to draw i t as i nstructed, i .e., perpendi cul ar to the x-axi s or
y-axi s).
Determi ne the l ength of that rectangl e and what rel ati on i t has to the shape of the
cross secti on. I n the previ ous exampl e, the rectangl e was one of the si des of the
squares that formed the cross secti ons.
I ntegrate the formul a for the area of the gi ven cross secti on, i nserti ng the i nfor-
mati on you have about the darkened rectangl e. Make sure the boundari es match
the shape of the rectangl e (e.g., y-boundari es i f the rectangl e i s hori zontal ).
Example 7: Fi nd the vol ume of a sol i d that has semi ci rcul ar cross secti ons perpen-
di cul ar to the x-axi s whose base i s bounded by the graphs of y 5 x
2
and y 5 x .
Solution: Begi n by drawi ng the base. Because these cross secti ons are perpendi cul ar
to the x-axi s, we wi l l use verti cal rectangl es and xs.
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I f you are curi ous, the sol i d l ooks l i ke thi s:
However, i t i s nei ther i mportant nor useful to be abl e to draw thi s regi on, so dont
worry i f you cant. The darkened rectangl e on the base wi l l have l ength
x x
2
, but
what does that l ength represent? I f the cross secti ons are semi ci rcl es, then that must
be the di ameter, and the semi ci rcl es sprout from there. I f
x x
2
i s the di ameter,
then
1
2
2
x x
( )
i s the radi us of those semi ci rcl es. Thats i mportant because the
formul a for the area of a semi ci rcl e i s
r
2
2
. Put al l these pi eces together to get the
total vol ume:
r
dx
2
0
1
2
2
2
0
1
r dx
2
1
2
2
2
0
1
x x dx
( )
_
,
8
2
5 2 4
0
1
x x x dx +
( )
8 2
4
7 5
2
7 2
5
0
1 x
x
x
+
_
,
|

8
1
2
4
7
1
5
9
560
+
_
,

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EXERC ISE 4
YO U M AY USE A G RAPHING C ALC ULATO R FO R PART ( B) O F EAC H PRO BLEM .
1. Fi nd the vol ume of the sol i d whose base i s the regi on bounded by y 5 2 x and
y x
1
2
that has cross secti ons
(a) that are rectangl es of hei ght 3 perpendi cul ar to the x-axi s.
(b) that are equi l ateral tri angl es perpendi cul ar to the y-axi s.
2. Fi nd the vol ume of the sol i d whose base i s a ci rcl e wi th radi us 5 centered at the
ori gi n and that has cross secti ons
(a) that are i soscel es ri ght tri angl es perpendi cul ar to the x-axi s (such that the
hypotenuse l i es on the base).
(b) that are semi el l i pses of hei ght 2 perpendi cul ar to the x-axi s.
1. (a) Fi rst, we need to fi nd the poi nts of i ntersecti on.

,
x x
x
x
x x
x
1
2
4
4 0
0 4
2
2
Si nce the cross secti ons are rectangl es of hei ght 3, the vol ume wi l l be gi ven by
length width
dx
0
4
3
1
2 0
4
+
_
,
x x dx
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NOTE
The area of an equilateral
triangle with side s is
=3
4
s
2
.
You should memorize that if
you dont know it.
NOTE
The area of an ellipse
is pab.
www.petersons.com
To fi nd the wi dth of the rectangl e, you cal cul ate the l ength of the darkened
rectangl e, usi ng top 2 bottom.
3
1
4
2
3
2 3 2
0
4
+
_
,
x x
|
3 4
16
3
4 +
_
,

(b) Thi s ti me, you have to rewri te the equati ons i n terms of y (because the
rectangl es are perpendi cul ar to the y-axi s and, therefore, hori zontal ). The
functi on y 5 2 x becomes x 5 y
2
; y x
1
2
becomes x 5 22y. The l ength of
a si de of the tri angl e i s gi ven by right 2 left 5 22y 2 y
2
. Therefore, the
vol ume i s
3
4
2
2
0
s dy
3
4
2
2
2
2
0

( )
y y dy
You can use your cal cul ator to fi nd the vol ume; i t i s approxi matel y .462.
2. (a) Fi rst of al l , we need to fi gure out how to fi nd the area of an i soscel es ri ght
tri angl e based on the l ength of i ts hypotenuse.
Accordi ng to the Pythagorean Theorem, 2s
2
5 h
2
. Therefore,
s
h
2
. The
area of the tri angl e i s
1
2
1
2
2
bh s . I f we substi tute i n for s, we get
1
2
2
1
2 2 4
2
2 2
h h h
_
,

Now, we can i ntegrate thi s formul a to get the vol ume of the shape, as soon as
we fi gure out what the l ength of the hypotenuse i s.
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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We know that the darkened rectangl e represents a hypotenuse, and i ts l ength
i s h 5 top 2 bottom5
2 25
2
x
1
4
2 25
2
2
5
5
( )
x dx
1
4
4 25
2
5
5
( ) ( )
x dx
1
4
100
4
3
3
5
5
x x
_
,
|
1
4
1000
3
1000
3
500
3

_
,
_
,

(b) Thi s one i s a l i ttl e tougher to pi cture. The semi el l i pse shoul d come out of the
base somethi ng l i ke thi s:
Therefore, the darkened rectangl e represents 2a (whi ch means
a x 25
2
), and b 5 2 (the hei ght). The area of a semi el l i pse i s
ab
2
, so
the vol ume of the sol i d wi l l be
1
2
5
5
ab dx
2
2 25
2
5
5
x dx
25
2
5
5
x dx
Use your cal cul ator to eval uate thi s defi ni te i ntegral . The vol ume wi l l be
approxi matel y 123.370.
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NOTE
You could also have found
the volume for the portion
of the base from x 5 0 to
x 5 5 and doubled it.
www.petersons.com
ARC LENG TH ( BC TO PIC O NLY)
The practi ce of fi ndi ng arc l ength has a l ong and stori ed hi story, stretchi ng al l the way
back to Noah. Of course, he used cubi ts, but we can use any uni t of measure. I t i s
arguabl e that Noah had more thi ngs on hi s mi nd, though: the i mpendi ng destructi on of
the human race, ensuri ng hi s ark was waterti ght, and pl aci ng l ayer upon l ayer of
newspaper on the fl oor. Al l you have to worry about i s passi ng the AP test, and the good
news i s that thi s topi c i s very easy; al l you have to do i s memori ze a pai r of formul as
one for rectangul ar equati ons and one for parametri c equati ons.
The Length of a Rectangular Curve (or Arc): I f f(x) i s an i ntegrabl e functi on on
[a,b], then the l ength of the curve from a to b i s 1
2
+ ( ) ( )
f x dx
a
b
.
Thats al l there i s to i t. Fi nd the deri vati ve and pl ug i t ri ght i nto the formul ai t
coul dnt be easi er.
Example 8: Fi nd the l ength of the curve y 5 si n x from x 5 0 to x
3
2
.
Solution: Fi rst, fi nd the deri vati ve (whi ch i s very easy).
f(x) 5 si n x
f (x) 5 cos x dx
Now, pl ug i nto the formul a.
1
2
0
3
2
+
cos x dx
Thi s i s real l y not very easy to i ntegrate wi th our methods, so use the cal cul ator to
fi ni sh. The arc (or curve) l ength i s approxi matel y 5.730.
I t i s just as easy to fi nd arc l ength when youre deal i ng wi th parametri c equati ons; i n
fact, the formul a i s very si mi l ar to rectangul ar arc l ength. The onl y l ess obvi ous
di fference i s that the boundari es of the defi ni te i ntegral i n parametri c arc l ength are
t-val ues, not x or y val ues.
The Length of a Parametric Curve (or Arc): I f a and b are t-val ues for a
parametri c functi on, i ts l ength between those t-val ues i s gi ven by
dx
dt
dy
dt
dt
a
b
_
,
+

_
,
2 2
The hardest part of di fferenti ati ng parametri c functi ons i s fi ndi ng
dy
dx
. Deri vi ng wi th
respect to t i s so easy that i ts just si l l y.
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NOTE
If the function is in terms of
y, the formula can be
adjusted. Make sure that a
and b are y boundaries,
and take the derivative
with respect to y
instead of x.
www.petersons.com
Example9: I f a parti cl e moves al ong the graph defi ned by x5 cos t and y5 si n t, how
far does the parti cl e move from t 5 0 to t 5
3
4
? Veri fy your resul t geometri cal l y.

Solution: Si nce the parti cl e moves al ong the curve, we are just fi ndi ng the l ength of
the curve. Begi n by fi ndi ng the deri vati ves.
x 5 cos t;
dx
dt
t sin
y 5 si n t;
dy
dt
t cos
Now, substi tute these val ues i nto the arc-l ength formul a.
( ) + ( )
sin cos
/
t t dt
2 2
0
3 4
sin cos
/
2 2
0
3 4
t tdt +

Accordi ng to the Mamma Theorem, the contents of the radi cal are equal to 1:
dt
t
0
3 4
0
3 4
3 4 2 356
/
/
/ .

To justi fy thi s geometri cal l y, you must real i ze that the parametri c equati ons resul t i n
a ci rcl e of radi us 1 (the uni t ci rcl e, actual l y). The arc l ength from 0 to
3p
4
represents
3
8
of the ci rcumference of the ci rcl e.
The ci rcumference of the uni t ci rcl e i s
2pr 5 2p ' 6.283185307
and
3
8
of that total i s 2.35619449; thi s matches our answer above.
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TIP
Many of the integrals you
end up with when finding
arc length are difficult and
have been handed quite a
beating with the ugly stick.
Dont expect to be able to
solve them all by hand.
NOTE
Its unlikely that you will be
asked on the AP text to
verify your result
geometrically, as this
problem does. However,
doing so will help you as
you learn this topic.
www.petersons.com
EXERC ISE 5
1. What i s the l ength of the curve y 5 l n (si n x) from x 5
p
4
to x 5
p
2
?
2. Fi nd the arc l ength of y x 1 from x 5 1 to x 5 3.
3. How l ong i s the curve defi ned by x 5 y
3
24 y 1 2 from y 5 21 to y 5 1?
4. Fi nd the l ength of the parametri c curve defi ned by x t +1
, y 5 t
2
1 t from
t 5 1 to t 5 5.
5. Fi nd the peri meter of the el l i pse
x y
2 2
4 9
1 + usi ng parametri c equati ons.
1. Begi n by fi ndi ng y:
y
x
x x
1
sin
cos cot
The arc l ength wi l l be
1
2
4
2
+
cot
/
/
xdx
The Pappa Theorem al l ows you to repl ace the contents of the radi cal wi th csc
2
x.
csc
2
4
2
xdx
csc x dx
4
2
+ ln csc cot
|
x x
4
2
+ + + ln ln 1 0
2
2
1
ln
2
2
1 +
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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2. Agai n, fi nd the deri vati ve fi rst.

y
x
1
2 1
The arc l ength wi l l be
1
1
4 1 1
3
+
( )
x
dx
1
1
4 4
1
3
+
x
dx
Eval uate thi s wi th your graphi ng cal cul ator to get 2.562.
3. Even though everythi ng i s i n terms of y, i t woul d be the exact same probl em i f
every vari abl e were an x.
1 3 4
2
2
1
1
+
( )
y dy
The arc l ength wi l l be 6.361.
4. Fi rst, fi nd the deri vati ves wi th respect to t:
dx
dt
t
dy
dt
t
+
+
1
2 1
2 1
The arc l ength wi l l be as fol l ows:
1
4 4
2 1 28 025
2
1
5
t
t dt
+ ( )
+ + ( )
.
5. The fi rst order of busi ness i s to rewri te the el l i pse i n parametri c form. To do thi s,
remember your Mamma.
cos
2
t 1 si n
2
t 5 1
Compare that equati on wi th the el l i pse i n standard form.
x y
2 2
4 9
1 +
You can set cos t =
x
2
and si n t =
y
3
, accordi ng to Mamma. Now, sol ve the new
equati ons for x and y to get the parametri c form of the el l i pse:
x 5 2 cos t, y 5 3si n t
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NOTE
You could also solve
problem 5 using the
rectangular formula for arc
length.
www.petersons.com
The el l i pse i s drawn compl etel y from t 5 0 to t 5 2p, so you can use those val ues
to bound the defi ni te i ntegral . However, exactl y hal f of the i ntegral i s drawn from
t 5 0 to t 5 p, so l ets eval uate that i ntegral and doubl e i t (for a change of pace).
Both answers wi l l be the same.
2 2 3
2 2
0
( ) + ( )
sin cos t t dt
The peri meter i s 2 z 11.05174608 5 22.103.

PO LAR AREA ( BC TO PIC O NLY)
You may have wondered why we di dnt di scuss pol ar arc l ength. Perhaps you answered
that questi on for yoursel f. Remember, any pol ar equati on i s easi l y expressed parametri -
cal l y usi ng the formul as x 5 rcos u and y 5 rsi n u. Therefore, fi ndi ng pol ar arc l ength
equates to fi ndi ng parametri c arc l ength. However, you wi l l need to be abl e to cal cul ate
the area encl osed by pol ar curves. Smi l ethi s i s the l ast you wi l l see of parametri c and
pol ar equati ons for the AP test. Pol ar area i snt hard, but i t i s di fferent, and i t wi l l take
a moment or so to get used to.
No sel f-respecti ng cal cul us topi c comes wi thout a formul a to despai r over and ul ti -
matel y memori ze. The formul a for pol ar area i s di fferent from al l previ ous area
formul as, because i t i s not based on rectangl es. I nstead, pol ar area uses an i nfi ni te
number of sectors to fi nd area. A sector i s a hunk of ci rcl e; for exampl e, a pi ece of pi e
i s a sector of the enti re pi e. The area of a sector of a ci rcl e i s gi ven by
r
2
2
, but si nce
we are usi ng an i nfi ni te number of us to cal cul ate exact area, we repl ace u wi th du.
Therefore, the formul a for the area bounded between radi al l i nes u 5 a and u 5 b i s
1
2
2
r d
a
b
Wel l start wi th an easy exampl e and di p our toes i nto the swi mmi ng pool . Once you
see how good the water feel s, you wont mi nd di vi ng ri ght i n.
Example 10: Show that the area of a quarter ci rcl e of radi us 2 equal s p usi ng
pol ar area.
Solution:A ci rcl e i s qui te easy to express i n pol ar form; a ci rcl e of radi us 2 i s just the
equati on r 5 2. Si nce we are tryi ng to fi nd the area of a quarter ci rcl e, you have to fi nd
the area of the ci rcl e i n one of the quadrants. For si mpl i ci tys sake, l ets choose the
fi rst quadrant.
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
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Our area formul a sums the areas of the l i ttl e sectors i n the fi rst quadrant wi th the
formul a
1
2
2
2
0
2
( )
I ntegrate and appl y the Fundamental Theorem to get

1
2
4
0
2
( )

|
1
2
2
_
,
( )
You see, thats not so bad. Lets try a shaded-regi on probl em to up the ante a l i ttl e. To
sol ve i t, youl l have to fi nd the area of the outer porti on and subtract the i nner. You
can use your cal cul ator wi th no shame on thi s exampl e.
Example 11: Fi nd the shaded area i n the graph bel ow of r 5 2 1 3 cos u.
Solution: Fi rst of al l , we shoul d fi nd where the graph i ntersects the pol e (ori gi n).
2 1 3cos u 5 0
Set your cal cul ator to rectangul ar mode for a moment to sol ve thi s equati on. The
answers are u 5 2.300523983 and u 5 3.982661324. Thi s i s the meat of the probl em.
As u goes from 0 to 2.300523983, the top of the graph i s drawn excluding the inner
loop. As u goes from 2.300523983 to 3.982661324, the i nner l oop i s drawn. Fi nal l y,
from 3.982661324 to 2p, the bottom of the graph i s drawn, agai n excl udi ng the i nner
l oop.
Therefore, we can get the area of the requested regi on by doubl i ng the l eft area above
and then subtracti ng the mi ddl e area. (The ri ghtmost area i s exactl y the same as the
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www.petersons.com
l eftmost area, si nce the equati on i s symmetri c about the x-axi s.) Therefore, the
answer wi l l be
1
2
2 2 3
1
2
2 3
2 2
2 300523893
3 982661324
0
2 300523983
+ +
( ) ( )

cos cos
.
. .
d d
The area i s approxi matel y 25.822.
The fi nal pol ar area probl em you can expect from the AP test concerns fi ndi ng the
area bounded by mul ti pl e functi ons. These probl ems are no more di ffi cul t i f you draw
a graph fi rst and proceed very careful l y.
Example 12: Fi nd the area bounded by the graphs r 5 3 si n u and r 5 1 1 cos u.
Solution: Fi rst, we shoul d determi ne the val ue of u at whi ch the graphs i ntersect.
3 si n u 5 1 1 cos u
3 si n u 2 cos u 2 1 5 0
u 5 .6435011088
Thi s i s the i mportant step: the shaded regi on above i s defi ned by 3 si n u from u 5 0 to
u 5 .6435011088; however, from u 5 .6435011088 to u 5 p, the shaded regi on i s
bounded by 1 1 cos u.
Therefore, the area wi l l be the sum of those two smal l er regi ons.
1
2
3
1
2
1
2 2
6435011088 0
6435011088
sin cos
.
.

( ) ( )
+ +

d d
The total area (pl ease use a cal cul ator!) i s approxi matel y 1.521.
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EXERC ISE 6
1. Fi nd the area bounded by r 5 22si n u.
2. Fi nd the area i n the second quadrant bounded by r 5 cos u 1 si n u.
3. Fi nd the area encl osed by the graph of r 5 cos 2u.
4. Fi nd the area of the regi on bounded by r 5 2 1 cos u and r 5 2.
5. Fi nd the area bounded by r 5 3 2 2si n u and r 5 4cos u.
1.
The enti re graph i s drawn from 0 to . I f you cal cul ate the area from 0 to
2p, your answer wi l l be two ti mes too bi g.
Other than that, the setup i s very easy:
1
2
2
2
0
sin
( )
d
Thi s i s si mi l ar to Exampl e 10, si nce both probl ems boi l down to fi ndi ng the area
of a ci rcl e wi th radi us 1.
2. The radi al l i nes that bound the porti on i n the second quadrant are

2
(whi ch
makes sense) and

3
4
. The second val ue makes r 5 0 (si nce the si ne and
cosi ne of
3p
4
are opposi tes), whi ch i s the i ntersecti on at the pol e marki ng the end
of the regi ons presence i n the second quadrant.
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To fi nd the area, use the formul a and mul ti pl y the squared term out. Mamma wi l l
make a return appearance!
1
2
2
2
3 4
cos sin
+
( )
d
1
2
2
2 2
2
3 4
cos sin cos sin
+ +
( )
d
1
2
2
2 2
2
3 4
cos sin sin
+ +
( )
d
1
2
1 2
2
3 4
+
( )
sin
d
That was fantasti ca Mamma substi tuti on and a tri gonometri c substi tuti on.
You can i ntegrate thi s (usi ng u-substi tuti on for si n 2u) as fol l ows:
1
2
1
2
2
2
3 4

_
,
cos
1
2
3
4 2
1
2

_
,
1
2 4
1
2
_
,
I ts not a pretty answer, but cal cul us ai nt a beauty contest.

3. The best way to approach thi s probl em i s to cal cul ate the area of oneof the petal s
and mul ti pl y i t by 4. Thi s graph i s symmetri c i n just about every possi bl e way, so
that makes i t a l i ttl e easi er. The petal shaded bel ow i s bounded by the radi al l i nes
u 5
p
4
and u 5
3p
4
.
I ts area i s
1
2
2
2
4
3 4
cos
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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I n order to i ntegrate thi s, youl l have to use a power-reducti on formul a.
1
2
1
2
1
2
4
4
3 4
+
_
,
cos
d
1
4
1
16
4
3 4
4
3 4
d u du
+

cos
1
4 2
1
16
0
8
+ ( )

There are 4 petal s, so the fi nal answer i s 4 z

8 2
4. The regi on i n common i s constructed, as shown i n the di agram bel ow.

1
2
2
1
2
4
2
2
2
2
3 2
+ +
( )

cos
d d
Use your cal cul ator to eval uate and sum the defi ni te i ntegral s to get the approxi -
mate area of 9.352.
5. Fi rst, fi nd the i ntersecti on poi nts of the two graphs, and bevery carefultheres
moreherethan meets theeye.
3 2 2si n u 2 4cos u 5 0
u 5 1.299129483 5 A, u 5 5.911351042 5 B
For the sake of not wri ti ng deci mal s unti l our eyes fal l out, wel l use A and B
i nstead of the gi ganti c deci mal i ntersecti on val ues. What causes troubl e here i s
the ci rcl e. I t wi l l actual l y pass through poi nts A and B twice, si nce i t draws i ts
graph compl etel y from u 5 0 to u 5 p. So, the ci rcl e actual l y hi ts A when u 5 A
and when u 5 A 1 p. Use your cal cul ator to convi nce yoursel f that thi s i s true!
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NOTE
The power reduction
formula for cos
2
2u 5
1 + cos 2~2u!
2
.
www.petersons.com
The ci rcl e wi l l hi t B when u 5 B and when u 5 B 2 p. Bel ow are the i ntegral s
that make up the area (there are 3) and a graph of the porti on of the shaded
regi on they represent.
1
2
3 2
2
0
( )
sin d
A
1
2
4
2
cos
( )
d
A
B
1
2
3 2
2
2
( )
sin
d
B
The onl y tri cky i ntegral i s the second one. I f you try to represent that area wi th
the i ntegral 4
2
cos ( )
d
A
B
, you wi l l be traci ng the enti re ci rcl e an extra ti me.
Make sure that you take the speed wi th whi ch the graph draws i nto account. You
need to know the exact val ues of u for that specific graph that bound the regi on.
When you add the three i ntegral s, you get 2.496741051 1 3.494545773 1
2.116617352 ' 8.108.
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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TEC HNO LO G Y: USING YO UR C ALC ULATO R EFFIC IENTLY
By now, you know the four major cal cul ator profi ci enci es you need for the AP test:
graphi ng, fi ndi ng roots (sol vi ng equati ons), eval uati ng numeri c deri vati ves, and eval u-
ati ng defi ni te i ntegral s. However, you may not be usi ng al l of the cal cul ators features.
Remember, the AP test i s a hi gh-stress si tuati on and i s governed by stri ct ti me
constrai ntsyou want the cal cul ator to do as much as possi bl e for you.
Take, for i nstance, probl em 5 from the l ast probl em set. (Even though i t i s a BC
probl em, the ski l l s appl y to AB students as wel l .) You shoul d be usi ng your cal cul ator
to serve two major purposes: fi ndi ng the poi nt of i ntersecti on and then eval uati ng
three defi ni te i ntegral s. You al ready know how to fi nd the sol uti ons to the equati on
3 2 2si n u 2 4cos u 5 0
but heres a good ti p. Once you fi nd a root, press [Cl ear] twi ce to return to the home
screen (you can al so use [2
nd
][Mode], whi ch i s the [Qui t] button). I f you press [X,T,u]
and [Enter], the cal cul ator gi ves you the root and shows more deci mal pl aces than i t
di d on the graph screen. Now press [Sto] and then [Al pha][Math] (the [A] button).
Thi s stores that root as the vari abl e A i n the cal cul ators memory; thi s way, any ti me
you need that number, you can si mpl y use A i nstead of typi ng i t out. Fol l ow the
process agai n, and store the other root to B.
Now, l ets shorten the process of constantl y typi ng the equati ons i n as we fi nd defi ni te
i ntegral s. I f you havent al ready, swi tch to pol ar mode and graph the two equati ons:
r
1
5 3 2 2si n u and r
2
5 4cos u. Look how much easi er i t i s to eval uate the second,
troubl esome i ntegral from that probl em when you use cal cul ator shortcuts:
1
2
4
2
cos
( )
d
A
B
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I nstead of typi ng the l i mi ts of i ntegrati on, just use the vari abl es we defi ned. I nstead
of typi ng (4cos u)
2
, just use r
2
2
. Once you type an equati on i nto the Y5 (or r5)
screen, you can access those equati ons by pressi ng [Vars]Y-vars. To get r
2
, you
then sel ect Pol ar... r
2
. I f you are an AB student, you wi l l use onl y the Y5
screen, and al l these equati ons are found under [Vars]Y-varsFuncti on....
Look how much ti me you save when cal cul ati ng the fi nal i ntegral i f you empl oy al l
these shortcuts:
These methods hel p el i mi nate the errors of mi stypi ng and hel p you concentrate on the
busi ness at handpassi ng that AP test.
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EXERC ISE 7
1. I f regi on A i s bounded by y
x
3
and y 5 2x 1 4, fi nd
(a) the area of A.
(b) the vol ume generated when A i s rotated about the y-axi s using both the
Washer and Shell Methods.
(c) the vol ume of the sol i d wi th base A that has i soscel es ri ght tri angul ar cross
secti ons wi th hypotenuses perpendi cul ar to the x-axi s.
2. Prove that the vol ume of a sphere wi th radi us r i s
4
3
3
r .
3.
I f regi on B i s bounded by y 5 2=x 1 2 and y 5 1, fi nd
(a) the area of B.
(b) the vol ume generated by rotati ng B about the y-axi s.
(c) the vol ume generated when B i s rotated about the l i ne y 5 21 using both
theWasher and Shell Methods.
*4. I f regi on C i s bounded by the pol ar curve r 5 si n u cos u, fi nd
(a) the area of C.
(b) the peri meter of C.
*5. Fi nd the peri meter of the regi on bounded by x 5 y
2
2 y 2 2 and the y-axi s.
6. J ames Diabolical Challenge: A machi ne part i s made from an al l oy that costs
$130 per cm
3
. The base of the part i s bounded by the area between the functi ons
y 5 x and y 5 x
2
(x i s measured i n cm). The part can be made usi ng ei ther
semi ci rcul ar or equi l ateral tri angul ar cross secti ons (perpendi cul ar to the x-axi s).
Whi ch method i s l ess expensi ve?
*a BC-only question
1. (a) The area i s the defi ni te i ntegral of top 2 bottomwi th x-boundari es refl ecti ng
thei r i ntersecti on.
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The area wi l l be
+
( )
x x dx 4 3
1
1
3
+
_
,
x
x x
2
1
3
2
4 3ln
4 2 l n 27
(b) Shell Method: Because you are rotati ng about a verti cal axi s, you use verti cal
rectangl es wi th the Shel l Method. No vari abl es need to be convertedyou
use xs.
2 4
3
1
3
x x
x
dx +
_
,
2 4 3
2
1
3
+
( )
x x dx
2
3
2 3
3
2
1
3
+
_
,
x
x x
2
4
3
8
3

Washer Method: You need to convert the equati ons so that they are i n terms of
y: x 5 4 2 y,
x
y
3
. The boundari es of i ntegrati on are now the y-boundari es
of the i ntersecti on, whi ch are exactl y the same as the xs. The outer radi us
wi l l be R(x) 5 (4 2 y), and the i nner radi us i s
r x
y
( )
3
.
4
3 2
2
1
3
( )
_
,
_
,
y
y
dy
16 8 9
2 2
1
3
+
( )
y y y dy
16 4
3
9
2
3
1
3
y y
y
y
+ +
_
,

24 21
1
3
8
3
+
_
,
_
,
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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(c) I n the probl em set for known cross secti ons, we found that the area of an
i soscel es ri ght tri angl e i s
h
2
4
, i f h i s the hypotenuse. The l ength of each
hypotenuse wi l l be h 5 2x 1 4 2 3x
21
1
4
4 3
1
2
1
3
+ +
( )
x x dx
1
4
8 22
24 9
2
2
1
3
x x
x x
dx + +
_
,
1
4 3
4 22 24
9
3
2
1
3 x
x x x
x
+
_
,
ln
1
4
36 24 3
28
3
1
4
80
3
24 3
_
,

_
,
ln ln
2. To create a sphere of your very own, you need to rotate a semi ci rcl e. A ci rcl e
centered at the ori gi n has equati on x
2
1 y
2
5 r
2
. Sol vi ng for y gi ves you a
semi ci rcl e equati on of
y r x
2 2
. When rotated about the x-axi s, thi s graph
produces a sphere.
Use the Di sk Method to fi nd the vol ume.
r x dx
r
r
2 2
2
( )
Remember that r i s a constant, so treat i t as you woul d any number as you

compl ete the probl em.
r x dx
r
r
2 2
( )
r x
x
r
r
2
3
3
_
,

Now, pl ug r and 2r i nto the expressi on i n pl ace of x(just as you have al ways done
wi th the Fundamental Theorem).
r
r
r
r
3
3
3
3
3 3
_
,
_
,
_
,

( )
4
3
3
r
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3. (a) The area i s top 2 bottomwi th x-boundary l i mi ts.
+
( )
x dx 2 1
0
1
+
( )
x dx
1 2
0
1
1
+
_
,
2
3
3 2
0
1
x x
2
2
3
+ 1 =
1
3
(b) There i s no hol e i n the rotati onal sol i d, so you can use the Di sk Method. To do
so, however, you have to put everythi ng i n terms of y, si nce the Di sk Method
requi res hori zontal rectangl es i n thi s case. (You can use the Shel l Method,
and you wi l l get the same thi ng.)
y 5 =x 1 2
y 2 2 5 =x
x 5 (y 2 2)
2
Now that the equati on i s i n terms of y, use y boundari es and compl ete the
i ntegrati on to fi nd vol ume.
y dy ( )
( )
2
2
2
1
2
y dy ( )
2
4
1
2
Set u 5 y 2 2, and thi s i s a si mpl e u-substi tuti on probl em.

y ( )
_
,

2
5
2
1
5
5
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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(c) Shell Method: You must use hori zontal rectangl es (si nce they are paral l el to
y 5 21), and everythi ng must be i n terms of y.
2 1 2
2
1
2
y y dy + ( ) ( )
[ ]

2 3 4
3 2
1
2
y y dy +
( )
2
4
4
4
3
1
2
y
y y +
_
,
|
2 4
1
4
1 4 +
_
,
_
,
2
3
4
3
2

Washer Method: The washers wi l l be i n terms of x(si nce hori zontal rectangl es
are perpendi cul ar to the verti cal axi s of rotati on).
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The outer radi us i s R(x) 5 2=x 1 3, and the i nner radi us i s r(x) 5 2.
+
( )

_
,
x dx 3 2
2
2
0
1
x x dx +
( )
6 5
1 2
0
1
/
x
x x
2
3 2
0
1
2
4 5 +
_
,
1
2
4 5
3
2
+
_
,
4. (a) Thi s graph has four di sti nct petal s that are framed by radi al l i nes u 5 0,
u 5
p
2
, u 5 p, u 5

3
2
, and u 5 2p.
Because of the graphs symmetry, we can fi nd the area of the petal i n the fi rst
quadrant and mul ti pl y i t by 4.
1
2
2 2
0
2
cos sin
( )
d
The area of the si ngl e petal i s .0981747704, so the total area i s approxi -
matel y .393.
(b) When fi ndi ng the peri meter of the regi on, you are techni cal l y fi ndi ng the arc
l ength of i ts boundi ng functi on. To fi nd pol ar arc l ength, you must fi rst
convert to parametri c form by usi ng x 5 r cos u and y 5 r si n u:
x 5 cos
2
u si n u, y 5 si n
2
u cos u
Now, take the deri vati ve of each wi th respect to the parameter (whi ch i s u
i nstead of t i n thi s probl em.)
dx
d
5 22cos u si n
2
u 1 cos
3
u
dy
d
5 2si n u cos
2
u 2 si n
3
u
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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Now, pl ug these both i nto the formul a
dx
d
dy
d
d

_
,
_
,
2 2
0
2
Youre crazy i f you dont use your cal cul ator. Type i t i n very careful l y. Heres
what i t shoul d l ook l i ke:
The total peri meter i s four ti mes that answer, whi ch i s approxi matel y 4.844.
5. Agai n, you fi nd the peri meter by cal cul ati ng the arc l ength of the boundari es.
To fi nd the l ength of the l eft boundary, you have to use the formul a
1
2
+

_
,
dx
dy
dy
a
b
The deri vati ve (wi th respect to y, si nce the expressi on i s i n terms of y) i s
x 5 2y 2 1. Therefore, the arc l ength i s
1 2 1
2
1
2
+ ( )
y dy
4 4 2 5 653
2
1
2
y y dy +
.
Therefore, the total peri meter i s 5.653 1 3 5 8.653.
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6. Begi n by drawi ng the bounded regi on and a darkened rectangl e on i t perpendi cu-
l ar to the x-axi s.
The l ength of the rectangl e i s x 2 x
2
, and the regi on has x-boundari es 0 and 1.
Use thi s i nformati on to fi nd the cross-secti onal vol umes separatel y.
Semicirclecross sections
The area of a semi ci rcl e i s
r
2
2
, and the dark rectangl e woul d represent a
di ameter of the semi ci rcl e. Therefore,
x x
2
2
woul d be i ts radi us. Now, i ntegrate
the formul a for the area of a semi ci rcl e, substi tuti ng i n the radi us.
r
dx
a
b
2
2
2 4
2
2
0
1 x x
dx
( )
8
2
2
0
1
x x dx
( )
The vol ume i s .0130899694, so the cost of the part woul d be approxi matel y $1.70.
Equilateral trianglecross sections
The area of an equi l ateral tri angl e i s
3
4
2
s
, so the vol ume of thi s machi ne part
wi l l be
3
4
0144337567
2
2
0
1
x x dx
( )

.
The resul tant cost for the part i s $1.87. Therefore, the part wi th the semi ci rcl e
cross secti ons i s cheaper.
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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SUM M ING IT UP
Just as deri vati ves have appl i cati ons such as rel ated rates and opti mi zati on,
i ntegrati ng has i ts own appl i cati on, whi ch i s pri mari l y concerned wi th fi ndi ng
area and vol ume generated by graphs.
Remember, i n the Shel l Method, the rectangl es wi l l be paral l el to the rotati onal
axi s.
The best method to use i n rotati onal sol i d vol umes i s one that requi res the l east
amount of conversi on.
The four major cal cul ator profi ci enci es you need for the test are
Graphi ng
Fi ndi ng roots (sol vi ng equati ons)
Eval uati ng numeri c deri vati ves
Eval uati ng defi ni te i ntegral s
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Differential Equations
O VERVIEW
Ha nd s- O n Ac tivity 10.1: Se p a ra tion of va ria b le s
Ha nd s- O n Ac tivity 10.2: Slop e fie ld s
Eule rs m e thod ( BC top ic only)
Exp one ntia l g rowth a nd d e c a y
Log istic g rowth ( BC top ic only)
Te c hnolog y: A d iffe re ntia l e q ua tions c a lc ula tor p rog ra m
Sum m ing it up
A differential equation i s si mpl y an equati on that contai ns a deri vati ve. Your
typi cal goal i n a di fferenti al equati on probl em i s to fi nd the equati on that has
the gi ven deri vati ve; i n other words, you are tryi ng to fi nd an anti deri vati ve.
How i s thi s di fferent from the i ntegral s you have been fi ndi ng unti l now? Wel l ,
i ts not very di fferent at al l . You wi l l be usi ng al l of your i ntegrati on tech-
ni ques to fi nd parti cul ar sol uti ons (no 1 C) usi ng the method of separation of
variables. However, the vast majori ty of di fferenti al equati ons i n the real
worl d cannot be sol ved usi ng thi s method. We wi l l then further exami ne those
sol uti ons usi ng slopefields and Eulers Method. Fi nal l y, we wi l l l ook at some
appl i cati ons of di fferenti al equati ons i n exponential and logarithmic growth.
After were done, wel l go get an i ce cream cone, and I l l buy you that pony
youve al ways wanted.
HANDS- O N AC TIVITY 10.1: SEPARATIO N O F
VARIABLES
Even though the study of di fferenti al equati ons i s compl ex, you are onl y
requi red to know and understand the easi est of al l methods for sol vi ng them
separati on of vari abl es. The name says i t al l , and youve al ready performed al l
the tasks that are i nvol ved i n the process. Therefore, thi s secti on represents a
new topi c wi th nothi ng substanti al l y new to l earn (I l ove those ki nds of topi cs).
1. What about the equati on
dy
dx
5 2
x
y
makes i t a differential equation?
c
h
a
p
t
e
r
1
0
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
407
2. Your goal wi l l be to fi nd an equati on (i n the form y 5 f(x)) whose deri vati ve i s 2
x
y
.
Why cant you si mpl y i ntegrate ri ght away? What makes thi s equati on di fferent
from the equati on
dy
dx
x
4
3
, whi ch you can i ntegrate ri ght away?
3. Thi s topi c i s very si mi l ar to a di fferenti ati on topi c for the reason you ci ted i n
number 2. What i s the name of that topi c, and why i s i t si mi l ar?
4. Before you can i ntegrate
dy
dx
=2
x
y
, you must separate the vari abl es (put al l the ys
on one si de and the xs on the other). How can you accompl i sh thi s i n our
equati on?
5. Go ahead and separate the vari abl es usi ng the method you named i n number 4.
Now, you shoul d be abl e to i ntegrate both si des of the equati on separatel y.
I ntegrate, rememberi ng to i ncl ude a C for any constant. What geometri c shape i s
the sol uti on to the di fferenti al equati on?
6. The answer we have i s very general (because of the C). What i f you knew that the
sol uti on curve passed through the poi nt (0,3)? Gi ven thi s i nformati on, what
woul d your sol uti on be?
7. Lets try a new di fferenti al equati on
dy
dx
x x y
+
2 2
3
. Separate the vari abl es, and
i ntegrate both si des separatel y.
8. Your yexpressi on ends up contai ned i n a natural l og. I n such cases, i t i s preferred
to sol ve the equati on for y, not l n y. Sol ve for y.
9. I f you knew that the parti cul ar sol uti on you were l ooki ng for sati sfi ed the
condi ti on y(3) 5 5, what i s C, and what i s the sol uti on to the di fferenti al
equati on?
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www.petersons.com
1. I t contai ns a deri vati ve.
2.
dy
dx
x
y
contai ns both xs and ys; unti l now, al l of our i ntegral s have contai ned
just xs.
3. Thi s i s si mi l ar to i mpl i ci t di fferenti ati on; those expressi ons contai ned both xs
and ys and thus requi red a di fferent method.
4. Separati on can be accompl i shed i n thi s probl em by cross-mul ti pl yi ng. That may
not work for al l probl ems, but separati on i s usual l y achi eved through very si mpl e
methods (see number 7).
5. Cross-mul ti pl yi ng gi ves you
ydy 5 2xdx
ydy xdx

y x
C
2 2
2 2
+
Mul ti pl y everythi ng by 2 and move the x term to get
x
2
1 y
2
5 C
Therefore, the sol uti on to the di fferenti al equati on i s a ci rcl e. (Often, sol uti ons
are wri tten sol ved for y, but i n thi s case, the answer i s more cl earl y a ci rcl e when
you l eave i t i n standard form for a ci rcl e. Ei ther way, however, the answer i s
ri ght.)
6. Pl ug i n the x 5 0 and y 5 3, si nce these val ues (i f on the graph) must make the
equati on true.
0
2
1 3
2
5 C
C 5 9
Now that we know the speci fi c val ue for C, we can pl ug i t i nto the sol uti on:
x
2
1 y
2
5 9
So, thi s speci fi c sol uti on i s a ci rcl e of radi us 3.
7. Begi n by factori ng the x
2
out of the numerator.
dy
dx
x y
+ ( )
2
1
3
Di vi de both si des by (1 1 y), and mul ti pl y both si des by dx to separate the
vari abl es.
dy
y
x
dx
1 3
2
+

C ha p te r 10: Diffe re ntia l Eq ua tions 409
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TIP
Even though you could
have grouped the 2 with
the y, its better to leave it
(and any constants a
problem might have) on
the side with the xs; this
makes solving for y easier,
and most differential
equation solutions are in
that form.
TIP
This is not the same C as in
the previous stepit just
indicates an arbitrary
number. Some textbooks
use different constants
each time because of this,
but thats sillyjust
remember that C might
never be the same number.
www.petersons.com
Noti ce how the constant stays wi th the x terms so that you can sol ve for y more
easi l y. Now, i ntegrate both si des.
ln y
x
C + + 1
9
3
8. To sol ve for y, rai se eto the power of both si des to get
y e
x
C
+
+
1
3
9
You can rewri te the ri ght si de of the equati on as
e e
x
c
3
9

(usi ng properti es of
exponents), and e
C
i s just another constant, whi ch you can then wri te as C. Thi s
gi ves you
y Ce
x
+ 1
3
9
y Ce
x

3
9
1
9. y(3) 5 5 means that pl uggi ng a val ue of 3 i nto the equati on (for x) gi ves an output
of 5; i ts si mi l ar to sayi ng f(3) 5 5. I f that confuses you, remember that y(3) 5 5
means the poi nt (3,5) i s on the graph. Ei ther way, pl ug i n x5 3 and y5 5 i n order
to fi nd C.
5 5 Ce
27/9
2 1
6 5 Ce
3
C
e
6
3
Therefore, the sol uti on to thi s di fferenti al equati on i s
y
e
e
x

_
,
6
1
3
3
9
or
y e e e
x
x

_
,
6 1 6 1
3
3
9
3
9
3
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NOTE
Rewriting e
S
x
3
9
+CD
as e
x
3
9 z e
c
is the same thing as
rewriting x
7
5 x
512
5 x
5
z x
2
.
NOTE
When you are given a
point value and can find C
in a differential equation,
the resulting solution is
called a particular solution,
since it is only one of many
possible solutions if no point
values were indicated.
www.petersons.com
EXERC ISE 1
DO NO T USE A C ALC ULATO R TO SO LVE THE FO LLO WING .
1. Fi nd the parti cul ar sol uti on to
dy
dx
y
x
+ 16
2
that sati sfi es the condi ti on that
y(0) 5 1.
2. What functi on has deri vati ve f (x) 5 e
x
csc y and passes through the ori gi n?
3. I n some cases, the rate of change of a quanti ty i s proporti onal to the quanti ty
i tsel f. Thi s i s wri tten as
dy
dt
ky
where y i s the quanti ty and k i s the proporti onal i ty constant. What i s the general
sol uti on to thi s very i mportant di fferenti al equati on?
4. A parti cl e moves al ong the x-axi s wi th accel erati on at ti me t gi ven by a(t) 5 3t.
Fi nd the functi on descri bi ng the parti cl es posi ti on i f i t travel s at a rate of 2 ft/sec
when t 5 0 and i s 3 feet to the ri ght of the ori gi n when t 5 1.
5. I f a bal l i s thrown upward and reaches i ts maxi mum hei ght when t 5 2 seconds,
answer the fol l owi ng questi ons:
(a) Gi ve the functi on representi ng the bal l s velocity.
(b) I f the bal l i s 85 feet off the ground when t 5 1.5 seconds, what i s the
posi ti on functi on for the bal l ?
1. Di vi de both si des by y, and mul ti pl y by dx to separate the vari abl es.
dy
y
dx
x
+ 16
2
y dy
dx
x
+

1 2
16
2
2
1
4 4
y
x
C + arctan
y
x
C +
_
,
1
8 4
2
arctan
Now, pl ug i n the gi ven val ues for x and y, and you fi nd (easi l y) that C 5 1.
Therefore, the parti cul ar sol uti on i s
y
x
+
_
,
1
8 4
1
2
arctan
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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www.petersons.com
2. Begi n by rewri ti ng the equati on l i ke thi s:
dy
dx
e
y
x
sin
Now, cross-mul ti pl yi ng wi l l separate the vari abl es.
sin y dy e dx
x

2cos y 5 e
x
1 C
y 5 arccos (2e
x
1 C)
Now, pl ug i n the poi nt (0,0).
cos (0) 5 cos (arccos (21 1 C))
21 1 C 5 1
C 5 2
The fi nal answer i s y 5 arccos (2e
x
1 2).
3. Di vi de both si des by y, and mul ti pl y them by dt to get the necessary separati on.
Remember that k i s a constant.
dy
y
k dt

ln y kt C +
e e
y kt C ln
+
e e e
y
kt c
ln

y 5 Ce
kt
4. (a) The i ntegral of accel erati on i s vel oci ty, and we know that v(0) 5 2. So, fi nd the
anti deri vati ve of a(t), and pl ug i n the gi ven i nformati on.
v t t dt ( )
3
v t t C ( ) +
3
2
2
v C 0
3
2
0 2
2
( ) +
C 5 2
Therefore, the equati on for vel oci ty i s v(t) 5
3
2
t
2
1 2. I n order to fi nd posi ti on,
i ntegrate agai n, and use the fact that s(1) 5 3.
s t t dt ( ) +
_
,
3
2
2
2
s t t t C ( ) + +
1
2
2
3
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NOTE
Your solution to problem 3 is
the foundation for the
section on exponential
growth and decay, where
all the quantities in question
have the property problem
3 describes.
NOTE
When you multiply by a
negative, you dont have
to write 2 C, since C
could already be negative!
Its a mystery number
for now.
www.petersons.com
s C 1
1
2
2 3 ( ) + +
C
1
2
Therefore, the posi ti on equati on i s s t t t ( ) + +
1
2
2
1
2
3
.
5. (a) Remember that the equati on for projecti l e posi ti on i s s(t) 5 216t
2
1 v
0
t 1 h
0
,
where v
0
i s the i ni ti al vel oci ty and h
0
i s the i ni ti al hei ght. You are l ooki ng for
the vel oci ty equati on, so take the deri vati ve:
v(t) 5 232t 1 v
0
The bal l reaches i ts maxi mum hei ght when t 5 2. Therefore, the deri vati ve
must equal 0 when t 5 2. Thi s al l ows you to fi nd v
0
.
v(2) 5 232(2) 1 C 5 0
C 5 64
Therefore, the vel oci ty equati on i s v(t) 5 232t 1 64.
(b) To fi nd posi ti on, i ntegrate vel oci ty, and use the fact that s(1.5) 5 85.
s t t dt ( ) + ( )
32 64
s(t) 5 216t
2
1 64t 1 C
s(1.5) 5 236 1 96 1 C 5 85
C 5 25
Therefore, the posi ti on equati on for the bal l i s
s(t) 5 216t
2
1 64t 1 25
HANDS- O N AC TIVITY 10.2: SLO PE FIELDS
Sl ope fi el ds sound l i ke dangerous pl aces to pl ay soccer but are, i nstead, handy ways to
vi sual i ze di fferenti al equati ons. Remember back i n the secti on on l i near approxi ma-
ti ons when we di scussed the fact that a deri vati ve has val ues very cl ose to i ts ori gi nal
functi on at the poi nt of tangency? When that fact mani fests i tsel f al l over the coordi -
nate pl ane, i ts trul y somethi ng to behol d. So, youd better be hol di ng on to somethi ng
when you undertake thi s acti vi ty.
1. Lets return to the fi rst di fferenti al equati on from acti vi ty 10.1:
dy
dx
x
y
. What
exactl y does thi s equati on tel l you about the general sol uti on?
2. I f the sol uti on to
dy
dx
x
y
contai ned the poi nt (0,1), what coul d you determi ne
about the graph of the sol uti on at that poi nt?
3. What woul d the tangent l i ne to the sol uti on graph l ook l i ke at the poi nt (22,0)?
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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4. Cal cul ate the sl opes at al l of the poi nts i ndi cated on the axes bel ow, and draw a
smal l l i ne segment wi th the correct sl ope. The sl ope at poi nt (0,1) has al ready
been drawn as an exampl e.
5. The general sol uti on to
dy
dx
x
y
(accordi ng to our work i n the l ast chapter) was
x
2
1 y
2
5 C. How does the sol uti on rel ate to the drawi ng you made i n probl em 4?
6. What i s the purpose of a sl ope fi el d?
7. Draw the parti cul ar sol uti on to
dy
dx
x
y
that passes through the poi nt (2,0) on
the sl ope fi el d above.
8. Draw the sl ope fi el d for
dy
dx
5 2x
2
y on the axes bel ow.
9. Use the sl ope fi el d to draw an approxi mate sol uti on graph that contai ns the poi nt
_
,
1
2
1
2
, .
10.
Fi nd the parti cul ar sol uti on to
dy
dx
5 2x
2
ythat contai ns
_
,
1
2
1
2
, usi ng separati on
of vari abl es.
11. Use your cal cul ator to draw the graph of the parti cul ar sol uti on you found i n
probl em 10. I t shoul d l ook a l ot l i ke the graph you drew i n probl em 9.
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Note: Al l sl ope fi el ds i n the sol uti on are drawn wi th a computer and hence wi th more
preci si on than i n the exerci ses. Your sl ope fi el ds shoul d l ook si mi l ar, though not as
detai l ed. See the technol ogy secti on at the end of thi s chapter for a program to hel p you
draw sl ope fi el ds wi th your TI -83.
1. I t tel l s you the sl ope,
dy
dx
, of the tangent l i nes to the sol uti on graph at al l poi nts
(x,y).
2. You woul d know that the sl ope of the tangent l i ne to the graph at (0,1) woul d be
dy
dx

0
1
0. The graph woul d have a hori zontal tangent l i ne there.
3. The sl ope of the tangent l i ne (al so cal l ed the slopeof thesolution curvei tsel f) i s
dy
dx

2
0
, whi ch i s undefi ned. Therefore, the tangent l i ne there i s verti cal (si nce a
verti cal l i ne has an undefi ned sl ope).
4. Al l you have to do i s pl ug each (x,y) poi nt i nto
dy
dx
to get the sl ope. Draw a smal l
l i ne segment wi th approxi matel y that sl ope. I t doesnt have to be exact, but a
sl ope of
1
2
shoul d be much shal l ower than a sl ope of 2.
5. The tangent segments i n the sl ope fi el d trace out the ci rcul ar shape of the
sol uti on graph. Remember that a tangent l i ne has val ues very cl ose to i ts ori gi nal
graph near the poi nt of tangency. So, i f we draw nothi ng but l i ttl e tangent l i nes so
smal l that al l the poi nts on the segment are cl ose to the poi nt of tangency, the
resul t l ooks l i ke the sol uti on graph.
6. A sl ope fi el d gi ves you a basi c i dea of the shape of the sol uti on graph.
7. The parti cul ar sol uti on wi l l be a ci rcl e centered at the ori gi n wi th radi us 2.
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www.petersons.com
8.
9.
10. Di vi de by y and mul ti pl y by dx to separate vari abl es.
dy
y
x dx

2
2
ln y
x
C +
2
3
3
y Ce
x
2
3
3
To fi nd C, pl ug i n the poi nt
S
2
1
2
,
1
2
D
.
1
2
1
2
1 12
1 12
Ce
C e
/
/
The fi nal (unsi mpl i fi ed) sol uti on i s
y
e
e
x

1 12 2
3
2
3
/
.
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NOTE
The slope field actually
looks like all the circles
centered at the origin;
thats because a slope field
doesnt know the value
of C, so it draws all
possible circles.
www.petersons.com
EXERC ISE 2
DO NO T USE A C ALC ULATO R FO R ANY O F THESE PRO BLEM S.
1. Sketch the sl ope fi el d of
dy
dx
5 2x
2
1 y.
2. (a) Draw the sl ope fi el d for
dy
dx
y xy
x
+
.
(b) Fi nd the sol uti on of the di fferenti al equati on that passes through the poi nt
(1,2e).
3. (a) Use the sl ope fi el d of f (x) 5
x
y
to draw an approxi mate graph of f(x) i f
f(22) 5 0.
(b) Fi nd f(x) speci fi ed i n 3(a).
4. Expl ai n how the sl ope fi el d of
dy
dx
5 3x
2
descri bes i ts general sol uti on.
5. Whi ch of the fol l owi ng di fferenti al equati ons has the sl ope fi el d bel ow?
(A)
dy
dx
5 x 2 y
(B)
dy
dx
y x
(C)
dy
dx
5 2xy
(D)
dy
dx
x
y
2
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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1. Al l ki nds of wei rd stuff happens cl ose to the ori gi n. Pl ot enough poi nts so that you
can see whats goi ng on. Remember, al l you have to do i s pl ug i n any poi nts (x,y)
i nto the di fferenti al equati on
dy
dx
; the resul t i s the sl ope of the l i ne segment you
shoul d draw at that poi nt.
2. (a)
(b) Sol ve the di fferenti al equati on usi ng separati on of vari abl es. Youl l have to
factor a y out of the numerator to do so.
dy
dx
y x
x
dx
+ ( ) 1
dy
y
x
x
dx
+

1
dy
y
x dx +
( )

1
1
ln ln y x x C + +
e e e e
y x x c ln ln

y Cxe
x

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Now, pl ug i n the poi nt (1,2e).
2e5 C(1)e
C 5 2
Therefore, the sol uti on i s y 5 2xe
x
. I f you graph i t usi ng your cal cul ator
(al though the probl em doesnt ask you to do so), youl l see that i t fi ts the sl ope
fi el d perfectl y.
3. (a) Thi s sl ope fi el d sort of l ooks l i ke the bi g-bang theoryeverythi ng i s expl odi ng
out of the ori gi n. The sol uti on just screams, I am a hyperbol a! Love me!
Accept me! Tel l me that I am handsome!
(b) I ts the revenge of separati on of vari abl es. I n fact, thi s probl em i s very si mi l ar
to the equati on al l of us are growi ng ti red of:
dy
dx
5 2
x
y
. Begi n by cross-
mul ti pl yi ng.
dy
dx
x
y

ydy xdx

y x
C
2 2
2 2
+
y
2
5 x
2
1 C
Now, fi nd the C (Caspi an).
0 5 4 1 C
C 5 24
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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Al l that remai ns i s to pl ug i n everythi ng. Remember that the standard form
for a hyberbol a al ways equal s 1.
y
2
2 x
2
5 24
x y
2 2
4 4
1
Thi s i s the equati on of the hyberbol a i n part 3(a).
4. El ementary i ntegrati on tel l s you that i f
dy
dx
5 3x
2
, then y5 x
3
1 C. The sl ope fi el d
for
dy
dx
5 3x
2
outl i nes the fami l y of curves y 5 x
3
1 C.
5. I f you drew al l four sl ope fi el ds, you wasted val uabl e ti me; i f thi s were the AP
test, youd have wasted fi ve preci ous mi nutes on a very si mpl e questi on i n
di sgui se. Look at the defi ni ng characteri sti c of the sl ope fi el d: i t has hori zontal
tangents all along thex- and y-axes. I n other words, i f ei ther the x-coordi nate of
the poi nt i s 0 or the y-coordi nate of the poi nt i s 0, then
dy
dx
equal s 0. That i s onl y
true for one of the four choi ces: (C). For exampl e, choi ce (D) i s undefi ned at poi nts
that have y 5 0; choi ces (A) and (B) wont have hori zontal tangents anywhere
except for the ori gi n.
EULERS M ETHO D ( BC TO PIC O NLY)
I f you coul d sol ve al l di fferenti al equati ons usi ng separati on of vari abl es, the worl d
woul d be a much happi er pl ace. However, onl y a very smal l porti on of di fferenti al
equati ons can be sol ved that way. There are a sl ew of other methods youd have to l earn
to become Supreme Rul er of Di fferenti al Equati ons, but l ucki l y you dont have to. Enter
Eul er, famous Swi ss mathemati ci an, and hi s method of fi ndi ng approximatesol uti ons to
noni ntegrabl e di fferenti al equati ons. Even though Eulers Method onl y uses tangent
l i nes and i s qui te si mpl e i n premi se, you can use i t to fi nd an approxi mate answer to a
di fferenti al equati on.
Before we di ve i nto Eul ers Method, we need to focus on one si mpl e concept. Lets say
that a l i ne has sl ope
12
7
and contai ns poi nt (1,0). I f you start at the poi nt and go
1
2
uni t
to the ri ght, how many uni ts must you go up to stay on the l i ne? What y-coordi nate
compl etes the poi nt on the fol l owi ng page?
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NOTE
Euler is pronounced oiler,
not youler.
www.petersons.com
Bel i eve i t or not, the answer i s qui te easy. Take the sl ope formul a that youve used
si nce el ementary al gebra: m5

y
x
. Sol ve i t for Dy.
Dy 5 mz Dx
I n our l i ne probl em, the sl ope i s
12
7
, and the change i n x(Dx) from (1,0) i s
1
2
. Pl ug these
val ues i nto the new formul a.
y
12
7
1
2
6
7
Thi s tel l s you that the poi nt
S
1
2
,
6
7
D
i s al so on the l i ne wi th sl ope
12
7
and poi nt (1,0). I f
you went
1
2
uni t ri ght of (1,0), youd have to go
6
7
uni t up to stay on the l i ne. Thi s i s a
very i mportant part of Eul ers Method, al though most textbooks do not expl ai n what
i t means or why i t i s so i mportant. Now, l ets map out the goal of Eul ers Method.
A typi cal di fferenti al equati on contai ns a deri vati ve and a poi nt through whi ch the
sol uti on graph passes. We wi l l fi nd the sl ope, m
1
, of the tangent l i ne at that starti ng
poi nt. Then, we wi l l travel a fi xed di stance ri ght or l eft (Dx) and use the method above
to fi nd the correspondi ng Dy. Basi cal l y, we are fi ndi ng another poi nt on the tangent
l i ne we just drew.
Thi s works because a tangent l i ne has val ues cl ose to the graph i ts tangent to (around
the poi nt of tangency). Once we fi nd that new poi nt, we repeat the process and fi nd yet
another poi nt unti l we reach our approxi mati on. The probl em wi l l typi cal l y tel l you
how many steps you shoul d take to reach the sol uti on, and (just l i ke i ntegrati on) the
smal l er the steps you take, the more accurate your answer. Thi s probabl y sounds very
compl i cated, but i ts qui te easy. How many l i cks does i t take to get to the Tootsi e-Rol l
center of Eul ers Method? Lets fi nd out.
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TIP
You will use your calculator
a lot in Eulers Method.
Although you should learn
to do the process by hand,
you can use the calculator
program in the back of this
chapter to check your
work.
www.petersons.com
Example1: Use Eul ers Method to approxi mate y(1) i f
dy
dx
5 2
x
y
and y(0) 5 3. Use two
steps of l ength Dx 5 .5 when fi ndi ng the sol uti on.
Solution: Thi s i s the same di fferenti al equati on we have seen numerous ti mes now.
We al ready know that i ts sol uti on i s a ci rcl e wi th radi us 3, but l ets pretend we dont,
si nce most di fferenti al equati ons usi ng Eul ers Method wi l l not be sol vabl e. We wi l l
have to repeat the method two ti mes, once when x 5 .5 and once when x 5 1 (si nce we
are taki ng two steps of l ength
1
2
al ong the x-axi s from x 5 0 to x 5 1, as the probl em
i ndi cates).
What i s the sl ope of the tangent l i ne to the sol uti on curve at (0,3)? Pl ug the val ues
i nto
dy
dx
:
dy
dx
5 2
0
3
5 0
We wi l l move
1
2
uni t to the ri ght al ong the tangent l i ne (si nce Dx 5
1
2
); i n order to stay
on the l i ne (si nce i t i s hori zontal ), we shoul d move nei ther up nor down. Our new poi nt
wi l l be (
1
2
,3). I ts sort of l i ke ti ghtrope wal ki ng toward the sol uti onthe ti ghtrope i s
hori zontal , and we edge our way
1
2
uni t to the ri ght al ong the hi gh wi re and stop there.
Now, repeat the process wi th the poi nt (
1
2
,3). The sl ope of the tangent l i ne here wi l l be
dy
dx
5 2
1
2
3
1
6

Agai n, we wi l l move
1
2
uni t to the ri ght al ong thi s new tangent l i ne. However, how
much shoul d we go up or down to stay on the new tangent l i ne? Use the formul a from
the begi nni ng of the secti on.
Dy 5 mz Dx
Dy 5
1
6
1
2
1
12

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Therefore, the new poi nt i s
1
2
1
2
3
1
12
1
35
12
+
_
,

_
,
, , , and were fi ni shed.
Our approxi mati on for f(1) i s
35
12
. Si nce we al ready know the actual sol uti on of the
di fferenti al equati on i s x
2
1 y
2
5 9, we can fi nd the actual sol uti on of =8 '
2.828427. Our esti mate
S
35
12
D
i s approxi matel y 2.916667, so the approxi mati on has
an error of .08824.
Had we used more than two steps (whi ch means a smal l er Dx) i n Exampl e 1, the
answer woul d have been even more accurate. I n the next exampl e, wel l use four steps
to travel the same di stance. Furthermore, you wont be abl e to sol ve Exampl e 2 by
separati on of vari abl es. Youl l be out i n the wi l d, untamed forest wi th onl y one
weaponEul ers Method. Make sure you know how to use i t!
Example 2: Approxi mate the val ue of y(2) for the di fferenti al equati on
dy
dx
5 x 2 y
usi ng four steps of l ength Dx 5
1
4
, gi ven that the poi nt (1,2) i s on the sol uti on curve.
Solution: We wi l l have to repeat the process four ti mes. I f you want to use deci mal s
i nstead of fracti ons, thats okay, but remember not to round off unti l the very end.
However, fracti ons wi l l gi ve you the exact answerand dont be shy about your
cal cul ators abi l i ty to add, subtract, and mul ti pl y fracti ons faster than you can.
Point (1,2): The sl ope of the l i ne tangent to the sol uti on i s
dy
dx
5 x 2 y 5 1 2 2 5 21.
The correspondi ng Dy wi l l be
y ( )
_
,
1
1
4
1
4
The new poi nt wi l l be 1
1
4
2
1
4
5
4
7
4
+
_
,

_
,
, , .
Point
5
4
7
4
5
4
7
4
1
2
, :
_
,

dy
dx
. The correspondi ng Dy wi l l be
y
_
,
_
,

1
2
1
4
1
8
The new poi nt wi l l be
5
4
1
4
7
4
1
8
3
2
13
8
+
_
,

_
,
, , .
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Point
3
2
13
8
3
2
13
8
1
8
, :
_
,

dy
dx
y
_
,
_
,

1
8
1
4
1
32
3
2
1
4
13
8
1
32
7
4
51
32
+
_
,

_
,
, , .
Point
7
4
51
32
7
4
51
32
5
32
, :
_
,

dy
dx
Dy 5
S
5
32
DS
1
4
D
=
5
128
S
7
4
+
1
4
,
51
32
+
5
128
D
=
S
2,
209
128
D
. Therefore, your approxi mati on of
y(2) 5
209
128
' 1.633.
There you have i tEul ers Method i s qui te mechani cal , and besi des the ugl y fracti ons
and/or deci mal s, i t i s a very handy way to approxi mate sol uti ons to di fferenti al
equati ons that we, as el ementary cal cul us students, can sol ve no other way.
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www.petersons.com
EXERC ISE 3
YO U M AY USE A G RAPHING C ALC ULATO R TO SIM PLIFY YO UR ARITHM ETIC FO R ALL
PRO BLEM S, BUT DO NT USE THE EULERS M ETHO D C ALC ULATO R PRO G RAM UNTIL
PRO BLEM 4.
1. Use Eul ers Method to approxi mate y(6) for
dy
dx
=
1
x
gi ven that y(5) 5 2. Use three
steps of si ze Dx 5
1
3
.
2. (a) I f the poi nts (1,3) and (4,c) are on the sol uti on graph to
dy
dx
x y
x
+
, approxi -
mate c usi ng Eul ers Method and three steps of l ength Dx 5 1.
(b) What l i mi tati ons are evi dent i n thi s approxi mati on?
3. (a) Use Eul ers Method to approxi mate y(2
1
2
) for
dy
dx
5 axy (where a i s a real
number) i f y(0) 5 22. Use two steps of l ength Dx 5
1
4
.
(b) What i s the error on your approxi mati on i f a 5 3?
4. Approxi mate y(0) usi ng 10 steps of l ength Dx 5 .1 for
dy
dx
5 y
2
gi ven that y(21)
5 1. Fi l l out the chart bel ow; i t wi l l hel p organi ze your i nformati on.
5. Gi ve an exampl e of a di fferenti al equati on for whi ch Eul ers Method gi ves the
exact val ue rather than just an approxi mati on.
1. The gi ven poi nt i s (5,2) and Dx 5
1
3
. Wel l start there and appl y Eul ers Method
three ti mes.
Point (5,2):
dy
dx
5
1
x
5
1
5
. The correspondi ng Dy i s
Dy 5
1
5
z
1
3
S
5 +
1
3
, 2 +
1
15
D
=
S
16
3
,
31
15
D
.
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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Point
16
3
31
15
,
( )
:
dy
dx

3
16
.
y
3
16
1
3
1
16
S
16
3
+
1
3
,
31
15
+
1
16
D
=
S
17
3
,
511
240
D
.
Point
17
3
511
240
3
17
, :
_
,

dy
dx
.
Dy 5
3
17
z
1
3
5
1
17
The correct approxi mati on for y i s
511
240
1
17
2 188 + . .
2. (a) Thi s questi on i s just aski ng you to fi nd y(4) gi ven a starti ng poi nt of (1,3) and
three steps of l ength 1 to get there.
Point (1,3):
dy
dx

4
1
4; Dy 5 4 z 1 5 4. The new poi nt wi l l be (1 1 1, 3 1 4) 5
(2,7).
Point (2,7):
dy
dx

9
2
; y
9
2
1
9
2
. The new poi nt wi l l be
2 1 7
9
2
3
23
2
+ +
_
,

_
,
, , .
Point
3
23
2
29
2
3
29
6
1
29
6
, : ;
_
,

dy
dx
y
.
Therefore, C +
23
2
29
6
49
3
16 333 .
(b) The y-val ue i s changi ng pretty dramati cal l y as the x-val ue onl y changes by 1.
Wi th such a huge change i n y, the approxi mati on cant be very accurate; i t
turns out to be wi thi n about 1 uni t of the correct answer, but that i s not
nearl y as accurate an approxi mati on as you can get wi th a l ess steep graph.
Of course, you can al ways i ncrease the number of steps by decreasi ng Dx; that
wi l l al ways make your approxi mati on more accurate.
3. (a) Thi s one has onl y two steps, thank goodness. We wi l l be steppi ng backward
from x 5 0 to x 5 2
1
2
, so Dx must be negative: Dx 5 2
1
4
.
Point (0,22):
dy
dx
5 a(0)(22) 5 0; Dy 5 (2
1
4
)(0) 5 0. The new poi nt wi l l be
(0 2
1
4
,22 2 0).
Point (2
1
4
,22):
dy
dx
5 a(2
1
4
)(22) 5
a
2
; Dy 5
S
2
1
4
DS
a
2
D
2
a
8
. The new poi nt wi l l
be
S
2
1
2
, 22 2
a
8
D
.
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NOTE
Check out the slope field
for
dy
dx
=
x + y
x
. Its pretty.
www.petersons.com
Therefore, Eul ers Method gi ves an approxi mati on of 22 2
a
8
. The number a
coul d be anythi ng, so l eave i t as a.
(b) I f a 5 3, you have the equati on
dy
dx
5 3xy; our work above gi ves an approxi -
mati on of y(2
1
2
) 5 22 2
3
8
5 22.375. To fi nd out the actual val ue of y(2
1
2
),
you have to sol ve
dy
dx
usi ng separati on of vari abl es:
dy
dx
5 3xy
dy
y
xdx

3
ln y x C +
3
2
2
y Ce
x
3 2
2
Pl ug i n the gi ven poi nt (0,22) to fi nd C:
22 5 C z 1
The sol uti on equati on wi l l be y = 22e
3x
2/2
; i ts val ue for x 5 2
1
2
(whi ch we
predi cted to be 22.375) i s actual l y
y e
_
,

1
2
2 2 909982829
3 8
.
The error i n the approxi mati on was about .535.
4. The correct approxi mati on for y(0) i s nearl y 6.129.
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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5. I f
dy
dx
5 c, where c i s any real number, the sol uti on to the di fferenti al equati on i s
just a l i ne. Because Eul ers Method gets i ts val ue from the tangent l i ne (and the
tangent l i ne to a l i near equati on i s just the l i ne i tsel f), you wi l l be steppi ng
through the graph of the sol uti on duri ng Eul ers Method, and the answer wi l l be
exact. Try i t, and see for yoursel f. Pi ck a val ue for c and a gi ven poi nt through
whi ch the sol uti on l i ne wi l l pass; use Eul ers method to approxi mate somethi ng,
and then doubl e check i t wi th separati on of vari abl es. The val ues wi l l match.
EXPO NENTIAL G RO WTH AND DEC AY
You have probabl y al l uded toexponenti al growth i n everyday conversati on wi thout even
real i zi ng i t. Perhaps youve sai d thi ngs l i ke, Ever si nce I started carryi ng raw meat i n
my pockets, the number of ti mes I ve been attacked by wi l d dogs has i ncreased
exponentially. Exponenti al growth i s sudden, qui ck, and rel entl ess. Mathemati cal l y,
exponenti al growth or decay has one defi ni ng characteri sti c (and thi s i s key): the rate of
ys growth i s di rectl y proporti onal to yi tsel f. I n other words, the bi gger yi s, the faster i t
grows; the smal l er yi s, the sl ower i t decays.
Mathemati cal l y, somethi ng exhi bi ti ng exponenti al growth or decay sati sfi es the di f-
ferenti al equati on
dy
dt
ky
where k i s cal l ed the constant of proportionality. A model shi p mi ght be bui l t to a 1:35
scal e, whi ch means that any real shi p part i s 35 ti mes as l arge as the model . The
constant of proporti onal i ty i n that case i s 35. However, k i n exponenti al growth and
decay i s never so neat and ti dy, and i t i s rarel y (i f ever) evi dent from readi ng a
probl em. Lucki l y, i t i s qui te easy to fi nd.
I n the fi rst probl em set of thi s chapter (probl em 3), you proved that the general
sol uti on to
dy
dt
5 kt i s y 5 Ce
kt
. I fi nd the formul a easi er to remember, however, i f you
cal l the constant N i nstead of C (al though that doesnt amount to a hi l l of beans
mathemati cal l y). Why i s i t easi er to remember? I t sounds l i ke Roseanne pronounci ng
nakednekki t.
y Ne
kt
I n thi s formul a, N stands for the ori gi nal amount of materi al , k i s the proporti onal i ty
constant, t i s ti me, and y i s the amount of N that remai ns after ti me t has passed.
When approachi ng exponenti al growth and decay probl ems, your fi rst goal s shoul d be
to fi nd N and k; then, answer whatever questi on i s bei ng posed. Dont be i nti mi dated
by these probl emsthey are very easy.
Example3: The new theme restaurant i n town (Rowdy Ri tas Eat and Hurl ) i s bei ng
tested by the heal th department for cl eanl i ness. Heal th i nspectors fi nd the mens
room fl oor to be a ferti l e ground for growi ng bacteri a. They have determi ned that the
rate of bacteri al growth i s proporti onal to the number of col oni es. So, they pl ant 10
col oni es and come back i n 15 mi nutes; when they return, the number of col oni es has
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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www.petersons.com
ri sen to 35. How many col oni es wi l l there be one ful l hour after they pl anted the
ori gi nal 10?
Solution: The key phrase i n the probl em i s the rate of bacterial growth is propor-
tional to thenumber of colonies, because that means that you can appl y exponenti al
growth and decay. They started wi th 10 col oni es, so N 5 10 (starti ng amount). Donot
try tofigureout what k is in your headit defies simplecalculation. I nstead, we know
that there wi l l be 35 col oni es after t 5 15 mi nutes, so you can set up the equati on
35 10
15
( )
e
k
Sol ve thi s equati on for k. Di vi de by 10 to begi n the process.
7
2
15
e
k
ln
7
2
15 k
k
ln
7
2
15
k 5 .0835175312
Now you have a formul a to determi ne the amount of bacteri a for any ti me t mi nutes
after the ori gi nal pl anti ng:
y 5 10e
(.0835175312)
t
We want the amount of bacteri a growth after 1 hour; si nce we cal cul ated k usi ng
mi nutes, wel l have to express 1 hour as t 5 60 mi nutes. Now, fi nd the number of
col oni es.
y 5 10e
(.0835175312)(60)
y ' 1500.625
So, al most 1,501 col oni es are partyi ng al ong the surface of the bathroom fl oor. I n one
day, the number wi l l grow to 1.7 3 10
53
col oni es. You may be safer goi ng to the
bathroom i n the al l ey behi nd the restaurant.
Example 4: The Easter Bunny has begun to express hi s more mal evol ent si de. Thi s
year, i nstead of hi di ng real eggs, hes hi di ng eggs made of a radi oacti ve substance
Nb-95, whi ch has a hal f-l i fe of 35 days. I f the dangerous eggs have a mass of 2
ki l ograms, and you dont fi nd the one hi di ng under your bed, how l ong wi l l i t take that
egg to decay to a harml ess 50 grams?
Solution: The egg starts at a mass of 2,000 g. A hal f-l i fe of 35 days means that i n 35
days, exactl y hal f of the mass wi l l remai n. After 70 days, one fourth of the mass wi l l
remai n, etc. Therefore, after 35 days, the mass wi l l be 1,000. Thi s i nformati on wi l l
al l ow us to fi nd k.
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NOTE
All half-life problems
automatically satisfy the
property
dy
dt
5 ky by their
very nature.
www.petersons.com
1,000 5 2,000e
k(35)
1
2
= e
35k
l n
1
2
= 35k
l n
1
2
35
= k
k = 2.0198042052
Now that we know N and k, we want to fi nd t when onl y 50 grams are l eft. I n thi s
case, t wi l l be i n days (si nce days was the uni t of ti me we used when determi ni ng k).
50 5 2,000e
2.0198042052t
1
40
0198042052

e
t .
ln
.
1
40
0198042052
t
t ' 186.267 days
You shoul d be safe by Thanksgi vi ng. (Nothi ng wrong wi th a l i ttl e premature hai r l oss
and a heal thy greeni sh gl ow, i s there?)
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TIP
In an exponential decay
problem such as this, the k
will be negative.
www.petersons.com
EXERC ISE 4
YO U M AY USE A G RAPHING C ALC ULATO R FO R ALL O F THESE PRO BLEM S.
1. I f Pu-230 (a parti cul arl y sti nky radi oacti ve substance) has a hal f-l i fe of 24,360
years, fi nd an equati on that represents the amount of Pu-230 l eft after ti me t, i f
you began wi th N grams.
2. Most men i n the worl d (except, of course, for me, i f my wi fe i s readi ng thi s) thi nk
that Jul i a Roberts i s pretty attracti ve. I f l eft unchecked (and the practi ce were
l egal ), we can assume the number of her husbands woul d i ncrease exponenti al l y.
As of ri ght now, she has one husband, but i f l egal restri cti ons were l i fted she
mi ght have 4 husbands 2 years from now. How many years woul d i t take her to
marry 100 men i f the number of husbands i s proporti onal to the rate of i ncrease?
3. Assume that the worl d popul ati ons i nterest i n the new boy band, Hunks o
Love, i s growi ng at a rate proporti onal to the number of i ts fans. I f the Hunks
had 2,000 fans one year after they rel eased thei r fi rst al bum and 50,000 fans fi ve
years after thei r fi rst al bum, how many fans di d they have the moment the fi rst
al bum was rel eased?
4. Vi nny the Tal ki ng Dog was an i mpressi ve ani mal for many reasons duri ng hi s
short-l i ved career. Fi rst of al l , he was a tal ki ng dog, for goodness sakes! However,
one of the unfortunate si de-effects of thi s gi ft was that he i ncreased hi s si ze by
1
3
every two weeks. I f he wei ghed 5 pounds at bi rth, how many days di d i t take hi m
to reach an enormous 600 pounds (at whi ch poi nt hi s poor, pi ti abl e, poochi e heart
puttered out)?
1. Because the rate of decrease i s proporti onal to the amount of substance (the
amount decreases by hal f), we can use exponenti al growth and decay. I n other
words, l ets get Nekt. I n 24,360 years, N wi l l decrease by hal f, so we can wri te
N
Ne
k
2
24360
( )
Di vi de both si des by N, and you get
1
2
5 e
24360k
ln
.
1
2
24360
0000284543178 k
Therefore, the equati on y5 Ne
(2.0000284543178)
t
wi l l gi ve you the amount of Pu-230
l eft after ti me t i f you began wi th N grams.
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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2. Thi s probl em cl earl y states the proporti onal i ty rel ati onshi p requi red to use expo-
nenti al growth and decay. Here, N 5 1, and y5 4 when t 5 2 years, so you can set
up the equati on:
4 1
2

e
k
ln
.
4
2
6931471806 k
Now that we have k, we need to fi nd t when y 5 100.
100 5 1e
.6931471806t
l n 100 5 .6931471806t
t ' 6.644 years
3. Our job i n thi s probl em wi l l be to fi nd N, the ori gi nal number of fans. We have the
fol l owi ng equati ons based on the gi ven i nformati on:
2,000 5 Ne
k(1)
and 50,000 5 Ne
k(5)
Sol ve the fi rst equati on for N, and you get
N
e
k
2 000 ,
Pl ug thi s val ue i nto the other equati on, and you can fi nd k.
50 000
2 000
5
,
,

e
e
k
k
50,000 5 2,000e
5k2k
25 5 e
4k
ln
.
25
4
8047189562 k
Fi nal l y, we can fi nd the val ue of N by pl uggi ng k i nto N 5
2 000 ,
e
k
.
N 5
2 000
8047189562
,
.
e
N ' 894.427 ori gi nal fans
4. Oh, cruel fate. I f Vi nny wei ghed 5 pounds at bi rth, he wei ghed 5 1
1
3
z 5 5
20
3
or
6.667 pounds 14 days l ater. Noti ce that we wi l l use days rather than weeks as our
uni t of ti me, si nce the fi nal questi on i n the probl em asks for days.
20
3
5
14
( )
e
k
4
3
14
e
k
ln
.
4
3
14
0205487195 k
We want to fi nd t when y 5 600.
600 5 5e
(.0205487195)t
l n 120 5 .0205487195t
t 5 232.982 days
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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NOTE
It should be no surprise that
the left-hand side of the
equation is
4
3
in the second
step, as Vinnys weight is
4
3
of his original weight every
14 days. In the half-life
problems, you may have
noticed that this number
always turns out to be
1
2
.
www.petersons.com
The poor guy l i ved al most 8 months. The real tragedy i s that even though he
coul d tal k, al l he wanted to tal k about were hi s mi sgi vi ngs concerni ng contempo-
rary U.S. forei gn pol i cy. Hi s handl ers were rel i eved at hi s passi ng. I t was l i ke
havi ng to tal k to a furry John Kerry al l the ti me, they expl ai ned.
LO G ISTIC G RO WTH ( BC TO PIC O NLY)
I n addi ti on to exponenti al growth, BC students need to be fami l i ar wi th logisticgrowth.
The major di fference between the twoi s that exponenti al growth assumes that there are
no restri cti ons on the quanti ty growi ng. Al though bi l l i ons upon bi l l i ons of bacteri a
col oni es can grow i n a smal l area, the same i s not true of, l ets say, deer. Onl y so many
deer can be supported by a parti cul ar ecosystem; thi s number i s cal l ed the carrying
capacity for that speci es. After the carryi ng capaci ty has been reached, there are no
l onger enough natural resources to support the extended popul ati on, and i ts al most
i mpossi bl e for deer to get reservati ons i n any deer restaurants (except as the mai n
course). So, once too many deer i nhabi t an area, nature puts the brakes on deer-
popul ati on growth.
Logi sti c growth l ooks l i ke exponenti al growth at the begi nni ng, but then changes
concavi ty and l evel s out towards the carryi ng capaci ty (the upper l i mi t for growth).
exponential growth logistic growth
y L L is
I n exponenti al growth, the rate of change of the quanti ty i s proporti onal to the
quanti ty i tsel f. I n l ogi sti c growth, thi s i s al so true, but the quanti ty i s also propor-
ti onal to i ts di stance from the upper bound. Thi s transl ates i nto the formul a
dy
dt
5 ky(L 2 y)
where L i s the carryi ng capaci ty (upper bound) and k i s the constant of proporti onal -
i ty. I f you sol ve thi s di fferenti al equati on usi ng a very tri cky separati on of vari abl es,
you get the general sol uti on:
y
L
ce
Lkt
+

1
I ts not worth actual l y sol vi ng, but both of the formul as above need to be memori zed.
Example 5: A hi ghl y contagi ous pi nkeye (sci enti fi c name: Conjuncti vi tus i tchl i ke-
crazi us) i s ravagi ng the l ocal el ementary school . The popul ati on of the school i s 900
(i ncl udi ng students and staff), and the rate of i nfecti on i s proporti onal both to the
number i nfected and the number of students whose eyes are pus-free. I f seventy-fi ve
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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www.petersons.com
peopl e were i nfected on December 15 and 250 have contracted pi nkeye by December
20, how many peopl e wi l l have gotten the gi ft of crusty eyes by Chri stmas Day?
Solution: Because of the proporti onal i ty statements i n the probl em, l ogi sti c growth i s
the approach we shoul d take. The upper l i mi t for the di sease wi l l be L 5 900; i t i s
i mpossi bl e for more than 900 peopl e to be i nfected si nce the school onl y contai ns 900
peopl e. Thi s gi ves us the equati on
y
ce
kt
+

900
1
900
We wi l l i nterpret t 5 0 as December 15, si nce that i s the earl i est i nformati on gi ven.
Therefore, we know that y(0) 5 75. Pl ug that i nformati on i nto the equati on.
75
900
1
0
+ ce
75 1 75c 5 900
c
825
75
11
Fi ve days l ater, 250 peopl e have contracted pi nkeye, so pl ug that i nformati on (and the
c we just found) to fi nd k:
250
900
1 11
900 5
+

e
k
250~1 1 11e
24500k
! 5 900
11
13
5
4500
e
k
24500k 5 21.442383838
k 5 .0003205297
Fi nal l y, we have the equati on y
e
t
+

900
1 11
900 0003205297 (. )
. We want to fi nd the number of
i nfecti ons on December 25, so t 5 10.
y
e
+
( )( )
900
1 11
900 0003205297 10 .
y ' 557.432
So, al most 558 students have contracted pi nkeye i n ti me to open presents.
Logi sti c growth can model a l ot of real -worl d behavi or; i n fact, some retai l ers have
harnessed a key feature of l ogi sti c growth. Every year, there seems to be a new toy on
the market that everyone wants (Ti ckl e Me El mo, Furby, Cabbage Patch Ki d), and fad
toys l i ke these fol l ow a l ogi sti c sal es pattern. Some stores compute the l ogi sti c growth
curve (just as we di d i n Exampl e 4) and stop purchasi ng the fad toys when the
concavi ty of the curve changes (whi ch means that the sal es are sti l l i ncreasi ng but
now at a decreasi ng rate). Thi s practi ce hel ps cut down on pi l es of unsol d product and
thus decreases unnecessary spendi ng by the store.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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www.petersons.com
EXERC ISE 5
YO U M AY USE A G RAPHING C ALC ULATO R FO R THESE PRO BLEM S.
1. The bi g toy for the hol i day season thi s year i s the Ti ckl e Me Ben Stei n Dol l . When
you gentl y squeeze hi s tummy, Ben wi l l gi ggl e and tal k to you about hi s work i n
the Ni xon admi ni strati on. The ki ds l ove i t! Research shows that the rate of sal es
i s proporti onal to the number sol d and the number i n the target audi ence who
havent yet purchased i t. Assume that the target audi ence number i s 4 mi l l i on. I f
950,000 have been sol d by 12 a.m. on October 1, and 3.5 mi l l i on have been sol d by
12 a.m. on December 1, on what day di d the company sel l to exactl y hal f of i ts
target audi ence?
2. The carryi ng capaci ty for deer i n a parti cul ar smal l town i s 2,200, and the rate of
i ncrease i n thei r numbers i s proporti onal to both the number, n, of deer and
2,200 2 n. I f there were 1,000 deer one month ago and 1,150 deer now, how many
months wi l l i t take the deer to number 2,100?
3. Assume that the rate of fans bei ng seated i n Ori ol e Park at Camden Yards (home
to the Bal ti more Ori ol es) i s proporti onal both to the number of fans al ready
seated and the number of empty seats; the park has a capaci ty of 48,262 fans.
One hour before game ti me, onl y 10 percent of the seats are fi l l ed. At game ti me,
85 percent of the seats are fi l l ed. Assumi ng that no one l eaves earl y, what
percentage of the seats are fi l l ed 2 hours i nto the game?
4. For what val ue of y i s
dy
dt
i ncreasi ng the fastest i n a l ogi sti c growth curve? Justi fy
your answer mathemati cal l y.
1. I n thi s probl em, L 5 4,000,000. The fi rst objecti ve i s to fi nd c usi ng the fact that
y(0) 5 950,000. (For our purposes, t 5 0 i s October 1.)
950 000
4 000 000
1
4 000 000 0
,
, ,
, ,
+

ce
k
950 000
4 000 000
1
,
, ,
+ c
950,000(1 1 c) 5 4,000,000
c
61
19
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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www.petersons.com
I f t 5 0 equates to the begi nni ng of October 1, then t 5 1 i s October 2, t 5 30 i s
October 31, and t 5 61 i s December 1. We know that y(61) 5 3,500,000.
3 500 000
4 000 000
1
61
19
4 000 000 61
, ,
, ,
, ,
+

e
k
61
19
1
7
4 000 000 61
e
k
, ,
e
k
244 000 000

19
427
, ,
k

ln
, ,
.
19
427
244 000 000
0000000128
Now that we have c and k, we want to fi nd t when y 5 2,000,000 (hal f of the
target audi ence).
2 000 000
4 000 000
1
61
19
4 000 000 0000000128
, ,
, ,
, , .
+
( )
e
t
1
61
19
2
0512
+
e
t .
e
t
.0512
19
61
t

ln
.
.
19
61
0512
22 782
Therefore, the sal es fi gure was reached after t 5 22 but before t 5 23; thi s
transl ates to October 23.
2. L 5 2,200; y(0) wi l l transl ate to a month ago and y(0) 5 1,000; y(1) 5 1,150. Use
al l of thi s i nformati on the same way you di d i n number 1 to fi nd c and k. Fi rst,
fi nd c.
1 000
2 200
1
2200 0
,
,
+

ce
k
1,000(1 1 c) 5 2,200
c
6
5
Now fi nd k.
1150
2 200
1
6
5
2200 1
+

,
e
k
1
6
5
44
23
2 200
+
e
k ,
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e
k
2 200
35
46
,
k

ln
,
.
35
46
2 200
0001242242
Our fi nal goal i n thi s probl em i s to cal cul ate t when y 5 2,100.
2 100
2 200
1
6
5
2 200 0001242242
,
,
, .
+
( )
e
t
1
6
5
22
21
2 200 0001242242
+
( )
e
t , .
e
t
( ) 2 200 0001242242
5
126
, .
t

ln
.
.
5
126
273293335
11 807
Si nce t 5 1 transl ates to thi s month, t 5 11.807 transl ates to 10.807 months from
now.
3. L 5 48,262; y(0) i s one hour before game ti me, and y(0) 5 .10L 5 4,826.2; y(1) 5
.85L 5 41,022.7. Begi n by fi ndi ng c.
4 826 2
48 262
1
48 262 0
, .
,
,
+

ce
k
4 826 2
48 262
1
, .
,
+ c
c 5 9
Now fi nd k usi ng y(1).
41 022 7
48 262
1 9
48 262 1
, .
,
,
+

e
k
1 1 9e
248,262k
5 1.176470588
e
248,262k
5 .0196078431
k 5 .0000814684
The probl em asks us to fi nd y when t 5 3.
y
e
+
( )
48 262
1 9
48 262 0000814684 3
,
, .
y 5 48,258.7258
Two hours i nto the game,
48 258 7258
48 262
99 993
, .
,
. percent of the seats are fi l l ed.
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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www.petersons.com
4. I n thi s probl em, you are tryi ng to maxi mi ze
dy
dt
. Treat thi s l i ke any opti mi zati on
probl emstart by fi ndi ng i ts deri vati ve and setti ng i t equal to 0. (Remember, the
deri vati ve of
dy
dt
i s wri tten
d y
dt
2
2
.) Youl l have to use the Product Rul e. Because a
l ogi sti c rel ati onshi p i s evi dent, we use i ts general form.
dy
dt
ky L y ( )
d y
dt
k L y
dy
dt
ky
dy
dt
2
2
0 ( ) +
_
,

k
dy
dt
L y y ( ) 0
Si nce
dy
dt
i s not zero, we can di vi de both si des by k z
dy
dt
and say that
L y
y
L

2 0
2
Therefore, the rate of change i s the greatest hal fway to the upper boundary for
the l ogi sti c growth. Thi s makes sense geometri cal l y, because the sl ope of the
tangent l i nes wi l l i ncrease to that poi nt and then become l ess steep afterward.
TEC HNO LO G Y: A DIFFERENTIAL EQ UATIO NS C ALC ULATO R
PRO G RAM
BC students may be a l i ttl e di sappoi nted i n the BC topi cs so far. Al l of them seem to be
very computati onal i n nature. Arc l engths, sl ope fi el ds, etc., are al l basi cal l y formul as
you have to memori ze. Even worse, the major BC topi c i n di fferenti al equati ons (Eul ers
Method) requi res mi ndl ess, repeti ti ve work. Lucki l y, the cal cul ator can save the day.
Thanks to Greg Hoerst, a former 5-er on the BC test and a student of mi ne, your
cal cul ator can hel p drag you through the dol drums of sl ope fi el ds and Eul ers Method.
Some students were so appreci ati ve of Gregs program, they set up smal l shri nes i n
thei r basement i n honor of hi m, and have voted for hi m as a wri te-i n candi date for
every presi denti al el ecti on ever si nce.
At the end of thi s secti on, youl l fi nd a rel ati vel y short program that wi l l take the
drudgery out of Eul ers and sl ope fi el ds. Al l you have to do i s type i n some basi c
i nformati on, and the cal cul ator takes care of the rest. Does thi s mean you shoul dnt
know the formul as and techni ques for the two methods i t si mpl i fi es? No, no, no!
Essenti al l y hal f of the AP test i s now done wi thout a cal cul ator, so make sure you
dont grow too dependent on the cal cul ator. I f youd rather not type the program i n,
and you (or your teacher) have a TI Graphl i nk that hooks i nto your computer, you can
downl oad the program from my Web si te www.cal cul us-hel p.com.
Example 6: Lets l ook back at the di fferenti al equati on
dy
dx
5 2x
2
y; you graphed i ts
sl ope fi el d back i n Hands-on Acti vi ty 10.2. Of course graphi ng i t wi th the cal cul ator
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NOTE
You may use this program
as long as you type it in
exactly as listed, including
the authors name and
copyright date. Do not sell
this program to anyoneit
is meant to be free.
www.petersons.com
wi l l be si gni fi cantl y easi er. Before we run the program, make sure to set the wi ndow
you want. I n the exerci ses, we used an x i nterval of [21.5,1.5] and a y i nterval of
[0,1.5]. Push the [Wi ndow] button, and enter these val ues i nto the appropri ate spots.
Now, run the program by pressi ng [Prgm], pressi ng [Enter] to sel ect the program, and
then pressi ng [Enter] agai n; you shoul d see the ti tl e screen. Press [Enter] to go to the
menu, and sel ect Sl ope Fi el d.
The program now asks you to type the numerator and denomi nator separatel y. I n thi s
exampl e, the denomi nator i s si mpl y 1. Use the [Al pha] button to get X and Y. The
program then asks you what the l ength of the l i ne segments shoul d be. Because thi s
wi ndow setti ng i s so detai l ed, you shoul d use a smal l number; I used l ength 5 .25. On
l arger wi ndows, you wi l l need to use a l arger l ength, such as 1.
Now, wai t as the cal cul ator draws the sl ope fi el d for you. Once i ts fi ni shed, press
[Enter] to return to the menu screen.
The onl y drawback to thi s program i s that you cant tel l the cal cul ator exactl y where
to draw the l i ne segments, but i n the grand scheme of thi ngs, that matters l i ttl e. I f
you have a PC, go to the Web si te www.graphmati ca.com and downl oad the program
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Graphmatica. I t draws i ncredi bl e sl ope fi el ds and easi l y draws sol uti on graphs to a
sl ope fi el d when you cl i ck the i ni ti al poi nt (x,y).
Example 7: Use Eul ers Method to approxi mate y(6) for
dy
dx x
1
gi ven that y(5) 5 2;
use three steps of si ze Dx 5
1
3
.
Solution: Thi s i s one of the probl ems fol l owi ng the secti on on Eul ers method. Lets
sol ve i t wi th the cal cul ator. Run the program, and sel ect Eul ers from the menu.
Enter al l the i nformati on requested by the program. The Known X and Known Y
prompts correspond to the poi nt (x,y) that i s on the sol uti on to the di fferenti al
equati on; i n thi s case, that poi nt i s (5,2). Before i t begi ns i ts cal cul ati ons, the program
asks See Steps? (Y51). I f you want to see each step of Eul ers method, press [1] and
then press [Enter]. I f you just want the sol uti on, press any other number and press
[Enter]. Press [1] so we can see al l of the steps.
The cal cul ator begi ns wi th the gi ven poi nt and takes a step toward the fi nal approxi -
mati on each ti me you press [Enter].
The answer i s 2.188, whi ch matches the answer we got the hard way.
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Differential Equation Tools, By Greg Hoerst
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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EXERC ISE 6
1. I f f(x) 5 3x 1 1, f(1) 5 2, and f(2) 5 3, fi nd f(x).
2. Whi ch coni c secti on i s the sol uti on to the di fferenti al equati on
dy
dx
x
y
18 4
9
?
Justi fy your answer mathemati cal l y.
3. What i s the posi ti on functi on of a parti cl e movi ng al ong the x-axi s wi th vel oci ty
v(t) 5
3
2
t
3
1 4t 1 3 i f the parti cl e passes through the ori gi n when t 5 2?
4. I f
dy
dx
5 x
2
2 y
2
,
(a) draw the sl ope fi el d for
dy
dx
at al l i ndi cated poi nts on the axes bel ow.
1 2 1 2
1
2
1
2
*(b) use Eul ers Method to approxi mate y(2) usi ng 4 steps i f y(0) 5 1.
5. A human zygote consi sts of 1 cel l at concepti on, and the number of cel l s grows to
8 by the end of one week. Assumi ng that the rate of cel l i ncrease i s proporti onal
to the number of cel l s, how many weeks wi l l i t take the baby-i n-process to amass
1,000 cel l s?
*6. Sarah l i kes mol l i es above al l other tropi cal fi sh. Her fi sh must real l y l i ke each
other, because they are reproduci ng l i ke crazy. The rate of i ncrease of the fi sh i s
proporti onal to both the popul ati on and the number of addi ti onal fi sh the tank
coul d support. Her tank has a carryi ng capaci ty of 50 mol l i es. I f she bought 10
fi sh to start the tank two months ago (none of whi ch di ed) and has 25 fi sh now,
how many fi sh wi l l she have i n one month?
7. Newtons Law of Cool i ng states that an object cool s down at a rate proporti onal to
the di fference between i ts temperature and the temperature of the ambi ent
(surroundi ng) ai r. I f my coffee was 100F ten mi nutes ago, the temperature of my
room i s a constant 75F, and the coffee i s onl y 90F now, what wi l l the tempera-
ture of my coffee be i n 15 mi nutes?
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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ALERT!
Problems 7 and 8 represent
neither straightforward
exponential nor logistic
growth. You have to begin
with the differential
equation expressed in the
problem.
www.petersons.com
8. J ames Diabolical Challenge: The popul ati on of a speci es of jel l yfi sh i n a smal l
harbor, appropri atel y cal l ed Sting Harbor, i s di rectl y proporti onal to 450 2 Q(t),
where Q i s the popul ati on (i n thousands) and t i s the ti me (i n years). At t 5 0
(1990) the popul ati on was 100,000, and i n 1992, the popul ati on was 300,000.
(a) What was the popul ati on i n 1993?
(b) I n what year di d the popul ati on reach 400,000?
*a BC-only question
1. Fi rst, fi nd f(x) by i ntegrati ng f(x):
( ) + ( )
f x x dx 3 1
f (x) 5
3
2
x
2
1 x 1 C
Si nce you know that f (1) 5 2, use that i nformati on to fi nd C.
f (1) 5
3
2
1 1 1 C 5 2
C 5 2
1
2
Now, repeat the process to fi nd f(x).
f x x x dx ( ) +
_
,
3
2
1
2
2
f x x
x
x C ( ) + +
1
2 2
1
2
3
2
f(2) 5 4 1 2 2 1 1 C 5 3
C 5 22
Therefore, f x x
x
x ( ) +
1
2 2
1
2
2
3
2
.
2. Sol ve thi s di fferenti al equati on by separati ng the vari abl es.
9 18 4 ydy x dx ( )

9
2
18 2
2 2
y x x C +
2 18
9
2
2 2
x x y C +
4x
2
2 36x 1 9y
2
5 C
Thi s i s an el l i pse, si nce the squared terms have unl i ke coeffi ci ents wi th the same
si gn. Theres no need to put i t i n standard form.
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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www.petersons.com
3. We are l ooki ng for s(t) knowi ng that s(t) 5 *v(t)dt and s(2) 5 0.
s t t t dt ( ) + +
_
,
3
2
4 3
3
s t t t t C ( ) + + +
3
8
2 3
4 2
s(2) 5 6 1 8 1 6 1 C 5 0
C 5 220
Therefore, the posi ti on equati on i s s(t) 5
3
8
t
4
1 2t
2
1 3t 2 20.
4. (a)
2 0
0
2
2
2
2
(b) Start at poi nt (0,1), and take 4 steps of si ze Dx 5
1
2
.
Point (0,1):
dy
dx
5 0 2 1 5 21; Dy 5
1
2
z (21) 5 2
1
2
(0 1 12, 1 2 12)
Point
S
1
2
,
1
2
D
:
dy
dx
5
1
4
2
1
4
5 0; Dy 5 0 z
1
2
5 0. The new poi nt wi l l be
S
1
2
1
1
2
,
1
2
1 0
D
Point
S
1,
1
2
D
:
dy
dx
5 1 2
1
4
5
3
4
; Dy 5
3
4
z
1
2
5
3
8
S
1 1
1
2
,
1
2
1
3
8
D
Point
S
3
2
,
7
8
D
:
dy
dx
5
9
4
2
49
64
5
95
64
; Dy 5
95
64
z
1
2
5
95
128
3
2
1
2
7
8
95
128
+ +
_
,
,
The approxi mati on gi ven by Eul ers method i s y(2) 5
207
128
1 617 . .
5. Because of the proporti onal rel ati onshi p descri bed, i ts ti me to use Nekt. Cl earl y,
the i ni ti al val ue (N) i s 1; fi nd k i f t i s measured i n weeks.
8 5 1e
k(1)
k 5 l n 8
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www.petersons.com
You can wri te k as a deci mal , but for once, k i s not messy i n i ts exact form, so you
can l eave i t for now. Ti me to fi nd t when y 5 1,000:
1,000 5 1e
(l n 8)t
t ' 3.322 weeks
That babys growi ng l i ke a weed.
6. Thi s si tuati on cal l s for a l ogi sti c growth model , and we know that y(0) 5 10
(i f t equal s two months ago):
10
50
1
50 0
+

ce
k
10
50
1
+ c
10c 5 40
c 5 4
Now, use c and the fact that y(2) 5 25 to fi nd k:
25
50
1 4
100
+

e
k
4e
2100k
5 1
k

ln
.
1
4
100
0138629436
The probl em asks us to fi nd y (number of fi sh) when t 5 3 (one month from now):
y
e
+
( ) ( )
50
1 4
50 0138629436 3 .
y 5 33.333
Sarah wi l l have 33 fi sh and some fi sh on the way.
7. I f the rate of change of the temperature i s proporti onal to the di fference between
the temperature and the ambi ent ai r, then thi s transl ates to the di fferenti al
equati on
dy
dt
k R y ( )
where y i s temperature of the cool i ng object, R i s the room temperature, and k i s
the constant of proporti onal i ty. You cannot use y 5 Ne
kt
or l ogi sti c growth to
model the temperature, as the rate of growth i s not proporti onal to the tempera-
ture. However, i t i s not di ffi cul t to transl ate the gi ven i nformati on i nto the above
di fferenti al equati on. Si nce R i s 75, l ets pl ug i t i n and then sol ve by separati on of
vari abl es.
dy
dt
k y ( ) 75
dy
y
kdt
75

ln 75 + y kt C
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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75 2 y 5 Ce
kt
y 5 75 2 Ce
kt
Use the fact that y(0) 5 100 (temperature 10 mi nutes ago) to fi nd C:
100 5 75 2 Ce
0
C 5 225
Now, use C and the fact that y(10) 5 90 to fi nd k:
90 5 75 2 (225e
10k
)
15 5 25e
10k
ln
.
3
5
10
0510825624 k
The temperature of my coffee 15 mi nutes l ater (t 5 25) wi l l be
y 5 75 2 (225e
25(2.0510825624)
)
y 5 81.971F
8. Much l i ke probl em 7, thi s probl em transl ates i nto the di fferenti al equati on
dQ
dt
k Q ( ) 450
I f you sol ve i t usi ng separati on of vari abl es, you get
Q 5 450 2 Ce
kt
Now, use the fact that Q(0) 5 100 to fi nd that C 5 350. Then, use the fact that
Q(2) 5 300 to fi nd k:
300 5 450 2 350e
2k
ln
.
3
7
2
4236489302 k
Now we can sol ve the i ndi vi dual parts of the questi on.
(a) Fi nd Q i f t 5 3:
Q 5 450 2 350e
2.4236489302z3
Q ' 351.802.
There shoul d be al most 352,000 jel l yfi sh i n Sti ng Harbor.
(b) We want to fi nd t when Q 5 400:
400 5 450 2 350e
2.4236489302zt
ln
.
.
1
7
4236489302
4 593
t
The popul ati on wi l l reach 400,000 duri ng mi d-1994.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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ALERT!
Remember that Q is in
thousands, so dont write
unnecessary zeros.
www.petersons.com
SUM M ING IT UP
A di fferenti al equati on i s si mpl y an equati on that contai ns a deri vati ve.
Your typi cal goal i n a di fferenti al equati on probl em i s to fi nd the equati on that
has the gi ven deri vati ve; i n other words, you are tryi ng to fi nd an anti deri vati ve.
You wi l l use your cal cul ator a l ot i n Eul er s Method. I f you are al l owed to use a
cal cul ator to answer an Eul er s Method questi on on the free response secti on, you
sti l l have to show your work and the setup.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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www.petersons.com
Sequences and Series
(BC Topics Only)
O VERVIEW
Introd uc tion to se q ue nc e s a nd se rie s, nth te rm d ive rg e nc e te st
C onve rg e nc e te sts for infinite se rie s
Powe r se rie s
Ta ylor a nd M a c la urin se rie s
Te c hnolog y: Vie wing a nd c a lc ula ting se q ue nc e s a nd se rie s
with a g ra p hing c a lc ula tor
Sum m ing it up
As a BC cal cul us student, you have come a l ong way si nce your fi rst l i mi ts and
deri vati ves. There may have been a ti me when you feared the Chai n Rul e, but
that ti me i s l ong si nce past. You are now a member of the el i te Cal cul us Cl ub.
(Fi rst rul e of Cal cul us Cl ub: Dont tal k about Cal cul us Cl ub.) And your mem-
bershi p i s compl ete wi th sequences and seri es.
Once you get an i dea of what sequences and seri es are, we wi l l focus pri mari l y
on i nfi ni te seri es. For a coupl e of secti ons, youl l use vari ous tests to determi ne
the convergence of i nfi ni te seri es. Once that i s compl ete, wel l di scuss power
seri es and use Tayl or and Macl auri n seri es to approxi mate the val ues of
functi ons. Sound good? Your Jedi trai ni ng i s al most compl ete . . . the Force i s
strong wi th thi s one.
INTRO DUC TIO N TO SEQ UENC ES AND SERIES, NTH
TERM DIVERG ENC E TEST
A sequence i s basi cal l y a l i st of numbers based on some defi ni ng rul e. Nearl y
every cal cul us book begi ns wi th the same exampl e, and i ts so darn fi ne that I
wi l l bow to peer pressure and use i t as wel l . Consi der the sequence
1
2
_
,
n
. The
number n wi l l take on al l i nteger val ues begi nni ng at 1, so the resul ti ng
sequence of numbers wi l l be
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1 2 3
_
,
_
,

_
,

_
,
n
, , ,
1
2
1
2
1
4
1
8
1
16
1
32
1
64
_
,
n
, , , , , ,
c
h
a
p
t
e
r
1
1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
449
I n some cases, for the sake of ease, we wi l l l et n begi n wi th 0 i nstead of 1but youl l
know exactl y when to do that, so dont get stressed out or confused.
Our si ngul ar goal i n sequences i s to determi ne whether or not they converge. I n other
words, i s the sequence headi ng i n some di recti ontoward some l i mi ti ng number? You
can graph the sequence above to see that i t i s headed toward a l i mi t of 0.
Each term of the sequence i s hal f as l arge as the term before, and the sequence
approaches a l i mi t of 0 very qui ckl y. Mathemati cal l y, we wri te
lim
n
n
_
,

1
2
0
Because thi s sequence has a l i mi t as n approaches i nfi ni ty, the sequence i s sai d to
converge; i f no l i mi t exi sted, the sequence woul d be descri bed as divergent.
Example 1: Determi ne whether or not
3 2 7
4 5 6
3
2 3
n n
n n

+
i s a convergent or di vergent
sequence.
Solution: The sequence wi l l converge i f i ts l i mi t at i nfi ni ty exi sts and wi l l di verge i f
the l i mi t does not exi st.
lim
n
n n
n n

+
3 2 7
4 5 6
3
2 3
Thi s i s a rati onal functi on wi th equal degrees i n the numerator and denomi nator;
therefore, the l i mi t i s the rati o of the l eadi ng coeffi ci ents:
3
6
=
1
2
. Therefore, the
sequence converges to
1
2
. Thi s i s further evi denced by the graph of the sequence bel ow:
A series i s si mi l ar to a sequence, but i n a seri es, you add al l the terms together. Seri es
are wri tten usi ng si gma notati on and l ook l i ke thi s:
1
2
1
2
1
4
1
8
1
16
1
32
1
64
1
_
,
+ + + + + +
n
n

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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NOTE
The Force is with you
always, and it equals mass
times acceleration.
NOTE
The Technology section at
the end of this chapter
explains how to graph
sequences and series on
your TI-83. You should
probably read that before
you go any further.
www.petersons.com
The notati on i s read the sum from 1 to i nfi ni ty of
S
1
2
D
n
and gets i ts val ue from the
sum of al l the terms i n the sequence. However, how can you tel l i f a seri es wi th an
i nfi ni te number of terms has a fi ni te sum? At fi rst gl ance, i t seems i mpossi bl ehow
can you add i nfi ni tel y many numbers together to get a real sum? Consi der the
di agram bel ow, whi ch shoul d hel p you vi sual i ze the i nfi ni te seri es
1
2
1
_
,
n
n
:
1
32
1
64
1
16
1
8
1
4
1
2
I f the l arge box represents one uni t and you conti nuousl y di vi de the box i nto hal ves,
the sum of al l the pi eces wi l l eventual l y (i f you add forever and ever) equal the enti re
box. Thus,
1
2
1
_
,
n
n
5 1.
You wont be abl e to draw pi ctures l i ke thi s for the majori ty of seri es, but, i n the next
secti on, youl l l earn a much easi er way to fi nd the above sum. Mathemati cal l y, you
need to know that a seri es gets i ts val ue from the sequenceof its partial sums (SOPS).
A partial sum i s the sum of a pi ece of the seri es, rather than the enti re thi ng; i t i s
wri tten Sn, where n i s the number of terms bei ng summed. Lets use good ol d
1
2
1
_
,
n
n
as an exampl e:
S
1
5
1
2
S
2
5
1
2
1
1
4
5 .75
S
3
5
1
2
1
1
4
1
1
8
5 .875
Therefore, the SOPS i s .5, .75, .875, .... Thi s i s the i mportant thi ng to remember: I f the
SOPS converges, then theinfiniteseries converges, and its sumis equal to thelimit at
which the SOPS converged. For the most part, you wi l l use the fantasti c formul a
al l uded to earl i er i n order to fi nd sums. However, i f al l el se fai l s, you can use the
SOPS to fi nd the sum of a seri es.
Example 2: Fi nd the sum of the seri es
1 1
2
1
n n
n

+
_
,
.
Solution: Construct the sequence of parti al sums to gai n some i nsi ght on thi s seri es:
S
1
5 1 2
1
3
S
2
5 1 2
1
3
1
1
2
2
1
4
S
3
5 1 2
1
3
1
1
2
2
1
4
1
1
3
2
1
5
C ha p te r 11: Se q ue nc e s a nd Se rie s ( BC Top ic s O nly) 451
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NOTE
The series in Example 2 is
one example of a
telescoping series; the
terms in these series cancel
out as the SOPSprogresses.
www.petersons.com
See what happened there? The 2
1
3
and
1
3
wi l l cancel out. I n S
4
, the 2
1
4
and
1
4
wi l l
cancel out. I n fact, each parti al sum wi l l cancel out another term al l the way to
i nfi ni ty, and the onl y two numbers l eft wi l l be 1 1
1
2
. Therefore, the sum of the seri es
i s
3
2
. You can use your cal cul ator to cal cul ate S
500
to veri fy that the SOPS i s i ndeed
approachi ng
3
2
:
I t makes sense that each term i n a sequence needs to get smal l er i f the seri es i s goi ng
to converge. You are addi ng numbers for an i nfi ni te amount of ti me; i f you are not
eventual l y addi ng 0 i n thi s i nfi ni te l oop, your sum wi l l grow and grow and never
approach a l i mi ti ng val ue. We showed that the sequence of the terms that make up
1
2
1
( )
n
n
have a l i mi t of 0 earl y i n thi s secti on, and that i nfi ni te seri es has a sum.
However, i f the l i mi t, as n approaches i nfi ni ty, of the sequence that forms an i nfi ni te
seri es does not equal 0, then that i nfi ni te seri es cannot converge. Thi s i s cal l ed the nth
TermDivergenceTest, and i t i s the easi est way to i mmedi atel y tel l i f a seri es i s goi ng
to di verge.
nth TermDivergence Test: I f
lim
n
n
a
0
, then a
n
n
1
i s a di vergent seri es.
Example 3: Show that
n
n
n
+
1
1
i s di vergent.
Solution: Because
lim
n
n
n
1
1
(and thi s l i mi t must equal 0 for the seri es to be conver-
gent), the seri es di verges by the nth Term Di vergence Test. Thats al l there i s to i t. I f
you thi nk about i t, si nce the l i mi t at i nfi ni ty i s 1, as n approaches i nfi ni ty, youd be
addi ng 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 forever, and that cl earl y approaches no l i mi ti ng or
maxi mum val ue.
Be careful ! Just because
lim
n
n
a
0
, that does not mean that the seri es wi l l converge!
For exampl e, the harmonic series
1
1
n
n
i s di vergent even though

lim
n
1
n
5 0. I f the
limit at infinity is 0, you can concludenothing from thenth Term DivergenceTest. I t
can onl y be used to show that a seri es di verges (i f i ts l i mi t at i nfi ni ty does not equal 0);
i t can never be used to show that a seri es converges.
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www.petersons.com
EXERC ISE 1
YO U M AY USE YO UR G RAPHING C ALC ULATO R FO R PRO BLEM 4 O NLY.
1. Determi ne i f the sequence
ln x
x
2
converges.
2. Fi nd the nth term of each sequence (i n other words, fi nd the pattern evi denced by
the sequence), and use i t to determi ne whether or not the sequence converges.
(a) 2
3
4
4
9
5
16
6
25
, , , , ,
(b) 1
1
2
1
6
1
24
1
120
, , , , ,
3. Use the nth Term Di vergence Test to determi ne whether or not the fol l owi ng
series converge:
(a)
1 3
4 5 2
2 3
3
1
+ +
+
n n
n n
n
(b)
1
2
1
x
n
4. (a) What i s the sum of

1
1
1
3
1
n n
n
+

+
_
,
?
(b) Cal cul ate S
500
to veri fy that the SOPS i s bounded by the sum you found.
1. The sequence converges i f
lim
ln
n
x
x
2
exists
. Youl l have to use LHpi tal s Rul e:
lim
n
x
x
1
2
lim
n
x
1
2
0
2
The sequence converges.
2. (a) Thi s i s the sequence
n
n
n
+

1
1
2
. Use LHpi tal s to show that the sequence
converges.
lim
n
1
2
0
n

e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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(b) Thi s i s the sequence
1
1
n
n
!
. How can we tel l that i t converges? I t i s very cl ear

that
lim
!
n
n
1
0
; i n fact, thi s sequence converges to 0 si gni fi cantl y faster than
H
1
x
J
, si nce the formers denomi nator wi l l grow l arger much faster than the
l atters.
3. (a)
lim
n
1 3
4 5 2
1
4
2 3
3
+ +
+

n n
n n
, si nce the expressi on i s rati onal and the degrees of the
numerator and denomi nator are equal . Because the l i mi t does not equal 0,
thi s seri es di verges by the nth Term Di vergence Test.
(b)
lim
n
1
2
x
5 0, but thi s does not necessari l y mean that the seri es i s conver-
gent. You wi l l fi nd out that i t does converge very soon (i n the I ntegral Test
subsecti on), but you can never concl ude that any seri es converges usi ng the
nth Term Di vergence Test; i t can onl y be used to prove di vergence. Therefore,
you can draw no concl usi on.
4. (a) Thi s i s a tel escopi ng seri es; i f you wri te out the fourth parti al sum (S
4
), you
can see what terms wi l l cancel out i n the l ong run and whi ch ones wi l l
remai n:
S
4
1
2
1
4
1
3
1
5
1
4
1
6
1
5
1
7
+ + +
The onl y terms that wi l l remai n as n approaches i nfi ni ty are
1
2
+
1
3
, so the
i nfi ni te sum i s
5
6
' .833333.
(b) Use your cal cul ator to fi nd S
500
. Of course, thi s i s not the l i mi t at i nfi ni ty, but
i t wi l l gi ve us an i dea of where SOPS i s headi ng at that poi nt.
S
500
i s cl osi ng i n on .8333, but i t has al l of i nfi ni ty to get thereso whats the
rush?
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C O NVERG ENC E TESTS FO R INFINITE SERIES
Your major focus i n i nfi ni te seri es wi l l be i n determi ni ng whether or not the seri es
converge; i n some rare i nstances, you wi l l al so be abl e to provi de the sum at whi ch the
seri es converge. Each of these tests works best for certai n ki nds of seri es, so make sure
to l earn the seri es characteri sti cs that i ndi cate whi ch tests to use as wel l as how to appl y
the tests themsel ves. So, dont just l earn one or two and expect to be abl e to appl y them
i n al l si tuati ons; you need to know them al l . I know, no rest for the wi cked. . . .
G e om e tric Se rie s
Geometri c seri es have the easi est test for convergence of them al l , but fi rst you need to
know what a geometri c seri es i s. Every geometri c seri es has the form
ar
n
n
0
where a i s a constant that can be factored out of each term and r i s the ratio, the
i denti cal porti on of each term rai sed to an i ncreasi ng power as the terms i ncrease. The
major di fference between thi s seri es and most other i nfi ni te seri es i s that geometri c
seri es begi n wi th n 5 0 and not n 5 1. However, that makes the a term very easy to
fi nd; the a term wi l l be the fi rst term i n the geometri c seri es when expanded, si nce i t
i s mul ti pl i ed by r
0
, whi ch i s just 1. Lets expand the geometri c seri es 2
1
3
0
( )
n
n
to get
a feel for these puppi es:
2 2
1
3
2
1
3
2
1
3
2
1
3
2 3 4
+

_
,
+

_
,
+

_
,
+

_
,
+
2
2
3
2
9
2
27
2
81
+ + + + +
Not onl y wi l l you be abl e to tel l i f thi s seri es actual l y adds up to somethi ng (con-
verges), but we can actual l y fi nd out exactly what the sum of the seri es i s.
Geometric Series: The geometri c seri es
ar
n
n
0
wi l l di verge for U rU 1. I t wi l l onl y
converge i f 0 , U rU , 1. I f the seri es does converge, i t wi l l converge to the sum
a
r 1
.
Therefore, the seri es 2
1
3
0
_
,
n
n
converges si nce the rati o,
1
3
, i s between 0 and 1.
Furthermore, the sum of the seri es wi l l be
a
r 1
2
2
3
2
3
2
3

Example 4: Determi ne whether or not the fol l owi ng seri es converge; i f they do, fi nd
the sum of the seri es.
(a) 3
15
4
75
16
375
64
+ + + +
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TIP
J ust as promised, the first
term of the expansion is the
a term of the geometric
series.
www.petersons.com
The fi rst term i s a, so a 5 3. You al so know that each term of the seri es contai ns a, so
factor i t out to determi ne r:
3 1
5
4
25
16
125
64
+ + + +
_
,
So, the n 5 0 term i s 1, the n 5 1 term i s

5
4
, and the n 5 2 term i s
25
16
. The numerators
are powers of 5, and the denomi nators are powers of 4. Thi s i s just the seri es
3
5
4
0
( )
n
n
. However,
5
4
1, so the seri es di verges.
(b)
1
2
1
4
1
8
1
16
1
32
1
64
+ + + + + +
Recogni ze thi s probl em? We have al ready deci ded that the answer must be 1, so l ets
fi nal l y prove i t. Fi rst of al l , a 5
1
2
, so factor that out of everythi ng:
1
2
1
1
2
1
4
1
8
1
16
1
32
+ + + + + +
_
,
The rati o i s defi ni tel y

S
1
2
D
, maki ng the seri es
1
2
1
2
0
_
,
_
,
n
n
. Therefore, the sum wi l l be
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
1

just as we thought i t woul d be.
(c)
1
4
1
6
1
9
2
27
4
81
+ + + + +
Agai n, si nce a i s the fi rst term,
1
4
, di vi de i t out of al l the other terms.
1
4
1
4
6
4
9
8
27
16
81
+ + + + +
_
,
The
4
6
term can be reduced to
2
3
, and the seri es i n parentheses has rati o
2
3
. Thus, the
seri es converges (si nce
2
3
i s between 0 and 1), and i t has sum
1
4
2
3
1
4
1
3
1
1
12

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NOTE
Dividing the other terms by
1
4
is the same as multiplying
them by 4.
www.petersons.com
The Inte g ra l Te st a nd P- Se rie s
To hel p you remember the necessary condi ti ons that must exi st i n order to appl y the
i ntegral test, memori ze the fol l owi ng phrase: In pri son, dogs curse. The mneumoni c
devi ce rei nforces that i n order to appl y the Integral Test, the functi on must be posi ti ve,
decreasi ng, and conti nuous. I n essence, the I ntegral Test shows that an i nfi ni te seri es
and an i ntegral wi th an i nfi ni te upper bound have a l ot i n common: ei ther they wi l l both
converge or both di verge.
The Integral Test: I f a
n
5 f(n) i s a posi ti ve, decreasi ng, conti nuous functi on, then
a
n
n
1
and f n dn ( )
1
ei ther both converge or both di verge. As an exampl e, consi der
1
1
n
n
, the harmoni c seri es. We al ready know that the sequence

1
n

converges, but
does the i nfi ni te seri es converge? Accordi ng to the I ntegral Test, i t wi l l i f the i ntegral
dn
n
1
1
does. Therefore, try to eval uate thi s i mproper i ntegral :

lim
limln
limln
b
b
b
b
b
n
dn
n
b
1
1
1
As x approaches i nfi ni ty, l n x wi l l approach a hei ght of i nfi ni ty; the graph has no
hori zontal asymptote or l i mi ti ng val ue and wi l l i ncrease forever (al though more
sl owl y than many other graphs). Therefore, the i ntegral di verges, and the i nfi ni te
seri es must di verge, too.
The justi fi cati on for the I ntegral Test l i es i n geometry. Remember that an i ntegral i s
real l y the sum of an i nfi ni te number of rectangl e areas; the above seri es was an
i nfi ni te sum of numbers. I f a functi on creates rectangl es whose areas grow and resul t
i n di vergence, then that same functi on wi l l create outputs whose sums grow too much
and al so create di vergence.
Thi s l eads us back to a bri ef di scussi on we began i n the I mproper I ntegral s secti on of
Chapter 8. At that ti me, we di scussed the set of i mproper i ntegral s of the form
1
1
x
p
dx
. We sai d that thi s i ntegral wi l l di verge for any p 1 but wi l l converge for
p . 1. We can now appl y thi s fact to i nfi ni te seri es.
P-series: A p-seri es i s a seri es of the form
1
1
n
n
p
, where p i s a posi ti ve number. A

p-seri es wi l l converge i f p . 1 but wi l l di verge i f p 1. I n the case of the harmoni c
seri es
1
n
, p 5 1, so i t wi l l di verge; you dont have to appl y the I ntegral Test as we di d
above, but i f you do, i t wi l l become very cl ear exactl y why the harmoni c seri es
di verges.
Example5: Determi ne whether or not the fol l owi ng seri es converge, and expl ai n how
you arri ved at your answer:
(a) n
n
2
3
1
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NOTE
It makes sense that p must
be positive. If p 5 22, that
creates the series
(
n =1
`
n
2
,
which definitely has an
infinite height as x
approaches infinity.
NOTE
The fact that I have not
peppered this discussion on
p-series with low-brow
humor is a testament to my
self-control.
www.petersons.com
I f you rewri te the seri es as
1
1
2 3
n
n
/
, i t i s a p-seri es wi th p 5
2
3
. Si nce
2
3
1, the seri es
wi l l di verge.
(b)
3
2 3
2
1
n
n
n
+
Accordi ng to the I ntegral Test, the convergence of thi s seri es i s correl ated wi th the
convergence of the rel ated i mproper i ntegral . Therefore, try to i ntegrate:
3
2 3
3
2 3
2
1
2
1
n
n
dn
n
n
dn
b
b
+
+
lim
You shoul d use u-substi tuti on, wi th u 5 2n
2
1 3. Dont forget to repl ace 1 and b wi th
u-boundari es.
lim ln
b
b
u
+
( )
_
,
3
1
4
5
2 3
2
Thi s i ntegral defi ni tel y grows i nfi ni tel y l arge as x approaches i nfi ni ty, so both i t and
the seri es wi l l di verge.
The C om p a rison Te st
Thi s test i s useful when the seri es at hand l ooks si mi l ar to a seri es for whi ch you al ready
knowor can easi l y determi nethe convergence. Now that you know how to appl y the
i ntegral , geometri c, and p-seri es tests, you can use them i n conjuncti on wi th the
Compari son Test i n order todetermi ne the convergence of seri es that are al most (but not
qui te) geometri c or p-seri es or that are nearl y (but not qui te) i ntegrabl e. As was the case
wi th the I ntegral Test, al l the terms of the seri es i nvol ved must be posi ti ve to appl y the
Compari son Test.
TheComparison Test: I f Sa
n
and Sb
n
are both posi ti ve seri es and every term of Sa
n
i s l ess than or equal to the correspondi ng Sb
n
term,
(1) i f Sb
n
converges, then Sa
n
converges.
(2) i f Sa
n
di verges, then Sb
n
di verges.
Consi der the fol l owi ng di agram of the fi rst few terms of each sequence. Noti ce that
a
n
, b
n
for al l n. The fi gure al so contai ns the functi ons a(x) and b(x) from whi ch the
terms of the seri es get thei r val ue.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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NOTE
The Comparison Test is also
called the Direct
Comparison Test.
ALERT!
If a
n
b
n
, and b
n
is
divergent or a
n
is
convergent, you can draw
no conclusions about the
other series.
www.petersons.com
a2
a3
a5 a4
a1
b1
b2
b3
b5
b4
a(x)
b(x)
I f b
n
n
1
converges, then accordi ng to the I ntegral Test, b x dx ( )
1
i s fi ni te. I n other
words, there i s a number that represents the area trapped between b(x) and the
x-axi s. Si nce the area beneath a(x) must be l ess than the area beneath b(x) (si nce al l
the functi on val ues for a are l ess than or equal to bs val ues), then the area beneath
a(x) must al so be fi ni te. How can an area l ess than a fi ni te area be i nfi ni te? Si mi l arl y,
i f a x
n
( )
1
di verges, then the area a x dx ( )
1
must be i nfi ni te. I f b has l arger val ues
than thi s di vergent i ntegral , then b
n
must be di vergent, too.
Thi s test works just l i ke the restri cti on si gns for ki ddi e ri des at theme parks: You
cannot be tal l er than thi s to ri de thi s ri de. I am too tal l to ri de ki ds ri des, but Papa
Smurf can ri de any of them. I f an i ndi vi dual comes al ong who i s tal l er than I am, then
he wi l l not be abl e to ri de ei ther (the di vergence part of the rul e). However, i f someone
shorter than Papa Smurf strol l s up, then he wi l l be abl e to ri de (the convergence part
of the rul e).
Example 6: Use the Compari son Test to determi ne the convergence of the fol l owi ng
seri es:
(a)
e
n
n
n
+
3
1
Compare thi s to the seri es
1
3
1
n
n
+
. Wi thout a doubt, the numerator e

n
i s much l arger
than the other numerator, 1. Therefore, each term of the seri es
e
n
n
n
+
3
1
wi l l be l arger
than the comparsi on seri es,
1
3
1
n
n
+
. However, usi ng the I ntegral Test, i t i s easy to

see that
1
3
1
n
n
+
i s di vergent. Because
e
n
n
n
+
3
1
i s l arger than a di vergent seri es, i t
must al so be di vergent by the Compari son Test.
(b)
3
7 1
1
n
n
n
+
Compare thi s to the seri es

3
7
1
_
,
n
n
, whi ch i s a convergent geometri c seri es (si nce r 5
3
7
, whi ch i s l ess than 1). Si nce each of the denomi nators of
3
7 1
1
n
n
n
+
are greater than

the correspondi ng denomi nators i n the geometri c seri es
3
7
1
_
,
n
n
, that wi l l resul t i n a
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NOTE
The trickiest part of the
Comparison Test is deciding
what to compare the given
series to. Most of the time,
you pick a series that is
close to, but simpler than,
the given series.
www.petersons.com
smal l er overal l val ue for each term (i n the same way that
1
6
,
1
5
, even though 6 . 5).
Therefore,
3
7 1
1
n
n
n
+
i s smal l er than a convergent seri es, so i t must be convergent, too.

The Lim it C om p a rison Te st
Thi s test operates i n a sl i ghtl y di fferent way from previ ous tests but has many of the
same characteri sti cs as the Compari son Test. For one thi ng, youl l need to i nvent a
compari son seri es, and both your ori gi nal and the new seri es must contai n posi ti ve
terms. I n practi ce, the Li mi t Compari son Test al l ows you to take ugl y seri es and
compare them to very si mpl e p-seri es to determi ne thei r convergence. There i s even
good news, pessi mi sti c mathemati ci an: I ts very easy to pi ck a compari son seri es wi th
thi s test. When youve stopped cheeri ng, you may conti nue readi ng.
The Limit Comparison Test: I f Sa
n
and Sb
n
are posi ti ve seri es, and
lim
n
n
n
a
b
N
(where N i s a posi ti ve number), then both seri es ei ther converge or di verge. I f the l i mi t
does not equal a fi ni te number, you can draw no concl usi on from thi s test.
Translation: To determi ne whether or not a seri es Sa
n
converges, you wi l l fi rst i nvent
a compari son seri es Sb
n
. Then, fi nd the l i mi t at i nfi ni ty of the quoti ent
a
b
n
n
. I f that
l i mi t exi sts (i n other words, i f the l i mi t i s a fi ni te number), then ei ther both seri es wi l l
converge or both wi l l di verge. Because of thi s, you shoul d choose a Sb
n
that i s
obvi ousl y convergent or di vergent to cut down on your work.
Just l i ke the Compari son Test, the convergence or di vergence of the seri es, a
n
, i s
dependent upon the convergence of the seri es to whi ch i t i s compared, b
n
. Al though a
bi t strange, the Li mi t Compari son Test i s more strai ghtforward than i ts predecessor
and i s, i n practi ce, easi er to use.
Example7: Use the Li mi t Compari son Test to determi ne whether or not the fol l owi ng
seri es converge:
(a)
3 6
1 5 7
2
1
n
n n
n
+
+
As the ti p above expl ai ns, use the hi ghest powers of n i n the numerator and denomi -
nator to create a compari son seri es of
n
n
2
or
1
N
.
lim
n
3 6
1 5 7
1
2
n
n n
n
+
+
Mul ti pl y the numerator and denomi nator of thi s mega fracti on by
n
1
to get
lim
n
3 6
1 5 7
2
2
n n
n n
+
+
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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TIP
When choosing the
comparison series, use only
the highest powers of n in
the numerator and
denominator of the original
series.
www.petersons.com
Because thi s i s a rati onal functi on wi th equal degrees i n the numerator and denomi -
nator, the l i mi t i s the rati o of the l eadi ng coeffi ci ents:
3
7
. Therefore, both seri es wi l l
ei ther converge or di verge; so whi ch i s i t? We al ready know that
1
n
di verges, so both seri es di verge. I f you forgot that i t was a harmoni c seri es, you
sti l l know that
1
n
i s a di vergent p-seri es (si nce p 5 1).
(b)
n
n
n
n
+
5
3 4
1
Thi s one i s tri cki er. Youre supposed to use the hi ghest powers of n onl y, so what do
you do wi th the 4
n
? Answer: i ncl ude i t al sowi th an n power, i t has to be i mportant.
Therefore, the compari son seri es i s
n
n
n
4
or
1
4
n
.
lim
n
n
n
n
n
+
5
3 4
1
4
Mul ti pl y the top and bottom of that gi ant fracti on by 4
n
to get
lim
n
n
n
+
5
3
1
3
We got the number we needednow, to determi ne i f the seri es converge or not. The
compari son seri es can be rewri tten as
1
4
1
_
,
n
n
, whi ch i s a convergent geometri c
seri es (si nce r 5
1
4
, 1). Therefore, both of the seri es must be convergent.
The Ra tio Te st
Yet agai n, thi s test works onl y for seri es wi th posi ti ve terms. (The next seri es test wi l l
fi nal l y address seri es wi th posi ti ve and negati ve terms.) The Rati o Test works best for
seri es that contai n thi ngs that grow extremel y l arge as n i ncreases, l i ke powers of n or
factori al s i nvol vi ng n. I n essence, you take the l i mi t at i nfi ni ty of the rati o of a generi c
seri es term a
n
and the next consecuti ve generi c term a
n 1 1
; you can determi ne the
convergence of the seri es based on what happens after you fi nd the l i mi t.
The Ratio Test: I f Sa
n
i s a seri es whose terms are posi ti ve, and
lim
n
a
a
n
n
+1
5 N
(where N i s a real number), then
(1) Sa
n
converges i f N , 1.
(2) Sa
n
di verges i f N . 1.
(3) I f N 5 1, we dont know di ddl y squat: the seri es coul d converge or di verge, but to
determi ne whi ch, wel l have to use a di fferent test; the Rati o Test doesnt hel p.
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CAUTION
A limit of
1
3
does not mean
that either series has a sum
of
1
3
. All thats important is
that
1
3
is a finite number
(not `).
www.petersons.com
Example 8: Use the Rati o Test to determi ne whether or not the fol l owi ng seri es
converge:
(a)
n
n
n
3
1
!
Your best bet i s the Rati o Test because of the factori al i n the seri es. I n thi s case, a
n
5
n
n
3
!
; to get a
n 1 1
, substi tute (n 1 1) for n:
a
n 1 1
5
n
n
+ ( )
+ ( )
1
1
3
!
Now you can set up the l i mi t that i s the heart of the Rati o Test:
lim
n
a
a
n
n
+1
lim
n
n
n
n
n
+ ( )
+ ( )
1
1
3
3
!
!
To si mpl i fy the fracti on, mul ti pl y the numerator and denomi nator by the reci procal of
the denomi nator. (Thi s i s al ways the second step.)
lim
n
n
n
n
n
+ ( )
+ ( )

1
3
1 3 !
!
lim
n
n n
n n n
+ ( )
+ ( )

1
1
3
3
!
!
lim
n
n
n
+ ( ) 1
2
3
lim
n
n n
n
2
3
2 1
0
+ +
The l i mi t at i nfi ni ty i s 0; si nce 0 , 1, the seri es converges accordi ng to the Rati o Test.
(b)
2
2
1
n
n
Thi s doesnt have anythi ng that grows so l arge as to make the Rati o Test our fi rst
choi ce, but we have to fol l ow di recti ons.
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www.petersons.com
lim
n
2
1
2
2
2
n
n
+ ( )
lim
n
n
n n
2
2
2 1
1
+ +

Si nce the l i mi t equal s 1, no concl usi on can be drawn usi ng the Rati o Test. So, l ets try
somethi ng el se even though the di recti ons dont tel l us towere rebel s! Noti ce that
2
2
n
i s al most a p-seri es, so the better bet woul d have been the Li mi t Compari son Test.
A good compari son seri es i s
1
2
n
:
lim
n
2
1
2
2
2
n
n
Because 2 i s a fi ni te number (and

1
2
n
i s a convergent p-seri es) both seri es converge
accordi ng to the Li mi t Compari son Test.
The Alte rna ting Se rie s Te st
Unti l now, you have determi ned convergence for l ots of di fferent seri es. Most of those
tests requi red the terms of the seri es to be posi ti ve. Fi nal l y (exhal e here), the Al ternat-
i ng Seri es Test (i nhal e nervousl y here) al l ows you to consi der seri es wi th negati ve
terms. However, these seri es must al ternate back and forth between posi ti ve and
negati ve terms. For exampl e,
( )
+
1
1
1
n
n
n
i s an al ternati ng seri es:
( )
+ + +
+
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
5
1
6
1
1
n
n
n

The seri es has a posi ti ve term, then a negati ve term, then a posi ti ve term, etc. I n
contrast, the seri es
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
5
1
6
+ +
i s not an al ternati ng seri es. Not onl y do the si gns have to al ternate, but they al so have
to al ternate every other term.
The Alternating Series Test: I f Sa
n
i s an al ternati ng seri es; each term, a
n 1 1
, i s
smal l er than the precedi ng term a
n
; and
lim
n
n
a
0
, then Sa
n
converges.
Translation: I n order for an al ternati ng seri es to converge, (1) the terms must de-
crease as n i ncreases (i n fact, each term has to be smal l er than the term before i t), and
(2) the seri es must pass the nth Term Di vergence Testthe nth term must have a
l i mi t of 0. I f both condi ti ons are sati sfi ed, the al ternati ng seri es converges.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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www.petersons.com
Example 9: Determi ne whether or not the fol l owi ng seri es converge usi ng the Al ter-
nati ng Seri es Test:
(a)
( )
+
1
1
1
n
n
n
I ts the al ternati ng seri es form of a harmoni c seri es. You may want to answer di ver-
gent as a refl ex. Lets see what happens. I f we wri te out a few terms
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
5
1
6
+ + +
i ts cl ear that thi s i s an al ternati ng seri es and that each term i s smal l er than the
previ ous one. Dont worry about the posi ti ve and negati ve si gns. Cl earl y,
1
3
1
4
1
5
> > ,
etc. That sati sfi es the fi rst requi rement of the test. The second requi rement i nvol ves
the fol l owi ng l i mi t:
lim
n n
1
0
The l i mi t i s very easy to fi nd, and we agai n i gnore the possi bi l i ty of a negati ve si gn
when eval uati ng the l i mi t. The test takes care of the negati ve si gn wi thout our havi ng
to worry about i t. Because both condi ti ons are sati sfi ed, thi s seri es converges.
(b)
( ) + ( )
1 3
2
1
n
n
n
n
To begi n, l ets wri te out a few terms of the seri es:
+ + + + 2
5
4
1
7
8
4
5
3
4

The seri es i s defi ni tel y al ternati ng, and (i gnori ng the si gns) each term i s l ess than the
term precedi ng i t. However,
n
n
n
+
lim
3
2
1
2
0
Therefore, thi s seri es fai l s the second condi ti on of the Al ternati ng Seri es Test. I n fact,
thi s seri es outri ght fails the nth Term Di vergence Test and therefore di verges. Even
though i ts an al ternati ng seri es, i t (l i ke al l seri es) must pass the nth Term Di vergence
Test i n order to converge.
I n some seri es, the al ternati ng seri es test wi l l not appl y, even though we want i t to so
badl y. Lets take, for exampl e, ( )
1
4
1
n
n
n
n!
. The seri es defi ni tel y al ternates; thats not
the probl em. I f we wri te a few terms out, we get
+ + + 4 8
32
3
32
3
128
15

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TIP
Once you know a series is
alternating, you can ignore
the negative signs as you
proceed through the test.
www.petersons.com
The terms (at l east i n thi s smal l sampl e) defi ni tel y dont seem to be getti ng uni forml y
smal l er. They wi l l l ater, but at fi rst, thi ngs are pretty wei rd. Furthermore, l ets try to
fi nd the requi red l i mi t for the Al ternati ng Seri es Test:
n
n
n
lim
!
4
Thi s i s the i ndetermi nate form
`
`
, so our natural i nsti nct woul d be to use LHpi tal s
Rul e. How do we fi nd the deri vati ve of (n!)? Thi ngs are l ooki ng ugl ythe Al ternati ng
Seri es Test i snt cutti ng the mustard. I n cases such as these, we wi l l l ook for absolute
convergence. I t wi l l al l ow us to i gnore the pesky negati ve si gns and still determi ne i f
the al ternati ng seri es converges.
Absolute Convergence: I f SU a
n
U converges, then Sa
n
i s sai d to convergeabsolutely,
and the ori gi nal seri es, Sa
n
, automati cal l y converges. I f SU a
n
U di verges but Sa
n
con-
verges, the seri es i s sai d to converge conditionally.
Example 10: Does ( )
1
4
1
n
n
n
n!
converge?
Solution: Because the Al ternati ng Seri es Test doesnt work, as we showed above, we
wi l l test to see i f
( )

1
4 4
1 1
n
n
n
n
n
n n ! !
converges i nstead. Because of the l arge quanti ti es i nvol ved, the Rati o Test i s your best
bet.
lim
!
!
n
n
n
n
n
+ ( )
+
4
1
4
1
lim
n n +

4
1
0
Because 0 , 1, thi s seri es converges by the Rati o Test. Heres the great part: Because
the absol ute val ue of the seri es converged, the seri es converges absol utel y, and
( )
1
4
1
n
n
n
n!
converges automati cal l y! Handy, eh?
You may wonder why absol ute convergence works. I n essence, i t says to i gnore al l
negati ve terms i n a seri es and make them posi ti ve. I f that al l -posi ti ve seri es still
converges to a si ngl e number, then al l owi ng some of those terms to be negati ve wi l l
not cause that sum to get any l arger and possi bl y di verge. I n fact, the i ncl usi on of
negati ve terms wi l l make that sum smal l er.
The fi nal i mportant characteri sti c of al ternati ng seri es i s the error-bound that they
can report. Li ke most other seri es tests (excl udi ng geometri c), you cannot fi nd the sum
of the i nfi ni te seri es. You sti l l cant wi th Al ternati ng Seri es (Booooo!), but you can tel l
approxi matel y how cl ose your parti al sum approxi mati on i s. Heres the i mportant
factoi d to remember: Theerror inherent in an alternatingseries partial sumS
n
is less
than theabsolutevalueof thenext term, a
n 1 1
. Thi s may sound tri cky, but i ts real l y
easy!
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Example 11: Fi nd the i nterval i n whi ch the actual sum of
( )
+
1
1
2
1
n
n
n
i s contai ned i f
S
5
i s used to approxi mate i t.
Solution: S
5
i s the parti al sum that i ncl udes onl y the fi rst fi ve terms of the seri es. So,
thi s probl em i s approxi mati ng the sum of the seri es by addi ng onl y those terms
together:
S
5
1
1
4
1
9
1
16
1
25
838611 + + .
Al though thats not the sum of the i nfi ni te seri es, we wi l l soon be abl e to tel l just how
cl ose of an approxi mati on i t i s. The maxi mum possi bl e error wi l l be the absol ute val ue
of the next term, a
6
1
36
027777 . . The actual i nfi ni te sum for the seri es wi l l
fal l wi thi n .027777 of .838611. Therefore, the actual sum i s somewhere i n the i nterval
(.838611 2 .027777,.838611 1 .027777)
(.810833,.866388)
C onc lusion
After l earni ng al l of these tests for seri es convergence, most students thi nk that i t wi l l
be a mi racl e i f they can si mpl y remember them al l on a testI agree. However, i t i s a
mi racl e that hel ps me remember al l the tests. Whenever you face an ugl y, squi rmi ng,
gross seri es probl em, remember Moses parti ng the Red Sea. Not onl y i s i t rel axi ng, i t
al so forms a mnemoni c phrase to hel p you remember al l the seri es youve l earned:
PARTING C
(Okay, I had to be a l i ttl e creati ve wi th C, but cut me some sl ack.) Each l etter
represents one of the tests you just l earned. As you attempt each of the probl ems i n
the Probl em Set, use the Moses phrase to hel p deci de whi ch test to use:
P P-seri es: I s the seri es i n the form
1
n
p
?
A Al ternati ng seri es: Does the seri es al ternate? I f i t does, are the terms
getti ng smal l er, and i s the nth term 0?
R Rati o Test: Does the seri es contai n thi ngs that grow very l arge as n i n-
creases?
T Tel escopi ng seri es: Wi l l al l but a coupl e of the terms i n the seri es cancel
out?
I I ntegral Test: Can you easi l y i ntegrate the expressi on that defi nes the
seri es?
N Nth Term Di vergence Test: I s the nth term somethi ng other than 0?
G Geometri c seri es: I s the seri es of the form ar
n
n
0
?
C Compari son Tests: I s the seri es almost another ki nd of seri es (e.g., p-seri es
or geometri c seri es)? Whi ch woul d be better to use: the Compari son or the
Li mi t Compari son Test?
J ust think of it: Moses was fl eei ng from the Egypti ans and capti vi ty. Youve
probabl y never had to part anythi ng l arger than your hai r. Unl ess you are a
member of the 80s band Poi son, the tasks arent even comparabl e.
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www.petersons.com
EXERC ISE 2
For 1 through 12, determi ne whether or not the seri es converge usi ng the appropri ate
convergence test (there may be more than one appl i cabl e test). I f possible, gi ve the sum
of the seri es.
1.
2
7
0
_
,
n
n
2.
4
3
1
n
n
3.
n
n
n
2
1
5
4.
1
5
5 3
1
n
n
+
5.
n
n
n
n
!
1
6.
1
5
1
6
1
7
1
8
1
9
+ + + + +
7. 2
1
2
1
8
1
32
+ + + +
8.
5 6 3
7 8
2
3
1
n n
n n
n
+
+
9.
cosn
n
n
1
10.
3 4
2
1
n
n
n
+
11.
8 6
12 9
3 5
4 5
1
n n
n n
n
12.
3 1
2
5
1
n
n
n
+
+
13. Determi ne i f the seri es

( )
+
1
3 4
5
1
n
n
n
converges absol utel y, converges condi ti onal l y,
or di verges.
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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www.petersons.com
1. Thi s i s a geometri c seri es wi th a 5 1 and r
2
7
. Because 0 1
2
7
< < , the seri es
wi l l converge, and i t wi l l converge to
a
r 1
1
1
1 7
5
2
7
5
7

2. Thi s l ooks l i ke a p-seri es wi th p 5 3. However, the 4 makes i t a l i ttl e di fferent.
Because the 4 wi l l be mul ti pl i ed by every term i n the seri es, we can rewri te the
seri es as
4
1
3
1
n
n
(You can pul l out the constant, just l i ke you di d wi th defi ni te i ntegral s.) There-
fore, the 4 does not affect the seri es at al l . Si nce p . 1, the seri es converges.
3. Thi s seri es i s a good candi date for the Rati o Test because of 5
n
; thi s quanti ty wi l l
grow l arge qui ckl y as n i ncreases.
n
n
n
n
n
+
+
( )
lim
1
5
5
2
1
2
n
n
n
n
n
+

+ ( )
lim
1
5
5
2
1 2
n
n n
n
+ +
lim
2
2
2 1
5
1
5
Because
1
5
< 1, thi s seri es converges accordi ng to the Rati o Test. (Remember,
1
5
just tel l s you that the seri es convergesi t does not mean that the sum of the
seri es i s
1
5
.)
4. Compare thi s to the seri es
1
5 3
1
n
n
/
. The ori gi nal seri es has denomi nators that

are sl i ghtl y greater than each correspondi ng denomi nator i n the second seri es. A
l arger denomi nator means a smaller val ue. Therefore, each term of
1
5
5 3
1
n
n
+
wi l l be smal l er than the correspondi ng term of

1
5 3
1
n
n
/
. Noti ce that
1
5 3
1
n
n
/
i s a si mpl e p-seri es, and si nce p >

5
3
1 , i t converges. Because
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1
5
5 3
1
n
n
+
i s smal l er than a convergent seri es, i t must converge by the Com-

pari son Test, too.
5. The Rati o Test i s our best bet, as n
n
and n! wi l l grow l arge qui ckl y as n i ncreases.
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
+
+
( )
+ ( )
lim
!
!
1
1
1
n
n
n
n n
n n
+
+ ( )
+ ( )
lim
!
!
1
1
1
n
n
n
n
n n
+
+ ( )
+ ( )
lim
1
1
1
You can cancel an (n 1 1) term out of the top and bottom, l eavi ng you wi th
n
n
n
n
n
+ ( )
lim
1
Heres the tri cky part: I f you rewri te thi s l i mi t, you get
n
n
n
n
+
_
,
lim
1
n
n
n
e
_
,

lim
1
1
Remember that l i mi t you memori zed a l ong ti me ago? There i t i s agai n. Si nce
e. 1 (ei s approxi matel y 2.718), the seri es di verges.
6. Thi s i s actual l y the seri es
1
4
1
n
n
+
. Use the I ntegral Test to see i f i t converges.

dn
n +
4
1
b
b
dn
n +
lim
4 1
b
n
b
+
lim
ln 4
1
lim ln ln
b
b
+ ( )
1
]
4 5
Therefore, both the i ntegral and the seri es di verge.
7. Thi s i s a geometri c seri es wi th a 5 2. Factor 2 out of al l the terms i n the seri es to
get the fol l owi ng rati o:
2 1
1
4
1
16
1
64
+ + + +
_
,
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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The denomi nators are consecuti ve powers of 4, so the rati o i s r
1
4
, and the
seri es i s 2
1
4
0
_
,
n
n
. The seri es converges si nce
1
4
i s between 0 and 1, and i t has sum
a
r 1
2
2
4
3
8
3
3
4

8. Thi s i s a Li mi t Compari son probl em. Take the hi ghest powers of the numerator
and denomi nator to create the compari son seri es
n
n
n
2
3
1
.
n
n
n n
n n
n
n n n
n n
+
+
+
+

lim
lim
5 6 3
7 8
1
5 6 3
7 8
5
1
5
2
3
3 2
3
Si nce
1
n
i s a di vergent p-seri es, and the above l i mi t exi sts, both seri es di verge by
the Li mi t Compari son Test.
9. Al though thi s seri es l ooks funky, i ts just an al ternati ng seri es. The numerators
wi l l be cos p, cos 2p, cos 3p, cos 4p, etc., whi ch are just the numbers 1, 21, 1, 21,
etc. Each successi ve term wi l l defi ni tel y get smal l er (si nce the denomi nators wi l l
grow steadi l y). Therefore, al l thats l eft i n the Al ternati ng Seri es Test i s the l i mi t:
n n
lim
/
1
1 2
The l i mi t does equal zero (consi der the graph). Therefore, thi s al ternati ng seri es
converges by the Al ternati ng Seri es Test.
10. Each term of thi s seri es i s greater than each correspondi ng term of the
3
2
1
( )
n
n
,
whi ch i s a di vergent geometri c seri es. Because
3 4
2
1
n
n
n
+
i s greater than a di ver-

gent seri es, i t must di verge by the Compari son Test, too.
11. Al though thi s probl em may l ook compl i cated, i t i s actual l y qui te easy. Thi s seri es
di verges by the nth Term Di vergence Test. Noti ce that
n
n n
n n
+

lim
8 6
12 9
6
9
2
3
3 5
4 5
Because the l i mi t at i nfi ni ty of the nth term i s not 0, thi s seri es cannot converge
(you wi l l eventual l y be addi ng 2
2
3
forever).
12. I f you rewri te the seri es as
3 1
2
5
1
n
n
n
+
+

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you can use the Li mi t Compari son Test. Take the hi ghest powers of n i n the
numerator and denomi nator to create the compari son seri es
n
n n
1 2
5 2 4 2
1
/
/ /
.
n
n
n
n
+
+
lim
3 1
2
1
5
4
(I f you l eave
n
4
unsi mpl i fi ed, i ts more obvi ous to mul ti pl y the radi cal s to-
gether.)
n
n n
n
+
+

lim
3
2
3
1
3
5 4
5
Because
1 1
4
2
1 n
n
n

i s a convergent p-seri es, both seri es must converge.

13. Fi rst of al l , test the absol ute convergence by i gnori ng the (21)
n
. Thi s gi ves the
seri es
1
3 4
5
1
n
n
+
. Thi s i s si mi l ar to the p-seri es

1
1 5
n
/
, so use the Li mi t Compari -
son Test:
n
n
n
+
lim
/
1
3 4
1
5
1 5
n
n
n +
lim
5
5
3 4
Because thi s i s a rati onal functi on wi th equal powers i n both parts of the fracti on,
the l i mi t i s
1
3
5
. Because that i s a fi ni te number, both seri es di verge accordi ng to
the Li mi t Compari son Test. The concl usi on? Thi s seri es does not converge abso-
l utel y. Next, we need to determi ne whether or not the seri es converges condi ti on-
al l y by l eavi ng the (21)
n
i n pl ace.
The seri es
( )
+
1
3 4
5
1
n
n
n
i s defi ni tel y al ternati ng, and, because the denomi nators
wi l l grow steadi l y, the terms wi l l l essen i n val ue as n i ncreases. Now, to test the
nth term (the l ast hurdl e i n the Al ternati ng Seri es Test):
n n +

lim
1
3 4
0
5
Accordi ng to the Al ternati ng Seri es Test, thi s seri es converges but onl y condition-
ally, si nce the absol ute val ue of the seri es di verged.
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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www.petersons.com
PO WER SERIES
Thus far, you have deal t excl usi vel y wi th seri es of the form Sa
n
; al l the seri es have been
runs of constants. The fi nal two secti ons of thi s chapter deal wi th seri es that contai n
vari abl es, and the AP test has more questi ons on these topi cs than al l the other
sequences and seri es topi cs combi ned. Power seri es, the fi rst of the essenti al topi cs, are
seri es of the form a x
n
n
n
0
or a x c
n
n
n
( )
0
; the fi rst i s sai d to be centered about
x 5 0, whi l e the second form i s centered about x 5 c. Strangel y enough, most of our
i nformati on concerni ng power seri es does not come from mathemati ci ans, but rather
from Shi rl ey MacLai ne, famous new-age cel ebri ty. I n her most recent book Out on a
Leash, she cl ai ms that, among her many rei ncarnati ons, three of them were spent as
power seri es. I t wasnt an exci ti ng l i fe, she says i n the book, but I al ways fel t centered
swi mmi ng i n the c.
Your major goal wi th power seri es wi l l be (surpri se, surpri se) to determi ne where they
converge. Noti ce that we are not tryi ng to determi ne if they converge, but rather
wherethey converge. Al l power seri es wi l l converge at the x-val ue at whi ch they are
centered (x 5 c). To test thi s, pl ug x 5 c i nto the generi c power seri es centered at c:
a x c a a c c a c c a
n
n
n n
n
n n
( ) + ( ) + ( ) +
1
0
2
...
Wi l l power seri es converge at other poi nts? Possi bl y. One of three thi ngs wi l l happen:
(1) The power seri es wi l l onl y converge when x 5 c.
(2) The power seri es wi l l converge at c and some di stance around c (cal l ed the radius
of convergence, or ROC). For exampl e, i f a seri es centered about 3 (c 5 3) has a
radi us of convergence of 4, then the seri es wi l l converge when x i s between 21
and 7.
(3) The power seri es wi l l converge for al l x (i n thi s case, the radi us of convergence
i s `).
To fi nd the ROC for a power seri es, youl l use the Rati o Test, si nce power seri es by
defi ni ti on contai n powers of n, whi ch grow l arge qui ckl y as n i ncreases. I n fact, you
will always test for absolute convergence when finding the ROC to si mpl i fy matters.
Once you fi nd the ROC, you wi l l someti mes be asked whether or not the seri es
converges at the endpoi nts of that i nterval . For exampl e, our seri es centered about 3
wi th ROC 5 4 have an interval of convergence (I OC) of [21,7),(21,7],[21,7], or (21,7),
dependi ng upon whi ch endpoi nts cause the seri es to converge.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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NOTE
Power series usually start
with n 5 0, rather
than n 5 1.
www.petersons.com
Example 12: Fi nd the radi us of convergence for the fol l owi ng power seri es:
(a)
( )
+ +
1
5 4
1
2
0
n n
n
x
n n
Use the Rati o Test to see i f the seri es converges absol utel y:
n
x
n
n n
x
n
n n
( ) ( )
+
+ + + +
+ +
lim
1
1
2
5 1 4
2
5 4
n
n n x
n n
+ +
( )
+ +
lim
2
2
5 4
7 10
As n approaches i nfi ni ty,
n n
n n
2
2
5 4
7 10
+ +
+ +
approaches 1.
n
x
lim 1
Remember, the Rati o Test onl y guarantees convergence i f that l i mi t i s l ess than one.
Si nce the l i mi t i s x, the seri es wi l l onl y converge i f U xU , 1 or 21 , x , 1. The seri es
i s centered at c 5 0 and has ROC 5 1.
(b)
3
1
0
x
n
n
n
+ ( )
!
Thi s i s another power seri es centered at c 5 0. To see where i t converges, use the
Rati o Test to see i f the seri es converges absol utel y:
n
n
n
x
n
x
n
+
+ ( )
+ ( )
lim
!
!
3
1
2
3
1
n
x
n +
lim
2
Remember that x i s some number youl l pl ug i n l ater, so even though i ts techni cal l y a
vari abl e, you can treat i t l i ke a number. Whatever number i t i s, i ts i rrel evant i n thi s
probl em. The denomi nator wi l l grow i nfi ni tel y l arge, so
n
x
n +

lim
2
0
The Rati o Test onl y guarantees convergence when the l i mi t i s l ess than 1. I n thi s case,
the l i mi t i s 0, whi ch i s always l ess than 1, regardl ess of what x i s. Therefore, thi s
seri es converges for al l x, and the radi us of convergence i s `.
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NOTE
If the series converges only
at x 5 c, the radius of
convergence is 0.
NOTE
The series may or may not
converge at the endpoints
x 5 21 and x 5 7. Youll
have to test those points
separately in the series.
www.petersons.com
Example 13: On what i nterval does the seri es
( ) + ( )
1 2
2
0
n
n
n
x
n
converge?
Solution: For a change, thi s power seri es i s centered at c 5 22, si nce (x 2 (22)) 5
(x 2 c). Thi s questi on asks for the I OC; we sti l l need to fi nd the ROC fi rst:
n
x
n
n
n
x
n
n
n
( )
( )
( )
+
+
+
+
+
lim
2
1
1 2
1
2
2
n
n x
n
+ ( )
+ ( )
lim
2
2 1
n
n 2 1 + ( )
approaches
1
2
, so the l i mi t i s
x+2
2
. Remember that
thi s must be l ess than 1 i n order for the seri es to converge:
x +
<
2
2
1
x + < 2 2
The radi us of convergence i s 2. The seri es i s centered at x 5 22, so the seri es
converges on (22 2 2,22 1 2) 5 (24,0).
Were not done yet! We need to see i f the seri es converges at the endpoi nts of the
i nterval , x 5 24 and x 5 0. Lets pl ug each separatel y i nto the ori gi nal seri es to see
what happens.
x 5 24:
( ) + ( )
1 4 2
2
0
n n
n
n
n
( ) ( )
1 2
2
0
n n
n
n
n
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www.petersons.com
Regardl ess of what n i s, the numerator wi l l be posi ti ve i n thi s seri es. I n essence, you
wi l l have the seri es
2
2
0
n
n
n
n
I f you cancel out the 2n, you have

1
0
n
n
whi ch i s the di vergent harmoni c seri es. Therefore, the seri es does not converge for
x 5 24.
x 5 0:
( )
1 2
2
0
n n
n
n
n
( )
1
0
n
n
n
Thi s i s the al ternati ng harmoni c seri es that sati sfi es al l the condi ti ons of the Al ter-
nati ng Seri es Test and thus converges. Therefore, the seri es does converge
when x 5 0.
The I OC for
( ) + ( )
1 2
2
0
n n
n
n
x
n
i s (24,0].
Because power seri es contai n xs, they can al so be used to defi ne functi ons:
a x f x
n
n
n
( )
0
As l ong as the seri es converges on the i nterval (c,d), i t wi l l return a sum for any val ue
between c and d; that sum wi l l be the functi on val ue for the gi ven i nput. Functi ons
defi ned as power seri es have two i mportant characteri sti cs:
(1) Deri vati ves or i ntegral s of functi ons defi ned by power seri es have the sameradi us
of convergence as the ori gi nal functi on. However, the endpoi nts may act di ffer-
entl y, so youl l have to check them agai n. Thus, al though the radius of convergence
wi l l be equal , the interval of convergence may not be.
(2) To fi nd the deri vati ve or i ntegral of a functi on defi ned by a power seri es, si mpl y
di fferenti ate or i ntegrate the gi ven power seri es just as you havedonepreviously.
Al l of the techni ques you have used to fi nd deri vati ves and i ntegral s of regul ar
functi ons sti l l appl y for power seri es functi ons.
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TIP
Once you simplify the Ratio
Test to get U x 2 cU , d, the
d represents the radius of
convergence. In Example
13, you simplify to get U x +
2U , 2; here, c 5 2, so that
is the radius of
convergence.
www.petersons.com
Example 14: I f f(x) 5
3
4
0
x
n
n
_
,
, fi nd the i nterval of convergence for f(x) and *f(x)dx.

Solution: Thi s power seri es (centered at x5 0) i s actual l y just a geometri c seri es wi th
a 5 1 and r 5
3x
4
. Geometri c seri es onl y converge when U rU , 1:
3
4
1
x
<
x <
4
3
The radi us of convergence for thi s seri es i s
4
3
, so the seri es converges on
_
,
4
3
4
3
, . To
fi nd the i nterval of convergence, pl ug i n the endpoi nts:
x 5 2
4
3
:
( )
1
0
n
n
Thi s i s a di vergent al ternati ng seri es.
x 5
4
3
:
1
0
n
n
Thi s di verges by the nth Term Di vergence Test.

Therefore, the I OC for f(x) 5
_
,
4
3
4
3
, . The next part of the questi on asks you to fi nd
the I OC for *f(x)dx, so begi n by i ntegrati ng the seri es wi th u-substi tuti on:
3
4
x
n
dx
_
,
u
x
du dx du dx
3
4
3
4
4
3
; ;
4
3
u du
n
4
3 1
1
+
+
u
n
n
f x dx
n
x
n
n
( )
+ ( )
_
,
+
4
3 1
3
4
1
0
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www.petersons.com
The i ntegral wi l l have the same ROC, but we need to recheck the endpoi nts to see i f
the I OC changes:
x 5 2
4
3
:
4
3 1
1
1
0
n
n
n
+ ( )
( )
+
Thi s i s a convergent al ternati ng seri es.

x 5
4
3
:
4
3 1
1
0
1
n
n
n
+ ( )
( )
4
3 3
0
n
n
+
You can compare thi s wi th the seri es

1
n
and appl y the Li mi t Compari son Test:
lim
n
n
n
4
3 3
1
4
3
Therefore, both seri es di verge.
The i nterval of convergence for f x dx ( )

_
,
4
3
4
3
, .
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www.petersons.com
EXERC ISE 3
1. Fi nd the radi us of convergence for each of the fol l owi ng:
(a)
( )
1
2
0
n n
n
x
n!
(b)
n x
n
n
n
! + ( )
3
2
1
2. The seri es
n x
n
n
n
2
4
0
converges on what i nterval ?

3. I f
f x x
x x
( ) + ( ) +
+ ( )
+
+ ( )
+ 1
1
2
1
3
2 3
, gi ve the i nterval of convergence for f(x).

1. (a) Appl y the Rati o Test to see i f the seri es converges absol utel y:
n
x
n
n
x
n
n
+
+
( )
( )
lim
!
!
2
2
1
1
n
x
n
+

lim
2
1
0
Remember, the n approaches i nfi ni ty whi l e the x stays the same; therefore,
the l i mi t i s 0, regardl ess of x. Because 0 , 1 (sti l l ), thi s seri es converges for al l
x, and the radi us of convergence i s `. The i nterval of convergence i s (2`,`), i f
youre curi ous.
(b) Appl y the Rati o Test. Once you si mpl i fy the compl ex fracti on, you get
n
n x
n
n
n x
n
n
+ +
+ +
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
+
lim
!
!
1 3
1 3
1
2
2
n
n n x
n
+ +
+
( )( )
( )
lim
2
2
1 3
1
n
x n n
n n
+ +
+ +

( )
( )
lim
3
2 1
3 2
2
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www.petersons.com
Because the degree of n i n the numerator i s hi gher, thi s rati onal expressi on
wi l l become i nfi ni tel y l arge. Therefore, thi s l i mi t i s never l ess than 1 and can
never converge, accordi ng to the Rati o Test. Remember that al l power seri es
convergeat l east for the x val ue at whi ch they are centered. Therefore, the
seri es converges onl y for x 5 23, and the radi us of convergence i s 0.
2. Begi n by fi ndi ng the radi us of convergence:
n
n x
n
n
n x
n
n
+ ( )
+
+
lim
1
2 1
4
1
2
4
n
x n n
n
x
x
+ +
( )

lim
2
2
2 1
4
1
4 4
Accordi ng to the Rati o Test, the seri es converges i f
x
4
1 <
U xU ,4
So, the radi us of convergence i s 4 for thi s seri es centered at 0. The seri es must
converge on (0 2 4, 0 1 4) 5 (24, 4). Now you have to see whether or not the
seri es converges at the endpoi nts by pl uggi ng them i n for x:
x 5 24:
n
n
n
n
2
0
4
4
( )
n
n
n
2
0
1 ( )
Thi s di verges by the nth Term Di vergence Test.

x 5 4:
n
n
n
n
2
0
4
4
n
n
2
0
Thi s di verges by the nth Term Di vergence Test, too, and both endpoi nts have
fai l ed us.
Therefore, the seri es
n x
n
n
2
0
4
converges on (24, 4).

a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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www.petersons.com
3. The functi on and i ts deri vati ve wi l l both have the same radi us of convergence, so
you can fi nd the ROC of the ori gi nal functi on fi rst.
n
x
n
n
x
n
n
+
+
+
+
( )
( )
lim
1
1
1
1
n
n x
n
+
+
( )
lim
1
1
n
n+1
approaches 1.
n
x x
+ +
lim
1 1
Accordi ng to the Rati o Test, the seri es converges i f U x 1 1 U , 1, so the radi us of
convergence (as al ways) i s that number on the ri ght si de once weve sol ved for
U x2 cU ; i n thi s case, the ROC i s 1. Si nce the power seri es i s centered at c5 21, we
know (so far) that the seri es converges on the i nterval (21 2 1, 21 1 1) 5 (22, 0).
Now, i ts ti me to take the deri vati ve of the seri es and test the endpoi nts x 5 22
and x 5 0. Use the Power Rul e to take the deri vati ve:
n x
n
n
n
+ ( )

1
1
1
x
n
n
+ ( )

1
1
1
Both endpoi nts make the seri es di verge by the nth Term Di vergence Test i f you
pl ug them i n, so the i nterval of convergence i s (22, 0).
TAYLO R AND M AC LAURIN SERIES
At the end of the power seri es secti on, we saw that a functi on can be defi ned usi ng a
power seri es. Taylor series are speci fi c forms of the power seri es that are used to
approxi mate functi on val ues. For exampl e, you know cos p and cos
p
2
by heart, but i f
asked to eval uate cos
1
2
, youd probabl y be stumped. (Arccos
1
2
i s very easy; that i s
p
3
, but
cos
1
2
i s rough.) We can create a very si mpl e Tayl or seri es that wi l l approxi mate cos
1
2
very ni cel y. We wi l l create a power seri es centered around a very easi l y obtai ned val ue
of cosi ne that i s al so cl ose to
1
2
. The best choi ce i s c5 0, si nce 0 i s cl ose to
1
2
and cos 0 i s
easy to eval uate; cos 0 5 1.
Taylor series for f(x) centered about x 5 c:
f c x c
n
n n
n
( )
( )( )
!
0
.
f x f c f c x c
f c x c f c x c
( ) ( ) ( )( )
( )( ) ( )( )
+ +

+

+
2 3
2 3 ! !

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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NOTE
J ust like power series, Taylor
series are stressed very
heavily on the AP test.
NOTE
Remember, the notation
f
~n!
~x! meansthe nth
derivative of f(x).
www.petersons.com
Most of the ti me, you wi l l not use an i nfi ni te seri es to approxi mate functi on val ues.
I nstead, you wi l l use onl y a fi ni te number of the seri es terms. I n these cases, the
Tayl or seri es i s often cal l ed a Taylor polynomial of degree n (where n i s the hi ghest
power of the resul ti ng pol ynomi al ). A Maclaurin series i s the speci fi c case of a Tayl or
seri es that i s centered at c5 0, resul ti ng i n the si mpl er-l ooki ng seri es
f x
n
n n
n
( )
( )
0
0
!
.
f x f f x
f x f x f x
n
n n
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
+ +

+

+ + +
( )
0 0
0
2
0
3
0
2 3
! ! !

Example15: Use a fourth-degree Tayl or pol ynomi al of order (degree) 4 centered at 0
to approxi mate cos
S
1
2
D
.
Solution: Si nce thi s Tayl or seri es i s centered at c 5 0, i t i s actual l y a Macl auri n
seri es. We wi l l have to use the Macl auri n seri es expansi on up to n 5 4, si nce the
requested degree i s 4. I n order to fi nd the seri es, we wi l l have to fi nd f(0), f(0), f(0),
f (0), and f
(4)
(x):
f(x) 5 cos x; f(0) 5 1
f(x) 5 2si n x; f(0) 5 0
f(x) 5 2cos x; f(0) 5 21
f(x) 5 si n x; f(0) 5 0
f
(4)
(x) 5 cos x; f(0) 5 1.
To get the Macl auri n pol ynomi al , pl ug these i nto the Macl auri n formul a and stop
when n 5 4:
cos
! ! !
x f f x
f x f x f x
+ +

+

+ ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
0 0
0
2
0
3
0
4
2 3
4
4
cos
! ! !
x x
x x x
+ + + 1 0
2
0
3
1
4
2 3 4
cos
! !
x
x x
+ 1
2 4
2 4
The resul ti ng pol ynomi al wi l l gi ve you the approxi mate val ue of cos x. To fi nd the
approxi mate val ue of cos
1
2
, pl ug
1
2
i n for x:
cos
! !
1
2
1
2 4
1
2
2
1
2
4

( )
+
( )
cos .
1
2
1
1
8
1
384
8776041667 +
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TIP
All Maclaurin series are also
Taylor series; they are just
special Taylor series.
www.petersons.com
The actual val ue for cos
1
2
(accordi ng to the cal cul ator) i s .8775825619, so the approxi -
mati on wasnt too shabby at al l . Just l i ke Ri emann sums, the accuracy of your
predi cti on wi l l i ncrease as you i ncrease the number of terms i n your Tayl or pol yno-
mi al ; i n other words, the greater the n, the more accurate the resul t. Bel ow, the graph
of y 5 cos x i s compared wi th the graphs of three Macl auri n pol ynomi al s for cos x
centered about 0.
Maclaurin polynomial,
n 0
n 2
n 4
y 1
y 1
x
2
2!
y 1
x
2
2!
x
4
4!
A coupl e of thi ngs are cl ear from the graphs. Fi rst of al l , the greater the degree of the
pol ynomi al , the cl oser i ts graph i s to the graph of cos x. However, none of the
approxi mati ons are very good for approxi mati ng val ues far away from x 5 0. I f you
need to approxi mate other val ues, you wi l l have to use a Tayl or pol ynomi al centered
about a di fferent val ue. For exampl e, to esti mate cos (3.2), you mi ght use a Tayl or
seri es centered about c 5 p, si nce p i s cl ose to 3.2.
Al though i t wasnt too di ffi cul t to come up wi th the Macl auri n pol ynomi al for cos x,
you shoul dnt have to construct i t l i ke that on the AP test. I t i s one of four functi ons for
whi ch you shoul d have the Macl auri n expansi ons memori zeddoi ng so wi l l save you
much-needed ti me.
Maclaurin Series to Memorize
cos
! ! !
x
x x x
+ + 1
2 4 6
2 4 6
sin
! ! !
x x
x x x
+ +
3 5 7
3 5 7

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NOTE
A Taylor series is
guaranteed to give the
exact function value only
for x 5 c, the value around
which the series is
centered. All other values
will likely be
approximations.
www.petersons.com
e x
x x x
x
+ + + + + 1
2 3 4
2 3 4
! ! !

1
1
1
2 3 4
+ + + + +
x
x x x x
Not al l of the seri es on the AP test wi l l be based on these four functi ons, but most of
them wi l l . Any other seri es can be constructed usi ng the method of Exampl e 15.
Example16: Deri ve the Macl auri n seri es for si n xfrom the Macl auri n seri es for cos x.
Solution: We know that *cos x dx 5 si n x. Tayl or seri es act just l i ke thei r parent
functi ons; i f you i ntegrate each term of the cos x Macl auri n seri es, you wi l l end up
wi th the Macl auri n seri es for si n x. Thi s i s not onl y useful for i mpressi ng your fri ends,
however.
cos
! !
x dx
x x
dx

+ +
_
,
1
2 4
2 4
sin
! !
x x
x x
+ +

3 5
3 2 5 4

sin
! !
x x
x x
+ +
3 5
3 5

The resul ti ng seri es i s exactl y the one for si n x that you are to memori ze.
Example 17: Determi ne a power seri es for si n x
2
.
Solution: Besi des acti ng l i ke thei r parent functi ons, Tayl or seri es are al so handy
because they are very fl exi bl e. We al ready know the Macl auri n seri es for si n x (and
Tayl or and Macl auri n seri es are just speci al power seri es anyway). To fi nd the seri es
for x
2
, just pl ug x
2
i n for x. Thats al l there i s to i t.
sin
! ! !
x x
x x x
+ +
3 5 7
3 5 7

sin
! ! !
x x
x x x
2 2
2
3
2
5
2
7
3 5 7
+ +
( ) ( ) ( )
sin
! ! !
x x
x x x
2 2
6 10 14
3 5 7
+ +
I f the questi on had asked you to fi nd a seri es for si n (2x 1 3), al l you woul d do i s pl ug
(2x 1 3) i n for x. Si mpl e!
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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ALERT!
Each of the Maclaurin
series listed will converge
on (2`,`), except for
1
12 x
.
That series has an interval of
convergence of (21,1) and
will not work well for xs
outside that interval.
ALERT!
Even though the sin x series
is written x 2
x
3
3!
+
x
5
5!
, the
next term in the series, 2
x
7
7!
,
is still negative. The series still
alternates; its just common
notation to write a 1 at
the end of an infinite series,
regardless of the sign of the
next term.
www.petersons.com
Li ke al ternati ng seri es, there i s a way to tel l how accuratel y your Tayl or pol ynomi al
approxi mates the actual functi on val ue: you use somethi ng cal l ed the Lagrange
remainder or Lagrangeerror bound. I t i s the tri cki est part of Tayl or seri es.
LagrangeRemainder: I f you use a Tayl or pol ynomi al of degree n centered about cto
approxi mate the val ue x, then the actual functi on val ue fal l s wi thi n the error bound
R x
f z x c
n
n
n n
( )
( )( )
( )

+
+ ( ) + 1 1
1 !
where z i s some number between x and c.
Translation: Si mi l ar to al ternati ng seri es, the error bound i s gi ven by the next term i n
the seri es, n 1 1. The onl y tri cky part i s that you eval uate f
(n11)
, the (n 1 1)th
deri vati ve, at z, not c. What the heck i s z, you ask? I t i s the number that makes
f
(n11)
(z) as l arge as i t can be. Thi s error bound i s supposed to tel l you how far off you
are from the real number, so we want to assume the worst. We want the error bound
to represent the l argest possi bl e error. I n practi ce, pi cki ng z i s rel ati vel y easyreal l y,
youl l see.
Example 18: Approxi mate cos (.1) usi ng a fourth-degree Macl auri n pol ynomi al , and
fi nd the associ ated Lagrange remai nder.
Solution: We al ready know the fourth-degree Macl auri n pol ynomi al for cosi ne, so
pl ug .1 i n for x to get the approxi mati on:
cos
! !
x
x x
+ 1
2 4
2 4
cos .
.
!
.
!
. 1 1
1
2
1
4
99500416667
2 4
+
The associ ated Lagrange remai nder for n 5 4 (denoted R
4
(x)) i s
R x
f z x c
4
5 5
5
( )
( ) ( )
( )
!
The fi fth deri vati ve of cos x i s 2si n x, so f
(5)
(z) 5 2si n z. Now, pl ug i n x 5 .1 and c 5 0
to get
R
z
4
5
1
1
5
.
sin .
!
( )
( )( )
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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www.petersons.com
We need 2si n z to be as l arge as i t can possi bl y be. The l argest val ue of 2si n x i s 1,
si nce 2si n x, l i ke si n x, has a range of [21,1]. By assumi ng 2si n z i s the l argest
possi bl e val ue, we are creati ng the l argest possi bl e error; so, pl ug i n 1 for 2si n z. The
actual remai nder wi l l be l ess than thi s l argest possi bl e val ue.
R
4
5 5
1
1 1
5
1
5
0000000833 .
.
!
.
!
. ( ) <
Therefore, our approxi mati on of .99500416667 i s off by no more than .0000000833. I n

fact, i t i s onl y off by .0000000014.
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TIP
f
~n11!
~z! will often have a
value of 1 on AP problems,
making the Lagrange
remainder simply the value
of the next term in the
series, as it turned out to be
in Example 18.
www.petersons.com
EXERC ISE 4
1. (a) Veri fy that the Macl auri n expansi on for
f x e x
x x
x
( ) + + + + is 1
2 3
2 3
! !

(b) Show that the Macl auri n seri es for e
x
(l i ke the functi on i t represents) i s i ts
own deri vati ve.
2. (a) Create a Macl auri n seri es for g(x) 5 cos (e
x
).
(b) Use a si xth-degree Maucl auri n seri es to approxi mate cos e
2
.
(c) Expl ai n why the approxi mati on i n 2(b) i s so horri d.
3.
Esti mate the val ue of =1.3 usi ng the thi rd-degree Tayl or pol ynomi al for y5 =x
centered about x 5 1.
4. Let P(x) 5 4 2 (x 2 2) 1 3(x 2 2)
2
2 5(x 2 2)
3
be a Tayl or pol ynomi al of degree 3
for f(x) centered about 2.
(a) What i s f(2)?
(b) Use a second-degree Tayl or pol ynomi al to approxi mate f (2.1).
1. (a) The Macl auri n seri es i s
f x
n
n n
n
( )
( )
0
0
!
. To wri te out the expansi on, wel l
need f(0), f8(0), f88(0), etc.
f(x) 5 e
x
; f(0) 5 e
0
5 1
f8(x) 5 e
x
; f8(x) 5 e
0
5 1
I n fact, each deri vati ve of e
x
i s e
x
, and each deri vati ves resul ti ng val ue at
x 5 0 wi l l be 1. Therefore, the seri es i s
f f x
f x f x
0 0
0
2
0
3
2 3
( ) + ( ) +
( )
+
( )
+
! !

1 1
1
2
1
3
2 3
+ + + +

x
x x
! !

whi ch i s the expansi on we al l know and l ove.
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www.petersons.com
(b) Fi nd the deri vati ve of each term of the seri es separatel y:
d
dx
e
d
dx
x
x x x
x
( )
+ + + + +
_
,
1
2 3 4
2 3 4
! ! !

d
dx
e
x x x
x
( )
+ + + + + 0 1
2
2
3
3
4
4
2 3
! ! !

d
dx
e x
x x
x
( )
+ + + + 1
2 3
2 3
! !

2. (a) You al ready know the Macl auri n seri es for cos x, so just pl ug e
x
i n for each x:
cos
! !
e
e e
x
x x
( )

( )
+
( )
+ 1
2 4
2 4
cos
! !
e
e e
x
x x
( )
+ + 1
2 4
2 4
(b) Based on your work for 2(a), the si xth-degree Macl auri n pol ynomi al for cos x
i s
cos
! ! !
e
e e e
x
x x x
( )
+ 1
2 4 6
2 4 6
To approxi mate cos e
2
, pl ug 2 i n for x:
cos
! ! !
. e
e e e
2
4 8 12
1
2 4 6
128 1408 +
Whoa, how can cosi ne have a val ue l ower than 21? Yi kes!
(c) Remember that a Tayl or seri es i s onl y accurate around the val ue at whi ch i t
i s centered. Because thi s i s a Macl auri n seri es, i ts centered at c 5 0. Usi ng
thi s approxi mati on to eval uate cos (e
2
) i s i rresponsi bl e, si nce e
2
7.389, whi ch
i s nowhere cl ose to c5 0. As you can see from the graph of y5 cos (e
x
) and the
Macl auri n seri es i n 2(b), the graphs are nowhere cl ose to each other as you
get farther away from x 5 0.
y 1 +
e
2x
2!
e
4x
4!
+
e
6x
6!
cos (e
x
)
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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www.petersons.com
3. To fi nd the thi rd-degree Tayl or pol ynomi al for f(x) centered at c 5 1, wel l need
the val ue of the fi rst three deri vati ves of f eval uated at 1; these are requi red by
the formul a.
f(x) 5 x
1/2
; f(1) 5 1
f8(x) 5
1
2
x
21/2
; f8(1) 5
1
2
f88(x) 5 2
1
4
x
23/2
; f88(1) 5 2
1
4
f888(x) 5
3
8
x
25/2
; f888(1) 5
3
8
Therefore, the Tayl or pol ynomi al i s
x f f x
f x f x
( ) + ( ) ( ) +
( ) ( )
+
( ) ( )
1 1 1
1 1
2
1 1
3
2 3
! !
x
x
x x
+

+

( ) ( )

1
1
2
1
4 2
3 1
8 3
2 3
! !
x
x x x
+

( )
+
( )
1
1
2
1
8
1
16
2 3
Fi nal l y, pl ug i n x 5 1.3 to get the approxi mati on of 1.1404375, whi ch i s rel ati vel y
cl ose to the actual val ue of 1.140175.
4. (a) We know that the squared term i n any Tayl or pol ynomi al i s gi ven by
( ) ( ) f c x c
2
2!
. I n thi s probl em, that term shoul d be
( ) ( ) f x 2 2
2
2
!
. I n the
actual expansi on, the squared term i s 3(x 2 2)
2
. Therefore,
( ) ( )
( )
f x
x
2 2
2
3 2
2
2
!
( )
f 2
2
3
!
f88(2) 5 6
(b) Thi s questi on asks you to approxi mate the val ue of the derivativeof f. Si nce a
Tayl or seri es acts l i ke i ts parent functi on, you can approxi mate f8(x) by taki ng
the deri vati ve of each term:
P8(x) 5 21 1 6(x 2 2) 2 15(x 2 2)
2
Thi s i s the second-degree pol ynomi al to whi ch the probl em i s al l udi ng. You
can use i t to fi nd your approxi mati on si nce 2.1 i s cl ose to 2, the val ue at whi ch
the seri es i s centered:
f8(2.1) ' 21 1 6(.1) 2 15(.1)
2
' 2.55
I snt that bi zarre? We dont even know the functi on that P approxi mates, but
we can sti l l approxi mate i ts deri vati ve.
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TEC HNO LO G Y: VIEWING AND C ALC ULATING SEQ UENC ES
AND SERIES WITH A G RAPHING C ALC ULATO R
Your cal cul ator can serve three major functi ons toassi st you i n thi s chapter: i t can graph
sequences, graph seri es, and cal cul ate parti al sums. Be warned ahead of ti me: The
cal cul ator commands to accompl i sh these tasks are not as fri endl y as the commands
used to eval uate a defi ni te i ntegral . I t may take a bi t of practi ce before these techni ques
become second nature.
I n the fi rst probl em set, way back i n the begi nni ng of thi s chapter, you had to
determi ne whether or not the seri es
1 3
4 5 2
2 3
3
1
+ +
+
n n
n n
n
converged. Hopeful l y, thi s prob-
l em i s much easi er now; the seri es cl earl y di verges because of the nth Term Di ver-
gence Test, si nce
n
n n
n n
+ +
+

lim
1 3
4 5 2
1
4
2 3
3
I n order to show that the sequenceapproaches
1
4
as n approaches i nfi ni ty, youl l have
to change the [Mode] to sequence. Thi s changes the [Y5] screen to the u(n) screen;
type the sequence i n for u(n). (The [x,t,u,n] button wi l l now di spl ay an n.)
I f you choose fri endl y [Wi ndow] setti ngs and press [Graph], the sequence cl earl y l evel s
off. I f you enter a second sequence of
1
4
for v(n), i ts easi er to see that the sequence does
i ndeed begi n to l evel off at
1
4
.
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NOTE
The [Window] settings for
my graph are nMin 5 1,
nMax 5 50, PlotStart 5 1,
PlotStep 5 1, Xmin 5 0,
Xmax 5 50, Xscl 5 5, Ymin
5 .1, Ymax 5 .5, and
Yscl 5 1.
www.petersons.com
Remember that al though the sequence converges to
1
4
, the seri es wi l l di verge by the
nth Term Di vergence Test. I n order to vi sual i ze thi s, we can graph that seri es. To do
so, however, youl l need to make some mi nor setti ng changes on your cal cul ator. Fi rst
of al l , go to the [Mode] screen and sel ect Parametri c mode and Dot rather than
connected. Now, go to the [Y5] screen and set X
1T
5 T. The Y
1T
i s the tri cky part:
To get the sum command, you need to press [2
nd
][Stat]Mathsum, (and the
seq command comes from [2
nd
][Stat]Ops seq. (The N used i s the l etter N,
whi ch i s the resul t of pressi ng [Al pha][Log]. The syntax for a sequence i s seq(se-
quenceof n,n,whatever n5 in sigma, T,1).
Choose ni ce [Wi ndow] setti ngs for the graph (i t mi ght take a coupl e of tri es to pi ck
good setti ngs), and you get a good pi cture of the seri es:
Thi s seri es i s defi ni tel y di vergenti t approaches no l i mi ti ng hei ght. Furthermore, at
approxi matel y n 5 10 (on the graph t 5 10), the terms progress al most i n a l i near
fashi on. Can you guess what the sl ope of that l i ne i s? I l l spare you the suspense: i ts
1
4
, si nce the sequence tel l s us we wi l l be addi ng approxi matel y
1
4
to each term forever.
I f you arent al l that i mpressed wi th the seri es-graphi ng capabi l i ty of the cal cul ator
(we real l y di d have to force i t, di dnt we?), then youl l probabl y be equal l y uni mpressed
wi th the cal cul ators abi l i ty to cal cul ate parti al sums. The process i s very si mi l ar to
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NOTE
My [Window] settings for
this graph are Tmin 5 1,
Tmax 5 35, Tstep 5 1, Xmin
5 0, Xmax 5 35, Xscl 5 5,
Ymin 5 5, Ymax 5 15, and
Yscl 5 1.
www.petersons.com
the seri es graph. Al though the seri es
1 3
4 5 2
2 3
3
1
+ +
+
n n
n n
n
di verges, you can sti l l fi nd the
sum of i ts fi rst n terms. Lets use the cal cul ator to fi nd S
200
. You do not have to use the
[Y5] screen, as thi s i s si mpl y a command you can type out on the regul ar screen:
Therefore, S
200
' 58.869. You can easi l y tel l that thi s seri es di verges i f you cal cul ate
S
300
' 84.173. Cl earl y, the seri es i s not l evel i ng out and approachi ng a l i mi ti ng
val ue even when the n i s thi s l arge. However, the cal cul ator does have i ts l i mi tati ons.
I f you type too l arge a val ue for n, you wi l l get an error message. Texas I nstruments
techni ci ans expl ai n that thi s occurs because the cal cul ator i s ti red of addi ng so many
dang numbers, for Petes sake . . . l et i t do somethi ng i nteresti ng for a change.
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www.petersons.com
EXERC ISE 5
1. Determi ne whether or not the seri es 1
1
1
+
_
,
n
n
n
converges, and justi fy your
answer.
2. Fi nd the i nterval of convergence for the power seri es:
1
3 2 9 6 27
2 3
+ +

x x x
3. I f P(x) 5 2 1 3(x 1 1) 2 6(x 1 1)

2
i s a Tayl or pol ynomi al for f(x), wri te a
thi rd-degree Tayl or pol ynomi al for m x P t dt
x
( ) ( )
1
.
4. Does the seri es
( )
+ ( )
+
1
3 2
1
0
n
n
n !
converge absol utel y, converge condi ti onal l y, or di -
verge?
5. Fi nd the val ue of a so that the radi us of convergence for the seri es
a x
n
n
n
n
2
2
1
1
3
( )
( )
i s
1
4
and a . 0.
6. I f g(x) 5 e
si n
x, use a fourth-degree Macl auri n pol ynomi al to approxi mate g(.3).
7. Fi nd the sum of each of the fol l owi ng seri es. I f you cannot fi nd the exact sum, fi nd
i t accurate to four deci mal pl aces:
(a) 3
3
2
3
4
3
8
+ +
(b) ( )
1
1
3
n
n
n
e
(c)
1 1
3
1
n n
n
_
,
8. J ames Diabolical Challenge: Prove the convergence or di vergence of the

seri es
3
3
1
n
n
usi ng four di fferent convergence tests.

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www.petersons.com
1. The nth term of the seri es i s
1
1
1
+
( )
n
n
; as n approaches i nfi ni ty, you get
1
e
, whi ch i s
not 0. Therefore, thi s seri es fai l s the nth Term Di vergence Test and therefore
di verges.
2. Thi s i s the seri es
( )
1
3
0
n n
n
n
x
n!
. To fi nd the i nterval of convergence, use the Rati o
Test to see where the seri es converges absol utel y:
n
n
n
n
n
x
n
n
x
+
+

+ ( )
lim
!
!
1
1
1 3
3
n
x
n + ( )
lim
3 1
Regardl ess of x, thi s l i mi t wi l l be 0 as the denomi nator wi l l grow i nfi ni tel y l arge.
Therefore, thi s l i mi t i s al ways l ess than 1, so thi s seri es al ways converges. The
i nterval of convergence wi l l be (2`,`). No need to test endpoi nts, si nce an
i nterval cant be cl osed at an unbounded (i nfi ni te) endpoi nt.
3. To fi nd m(x), i ntegrate:
2 3 1 6 1
2
1
+ + ( ) + ( )
( )
t t dt
x
2
3
2
1
6
3
1
2 3
1
t t t
x
+ + ( ) + ( )
Appl y Fundamental Theorem Part One:

2
3
2
1 2 1 2 1 0
2 3
x x x + + ( ) + ( ) ( ) + ( )
Al l of the pol ynomi al terms wi l l cancel out when you pl ug i n x 5 21, except for
2(21). You can wri te your fi nal answer by si mpl i fyi ng:
2 1 2x 1
3
2
(x 1 1)
2
2 2(x 1 1)
3
or by factori ng out a 2.
2(x 1 1) 1
3
2
(x 1 1)
2
2 2(x 1 1)
3
Ei ther of those answers i s acceptabl e.
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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www.petersons.com
4. Fi rst, i gnore the fact that i t i s an al ternati ng seri es to see i f the convergence i s
absol ute. The Rati o Test serves the best to test for convergence because of the
factori al .
n
n
n
( )
_
,
( )
+ +
+
lim
!
!
1
3 1 2
1
3 2
n
n
n
+ ( )
+ ( )
lim
!
!
3 2
3 5
n
n n n
+ ( ) + ( ) + ( )
lim
1
3 5 3 4 3 3
As n approaches i nfi ni ty, thi s val ue wi l l grow extremel y smal l . Each of the
bi nomi al s i n the denomi nator wi l l be huge, and thei r product wi l l be even l arger.
1 di vi ded by a hi gh number i s 0. Si nce 0 , 1, thi s seri es converges absol utel y.
Remember, thi s means that the ori gi nal al ternati ng seri es converges automati -
cal l y.
5. Fi nd the radi us of convergence as usual , usi ng the Rati o Test:
n
a
n
x
n
n
a
n
x
n
n
( )
+
( )
+
+ ( )
( )
( )
lim
2
1
1
1
3 1
2
2
1
3
2
n
a x n
n
( )
+ ( )
lim
2 2
2
1
1
As n approaches i nfi ni ty, the l i mi t of
n
n+ ( ) 1
2 i s 1, maki ng the overal l l i mi t
U a
2
(x 2 1)U
Thi s l i mi t must be l ess than 1 to make the seri es converge.
U a
2
(x 2 1)U , 1
x
a
< 1
1
2
We al so know that the radi us of convergence i s
1
4
; we had a shortcut that sai d
whenever we sol ve for U x 2 cU , the number on the other si de of the i nequal i ty i s
the radi us of convergence. Thus,
1 1
4
2
a

a
2
5 4
a 5 2
a cannot equal 22, si nce the probl em speci fi ed that a . 0.
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www.petersons.com
6. We al ready know the Macl auri n seri es for e
x
, so pl ug si n x i n for x to get the
Macl auri n pol ynomi al for e
si n x
:
e x
x x x
x
+ + + + + 1
2 3 4
2 3 4
! ! !

g x e x
x x x
x
( ) + + + + +
sin
sin
sin
!
sin
!
sin
!
1
2 3 4
2 3 4
I f you read the questi on careful l y, you see that i t asks you to fi nd an approxi ma-
ti on for g8(x), the deri vati ve of the seri es above. However, the seri es above has one
too few terms wri tten. Si nce the equati on above i s of degree 4, i ts deri vati ve wi l l
have degree 3, so add another term when you take the deri vati ve.
( ) + + + + g x x
x x x x x x x x
cos
sin cos
!
sin cos
!
sin cos
!
sin cos
!
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
5
2 3 4
Use thi s ugl y monster to approxi mate g(.3) by pl uggi ng .3 i n for x. The resul ti ng
approxi mati on i s 1.2837864. The actual val ue for g(x) 5 (cos x)(e
si n x
) 5
1.2838053.
7. (a) Thi s i s the geometri c seri es 3
1
2
0

_
,
n
n
. The i nfi ni te sum i s gi ven by
S
a
r

( )
1
3
1
1
2
S
3
2
3
2
(b) Thi s i s a convergent al ternati ng seri es, accordi ng to the Al ternati ng Seri es
Test. However, you cannot usual l y fi nd the sum of such a seri es (wi th the
excepti on of part (a) above). I nstead, remember that the remai nder (or error
bound) i n an al ternati ng seri es i s the absol ute val ue of the fi rst omi tted term.
Therefore, we shoul d cal cul ate the val ues of a few terms i n the al ternati ng
seri es unti l one of the terms val ues ensures accuracy to four deci mal pl aces.
a
e
e
2
2
8
1 1
000335463
3
.
The term a
2
i s the remai nder for S
1
, the sum of the n 5 1 term. The above
means that S
1
i s accurate to three deci mal pl aces, but the fourth deci mal
pl ace coul d be off by as much as 3, so try a
3
:
a
e
e
3
3
3 27
12
1 1
1 880 10

.
Thi s one defi ni tel y ci nches i t. The sum S
2
wi l l be accurate to 11 deci mal
pl aces. Al l that remai ns i s to fi nd S
2
:
S a a
e e
2 1 2 8
1 1
3675 + + .
I f you are dubi ous, use your cal cul ator to fi nd S
500
, and youl l fi nd that we
were qui te accurate, even after onl y two terms.
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
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(c) Thi s i s a tel escopi ng seri es, and you can fi nd the exact sum by expandi ng the
seri es to determi ne whi ch terms wi l l cancel out as n approaches i nfi ni ty:
1 1
3
1
1
4
1
2
1
5
1
3
1
6
1
4
1
7
1
n n
n
+
+ + + +
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
,

Every number from
1
4
l ower wi l l be cancel ed out by i ts opposi te as the sum
gets l onger and l onger. Therefore, the exact sum i s composed of the onl y
numbers that do not get cancel ed: 1 1 833333
1
2
1
3
11
6
+ + . .
8. Okay, so four tests i s a l i ttl e overki l l ; al though i ts true that onl y one i s necessary,
thi s probl em woul dnt be di abol i cal otherwi se, woul d i t?
P-series Test: I f you factor the
3
p
out of the seri es, you get
3 1
3
1
n
n
.
1
3
n
i s a p-seri es
wi th p 5 3, so the seri es converges. The fact that you mul ti pl y the sum by
3
p
when
youre fi ni shed does not change the fact that the sum i s a fi ni te number.
I ntegral Test: The seri es wi l l converge i f
b
b
x dx
_
,
lim
3
3
1
exi sts.
b x
b
_
,
_
,
lim
3
2
1
2
1
b b

_
,
_
,
lim
3
2
1
1
2
( )
3
2
1
3
2
Because the l i mi t i s a fi ni te number, both the i ntegral and the seri es converge.
Limit Comparison Test: Compare the seri es to
1
n
3
.
n
n
n
lim
3
3
1
3
3

Because the l i mi t i s a fi ni te number, and
1
n
3
i s a convergent p-seri es, then both
seri es must converge.
Comparison Test: Each term i n the seri es
3
3
1
n
n
i s l ess than the correspondi ng

term i n the seri es
1
3
1
n
n
. You know thi s because

3
p
, 1. When you mul ti pl y
1
n
3
by
a val ue l ess than one, the resul t i s smal l er than
1
n
3
. Noti ce that
1
n
3
i s a convergent
p-seri es. Because the terms of
3
3
1
n
n
are l ess than a convergent seri es, i t must

al so converge by the Compari son Test.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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SUM M ING IT UP
A sequence i s basi cal l y a l i st of numbers based on some defi ni ng rul e.
The Compari son Test i s al so cal l ed the Di rect Compari son Test.
The tri cki est part of the Compari son Test i s deci di ng what to compare the gi ven
seri es to. Most of the ti me, you pi ck a seri es that i s cl ose to, but si mpl er than, the
gi ven seri es.
When choosi ng the Compari son Seri es, use onl y the hi ghest powers of n i n the
numerator and denomi nator of the ori gi nal seri es.
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P
ART III
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FO UR PRAC TIC E TESTS
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PRACTICE TEST1 AP Calculus AB
PRACTICE TEST2 AP Calculus AB
PRACTICE TEST3 AP Calculus BC
PRACTICE TEST4 AP Calculus BC
ANSWER SHEET PRAC TIC E TEST 1
Se c tion I, Pa rt A
1. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
2. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
3. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
4. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
5. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
6. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
7. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
8. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
9. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
10. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
11. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
12. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
13. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
14. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
15. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
16. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
17. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
18. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
19. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
20. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
21. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
22. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
23. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
24. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
25. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
26. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
27. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
28. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
Se c tion I, Pa rt B
29. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
30. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
31. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
32. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
33. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
34. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
35. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
36. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
37. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
38. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
39. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
40. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
41. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
42. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
43. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
44. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
45. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
a
n
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S
e
c
t
i
o
n
I
I
D
O
Y
O
U
R
C
A
L
C
U
L
A
T
I
O
N
S
H
E
R
E
.
P
A
R
T
I
I
I
:
F
o
u
r
P
r
a
c
t
i
c
e
T
e
s
t
s
5
0
2
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w
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answer sheet
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Practice Test 1: AP
Calculus AB
SEC TIO N I, PART A
55 M inute s 28 Q ue stions
A C ALC ULATO R M AY NO T BE USED FO R THIS PART O F THE EXAM INATIO N.
Directions: Sol ve each of the fol l owi ng probl ems, usi ng the avai l abl e
space for scratchwork. After exami ni ng the form of the choi ces, deci de
whi ch i s the best of the choi ces gi ven and fi l l i n the correspondi ng oval on
the answer sheet. No credi t wi l l be gi ven for anythi ng wri tten i n the test
book. Do not spend too much ti me on any one probl em.
In this test: Unl ess otherwi se speci fi ed, the domai n of a functi on f i s
assumed to be the set of al l real numbers x for whi ch f(x) i s a real
number.
1.
e dx
x 2
0
1
(A) e
2
2 1
(B) e
2
(C)
e
2
2
(D)
e
2
1
2
(E) 2e
2
2 2
2. I f f(x) 5 tan(e
si nx
), then f 8(x) 5
(A)
( )
e x e
x x sin sin
cos sec
2
(B) e x e
x x sin sin
cos sec
2
( )
(C)
( ) ( )
e e e
x x x sin sin sin
sec tan
(D) e e
x x sin sin
sec
2
( )
(E) e e e
x x x sin sin sin
sec tan
( ) ( )
3. I f F x t dt
x
( )
2
2
2
, then F(2) 5
(A)
64
3
(B) 64
(C)
16
3
(D) 16
(E)
56
3
p
r
a
c
t
i
c
e
t
e
s
t
1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
505
4. I f f(x) 5 tan
2
x 1 si n x, then
_
,
f

4
(A)
4 2
2
+
(B)
2 2
2
+
(C)
8 2
2
+
(D)
8 2
2
(E)
4 2
2
5. At whi ch of the fol l owi ng poi nts i s

the graph of f(x) 5 x
4
2 2x
3
2 2x
2
2 7
decreasi ng and concave down?
(A) (1,210)
(B) (2,215)
(C) (3,2)
(D) (21,26)
(E) (22,17)
6. Whi ch of the fol l owi ng are an-
ti deri vati ves of f(x) 5 cos
3
x si nx ?
I . F x
x
( )
cos
4
4
I I . F x
x x
( )
sin sin
2 4
2 4
I I I . F x
x
( )
1
4
4
cos
(A) I onl y
(B) I I onl y
(C) I I I onl y
(D) I and I I I
(E) I , I I , and I I I
7.
d
dx
e
x
_
,
( )

sin 2
(A) 2 cos2xe
si n2x
(B) cos2xe
si n2x
(C) 2e
si n2x
(D) 2cos2xe
si n2x
(E) 2 2cos2xe
si n2x
Q UESTIO NS 8 AND 9 REFER TO THE
G RAPH BELO W O F THE VELO C ITY O F A
M O VING O BJEC T AS A FUNC TIO N O F
TIM E.
8. At what ti me has the object reached
i ts maxi mum speed?
(A) 0
(B) 2
(C) 3
(D) 5
(E) 6
9. Over what i nterval does the object
have the greatest accel erati on?
(A) [0,2]
(B) [2,3]
(C) [2,4]
(D) [3,5]
(E) [5,6]
10. An equati on of the l i ne tangent to
y 5 si nx 1 2cosx at
S
p
2
, 1
D
i s
(A) 2x 2 y 5 p 2 1
(B) 2x 1 y 5 p 1 1
(C) 2x 2 2y 5 2 2 p
(D) 4x 1 2y 5 2 2 p
(E) None of the above
PART III: Four Pra c tic e Te sts 506
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11. The graph of the functi on f i s gi ven
bel ow.
Whi ch of these graphs coul d be the
deri vati ve of f ?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
12. The functi on f i s gi ven by f(x) 5 x
4
2
8x
3
1 24x
2
2 32x 1 15.
Al l of these statements are true EX-
CEPT
(A) 1 and 3 are zeros of f.
(B) f (2) 5 0.
(C) f (2) 5 0.
(D) (2, 2 1) i s a poi nt of i nfl ecti on
of f.
(E) (2, 2 1) i s a l ocal mi ni mum of f.
13. The functi on f i s gi ven by f(x) 5
3e
si nx
.
f i s decreasi ng over whi ch i nterval ?
(A) [0,p]
(B) ,

2
1
]
1
2
(C)

2
3
,
2
1
]
1
(D)
3
2
5
,
2
1
]
1
(E) [2`,`]
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Pra c tic e Te st 1: AP C a lc ulus AB 507
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14. Let f and g be twi ce di fferenti abl e
functi ons such that f 8(x) 0 for al l x
i n the domai n of f. I f h(x) 5 f(g8(x))
and h8(3) 5 2 2, then at x 5 3
(A) h i s concave down.
(B) g i s decreasi ng.
(C) f i s concave down.
(D) g i s concave down.
(E) f i s decreasi ng.
15. I n the di agram bel ow, f has a verti cal
tangent at x 5 1 and hori zontal tan-
gents at x 5 2 and at x 5 5. Al l of
these statements are true EXCEPT
1 3
f
2 4 5 6
(A)
lim lim
x x
f x f x

+
( ) ( )
3 3
(B)
lim
x
f x f
( ) ( )
5
5
(C)
lim
h
f h f
h
+
( ) ( )
0
2 2
0
(D)
lim lim
h h
f h f
h
f h f
h
+
+
+ ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
0 0
4 4 4 4
(E)
lim lim
. .
. x h
f x
f h f
h
( )
( ) ( )
>
+
2 5 0
2 5 2 5
16. What i s the area of the regi on
bounded by the curves y 5 x
3
1 1
and y 5 2 x
2
from x 5 0 to x 5 2?
(A)
26
3
(B)
10
3
(C)
10
3
(D)
20
3
(E)
26
3
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17. Determi ne
dy
dx
for the curve defi ned
by x
3
1 y
3
5 3xy.
(A)
x
y x
2
2
(B)
x
x y
2
2
(C)
y x
y x
2
2
(D)
1
1
x
y
(E)
x y
y x
2
2
18. sin2
0
4
x dx
(A) 2 1
(B)
1
2
(C) 0
(D)
1
2
(E) 1
19. The graph of f(x) 5 (x 2 4)
3
(3x 2 1)
3
has a l ocal mi ni mum at x 5
(A) 2 4
(B)
1
3
(C)
1
3
(D)
13
6
(E) 4
20. What i s the average val ue of y 5
si n2x over

4
,
3
[ ]
?
(A)
6
(B)

1
6
(C)
3
(D) 3p
(E)
6
21.
lim
x
x x
x x
+
+

5 7 3
2 3 11
2
2
(A)
3
2
(B)
5
11
(C) 0
(D)
7
3
(E) I t i s nonexi stent.
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22. The graph of f(x) 5
1
1
2
x
x
i s concave
down over whi ch i nterval (s)?
(A) ( 2 `, 2 1)
(B) ( 2 1, `)
(C) (21,1) (1,`)
(D) (2`,1)
(E) (2`,`)
23.
y x
2
y x
1
1
The area of the shaded regi on i n the
di agram above i s equi val ent to
(A)
x x dx
2
0
1
( )
(B)
x x dx
4
0
1
( )
(C)
x x dx
( )
2
0
1
(D)
2
2
0
1
x x x dx
( ) ( )
(E)
x x dx
( )
2
2
0
1
24.
lim
h
h
h 0
+
( )
tan tan 2
8 4

(A)
3
2
(B) 2
(C)
2 2
(D) 4
(E)
4 2
25.
ln
2
2
1
x
x
dx
e

_
,

(A)
7
3
2
e
(B)
4
2
e
(C) 2
(D)
7
3
(E)
8
3
26. A parti cl es posi ti on i s gi ven by s(t) 5
si nt 1 2cost 1
t
p
1 2.
The average vel oci ty of the parti cl e
over [0,2p] i s
(A)

+
1
(B)
1
3
(C) 0
(D)
1
(E)

+1
27. then
lim
ln x
f x
( )
2
(A)
1
2
(B) l n 2
(C) 2
(D) e
2
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28.
10
h
I n the tri angl e shown above, u i s i n-

creasi ng at a constant rate of
15
26
ra-
di ans per mi nute.
At what rate i s the area of the tri -
angl e i ncreasi ng, i n square uni ts per
mi nute, when h i s 24 uni ts?
(A)
338
5
(B) 39
(C)
195
4
(D) 182
(E) 195
STOP
END O F SEC TIO N I, PART A. IF YO U HAVE ANY TIM E LEFT, G O O VER
YO UR WO RK IN THIS PART O NLY. DO NO T WO RK IN ANY O THER PART
O F THE TEST.
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SEC TIO N I, PART B
A G RAPHING C ALC ULATO R IS REQ UIRED FO R SO M E Q UESTIO NS IN THIS PART O F
THE EXAM INATIO N.
Directions: Sol ve each of the fol l owi ng probl ems, usi ng the avai l abl e space
for scratch work. After exami ni ng the form of the choi ces, deci de whi ch i s the
best of the choi ces gi ven and fi l l i n the correspondi ng oval on the answer
sheet. No credi t wi l l be gi ven for anythi ng wri tten i n the test book. Do not
spend too much ti me on any one probl em.
In this test: (1) The exact numeri cal val ue of the correct answer does not
al ways appear among the choi ces gi ven. When thi s happens, sel ect from
among the choi ces the number that best approxi mates the exact numeri cal
val ue. (2) Unl ess otherwi se speci fi ed, the domai n of a functi on f i s assumed to
be the set of al l real numbers x for whi ch f(x) i s a real number.
29. I f f x
e
x
x
( )
3
2
sin
then f(x) 5
(A)
e
x x x
x
x 3
2 2
2 2
3 2 sin cos
sin
(B)
3
2
3
2
e
x x
x
cos
(C)
e
x x x
x
x 3
2 2
2 2
2 3 cos sin
sin
(D)
e
x x x
x
x 3
2 2
2 2
3 2 sin cos
sin
+
(E)

3
2
3
2
e
x x
x
cos
30. Whi ch of the fol l owi ng i s an equati on
for a l i ne tangent to the graph of f(x)
5 e
2x
when f(x) 5 10?
(A) y 5 10x 2 8.05
(B) y 5 x 2 8.05
(C) y 5 x 2 3.05
(D) y 5 10x 2 11.5
(E) y 5 10x 2 3.05
31.
2 4 6
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
f
The graph of the deri vati ve of f i s
shown above.
Whi ch of the fol l owi ng statements i s
true?
(A) f(0) , f(6) , f(2) , f(4)
(B) f(6) , f(0) , f(2) , f(4)
(C) f(0) , f(2) , f(4) , f(6)
(D) f(2) , f(0) , f(6) , f(4)
(E) f(0) , f(2) , f(6) , f(4)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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32. Let f be a functi on such that
lim
h
f h f
h
+ ( ) ( )
0
5 5
3
.
Whi ch of the fol l owi ng must be true?
I . f(5) 5 3
I I . f(5) 5 3
I I I . f i s conti nuous and di fferenti abl e
at x 5 5.
(A) I onl y
(B) I I onl y
(C) I I I onl y
(D) I and I I
(E) I I and I I I
33. The functi on f whose deri vati ve i s
gi ven by f(x) 5 5x
3
2 15x 1 7 has a
l ocal maxi mum at x 5
(A) 21.930
(B) 21.000
(C) 0.511
(D) 1.000
(E) 1.419
34. Car A i s travel i ng south at 40 mph
toward Mi l l vi l l e, and Car B i s travel -
i ng west at 30 mph toward Mi l l vi l l e.
I f both cars began travel i ng 100
mi l es outsi de of Mi l l vi l l e at the same
ti me, then at what rate, i n mph, i s
the di stance between them decreas-
i ng after 90 mi nutes?
(A) 35.00
(B) 47.79
(C) 50.00
(D) 55.14
(E) 68.01
35. Let f x
x
x
( )

2
1
1
. Whi ch of these
statements i s true?
I . f i s conti nuous at x 5 21.
I I . f i s di fferenti abl e at x 5 1.
I I I . f has a l ocal maxi mum at x5 21.
(A) I onl y
(B) I I onl y
(C) I I I onl y
(D) I and I I I
(E) I I and I I I
36. I f y 5 3x 2 7 and x 0, what i s the
mi ni mum product of x
2
y?
(A) 25.646
(B) 0
(C) 1.555
(D) 2.813
(E) 3.841
37. What i s the area of the regi on
bounded by y 5 si nx, y x
1
4
1, and
the y-axi s?
(A) 0.772
(B) 2.815
(C) 3.926
(D) 5.552
(E) 34.882
38. A regi on R l ocated i n the fi rst quad-
rant i s bounded by the x-axi s, y 5
si nx, and y x
( )
1
2
. Determi ne the
vol ume of the sol i d formed when R i s
rotated about the y-axi s.
(A) 1.130
(B) 2.724
(C) 3.265
(D) 16.875
(E) 17.117
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39. Let f be the functi on gi ven by
f x
x
e
x
( )
3
3
. For what val ue of x i s
the sl ope of the l i ne tangent to f
equal to 21.024?
(A) 29.004
(B) 24.732
(C) 1.029
(D) 1.277
(E) 4.797
40.
a b c d
The graph of f i s shown above. I f
g x f t dt
a
x
( ) ( )
, for what val ue of x

does g(x) have a rel ati ve mi ni mum?
(A) a
(B) b
(C) c
(D) d
(E) I t cannot be determi ned from
the i nformati on gi ven.
41. The graph of the functi on y 5 x
5
2 x
2
1 si nx changes concavi ty at x 5
(A) 0.324
(B) 0.499
(C) 0.506
(D) 0.611
(E) 0.704
42.
Let f x h t dt
x
( ) ( )
0
, where h i s the
graph shown above. Whi ch of the fol -
l owi ng coul d be the graph of f?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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43.
x 0 1
2 4
4
1 3
5
2
6
5 1
3
f (x)
2
A tabl e of val ues for a conti nuous
functi on f i s shown above.
I f three equal subi nterval s are used
for [0,6], whi ch of the fol l owi ng i s
equi val ent to a ri ght-hand Ri emann
Sum approxi mati on for f x dx ( )
0
6
?
(A) 14
(B) 17
(C) 20
(D) 24
(E) 27
44.
The graph of a functi on f i s shown
above. Whi ch of these statements
about f i s fal se?
(A) f i s conti nuous but not di fferen-
ti abl e at x 5 a.
(B) lim lim
x a x a
f x a f x
a
f x a f x
a
+
+
+ ( ) ( )
_
,
( ) ( )
_
,
.
(C) f(a) i s defi ned, but f(c) i s not.
(D) f (b) 5 0.
(E) lim lim
x c x c
f x f x

+
( ) ( )
( ) ( ).
45. Let f be defi ned as fol l ows:
x
2
, x 0
f (x)
x, xx > 0
Let g(x) 5 f t dt
x
( )
2
. For what
val ue of x 22 woul d g(x) 5 0?
(A) 0
(B)
2
(C) 2
(D)
2 2
3
(E)
2 2
STOP
END O F SEC TIO N I, PART B. IF YO U HAVE ANY TIM E LEFT, G O O VER
O F THE TEST.
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SEC TIO N II, PART A
A G RAPHING C ALC ULATO R IS REQ UIRED FO R SO M E PRO BLEM S O R PARTS O F
PRO BLEM S IN THIS PART O F THE EXAM INATIO N.
SHOWALL YOUR WORK. I t i s i mportant to show your setups for these
probl ems because parti al credi t wi l l be awarded. I f you use deci mal approxi -
mati ons, they shoul d be accurate to three deci mal pl aces.
1. At ti me t, 0 t 10, the vel oci ty of a
parti cl e movi ng al ong the x-axi s i s
gi ven by the fol l owi ng equati on: v(t)
5 1 2 4si n(2t) 2 7cos t.
(a) I s the parti cl e movi ng l eft or
ri ght at t 5 5 seconds? Expl ai n
your reasoni ng.
(b) What i s the average vel oci ty of
the parti cl e from t 5 0 to t 5
10?
(c) What i s the average accel era-
ti on of the parti cl e from t 5 0
to t 5 10?
(d) Gi ven that p(t) i s the posi ti on
of the parti cl e at ti me t and
p(0) 5 5, fi nd p(2).
2. Let R be the regi on bound by y 5 2x
2
2 8x 1 11 and y 5 x
2
2 4x 1 10.
(a) Sketch the regi on on the axes
provi ded.
2
4
2 4 6 8 10
6
8
10
(b) Determi ne the area of R.
(c) Determi ne the vol ume when R
i s rotated about the y-axi s.
(d) The l i ne x 5 k di vi des the
regi on R i nto two regi ons such
that when these two regi ons
are rotated about the y-axi s,
they generate sol i ds wi th equal
vol ume. Fi nd the val ue of k.
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3. Water i s l eaki ng out of a coni cal res-
ervoi r at a rate proporti onal to the
amount of water i n the reservoi r;
that i s,
dy
dx
5 ky where y i s the
amount of water l eft for any ti me t.
I ni ti al l y, there were 100 gal l ons i n
the reservoi r, and after 10 hours,
there were 70 gal l ons.
(a) Wri te an expressi on for A(t)
the amount of water i n the
reservoi r for any ti me t.
(b) How much water woul d have
l eaked out after 5 hours?
(c) What i s the average amount of
water i n the reservoi r duri ng
the fi rst 20 hours?
(d) After how many hours of
l eaki ng wi l l the amount from
part C be i n the reservoi r?
STOP
END O F SEC TIO N II, PART A. IF YO U HAVE ANY TIM E LEFT, G O O VER
O F THE TEST.
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SEC TIO N II, PART B
A C ALC ULATO R IS NO T PERM ITTED IN THIS PART O F THE EXAM INATIO N.
4. Consi der the di fferenti al equati on
dy
dx
=
x + 1
y
. Al l of the fol l owi ng ques-
ti ons refer to thi s di fferenti al equa-
ti on.
(a) Draw the sl ope fi el d for
dy
dx
at
the i ndi cated poi nts on the
bel ow coordi nate axi s.
(b) The sol uti on to thi s di fferenti al
equati on can be cl assi fi ed as
whi ch coni c secti on? Justi fy
your answer mathemati cal l y.
(c) Fi nd the speci fi c sol uti on to the
di fferenti al equati on, gi ven that
i t contai ns the poi nt (2,4).
5. Consi der the curve defi ned by y
4
5 y
2
2 x
2
.
(a) Veri fy that
dy
dx
x
y y
2
3
.
(b) Wri te the equati on for any
hori zontal tangents of the
curve.
(c) Wri te the equati on for any
verti cal tangents of the curve.
(d) At what ordered pai r (x,y) i s
the l i ne 4x 3 4 y 5 1 tangent
to the curve y
4
5 y
2
2 x
2
?
6. The graph of a functi on f consi sts of
two quarter ci rcl es and two l i ne seg-
ments, as shown bel ow. Let g be the
functi on gi ven by
g x f x dx
x
( ) ( )
3
.
3 6 9
f
12 15
1
2
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
(a) Fi nd g(0) and g(8).
(b) What i s the maxi mum val ue of
g on [3,16]?
(c) Wri te the equati on for the l i ne
tangent to g at (11, g(11)).
(d) Fi nd the x-coordi nate of any
poi nts of i nfl ecti on of g on
[0,16].
STOP
END O F SEC TIO N II, PART B. IF YO U HAVE ANY TIM E LEFT, G O O VER
O F THE TEST.
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ANSWER KEY AND EXPLANATIO NS
1. D
2. B
3. E
4. C
5. A
6. E
7. D
8. D
9. E
10. B
11. B
12. D
13. C
14. D
15. D
16. E
17. C
18. D
19. D
20. C
21. B
22. C
23. C
24. D
25. E
26. D
27. C
28. E
1. The correct answer is (D). Sol ve
thi s i ntegral usi ng u-substi tuti on.
Let u 5 2x, so du 5 2 dx.
e dx
x 2
0
1
becomes
1
2
0
2
e du
u
, whi ch
yi el ds
1
2
2
1 e
( )
.
2. The correct answer is (B). Thi s i s
a rather compl i cated Chai n Rul e ap-
pl i cati on. The deri vati ve of tan u i s
sec
2
u du, but we mustnt forget to
al so take the deri vati ve of e
si nx
. Si nce
d
dx
e x e
x x sin sin
cos
( )
,
d
dx
x x x
e e x e tan sec cos
sin sin sin
( )

( )
2

3. The correct answer is (E). Be
careful here. Al though i t resembl es a
Fundamental Theorem Part Two
probl em, i t i s not. The probl em asks
for F(2), not F(2)! So,
F t dt 2
2 56
3
2
4
( )

.
4. The correct answer is (C).
Strai ght-forward eval uati on of a de-
ri vati ve at a poi nt probl em: f(x) 5
2tanxsec
2
x 1 cosx. So,
( )
+ f

4
4
2
2
, whi ch i s
8 2
2
+
.
5. The correct answer is (A). We
need both the fi rst and second de-
ri vati ves to be negati ve for thi s func-
ti on to be decreasi ng and concave
down. f(x) 5 4x
3
2 6x
2
2 4x and
f(x) 5 12x
2
2 12x 2 4. By usi ng the
wi ggl e graph bel ow,
we can easi l y see that choi ces (B)
and (C) can be el i mi nated, so we
must check out the val ues of f(22),
f(21), and f(1). f(1) 5 24 , 0.
6. The correct answer is (E). Here,
we shoul d take the deri vati ve of each
I , I I , and I I I and see what we get.
d
dx
x x
x
x x

_
,

( )
cos cos
sin
cos sin
4 3
3
4
4
4
d
dx
x x
x x
x x
sin sin
sin cos
sin cos
2 4
3
2 4
4
4
_
,
5 si nx cosx2 si n
3
xcosx 5
si nxcosx(12si n
2
x) = si nx cosx(cos
2
x)
5 cos
3
x si nx
d
dx
x
x x
x x
1
4
4
4
3
4
3
_
,

( )
cos
cos sin
cos sin
7. The correct answer is (D). An-
other l engthy Chai n Rul ejust dont
forget to take the deri vati ve of 2x,
the argument of the argument. Si nce
the deri vati ve of e
u
i s e
u
du and the
a
n
s
w
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r
s
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1
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deri vati ve of si nu i s cosu du, then
d
dx
x x
e xe
sin sin
cos
2 2
2 2 .
8. The correct answer is (D). Re-
member, speed i s the absol ute val ue
of vel oci ty. Si nce > 15 10 , the
maxi mum speed i s reached at t 5 5
seconds.
9. The correct answer is (E). Accel -
erati on can be thought of as the ab-
sol ute val ue or sl ope of vel oci ty. The
sl ope of the vel oci ty curve i s steepest
on [5,6].
10. The correct answer is (B). I n or-
der to wri te the equati on for a l i ne,
we need i ts sl ope and a poi nt on that
l i ne. We al ready have the poi nt,
2
1 ,
( )
, so the bi g probl em i s deter-
mi ni ng i ts sl ope, whi ch i s the deri va-
ti ve of the curve when x

2
. y 5
cosx 2 2si nx, so
_
,
y

2
2. Usi ng
poi nt sl ope form, the equati on for
the l i ne coul d be wri tten as
y x
( )
1 2
2
. Si nce thi s i s not a

choi ce, we must change thi s to stan-
dard form, 2x 1 y 5 p 1 1.
11. The correct answer is (B). Si nce
the f i s decreasi ng over (2`,21), i ts
deri vati ve, f, must be negati ve over
thi s same i nterval . Thi s el i mi nates
choi ces (C), (D), and (E). Exami ni ng
the i nterval (21,0), the graph of f i s
decreasi ng here; thus, the graph of f
must be negati ve. Onl y choi ce (B)
meets thi s requi rement.
12. The correct answer is (D). By ex-
ami ni ng the second-deri vati ve
wi ggl e graph bel ow, we can see that
the second deri vati ve i s posi ti ve at,
before, and after 2. Therefore, there
i s no poi nt of i nfl ecti on at x 5 2.
13. The correct answer is (C). Pretty
si mpl e probl emwe determi ne the
deri vati ve, set i t equal to zero, and
use a wi ggl e graph.
f(x) 5 3e
si nx
cosx 5 0
Si nce 3e
si nx
wi l l never be 0, we set
cosx 5 0 and sol ve.
cosx 5 0 when x n +
2
for any
i nteger n. By exami ni ng the wi ggl e
graph bel ow, we can see that the de-
ri vati ve i s negati ve over [

2
,
3
2
].
14. The correct answer is (D). Thi s
one seems tri cky, but i t actual l y
works out qui te qui ckl y. I f h(x) 5
f(g(x)), then by usi ng the chai n rul e,
h(x) 5 f( g(x))g(x). The probl em
tel l s us that f(x) wi l l al ways be posi -
ti ve. Si nce h(3) somehow becomes
negati ve, g(3) must be negati ve.
Therefore, g must be concave down
at x 5 3.
15. The correct answer is (D). Do we
understand the defi ni ti ons of conti -
nui ty and di fferenti abi l i ty?
(A) Does the l i mi t exi st as x
approaches 3? Yes.
(B) I s f conti nuous at x 5 5? Yes.
(C) Does f(2) 5 0? Yes. (I t has a
hori zontal tangent l i ne.)
(D) Does f(4) exi st? No.
(E) I s f(2.5) . f(2.5)? Yes. (f(2.5) .
0, and si nce f i s decreasi ng at x
5 2.5, f(2.5) , 0.)
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16. The correct answer is (E). We
shoul d al ways sketch the regi on.
As we can see, y 5 x
3
1 1 i s above y
5 2x
2
over the enti re i nterval . So,
A x x dx
x
x
x
+
+ +
+ +
( )
_
,
3 2
4 3
0
2
1
4 3
4 2
8
3
26
3
0
2
|
17. The correct answer is (C). Some
i mpl i ci t di fferenti ati on: Remember,
everythi ng here i s di fferenti ated
wi th respect to x. Dont forget the
product rul e for 3xy.
3 3 3 3
3 3 3 3
3 3
3 3
2 2
2 2
2
2
x y
dy
dx
x
dy
dx
y
y x
dy
dx
y x
dy
dx
y x
y x
d
+ +
( )

yy
dx
y x
y x
2
2
18. The correct answer is (D). Thi s i s
a very si mpl e u-substi tuti on i nte-
gral . Let u 5 2x, so du 5 2dx.
I t fol l ows that sin2
0
4
x dx
be-
comes
1
2
1
2
1
2
0 1
1
2
0
2
0
2
sin cos
.
|
u du u

( )
19. The correct answer is (D). Agai n,
we wi l l rel y on the magi c of the
wi ggl e graph to suppl y us wi th the
sol uti on to thi s di fferenti ati on prob-
l em.
f(x) 5 3(x 2 4)
2
(3x 2 1)
2
[3(x 2 4) 1
(3x 2 1]
5 3(x 2 4)
2
(3x 2 1)
2
(6x 2 13)
By setti ng f(x) 5 0 and sol vi ng, we
qui ckl y di scover that the zeros of the
deri vati ve are
1
3
,
13
6
, and 4. By exam-
i ni ng the wi ggl e graph bel ow, we can
see that the onl y val ue where the
deri vati ve changes from negati ve to
posi ti ve i s at x 5
13
6
.
1
3
13
6
4
+ +
20. The correct answer is (C). When-
ever the probl em asks for the aver-
age val ue of the functi on, we shoul d
i mmedi atel y thi nk of the mean val ue
theorem for i ntegrati on. We are l ook-
i ng for f(c) i n thi s formul a:
f c f x dx
b a
a
b
( ) ( )

1
. Appl yi ng the
MVT for I ntegrati on here yi el ds the
fol l owi ng equati on:
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
p
r
a
c
t
i
c
e
t
e
s
t
1
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f c x dx
u du
u
( )
( )
1
4 2
1 1
2
6
3 4
4
3
12
2
2 3
2

sin
sin
cos
22 3
6 1
2
0
3
_
,
21. The correct answer is (B). Re-

member, l i mi ts at i nfi ni ty are l i ke
hori zontal asymptotes. I f the top
degree i s greater than the bottom
degree, the l i mi t does not exi st. I f
the bottom degree i s greater than
the top degree, the l i mi t i s zero. I f,
as i n thi s case, the degrees are
equal , then the l i mi t i s the rati o of
the l eadi ng coeffi ci ent of the numera-
tor over that of the denomi nator.
Here, that rati o i s
5
11
.
22. The correct answer is (C). Sketch
the curve. We may si mpl i fy the ex-
pressi on fi rst by usi ng cancel l ati on.
However, we must remember that by
cancel i ng out a term i nvol vi ng x, we
are removi ng a di sconti nui ty. So, the
graph of the ori gi nal functi on wi l l
have a poi nt di sconti nui ty.
f x
x
x
x
x x
x
( )
( )( )

+

+
1
1
1
1 1
2
1
1
wi th a poi nt di sconti nui ty at x 5 1.
1 1
By exami ni ng the graph above, we
can see that i t i s concave down to the
ri ght of the asymptote. These are ac-
tual l y two i nterval s, because the
functi on i s not conti nuous at x 5 1.
They are (21,1) and (1,`).
23. The correct answer is (C). The
two curves, y x and y5 x
2
i nter-
sect at x5 0 and x5 1. So, these wi l l
be our l i mi ts of i ntegrati on. For x
val ues between 0 and 1,
x x >
2
.
Thi s bei ng the case, when we deter-
mi ne the area of the regi on, we
shoul d subtract
x x
2
. Therefore,
A 5 x x dx
( )
2
0
1
.
just the deri vati ve of f(x) 5 tan2x
eval uated at x

8
. f(x) 5 2sec
2
2x,
so
( )
f

8
2
4
4
2
sec .
25. The correct answer is (E).
A l i ttl e tri cky u-substi tuti on i nte-
gral . Let u 5 l n x, then du
dx
x
.
I t fol l ows that
ln
|
2
2
0
2
1
3
0
2
2
3
8
3
0
8
3
x
x
dx u du
u
e

_
,

26. The correct answer is (D). Si nce
the questi on asks for average vel oc-
i ty and we are gi ven the posi ti on
equati on, we shoul d determi ne the
sl ope of the secant l i ne:
Average velocity

+ + + +

( ) ( )
( )
s s 2 0
2 0
0 2 2 2 2 2
2
2
2
1

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27. The correct answer is (C).
Since

then
lim
lim ,
ln
ln
ln
lim
ln
x
x
f x
f x e
x
( )
( )
+
( )
( )

2
2
2
2
22
f x ( ) exists and
is equal to 2 as well.
28. The correct answer is (E). Thi s i s
a rather chal l engi ng rel ated-rates
probl em. We are l ooki ng for
dA
dt
when
h 5 24. Fi rst, we need a pri mary
equati on. Thi s wi l l be the formul a for
the area of a tri angl e:
A bh
1
2
Si nce the base i s a constant, 10, thi s
becomes
A h h ( )
1
2
10 5
Di fferenti ati ng wi th respect to t
yi el ds
dA
dt
dh
dt
5
How do we determi ne
dh
dt
? We must
fi nd a rel ati onshi p other than
A bh
1
2
i nvol vi ng h. How about
usi ng the tangent equati on?
tan
h
10
or h 5 10tanu
Di fferenti ati ng thi s wi th respect to t
yi el ds
dh
dt
d
dt
10
2
sec

Si nce we know
d
dt
15
26
, thi s equa-
ti on becomes
dh
dt
10
2 15
26
sec
The l ast unknown to i denti fy i s
10sec
2
u. We can use the Pythagorean
theorem to hel p here. Si nce h 5 24
and b 5 10, the hypotenuse must be
26. So,
10
2
10
26
10
2
sec

_
,
Pl uggi ng thi s expressi on i n for
dh
dt
gi ves us
dA
dt
( )( )
_
,

_
,
_
,
_
,

5 10
26
10
15
26
50
13
5
3
2
195
2
a
n
s
w
e
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s
p
r
a
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t
i
c
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t
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s
t
1
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29. A
30. E
31. D
32. E
33. C
34. B
35. D
36. A
37. C
38. E
39. E
40. C
41. B
42. C
43. D
44. E
45. D
must use the quoti ent rul e to eval u-
ate the fol l owi ng deri vati ve:

( )
_
,
f x
e x xe x
x
e
x x x
x
x x
x
3 2
3 2
3 2 3 2
2 2
3
2 2
2 2
sin cos
sin
sin cos
sin
30. The correct answer is (E). To
wri te the equati on for a l i ne, we need
the sl ope of the l i ne and a poi nt on
the l i ne. We al ready have i ts sl ope,
si nce f(x) 5 10; the sl ope of the tan-
gent l i ne i s 10 as wel l . To fi nd the
poi nt on the l i ne, we must set the
deri vati ve of f equal to 10 and sol ve
for x; then, substi tute thi s x-val ue
i nto f to determi ne the correspondi ng
y-val ue.
f(x) 5 2e
2x
5 10
e
2x
5 5
2x 5 l n 5
x
ln5
2
Now, we substi tute thi s val ue i nto f
and the resul t i s
f e
ln ln 5
2
5
5
_
,

Our probl em has now been reduced
to determi ni ng the equati on for a
l i ne that passes through
ln
,
5
2
5
( ) and
has sl ope 10. Poi nt-sl ope form of thi s
equati on i s
y x
_
,
5 10
5
2
ln
Converti ng to sl ope-i ntercept form
and usi ng the cal cul ator to eval uate
the val ue of
ln 5
2
, we get
y 5 10x 2 3.047
an area accumul ati on probl em. The
functi on decreases from x 5 0 to x 5
1 by an amount equi val ent to the
area between the graph of f and the
x-axi s, whi ch i s 22 uni ts squared.
Thi s was determi ned by fi ndi ng the
area of the tri angl e. The functi on
then i ncreases from x 5 1 to x 5 2 by
3
2
uni ts squared. From x 5 2 to x 5 4,
i t i ncreases 3 1
3
2
or
9
2
uni ts squared.
From x 5 4 to x 5 6, the functi on
decreases 2 uni ts squared. Putti ng
al l of thi s together, we can see that
the functi ons val ue i s greatest at x5
4, fol l owed by at x 5 6, then at x 5 0,
and l east at x 5 2.
the l i mi t of the di fference quoti ent
that i s the defi ni ti on of the deri va-
ti ve. Al l thi s means i s that f(5) 5 3.
For I ., does the functi ons val ue nec-
essari l y equal the deri vati ves val ue?
No, so I . i s out. Si nce the deri vati ve
exi sts at x 5 5, the functi on i s di ffer-
enti abl e there. Remember that di f-
ferenti abi l i ty i mpl i es conti nui ty, so
the functi on must be conti nuous at x
5 5 as wel l .
33. Thecorrect answer is(C). Use the
cal cul ator to graph the deri vati ve
gi ven. Where the graph changes
from posi ti ve to negati ve wi l l be the
l ocal maxi mum. Thi s occurs at x 5
0.511.
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34. Thecorrect answer is(B). Rel ated
ratesoh boy! Fi rst, l ets draw the
fol l owi ng di agram:
B
C
A
We are l ooki ng for
dC
dt
. We know that
dA
dt
40 and
dB
dt
30. Now, we
need an equati on to rel ate A, B, and
C. Si nce thi s i s a ri ght tri angl e, we
can certai nl y use the Pythagorean
theorem:
A
2
1 B
2
5 C
2
Di fferenti ati ng wi th respect to t,
whi ch we do i n every rel ated-rates
probl em, yi el ds
2 2 2 2 ( ) + A
dA
dt
B
dB
dt
C
dC
dt
Sol vi ng thi s equati on for
dC
dt
gi ves
us
A
dA
dt
B
dB
dt
C
dC
dt
+
What are the val ues of A, B, and C?

To answer thi s, we use the facts that
the cars each started 100 mi l es from
Mi l l vi l l e and have been travel i ng for
90 mi nutes or
3
2
hours. Car A has
travel ed 60 mi l es, so A 5 40. Car B
has travel ed 45 mi l es, so B 5 55. By
the Pythagorean theorem,
C + 40 55
2 2
. Substi tuti ng these
val ues i nto the equati on yi el ds
dC
dt

+
+

( ) ( ) 40 40 55 30
40 55
47 79
2 2
.
probl em i s best answered usi ng the
graphi ng cal cul ator. I f we exami ne
the graph, we can see that i t i s con-
ti nuous at x 5 21. The graph has a
jump di sconti nui ty at x 5 1; i t i s not
di fferenti abl e there. Si nce the graph
i s i ncreasi ng before and decreasi ng
after x 5 21, there i s a l ocal maxi -
mum at x 5 21.
36. The correct answer is (A). Thi s i s
an opti mi zati on probl em. Lets fi rst
express the product x
2
y onl y as a
functi on of x:
p(x) 5 x
2
(3x 2 7) 5 3x
3
2 7x
2
Next, we di fferenti ate and set the de-
ri vati ve equal to zero and sol ve for x
to determi ne our cri ti cal val ues:
p(x) 5 9x
2
2 14x 5 0
x(9x 2 14) 5 0
x 5 0 or x 5
14
9
.
By exami ni ng the wi ggl e graph be-
l ow, we can see that the functi ons
mi ni mum occurs at x 5
14
9
.
The probl em asks for the mi ni mum
product. So, we must substi tute
14
9
back i nto p(x), and we get 25.646.
37. The correct answer is (C). Use
your cal cul ator to determi ne where
these two curves i ntersect. Thi s i n-
tersecti on poi nt wi l l gi ve us a l i mi t of
i ntegrati on. Si nce the graph of y 5
si n x i s above the graph of y 5
1
4
x 2
1, we i ntegrate to fi nd the area:
A x x dx
_
,
_
,
sin
.
1
4
1
0
3 314
Our cal cul ator wi l l then do al l the
work and gi ve us
A 5 3.926
38. The correct answer is (E). Be
careful heremake sure you have
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
p
r
a
c
t
i
c
e
t
e
s
t
1
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www.petersons.com
the ri ght regi on, as shown i n the di a-
gram bel ow:
The best method to use, si nce we are
rotati ng about the y-axi s, woul d be
shel l s. However, we wi l l need to
break i t up i nto two regi ons.
V
x x dx
x x dx
_
,
_
,
+
( ) ( )
_
,
2
1
2 0
1 895
1 895
.
.
sin
Usi ng our cal cul ator,
V 5 17.117
39. The correct answer is (E). Set the
deri vati ve of f equal to 21.024, and
sol ve. By the quoti ent rul e, we have
f(x) 5
e x e x
e
x x
x
9 3
1 024
2 3
2
. .
Graphi ng and determi ni ng the i nter-
cept yi el ds x 5 4.797.
40. Thecorrect answer is (C). Si nce g
i s an anti deri vati ve of f, then f i s the
deri vati ve of g. The graph of the de-
ri vati ve of g changes from negati ve
to posi ti ve at x 5 c, so g has a mi ni -
mum there.
41. The correct answer is (B). Use
your cal cul ator for thi s one. Fi rst, de-
termi ne the second deri vati ve of f.
Graph i t, and fi nd the x-i ntercept.
f(x) 5 5x
4
2 2x 1 cosx
f(x) 5 20x
3
2 2 2 si n x
Our cal cul ator shows us that the x-
i ntercept of thi s second deri vati ve i s
0.4985.
42. The correct answer is (C). We
have the graph of the deri vati ve, but
we are l ooki ng for the graph of the
functi on. Si nce the deri vati ves
graph i s conti nuous, there are no di s-
conti nui ti es, cusps, or verti cal tan-
gents on the functi ons graph. Thi s
el i mi nates choi ces (A), (D), and (E).
Si nce the deri vati ve i s posi ti ve and
i ncreasi ng from x 5 0 to x 5 a, the
functi on must be i ncreasi ng and con-
cave up over thi s same i nterval . Be-
tween the two choi ces remai ni ng,
onl y (C) meets thi s requi rement.
probl em requi res a l i ttl e drawi ng.
We shoul d pl ot the seven poi nts,
draw the rectangl es, fi nd the area of
each one, and add them up.
10 66 88
8 1 6 1 10 5 24
44. The correct answer is (E). Lets
exami ne each statement: Si nce there
i s an obvi ous cusp at x 5 a, (A) i s a
true statement. (B) says that the
l eft-hand deri vati ve does not equal
the ri ght-hand deri vati ve at x 5 a,
whi ch means that there must be a
cusp therewhi ch there i s. So, thi s
i s true al so. The hol e at x 5 c woul d
i ndi cate that f(c) i s undefi ned, so (C)
i s true. (D) i s true because there i s a
hori zontal tangent at x 5 b. Si nce
the di sconti nui ty at x 5 c i s remov-
abl e, the
lim
x c
f x
( ) exists,
lim lim
x c x c
f x f x

+
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
is false.
45. The correct answer is (D). I n thi s
probl em, the questi on i s for what
val ue of k wi l l the area under
x dx
k

( )
0
equal x dx
2

( )
0
2
? Set-
ti ng these two i ntegral s equal to
each other and sol vi ng for x yi el ds
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x dx x
x
x
k
k
k
k
k

( )

0 0
2
3 2
0 0
2
3 2
2 3 3 3
2
3
2
3 3
2
3
8
3
4
4 16 2 2
3 2
| |
/
Se c tion II, Pa rt A
1. (a) At t 5 5, v(t) 5 1.1904 . 0, whi ch
i ndi cates that the vel oci ty i s
posi ti ve. Therefore, the parti cl e
i s movi ng to the ri ght.
(b) Si nce the vel oci ty functi on i s
gi ven, thi s i s an appl i cati on of
the mean val ue theorem for i nte-
grati on, whi ch says that
Average val ue 5
1
b a
f x dx
a
b
( )

Appl yi ng that formul a to thi s
probl em l eads to
f c
x
x
dx ( )

_
,
1
10 0
1 4 2
7
1 262
0
10 sin
cos
.
(c) Remember that accel erati on i s
the deri vati ve or sl ope of the ve-
l oci ty curve. So, we want the av-
erage sl ope of the vel oci ty from
t 5 0 to t 5 10. I n other words,
we want the sl ope of the secant
l i ne from t 5 0 to t 5 10.
m
v v
sec
.
.
( )
( ) ( )
10 0
10 0
3 2217 6
10
0 922
(d) Here, we need to determi ne the
posi ti on equati on, p(t). I n order
to determi ne the posi ti on equa-
ti on, we shoul d fi nd an an-
ti deri vati ve of the vel oci ty
equati on, v(t).
p t
x
x
dx
x x x C
( )

_
,
+ +
1 4 2
7
2 2 7
sin
cos
cos sin

To determi ne the correct val ue of
C, the constant of i ntegrati on, we
shoul d use the condi ti on gi ven to
us, p(0) 5 5:
p(0) 5 5 5 0 1 2cos 0 27si n 0 1 C
5 5 2 1 C
3 5 C
Substi tuti ng thi s val ue back i nto
the posi ti on equati on gi ves us
p(t) 5 x 1 2cos 2x 2 7si n x 1 3
Now, to answer the questi on:
p(2) 5 2 1 2cos 4 2 7si n 2 1 3
5 22.672
2. (a)
y 2x
2
x + 11
y
2
4x + 10
(b) We use the defi ni te i ntegral to
determi ne the area of thi s re-
gi on. We must fi rst use the cal cu-
l ator to determi ne the poi nts of
i ntersecti on of the graphs. The
x-coordi nates wi l l gi ve us our
l i mi ts of i ntersecti on.
A x x
x
x
dx
x x d
+

+
_
,
_
,
+
( )
2
2
2679
3 7321
2
4 10
2
8 11
4 1
.
.
xx
.
.
.
2679
3 7321
6 928
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(c) To determi ne the vol ume when the
region R is rotated about the y-axis,
we are goi ng to use the shel l
method:V d x h x
a
b
( ) ( ) ( )
2 dx.
V x x x dx
y
+
( ) ( )
2 4 1
87 06236948
2
0 2679
3 7321
.
.
.
(d) I nsert k for the upper l i mi t of
i ntegrati on, set the vol ume ex-
pressi on equal to hal f of the sol u-
ti on for part C, and sol ve for k.
2
4 1
43 531
2
4
4
3 2
2
0 2679
4 3 2
x
x
x
dx
x x x
k
+
_
,
_
,
.
.
__
,
( )
+
+
0 2679
4 3 2
4 3
43 531
4
4
3 2
0 0115 6 928
4
4
3
.
|
.
. .
k
k k k
k k kk
k
2
2
6 91667 0
2 350

.
.
k was determi ned by graphi ng
the functi on and determi ni ng the
x-i ntercept.
3. (a) The equati on
dy
dx
5 ky shoul d i n-
di cate that we are deal i ng wi th
thi s exponenti al growth or decay
model :
A(t) 5 Ne
kt
Si nce we are gi ven that the i ni -
ti al amount of water was 100
gal l ons, we know that N 5 100.
We can determi ne k by substi tut-
i ng val ues for N, t, and A(t) and
sol vi ng for k, as such:
A(10) 5 70 5 100e
10k
0.7 5 e
10k
l n 0.7 5 10
k
k
ln . 0 7
10
Now that we have determi ned
both constants, N and k, we can
wri te our expressi on A(t):
A t e t ( ) 100
0 7
10
ln .
(b) Thi s probl em i s ki nd of tri cky. To
determi ne the amount of water
that had l eaked out after 5
hours, we shoul d fi nd how much
i s sti l l i n the reservoi r, whi ch i s
A(5), and subtract that from the
i ni ti al amount, 100 gal l ons.
A e
e
5 100
100
83 667
5
0 7
10
0 7
2
( )

ln .
ln .
. gallons
Thi s represents the amount sti l l
i n the reservoi r. The amount of
l eakage woul d be
100 2 83.667 5 16.333 gal l ons
(c) By appl yi ng the mean val ue
theorem for i ntegrati on, we get
Average amount

gallons
_
,
1
20
100
71 494
0 7
10
0
20
e dt
t
ln .
.
(d) We know the amount, A(t), i s
equal to 71.494. We set Equati on
(2) equal to thi s and sol ve for t.
71 494 100
71 494
100
0 71494
0 7
10
0 7
10
0 7
10
.
.
ln .
ln .
ln .
ln .

( )
e
e
t
t
_
,
t
t 9 408 . hours
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www.petersons.com
Se c tion II, Pa rt B
4. (a) To draw a sl ope fi el d, you pl ug
each of the i ndi cated coordi nates
i nto
dy
dx
for x and y. I f the resul t-
i ng sl ope i s undefi ned, you can
i ndi cate that wi th a smal l verti -
cal l i ne (si nce the sl ope of a ver-
ti cal l i ne i s undefi ned). Your
answer shoul d l ook somethi ng
l i ke thi s
(b) The sl ope fi el ds shape suggests
a hyperbol a centered at (21,0),
but the questi on requi res us to
justi fy our answer mathemati -
cal l y. The easi est way to justi fy
the answer i s by actual l y sol vi ng
the di fferenti al equati on by sepa-
rati on. (Remember, i n the fol l ow-
i ng steps, C represents any
constant. Therefore, mul ti pl yi ng
a constant by any number or
addi ng any number to a constant
resul ts i n another constant. For
the sake of ease, we just conti nue
to use the same symbol for that
constantC.) Begi n by cross-
mul ti pl yi ng to separate xs
and ys
y dy 5 (x 1 1)dx
Now, i ntegrate both si des of the
equati on and mul ti pl y by 2 to
make i t pretti er.
y x
x C
y x x C
2 2
2 2
2 2
2
+ +
+ +
To put thi s i nto standard form
for a coni c, compl ete the square
for x.
y
2
1 1 5 x
2
1 2x 1 1 1 C
y
2
1 1 5 (x 1 1)
2
1 C
I f you subtract y
2
, you get the
equati on of a hyperbol a. Thi s i s
al l the justi fi cati on you need to
get the questi on compl etel y cor-
rect.
(x 1 1)
2
2 y
2
5 1 2 C
(c) I f the hyperbol a contai ns poi nt
(2,4), substi tute these val ues i nto
your answer for part (B), and you
get the correspondi ng val ue for
the constant C.
(2 1 1)
2
2 4
2
5 1 2 C
9 2 16 5 1 2 C
C 5 8
Therefore, the exact sol uti on to
that parti cul ar di fferenti al equa-
ti on i s
(x 1 1)
2
2 y
2
5 27
I f you want to put i t i nto stan-
dard form, you can:
y
x
2
2
7
1
7
1
+ ( )
5. (a) Here, we must use i mpl i ci t di f-

ferenti ati on, because x and y are
not separated for us. We wi l l di f-
ferenti ate both si des of the equa-
ti on wi th respect to x, group the
terms wi th a
dy
dx
, and sol ve for
dy
dx
.
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
p
r
a
c
t
i
c
e
t
e
s
t
1
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4 2 2
4 2 2
4 2 2
2
3
3
3
y
dy
dx
y
dy
dx
x
y
dy
dx
y
dy
dx
x
y y
dy
dx
x
dy
dx

( )

xx
y y
x
y y
x
y y
4 2
2
2
3
3
3
(b) I n order to have a hori zontal tan-

gent, the deri vati ve must equal
zero. Lets set
dy
dx
equal to zero
and sol ve for x. Remember, i n or-
der for a rati onal expressi on l i ke
our
dy
dx
to equal zero, the numera-
tor must equal zero. So, wel l just
set the numerator of our expres-
si on for
dy
dx
equal to zero, as such:
2x 5 0, so x 5 0
Now, we wi l l determi ne the cor-
respondi ng y-val ue(s):
y
4
5 y
2
2 0
y
4
2 y
2
5 0
y
2
(y
2
2 1) 5 0
y 5 0, y 5 2 1, or y 5 1.
Upon cl oser exami nati on, y 0
because the functi on does not ex-
i st when y 5 0; that i s, the de-
nomi nator wi l l equal zero there.
So, our two poi nts when the tan-
gent l i ne i s hori zontal are (0, 21)
and (0,1). Thi s l eads us to the
equati ons for the hori zontal tan-
gents:
y 5 2 1 and y 5 1
(c) Remember that the sl ope of a
verti cal l i ne i s undefi ned. That
means that we l ook for poi nts
where the deri vati ve i s unde-
fi ned (i .e., where the denomi na-
tor of the deri vati ve i s equal to
zero). Thi s ti me we wi l l set the y
2 2y
3
equal to zero and sol ve
for y.
y y
y y
y y y

( )
2 0
1 2 0
0
2
2
2
2
3
2
, , or
The correspondi ng x-val ues are x
5 0, x 5 2
1
2
, and x 5
1
2
. Because
verti cal l i nes have equati ons of
the form x 5 a, the x-val ues are
al l we need to wri te the equa-
ti ons for the verti cal tangent
l i nes:
x 5 0, x 5 2
1
2
, and x 5
1
2
(d) I n order for the l i ne and the
curve to be tangent, two thi ngs
must be true: They must i nter-
sect and have equal sl opes. For
the sl opes to be equal , we shoul d
set thei r deri vati ves equal . Lets
determi ne
dy
dx
for the l i ne:
4 3 4 1
4 3 4 0
3
x y
dy
dx
dy
dx

Next, we wi l l sol ve the equati on

of the l i ne for x i n terms of y:
4 3 4 1
1 4
4 3
x y
x
y

+
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www.petersons.com
When the deri vati ves are equal ,
they are equal to =3. So, now
we wi l l set the expressi on for the
deri vati ve of the curve equal to
=3.
3
2
3
x
y y
We al ready have
x
y
+ 1 4
4 3
.
3
1 4
4 3 2
12 2 1 4
24 8 1 0
3
3
3
+
+
( )( )
( )
y
y y
y y y
y y
How do we sol ve thi s wi thout our
cal cul ator? Lets try syntheti c di -
vi si on wi th
1
2
. Why
1
2
? Remember
the rati onal root theorem? I t tol d
us to try factors of the constant
term over factors of the l eadi ng
coeffi ci ent. Si nce
1
2
worked i n our
syntheti c di vi si on,
1
2
i s a sol uti on.
We wi l l now fi nd the x-coordi nate
of the poi nt of tangency by sub-
sti tuti ng thi s y-val ue:
x
+
1 4
4 3
3
4 3
3
4
1
2
We have both our x- and y-coor-
di nates now, so we can deter-
mi ne that our l i ne and curve are
tangent at
3
4
1
2
,
_
,
.
6. (a) To determi ne g(0), we have to
fi nd the area under the curve
from x 5 3 to x 5 0. Thi s i s the
opposi te of the area under the
curve from x 5 0 to x 5 3. Si nce
the area of a ci rcl e of radi us 3 i s
9p, then the area of thi s quarter
ci rcl e must be
9
4
. So, g(0) 5
9
4
.
g(8) woul d be the area of the tri -
angl e wi th base 5 and hei ght 3.
So, g 8
15
2
( ) .
(b) The onl y i nterval for whi ch g i s
i ncreasi ng i s [3,8]. So, the maxi -
mum val ue of g i s at x 5 8. The
maxi mum val ue of g i s
15
2
.
(c) We need a poi nt and a sl ope.
Si nce f(11) 5 25, then g(11) 5
25. Hence, the sl ope of the tan-
gent l i ne i s 25. To determi ne the
y-coordi nate of the poi nt on the
l i ne, we must determi ne g(11).
By area accumul ati on, we can
see that g(11) 5 0. Thi s l eads us
to the fol l owi ng equati on for the
tangent l i ne:
y 5 25(x 2 11)
or
y 5 25x 1 55
(d) Poi nts of i nfl ecti on occur onl y
when the deri vati ve of the de-
ri vati ve i s equal to zero. Si nce
the graph of f, the deri vati ve of g,
does not have any hori zontal
tangents, then f, or g, wi l l
never be zero. Thus, g has no
poi nts of i nfl ecti on.
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
p
r
a
c
t
i
c
e
t
e
s
t
1
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1. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
2. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
3. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
4. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
5. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
6. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
7. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
8. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
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O
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9. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
10. O
A
O
B
O
C
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D
O
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11. O
A
O
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C
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D
O
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12. O
A
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B
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C
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D
O
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13. O
A
O
B
O
C
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D
O
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A
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B
O
C
O
D
O
E
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A
O
B
O
C
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D
O
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A
O
B
O
C
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D
O
E
17. O
A
O
B
O
C
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D
O
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18. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
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A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
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20. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
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A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
22. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
23. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
24. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
25. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
26. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
27. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
28. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
29. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
30. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
31. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
32. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
33. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
34. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
35. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
36. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
37. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
38. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
39. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
40. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
41. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
42. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
43. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
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44. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
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45. O
A
O
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O
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O
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S
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o
n
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Practice Test 2: AP
Calculus AB
SEC TIO N I, PART A
number.
1. What i s the i nstantaneous rate
of change for f(x) 5
x
3
1 3x
2
1 3x 1 1
x 1 1
at x 5 2?
(A) 227
(B) 26
(C) 6
(D) 9
(E) 27
2.
18 6 24 12
time of day
c
a
r
s

p
e
r

m
i
n
u
t
e
50
100
The rate at whi ch cars cross a
bri dge i n cars per mi nute i s
gi ven by the precedi ng graph. A
good approxi mati on for the total
number of cars that crossed the
bri dge by 12:00 noon i s
(A) 50.
(B) 825.
(C) 1,200.
(D) 45,000.
(E) 49,500.
p
r
a
c
t
i
c
e
t
e
s
t
2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
537
3.
3
3
1
5
x
x
dx
_
,
(A) 2
18
5
(B) 2
72
25
(C)
124
125
(D)
126
125
(E)
12
5
4.
x 0
3 4 9
2
f (x)
1
The functi on f i s conti nuous on the
cl osed i nterval [0,2] and has val ues
as defi ned by the tabl e above. Whi ch
of the fol l owi ng statements must be
true?
(A) f must be i ncreasi ng on [0,2].
(B) f must be concave up on (0,2).
(C)
f
S
3
2
D
. f
S
1
2
D
.
(D) The average rate of i ncrease of
f over [0,2] i s 3.
(E) f has no poi nts of i nfl ecti on on
[0,2].
5.
tan
cos
sec
xe
x
dx
x
_
,
0
3
(A) e
2
(B) e
2
2 1
(C) =e
(D) =e2 e
(E) e
2
2 e
6. What i s the sl ope of the curve de-
fi ned by 3x
2
1 2xy1 6y
2
2 3x2 8y5
0 at the poi nt (1,1)?
(A) 2
5
6
(B) 2
1
2
(C) 0
(D)
1
2
(E) I t i s undefi ned.
7.
x x x dx
( )
+
( )

2
0
1
3 8
(A) 2 4
(B)
404
105
(C)
8
5
(D)
28
105
(E) 1
8. The radi us of a sphere i s i ncreasi ng
at a rate of 2 i nches per mi nute. At
what rate (i n cubi c i nches per
mi nute) i s the vol ume i ncreasi ng
when the surface area of the sphere
i s 9p square i nches?
(A) 2
(B) 2p
(C) 9p
(D) 18
(E) 18p
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9.
y x
3
y x + 6
precedi ng di agram i s equi val ent to
(A)
x x dx +
( )
6
3
0
8
.
(B)
x x dx
3
0
8
6
( )
.
(C)
x x dx +
( )
6
3
0
2
.
(D)
x x dx
3
0
2
6
( )
.
(E)
x x dx + +
( )
6
3
0
2
.
10. What i s the average rate of change of
f(x) 5 x
3
2 3x
2
1 x 2 1 over [21,4]?
(A)
13
5
(B) 3
(C) 5
(D) 10
(E) 25
11. I f the graph of the second deri vati ve
of some functi on, f, i s a l i ne of sl ope
6, then f coul d be whi ch type of func-
ti on?
(A) constant
(B) l i near
(C) quadrati c
(D) cubi c
(E) quarti c
12. Let f be defi ned as
What i s the average val ue of f over
[24,4]?
(A)
2
3
(B)
8
3
(C)
10
3
(D)
16
3
(E)
80
3
13.
f
1
f i s a twi ce di fferenti abl e functi on
wi th a hori zontal tangent l i ne at x 5
1, as shown i n the di agram above.
Whi ch of these statements must be
true?
(A) ( ) < ( ) < ( ) f f f 1 1 1
(B) f f f 1 1 1 ( ) < ( ) < ( )
(C) f f f 1 1 1 ( ) < ( ) < ( )
(D) ( ) < ( ) < ( ) f f f 1 1 1
(E) ( ) < ( ) < ( ) f f f 1 1 1
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14. Let f be a conti nuous functi on on [2
4, 12]. I f f(2 4) 5 2 2 and f(12) 5 6,
then the mean val ue theorem guar-
antees that
(A) f(4) 5 2
(B)
f(4) 5
1
2
(C)
f(c) 5
1
2
for at l east one c
between 2 4 and 12
(D) f(c) 5 0 for at l east one c
between 2 4 and 12
(E) f(4) 5 0
15.
d
dx
e dt
t
x
_
,
( )

3
2
2
(A) e
2x
2
(B) 4xe
2x
2
(C) e
2x
2
2 e
3
(D) 4xe
2x
2
2 e
3
(E) e
x
16. Let f(x) 5 e
x
. I f the rate of change of f
at x 5 c i s e
3
ti mes i ts rate of change
at x 5 2, then c 5
(A) 1
(B) 2
(C) 3
(D) 4
(E) 5
17.
x
2
f
1
2 g x 1
1 1
3
1
1
0
4
4
2
2
1
0 3
2
3 2
Let f, g, and thei r deri vati ves be de-
fi ned by the tabl e above. I f h(x) 5
f(g(x)), then for what val ue, c, i s h(c)
5 h(c)?
(A) 1
(B) 2
(C) 3
(D) 4
18. Let f be a di fferenti abl e functi on over
[0,10] such that f(0) 5 0 and f(10) 5
3. I f there are exactl y two sol uti ons
to f(x) 5 4 over (0,10), then whi ch of
these statements must be true?
(A) f(c) 5 0 for some c on (0,10).
(B) f has a l ocal maxi mum at x 5
5.
(C) f(c) 5 0 for some c on (0,10).
(D) 0 i s the absol ute mi ni mum of f.
(E) f i s stri ctl y monotoni c.
19. The normal l i ne to the curve
y x 8
2
at the poi nt (2,2) has
sl ope
(A) 22
(B)
2
1
2
(C)
1
2
(D) 1
(E) 2
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20. What are al l the val ues for k such
that x dx
k
3
2
0
?
(A) 0
(B) 2
(C) 22 and 2
(D) 22, 0, and 2
(E) 0 and 2
21. I f the rate of change of y i s di rectl y
proporti onal to y, then i ts possi bl e
that
(A) y te 3
2 3
(B) y 5 5e
1.5
t
(C) y t
3
2
2
(D) y t
( )
ln
3
2
(E)
y t
3 2
22. The graph of y 5 3x
3
2 2x
2
1 6x 2 2
i s decreasi ng for whi ch i nterval (s)?
(A)
_
,
,
2
9
(B)
2
9
,
_
,
(C) 0
2
9
,
1
]
1
(D) ( 2 `, `)
23. Determi ne the val ue for c on [2,5]
that sati sfi es the mean val ue theo-
rem for f(x) 5
x
x
2
3
1
.
(A) 21
(B) 2
(C) 3
(D) 4
(E) 5
24. Bel ow i s the sl ope fi el d graph of
some di fferenti al equati on
dy
dx
= f~x!.
(Note: Each dot on the axes marks
one uni t.)
Whi ch of the fol l owi ng equati ons i s
the easi est possi bl e di fferenti al
equati on for the characteri sti cs
shown i n the graph?
(A) x
2
(y 1 1)
(B) xy +x 2 y 2 1
(C) xy 1 y
(D)
x 2 1
y 1 1
(E) xy 1 3xy 2 1
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25.
g
ff
a b
precedi ng di agram i s
(A)
f x g x dx
a
b
( ) ( ) ( )
(B)
f x g x dx
b
a
( ) ( ) ( )
(C)
g x f x dx
a
b
( ) + ( ) ( )
(D)
g x f x dx
b
a
( ) ( ) ( )
(E)
g x f x dx
b
a
( ) + ( ) ( )
26. The functi on f i s conti nuous on the

cl osed i nterval [0,2]. I t i s gi ven that
f(0)5 2 1 and f(2) 5 2. I f f(x) . 0 for
al l xon [0,2] and f(x) , 0 for al l xon
(0,2), then f(1) coul d be
(A) 0
(B)
1
2
(C) 1
(D) 2
(E)
5
2
27. The water l evel i n a cyl i ndri cal bar-
rel i s fal l i ng at a rate of one i nch per
mi nute. I f the radi us of the barrel i s
ten i nches, what i s the rate that wa-
ter i s l eavi ng the barrel (i n cubi c
i nches per mi nute) when the vol ume
i s 500p cubi c i nches?
(A) 1
(B) p
(C) 100p
(D) 200p
(E) 500p
28. I f f(x) 5 arctan(x
2
), then
( )
f 3
(A)
1
5
(B)
1
4
(C)
3
4
(D)
3
5
(E)
2 3
5
STOP
O F THE TEST.
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SEC TIO N I, PART B
THE EXAM INATIO N.
for scratchwork. After exami ni ng the form of the choi ces, deci de whi ch i s the
29. A parti cl e starts at the ori gi n and moves al ong the x-axi s wi th decreasi ng posi ti ve
vel oci ty. Whi ch of these coul d be the graph of the di stance, s(t), of the parti cl e
from the ori gi n at ti me t?
(A) (B)
t
s
t
s
(C) (D) (E)
t
s
t
s
t
s
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30. Let f be the functi on gi ven by f(x) 5 3
l n 2x, and l et g be the functi on gi ven
by g(x) 5 x
3
1 2x. At what val ue of x
do the graphs of f and ghave paral l el
tangent l i nes?
(A) 2 0.782
(B) 20.301
(C) 0.521
(D) 0.782
(E) 1.000
31. Let f be some functi on such that the
rate of i ncrease of the deri vati ve of f
i s 2 for al l x. I f f(2) 5 4 and f(1) 5 2,
fi nd f(3).
(A) 3
(B) 6
(C) 7
(D) 9
(E) 10
32. lim
x a
x a
x a

3 3
(A)
1
2
a
(B)
1
3
2
a
(C)
1
4
2
a
(D) 0
33.
x 3
3 2 4
9
5
12
f (x)
6
Let f be a conti nuous functi on wi th
val ues as represented i n the tabl e
above. Approxi mate f x dx ( )
3
12
us-
i ng a ri ght-hand Ri emann sum wi th
three subi nterval s of equal l ength.
(A) 14
(B) 27
(C) 33
(D) 42
(E) 48
34.
f
a b
The graph of f, the deri vati ve of f, i s
shown above. Whi ch of the fol l owi ng
descri bes al l rel ati ve extrema of f on
(a,b)?
(A) One rel ati ve maxi mum and one
rel ati ve mi ni mum
(B) Two rel ati ve maxi mums and
one rel ati ve mi ni mum
(C) One rel ati ve maxi mum and no
rel ati ve mi ni mum
(D) No rel ati ve maxi mum and two
rel ati ve mi ni mums
(E) One rel ati ve maxi mum and two
rel ati ve mi ni mums
35. Let f x e dt
t
x
( )
( )
0
2
. What val ue
on [0,4] sati sfi es the mean val ue
theorem for f?
(A) 2.960
(B) 2.971
(C) 3.307
(D) 3.653
(E) 4.000
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36. The posi ti on for a parti cl e movi ng on
the x-axi s i s gi ven by
s t t t ( ) + +
3 2
2
1
2
. At what ti me, t,
on [0,3] i s the parti cl es i nstanta-
neous vel oci ty equal to i ts average
vel oci ty over [0,3]?
(A) 0.535
(B) 1.387
(C) 1.821
(D) 1.869
(E) 2.333
and g be defi ned as
g x f x dx
x
( ) ( )
10
. Whi ch of the
fol l owi ng statements about f and g i s
false?
(A) g(23) 5 0
(B) g has a l ocal mi ni mum at
x 5 23.
(C) g(210) 5 0
(D) f(1) does not exi st.
(E) g has a l ocal maxi mum at
x 5 1.
38. Let f(x) 5 x
2
1 3. Usi ng the trapezoi -
dal rul e, wi th n 5 5, approxi mate
f x dx ( )

0
3
.
(A) 11.34
(B) 17.82
(C) 18.00
(D) 18.18
(E) 22.68
39. Popul ati on y grows accordi ng to the
equati on
dy
dt
ky , where k i s a con-
stant and t i s measured i n years. I f
the popul ati on tri pl es every fi ve
years, then k 5
(A) 0.110.
(B) 0.139.
(C) 0.220.
(D) 0.300.
(E) 1.099.
40. The ci rcumference of a ci rcl e i s i n-
creasi ng at a rate of
2
5
i nches per
mi nute. When the ci rcumference i s
10p i nches, how fast i s the area of
the ci rcl e i ncreasi ng i n square i nches
per mi nute?
(A)
1
5
(B)
p
5
(C) 2
(D) 2p
(E) 25p
p
r
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41.
The base of a sol i d i s the regi on i n
the fi rst quadrant bounded by the
x-axi s and the parabol a y 5 2x
2
1
6x, as shown i n the fi gure above. I f
cross secti ons perpendi cul ar to the
x-axi s are equi l ateral tri angl es, what
i s the vol ume of the sol i d?
(A) 15.588
(B) 62.354
(C) 112.237
(D) 129.600
(E) 259.200
42. Let f be the functi on gi ven by f(x) 5
x
2
1 4x 2 8. The tangent l i ne to the
graph at x 5 2 i s used to approxi -
mate val ues of f. For what val ue(s) of
x i s the tangent l i ne approxi mati on
twi ce that of f?
I .
2
I I . 1
I I I .
2
(A) I onl y
(B) I I onl y
(C) I I I onl y
(D) I and I I
(E) I and I I I
43. The fi rst deri vati ve of a functi on, f, i s
gi ven by ( )
f x
e
x
x
x
2
sin . How
many cri ti cal val ues does f have on
the open i nterval (0,10)?
(A) One
(B) Two
(C) Three
(D) Four
(E) Fi ve
44.
d
dx
f t dt
x
( )
( )

2
3
(A) f(3)
(B) 2f( 2 2x)
(C) 22f(2x)
(D) 2f(2x)
(E) 22f(2x)
for a constant, k. For what val ue of k
wi l l
lim lim
x x
f x

+
( )
1 1
f(x)?
(A) 2 2
(B) 21
(C) 0
(D) 1
STOP
O F THE TEST.
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1. Exami ne the functi on, f, defi ned as
f x
x x
( )
+
3
for 0 x 10.
(a) Use a Ri emann sum wi th fi ve
equal subi nterval s eval uated at
the mi dpoi nt to approxi mate the
area under f from x 5 0 to x 5
10.
(b) Agai n usi ng fi ve equal subi nter-
val s, use the trapezoi dal rul e to
approxi mate the area under f
from x 5 0 to x 5 10.
(c) Usi ng your resul t from part B,
approxi mate the average val ue
of the functi on, f, from x 5 0 to
x 5 10.
(d) Determi ne the actual average
val ue of the functi on, f, from x
5 0 to x 5 10.
2. A man i s observi ng a horserace. He
i s standi ng at some poi nt, O, 100 feet
from the track. The l i ne of si ght from
the observer to some poi nt P l ocated
on the track forms a 30 angl e wi th
the track, as shown i n the di agram
bel ow. Horse H i s gal l opi ng at a con-
stant rate of 45 feet per second.
(a) At what rate i s the di stance
from the horse to the observer
changi ng 4 seconds after the
horse passes poi nt P?
(b) At what rate i s the area of the
tri angl e formed by P, H, and O
changi ng 4 seconds after the
horse passes poi nt P?
(c) At the i nstant the horse gal l ops
past hi m, the observer begi ns
runni ng at a constant rate of 10
feet per second on a l i ne
perpendi cul ar to and toward the
track. At what rate i s the
di stance between the observer
and the horse changi ng when
the observer i s 50 feet from the
track?
p
r
a
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3. Let v(t) be the vel oci ty, i n feet per
second, of a race car at ti me t sec-
onds, t 0. At ti me t 5 0, whi l e trav-
el i ng at 197.28 feet per second, the
dri ver appl i es the brakes such that
the cars vel oci ty sati sfi es the di ffer-
enti al equati on
dv
dt
t
11
25
7 .
(a) Fi nd an expressi on for v i n
terms of t where t i s measured
i n seconds.
(b) How far does the car travel
before comi ng to a stop?
(c) Wri te an equati on for the
tangent l i ne to the vel oci ty
curve at t 5 9 seconds.
(d) Fi nd the cars average vel oci ty
from t 5 0 unti l i t stops.
STOP
O F THE TEST.
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A C ALC ULATO R IS NO T PERM ITTED FO R THIS PART O F THE EXAM INATIO N.
4. Let R be defi ned as the regi on i n the
fi rst quadrant bounded by the curves
y 5 x
2
and y 5 8 2 x
2
.
(a) Sketch and l abel the regi on on
the axes provi ded.
1 3 2 4
2
4
6
8
10
(b) Determi ne the area of R.
(c) Determi ne the vol ume of the
sol i d formed when R i s rotated
about the x-axi s.
(d) Determi ne the vol ume of the
sol i d whose base i s R and whose
cross secti ons perpendi cul ar to
the x-axi s are semi ci rcl es.
5. The graph bel ow represents the de-
ri vati ve, f, of some functi on f.
f
2 3 4 55 6 7 8 99
10
11 12 1
(a) At what val ue of x does f
achi eve a l ocal maxi mum?
Expl ai n your reasoni ng.
(b) Put these val ues i n order from
l east to greatest: f(4), f(5), and
f(7). Expl ai n your reasoni ng.
(c) Does f have any poi nts of
i nfl ecti on? I f so, what are they?
6. Exami ne the curve defi ned by 2e
xy
2
y 5 0.
(a) Veri fy
dy
dx
ye
xe
xy
xy
2
1 2
.
(b) Fi nd for the fami l y of curves
be
xy
2 y 5 0.
(c) Determi ne the y-i ntercept(s) of
be
xy
2 y 5 0.
(d) Wri te the equati on for the
tangent l i ne at the y-i ntercept.
STOP
O F THE TEST.
p
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www.petersons.com
1. C
2. E
3. E
4. D
5. E
6. A
7. B
8. E
9. C
10. C
11. D
12. C
13. E
14. C
15. B
16. E
17. C
18. A
19. D
20. C
21. B
22. E
23. C
24. B
25. B
26. C
27. C
28. D
1. Thecorrect answer is (C). I nstan-
taneous rates of change al ways i m-
pl y di fferenti ati on. To qui ckl y
determi ne thi s deri vati ve, i t i s hel p-
ful to recogni ze x
3
1 3x
2
1 3x 1 1 as
(x1 1)
3
. We then si mpl i fy the orgi nal
functi on to
f(x) 5
x
x
+ ( )
+
1
1
3
5 (x 1 1)
2
Now, use the Power and Chai n
Rul es:
f(x) 5 2(x 1 1)
To fi nd the i nstanteous rate of
change when x 5 2,
f(2) 5 2(2 1 1) 5 6
2. The correct answer is (E). To ap-
proxi mate the actual number of cars
crossi ng the bri dge, approxi mate the
area under thi s graph. One way to do
thi s i s to di vi de the i nterval from t 5
0 to t 5 12 i nto 2 equal subi nterval s.
Both of these regi ons resembl e trap-
ezoi ds. The area of the l eft one i s
A h b b + ( )
( ) + ( )
1
2
1
2
6 100 25
375
1 2
The area of the ri ght trapezoi d
woul d be
A ( ) + ( )
1
2
6 100 50
450
So, the area under the curve woul d
be approxi matel y 825. But we must
be careful here. The rate i s i n cars
per mi nute. Si nce the x-axi s i s i n
hours, we must convert the rate to
cars per hour. To do thi s, we mul ti pl y
our 825 by 60 (mi nutes per hour) and
get 49,500 cars.
3. The correct answer is (E). Fi nd
the defi ni te i ntegral :
3 3
3 3
5
3
12
5
3
1
5
2
1
5
1
5
x
x
dx
x
dx
x

|
4. The correct answer is (D). There
i s not enough i nformati on to deter-
mi ne whether or not choi ces (A),
(B), (C), or (E) are true. Look at
choi ce (D):
Average rate of change
( ) ( )

f f 2 0
2 0
9 3
2
6
2
3
must recogni ze that
1
cos x
5 sec x.
Thi s l ets us rewri te the i ntegral as
sec tan
sec
x xe dx
x
( )
0
3
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www.petersons.com
Next, we can eval uate thi s i ntegral
usi ng u-substi tuti on. I f we l et u 5
sec x and du 5 sec x tan x dx, we get
e du e e e
u u

1
2
2
1
2
|
need the deri vati ve of the curve.
Si nce x and y are not separated for
us, we must use i mpl i ci t di fferenti a-
ti on. Di fferenti ate everythi ng wi th
respect to x.
3 2 6 3 8 0
2 2
6 2 2 12 3 8 0
x xy y x y
dy
dx
dy
dx
dy
dx
x x y y
+ +
+ + +
Now, group al l terms wi th
dy
dx
, and
sol ve for
dy
dx
.
dy
dx
x y x y 2 12 8 3 6 2 + ( )
dy
dx
x y
x y

+
3 6 2
2 12 8
Fi nal l y, we just substi tute our poi nt
(1,1) i nto our expressi on for
dy
dx
and
get
dy
dx
1 1
3 6 2
2 12 8
5
6
, ( )

+

7. The correct answer is (B). Before
we try to i ntegrate anythi ng here,
di stri bute that =x and change the
notati on to that of rati onal expo-
nents. After these two steps, we get
x x x dx
5 2 3 2 1 2
0
1
3 8 +
( )
I ntegrati ng l eads to
2
7
6
5
16
3
2
7
6
5
16
3
0
404
105
7 2 5 2 3 2
0
1
x x x +
_
,

+
_
,

|
a rel ated-rates probl em. We are
gi ven
dr
dt
, the rate at whi ch the ra-
di us i s i ncreasi ng, and need to fi nd
dV
dt
, the rate at whi ch the vol ume i s
i ncreasi ng when A, the surface area,
i s 9p. Our pri mary equati on i s the
vol ume equati on for a sphere:
V r
4
3
3
As i n al l such probl ems, we di fferen-

ti ate wi th respect to t.
dV
dt
r
dr
dt
4
2
Knowl edge of basi c formul as i s use-

ful here. 4pr
2
i s merel y the surface
area formul a for a sphere. We were
gi ven that the surface area i s equal
to 9p and that
dr
dt
5 2. Substi tuti ng
these val ues yi el ds
dV
dt
5 9p(2) 5 18p
9. The correct answer is (C). To fi nd
the area of a regi on bounded by two
curves, we shoul d appl y the fol l ow-
i ng formul a:
f x g x dx
a
b
( ) ( ) ( )
where a and b are the endpoi nts of

the i nterval . f(x) represents the top
curve, whi l e g(x) represents the bot-
tom curve. Fi ndi ng a and b i s si mpl e
enough. Si nce the regi on begi ns at
the y-axi s, a 5 0. To fi nd b, we wi l l
determi ne what val ue sati sfi es the
fol l owi ng equati on:
x
3
5 x 1 6
By i nspecti on, we can see that x 5 2.
Now, the area of the regi on woul d be
gi ven by
x x dx +
( )
6
3
0
2
10. The correct answer is (C). When-
ever the average rate of change i s
requested, we just need to compute
the sl ope of the secant l i ne.
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
p
r
a
c
t
i
c
e
t
e
s
t
2
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www.petersons.com
m
f b f a
b a
f f
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
4 1
4 1
19 6
5
5
we know that the second deri vati ve
i s a l i ne of sl ope 6, we can say that
f(x) 5 6x 1 C
1
That i mpl i es that f(x) 5 3x
2
1
C
1
x 1 C
2
whi ch i n turn i mpl i es that f(x) 5
x
3
1 C
3
x
2
1 C
2
x 1 C
4
.
That i s a cubi c functi on.
MVTfor i ntegral s says that the aver-
age val ue of a functi on over a gi ven
i nterval i s the area under the curve
di vi ded by the l ength of the i nterval .
So, the average val ue, f(c), of f over
[24,4] coul d be found l i ke thi s:
f c x dx x dx ( )

_
,
( )
_
,

1
8 4
0
2
0
4
whi ch i s equi val ent to
f c x dx x dx
x
x
( ) ( )
_
,
_
,
+
+

1
8
1
8
2
3 3
1
8
16
0
4
2
0
4
3 2
0
4
3
0
4
| |
33
64
3
10
3
+
_
,
13. The correct answer is (E). Si nce f

has a hori zontal tangent at x 5 1, we
know that f(1) 5 0. By readi ng the
graph, we can see that f(1) . 0. Si nce
the graph i s concave down at x 5 1,
f(1) , 0. Hence, f(1) , f(1) , f(1).
MVT states that at some poi nt c on
the i nterval [a,b],

( )
( ) ( )
f c
f b f a
b a
. Si nce
f f 12 4
12 4
1
2
( ) ( )
( )

, then at some
poi nt c on [a,b], ( ) f c
1
2
an appl i cati on of the Fundamental
Theorem of Cal cul us, Part Two,
whi ch states
d
dx
f t dt f x
a
x
( )
( )
( )
We must remember that when the

upper l i mi t of i ntegrati on i s some
functi on of x, such as 2x
2
, we must
mul ti pl y f(x) by the deri vati ve of that
functi on wi th respect to x. Hence,
d
dx
edt e x
xe
t
x
x
x
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
4
4
_
,
16. The correct answer is (E). Si nce

we know that rate of change i mpl i es
deri vati ve, from the i nformati on i n
the probl em, we can wri te
f(c) 5 e
3
f(2)
We are al so tol d that f(x) 5 e
x
, so f(x)
5 e
x
. So, the above equati on becomes
e
c
5 e
3
z e
2
5 e
5
So, c 5 5
17. The correct answer is (C). Thi s
probl em i s testi ng i f we can appl y the
chai n rul e to functi ons defi ned by a
tabl e. I f h(x) 5 f(g(x)), then h(x) 5 f
(g(x))g(x). Thi s i s why, when x 5 3,
h(3) 5 f(g(x)) 5 f(4) 5 2
h(3) 5 f(g(3))g(3) 5 f (4)g(3) 5
2 z 1 5 2
So, h(3) 5 h(3)
18. The correct answer is (A). Si nce
there are exactl y two poi nts on (0,10)
where f has a val ue of 4, the graph of
f must cross the l i ne x 5 4 twi ce:
Once on the way up and once on the
way down. The fact that f i s di fferen-
ti abl e over the i nterval i nsures no
cusps or di sconti nui ti es. Si nce the
curve turns around somewhere on
(0,10), there must be at l east one
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www.petersons.com
hori zontal tangent on (0,10). Hori -
zontal tangents are pl aces where the
deri vati ve i s equal to zero.
19. Thecorrect answer is(D). Normal
l i nes are perpendi cul ar to tangent
l i nes. The sl opes of two perpendi cu-
l ar l i nes are opposi te reci procal s of
each other. So, thi s probl em needs us
to determi ne the sl ope of the curve at
x 5 2, and then determi ne the oppo-
si te reci procal of that sl ope. Si nce
sl ope of the curve i s determi ned by
the val ue of i ts deri vati ve,
tangent slope

( ) ( )
y
x x
x
x
1
2
8 2
8
2
12
2

y( ) 2
2
8 4
2
2
1
The sl ope of the normal l i ne i s the
opposi te reci procal
1
1
1
20. The correct answer is (C). Eval u-
ate the defi ni te i ntegral and appl y
the Fundamental Theorem, Part
One:
x
k
k
k
k
4
2
4 4
4
4
0
4
2
4
0
16 0
2

|
21. The correct answer is (B). The
rate of change of y bei ng di rectl y pro-
porti onal to y i s the same statement
as
y 5 ky,
whi ch we know l eads to
y 5 Ne
kt
22. The correct answer is (E). The
questi on to answer here i s when, i f
ever, i s the deri vati ve of y 5 3x
3
2
2x
2
1 6x2 2 negati ve? We shoul d try
to determi ne the deri vati ve, fi nd any
cri ti cal val ues, and exami ne a wi ggl e
graph.
y 5 9x
2
2 4x 1 6 5 0
Thi s i s an unfactorabl e tri nomi al .
Si nce we are not permi tted to use
our cal cul ators, wed better use the
quadrati c formul a. So,
x
4 16 216
18
Aha! The radi cand, 16 2 216, i s l ess
than zero, whi ch woul d i ndi cate that
the equati on has no real sol uti ons,
whi ch woul d i mpl y that the deri va-
ti ve of y 5 3x
3
2 2x
2
1 6x 2 2 i s
never zero. Si nce i t i s a pol ynomi al
functi on, then i t must be conti nuous;
hence, y 5 3x
3
2 2x
2
1 6x 2 2 i s
stri ctl y monotoni c. Now, we shoul d
determi ne the val ue of the deri vati ve
at one x val ue to determi ne i f the
deri vati ve i s al ways posi ti ve or al -
ways negati ve. Usi ng the equati on,
l ets determi ne the val ue of the de-
ri vati ve when x 5 0:
y(0) 5 0 2 0 1 6 5 6 . 0
Si nce the deri vati ve i s al ways posi -
ti ve, the functi on y 5 3x
3
2 2x
2
1 6x
2 2 i s never decreasi ng.
23. The correct answer is (C). Re-
member, the MVT guarantees that
for some c on [2,5],

( )
( ) ( )
( )
f c
f f 5 2
5 2
1
3
3
2
11
2
Now, we shoul d determi ne the de-
ri vati ve of f x
x
x
( )

2
3
1
, set i t equal
to
3
2
, and sol ve for x.

( )
( )
( ) ( )
f x
x x
x
x x
2 1
3
1
3
2
1
2
2
2
x x
x
2
2
2 3
1
3
2
+

( )
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
p
r
a
c
t
i
c
e
t
e
s
t
2
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www.petersons.com
2(x
2
2 2x 1 3) 5 3(x 2 1)
2
2x
2
2 4x 1 6 5 3x
2
2 6x 1 3
x
2
2 2x 2 3 5 0
(x 2 3)(x 1 1) 5 0
x 5 3 or x 5 21
Si nce 21 i s not on [2,5], we throw
that val ue out and the val ue on [2,5]
that sati sfi es the MVT i s 3.
sl ope fi el d shows us that f(x) wi l l
have a deri vati ve of zero when y 5
21 and when x 5 1 (si nce the sl opes
are hori zontal there). The easi est
possi bl e di fferenti al equati on wi th
such characteri sti cs i s f(x) = (x 2
1)(y + 1), si nce pl uggi ng i n 21 for y
or 1 for x makes the sl ope 0. I f you
factor choi ce (B) by groupi ng, that i s
exactl y what you get
xy +x 2 y 2 1
x(y + 1) 2 1(y + 1)
(x 2 1)(y + 1)
25. The correct answer is (B). Thi s
probl em i s not as cl ear as i t may
appear i ni ti al l y. After exami ni ng the
di agram, we shoul d l ook for
g x f x dx
a
b
( ) ( ) ( )
However, thi s i s not an answer

choi ce. One of the choi ces must be
equi val ent to ours. Remember that
when you swi tch the l i mi ts of i nte-
grati on, you get the opposi te val ue.
Swi tchi ng our l i mi ts gi ves us
( ) ( ) ( )
g x f x dx
b
a
Thi s i s sti l l not a choi ce. What i f we
treat that negati ve si gn as i f i t were
the constant 2 1 and di stri bute i t
through the i ntegral ? We get
f x g x dx
b
a
( ) ( ) ( )
Eureka!
26. Thecorrect answer is (C). The de-
ri vati ve bei ng posi ti ve over [0,2] i m-
pl i es that the functi on i s i ncreasi ng
over thi s i nterval . The second deri va-
ti ve bei ng negati ve means that the
functi on i s concave down. The curve
must l ook somethi ng l i ke the curve
drawn bel ow:
Noti ce that every y-coordi nate over
the i nterval (0,2) i s l ess than 2, so
f(1) , 2. Noti ce that the enti re curve
i s above the secant l i ne from (0, 21)
to (2,2). (Thi s i s true due to the con-
cavi ty of the curve.) Si nce the secant
l i ne segment passes through 1
1
2
,
_
,
,
f(1) .
1
2
. Therefore, f(1) coul d be 1.
27. The correct answer is (C). Thi s i s
another rel ated-rates probl em. We
know that
dh
dt
5 21, where h repre-
sents the water l evel i n the barrel .
We are l ooki ng for
dV
dt
, wi th V repre-
senti ng the vol ume of the barrel . Our
pri mary equati on i s the formul a for
vol ume of a cyl i nder:
V 5 pr
2
h
Si nce i t i s gi ven that the radi us, r, i s
a constant of 10, we can substi tute
thi s i nto the equati on and get
V 5 100ph
Now, as i n any rel ated-rates prob-
l em, we shoul d di fferenti ate wi th re-
spect to t:
dV
dt
5 100p
dh
dt
Substi tuti ng
dh
dt
5 21 i nto the equa-
ti on yi el ds
dV
dt
5 2100p
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www.petersons.com
Therefore, the water i s l eavi ng the
barrel at 100p i n
3
/mi n.
Noti ce that the i nformati on that the
vol ume was 500p cubi c i nches was
unnecessary.
28. The correct answer is (D). Al l we
need here i s the deri vati ve of f(x) 5
arctan u.

+
( ) f x
u
u 1
2
Si nce our functi on i s u 5 x
2
, the
equati on becomes

+
( ) f x
x
x
2
1
4
Now, we substi tute x 5 =3 and get

+

( )
f 3
2 3
9 1
2 3
10
3
5
29. D
30. D
31. E
32. B
33. C
34. A
35. A
36. D
37. E
38. D
39. C
40. D
41. C
42. E
43. D
44. E
45. B
29. The correct answer is (D). The
parti cl es posi ti ve vel oci ty i ndi cates
that the posi ti on functi ons graph i s
i ncreasi ng. The decreasi ng vel oci ty
i ndi cates that the posi ti on functi ons
graph shoul d be concave down.
30. The correct answer is (D). I n or-
der for these two functi ons to have
paral l el tangent l i nes, thei r deri va-
ti ves must be equal . So, we shoul d
fi nd the deri vati ves of both func-
ti ons, set them equal to each other,
and sol ve for x. Si nce f(x) 5 3 l n (2x),
( ) f x
x
3
. The deri vati ve of g(x) 5
x
3
1 2x i s g(x) 5 3x
2
1 2. Now, we
wi l l set these two expressi ons equal
and use our cal cul ator to sol ve for x:
3
3 2
2
x
x +
3
3 2 0
2
x
x
x 5 0.782
31. The correct answer is (E). The
rate of i ncrease of the deri vati ve i s
the second deri vati ve. So,
f(x) 5 2
To fi nd an expressi on for the fi rst
deri vati ve, we can fi nd an an-
ti deri vati ve:
f(x) 5 2x 1 C
1
I n order to determi ne C
1
, we can use
the i nformati on gi ven to us that f(2)
5 4. We wi l l substi tute thi s and sol ve
for C
1
:
f(2) 5 4 5 4 1 C
1
C
1
5 0
Substi tuti ng thi s val ue i nto the sec-
ond equati on yi el ds
f(x) 5 2x
Now, we wi l l determi ne f(x) and fi nd
an anti deri vati ve of the l ast equa-
ti on:
f(x) 5 x
2
1 C
2
To sol ve for C
2
, we can use the fact
that f(1) 5 2, so
f(1) 5 2 5 1 1 C
2
C
2
5 1
Then, f(x) 5 x
2
1 1
Fi nal l y, we can determi ne f(3):
f(3) 5 9 1 1 5 10
32. The correct answer is (B). We
must remember how to factor the di f-
ference of perfect cubes:
a
3
2 b
3
5 (a 2 b)(a
2
1 ab 1 b
2
)
Usi ng thi s formul a, we can si mpl i fy
the l i mi t:
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
p
r
a
c
t
i
c
e
t
e
s
t
2
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www.petersons.com
lim lim
x a x a
x a
x a x ax a

+ +
3 3 2 2
1
whi ch we can eval uate by substi tu-
ti on:
+ +

1 1
3
2 2 2 2
a a a a
best way to attack thi s probl em
woul d be to pl ot the 4 poi nts gi ven
and sketch the 3 rectangl es, as
shown i n the di agram bel ow:
15
12
6
3 9 6 12
1
2
3
4
5
Noti ce that the hei ghts of the rect-
angl es are determi ned by the y-val ue
correspondi ng to the ri ght endpoi nt
of the subi nterval s. Next, we deter-
mi ne the area of each rectangl e and
then add them up:
f x dx ( )
+ +
3
12
6 12 15 33
the graph of the deri vati ve of f
crosses the x-axi s twi ce, there wi l l be
two rel ati ve extrema. There wi l l be
one maxi mum because the deri vati ve
changes from posi ti ve to negati ve
once. There wi l l al so be one mi ni -
mum si nce the deri vati ve changes
from negati ve to posi ti ve once as
wel l .
a rather compl i cated appl i cati on of
the MVT. We wi l l al so have to use
the Fundamental Theorem of Cal cu-
l us, Part Two. Fi rst, l ets determi ne
the val ue of f8(c):

( )

( )

f c
f b f a
b a
f f
e e
e
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) 4 0
4
0
4
1
4
8 0
8
Note: f(4) = edt e e e
t t

0
8 8 0
0
8
Now, we wi l l determi ne the deri va-
ti ve of f(x) 5 e dt
t
x
0
2
:
f(x) 5 2e
2x
Next, we wi l l set our val ue for f(c)
equal to our expressi on for f(x) and
use our cal cul ator to sol ve for x:
2
1
4
2
8
2 960
e
e x
x

.
probl em asks where i s the sl ope of
the tangent l i ne, whi ch i s the i nstan-
taneous vel oci ty, equal to the sl ope of
the secant l i ne, whi ch i s the average
vel oci ty, over [0,3].
m
s s
sec
( ) ( )
+ +
( )

3 0
3
27 18
1
2
1
2
3
3
To fi nd the sl ope of the tangent l i ne,
fi nd the deri vati ve of the curve:
m
tan
5 2 3t
2
1 4t
To determi ne where the two sl opes
are the same, we wi l l set m
sec
equal
to m
tan
and sol ve for x usi ng our cal -
cul ator:
23t
2
1 4t 5 23
23t
2
1 4t 1 3 5 0
t 5 1.869
37. Thecorrect answer is(E). For gto
have a l ocal maxi mum at x 5 1, the
deri vati ve of g, whi ch i s f, must
change from posi ti ve to negati ve at x
5 1. I t does not.
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a tedi ous exampl e of the trapezoi dal
rul e. Si nce we have 5 subi nterval s
and the i nterval i s 3 uni ts l ong, we
wi l l be deal i ng wi th some messy
numbers. Anyway, we sti l l have to
remember the trapezoi dal rul e:
f x dx
b a
n
f x
f x f b
f a f x
n
( )

_
,
( ) + ( ) +
( )
( ) ( )
_
,

+
+
2
2
2
2
1
1
2

a
b
Appl yi ng i t to thi s functi on, we get
x dx
2
3
3
10
3 2 3 36
2 4 44
2 6 24
2 8 76 12
+
+ +
+
+
+
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
_
,
.
.
.
.
0
3
5 0.3 z (3 1 6.72 1 8.88 1 12.48 1
17.52 1 12)
5 .3 z 60.6 5 18.18
39. The correct answer is (C). Si nce
dy
dx
5 ky, we can i mmedi atel y say
that we are deal i ng wi th an exponen-
ti al functi on of the fol l owi ng form:
y 5 Ne
kt
We know that after fi ve years, the
popul ati on wi l l be three ti mes what
i t was i ni ti al l y. I f we substi tute 3N
for y and 5 for t and sol ve for k, we
get
3N 5 Ne
5k
3 5 e
5k
l n 3 5 5k
k
ln
.
3
5
0 220
40. The correct answer is (D). I n thi s
rel ated-rates probl em, we are goi ng
to need
dr
dt
. To qui ckl y fi nd
dr
dt
, l ets
use the formul a for the ci rcumfer-
ence, di fferenti ate wi th respect to t,
and sol ve for
dr
dt
:
C 5 2pr
dC
dt
dr
dt
2
dr
dt
dC
dt
2
We are gi ven that
dC
dt

2
5
. We can
now substi tute thi s val ue i nto the
equati on to get a val ue for
dr
dt
:
dr
dt

2
5
2
1
5
The questi on i s aski ng us about the

rate at whi ch the area i s i ncreasi ng,
dA
dt
, when the ci rcumference i s 10p
i nches. We wi l l take the formul a for
the area of a ci rcl e and di fferenti ate
wi th respect to t:
A 5 pr
2
dA
dt
r
dr
dt
2
Noti ce that we have the expressi on
2pr. Thi s i s just the ci rcumference
that we know to be 10p. We can sub-
sti tute thi s val ue and the val ue
1
5
for
dr
dt
to determi ne
dA
dt
:
dA
dt
10
1
5
2
41. The correct answer is (C). Re-
member that the formul a for the vol -
ume of a sol i d wi th known cross
secti ons i s
V A x dx
a
b
( )

where A(x) represents the area of the
cross secti ons. I n thi s probl em, we
are deal i ng wi th cross secti ons that
are equi l ateral tri angl es. The for-
mul a for the area of an equi l ateral
tri angl e i s
A s
3
4
2
where s i s the l ength of one si de. As
we can see from the di agram, the
i nterval i s from x 5 0 to x 5 6.
Therefore, the vol ume of thi s sol i d i s
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
p
r
a
c
t
i
c
e
t
e
s
t
2
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V x x dx +
( )
3
4
6
2
2
0
6
Our cal cul ator wi l l now do the rest
and get
V 5 112.237
42. The correct answer is (E). Fi rst,
we must determi ne an equati on for
the tangent l i ne to thi s curve at x 5
2. We need a poi nt on the l i ne and
the sl ope of the l i ne. Fi rst the poi nt:
Si nce f(2) 5 4, (2,4) i s on the l i ne.
Now the sl ope:
f8(x) 5 2x 1 4
f8(2) 5 4 1 4 5 8
The equati on for the tangent l i ne i s
y 2 4 5 8(x 2 2)
or
y 5 8x 2 12
Now, l ets exami ne our choi ces.
I . The val ue of the functi on at
x 2
i s
4 2 6
, and the
tangent l i ne approxi mati on i s
8 2 12
, whi ch i s twi ce the
val ue of the functi on. So, I
checks out.
I I . The functi on val ue at x 5 1 i s 2
3, whi l e the tangent l i ne ap-
proxi mati on i s 2 4.
I I I . The functi on val ue at
x 2
i s
4 2 6
, and the tangent l i ne
approxi mati on i s
8 2 12
. So,
I I I appl i es too.
der to determi ne the number of cri ti -
cal val ues of the functi on, we can
count the zeros of the deri vati ve.
Thi s woul d requi re us to graph the
deri vati ve on the cal cul ator and
count how many ti mes i t crosses the
x-axi s. I t crosses four ti mes.
a tri cky Fundamental Theorem of
Cal cul us, Part Two probl em. Fi rst,
we shoul d rewri te i t as such:
d
dx
d
dx
f t dt
f t dt
x
x
( )
_
,
( )
_
,

2
3
3
2
Once weve rewri tten the probl em
l i ke thi s, i ts not so di ffi cul t:
( ) ( )
( )
( )
f x
d
dx
x
f x
f x
2 2
2 2
2 2
der for the l eft-hand and ri ght-hand
l i mi ts to be equal , the functi on must
be conti nuous. So, we need to fi nd
the val ue of k for whi ch thi s equati on
i s true:
1 1
3
+ k ln
Thi s i s rel ati vel y si mpl e to sol ve:
1 1 k 5 0
k 5 21
1. (a) The fi ve subi nterval s woul d each
be of l ength 2 and woul d be [0,2],
[2,4], [4,6], [6,8], and [8,10]. The
mi dpoi nts of these subi nterval s
woul d be 1, 3, 5, 7, and 9, respec-
ti vel y. The Ri emann sum that we
are l ooki ng for i s just the sum of
fi ve rectangl es, each of wi dth 2
and hei ght f(m
i
), where m
i
i s the
mi dpoi nt of the i
th
subi nterval .
So,
A 5 2(f(1) 1 f(3) 1 f(5) 1 f(7) 1
f(9))
5 2(0.667 1 1.577 1 2.412 1
3.215 1 4)
5 2(11.871)
5 23.743
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(b) Recal l the trapezoi dal rul e:
f x dx
b a
n
f a f x
f x
f x f b
a
b
n
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
_
,
+ +
+
+ +
2
2
2
2
1
2
1

A
f f
f f
f f
+ +
+ +
+
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
_
,
10
10
0 2 2
2 4 2 6
2 8 10
5 (0 1 2(1.138) 1 2(2) 1
2(2.817) + 2(3.610) 1 4.387)
5 23.516
(c) The average val ue, f(c), of the
functi on i s the area under the
curve di vi ded by the l ength of
the i nterval . So, we can approxi -
mate f(c) l i ke thi s:
f c ( )
23 516
10
2 352
.
.
(d) Here, we shoul d determi ne the
exact area under the curve and
di vi de i t by the l ength of the i n-
terval :
f c dx
x x
( )
+
_
,
( )
1
10 3
1
10
23 694 2 369
0
10
. .
2. (a) Wel l start by l abel i ng a fourth
poi nt, Q, as the poi nt on the
track di rectl y i n front of observer
O. We wi l l al so defi ne some vari -
abl es: x wi l l be the di stance from
the horse H to the poi nt Q, y wi l l
be the di stance from the observer
O to the poi nt Q, and z wi l l be
the di stance between the horse H
and the observer O. Al l of thi s i s
shown i n the di agram bel ow.
How l ong i s the di stance from P
to Q? We can use the 30-60-90
tri angl e theorem to determi ne
that i t i s
100 3
or 173.2051 feet.
Si nce the horse i s runni ng at 45
feet per second, he has run 180
feet after 4 seconds. So, x5 180 2
173.2051 5 6.79492.
Now we can use the Pythagorean
theorem to wri te our pri mary
equati on:
x
2
1 100
2
5 z
2
Substi tuti ng x 5 6.79492 i nto the
equati on and sol vi ng for z gi ves
us
6.79492
2
1 100
2
5 z
2
10,046.171 5 z
2
z 5 100.23059
The questi on asked us for the
rate that the di stance from the
horse to the observer i s i ncreas-
i ng after four seconds. I n other
words, what i s
dz
dt
when t 5 4? To
answer thi s, l ets di fferenti ate
wi th respect to t and sol ve for
dz
dt
.
x z
x
dx
dt
z
dz
dt
dz
dt
x
z
dx
dt
2 2 2
100
2 2
6 79492 45
100 23059
3 0
+
.
.
. 5 51
So, when t 5 4, the di stance from
the horse to the observer i s i n-
creasi ng at 3.051 feet per second.
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
p
r
a
c
t
i
c
e
t
e
s
t
2
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(b) Thi s i s not a di ffi cul t probl em.
The area of a tri angl e i s
A =
1
2
z base z hei ght
The hei ght of thi s tri angl e i s a
constant, 100 feet, so
A 5 50 z base
To determi ne the rate at whi ch
the area of the tri angl e i s chang-
i ng, l ets di fferenti ate wi th re-
spect to t:
dA
dt
d
dt
( ) 50 base
What i s
d
dt
(base)? Thats the rate
at whi ch the base i s changi ng,
whi ch i s merel y the speed of the
horse, 45 feet per second. Now
we have
dA
dt
50 45 2 250 ,
So, the area of the tri angl e
formed by P, H,and O i s i ncreas-
i ng at a constant rate of 2,250
feet
2
per second.
(c) We wi l l use x, y, and z to repre-
sent the same di stances as i n
part A. I t can be determi ned eas-
i l y that the horse has gal l oped
225 feet i n the same amount of
ti me that the man ran 50 feet.
So, y 5 50, x 5 225, and z can be
determi ned as such:
x
2
1 y
2
5 z
2
50
2
1 225
2
5 z
2
z 5 230.489
To determi ne
dz
dt
, we shoul d di f-
ferenti ate wi th respect to t:
2 2 2 x
dx
dt
y
dy
dt
z
dz
dt
+
Sol vi ng for
dz
dt
gi ves us
dz
dt
x y
z
dx
dt
dy
dt
+
Now, we wi l l substi tute the fol -
l owi ng val ues i nto the equati on:
x 5 225, y 5 50, z 5 230.489,
dx
dt
5 45, and
dy
dt
5 2 10.
dy
dt
i s nega-
ti ve because y i s getti ng shorter.
dz
dt

+
50 10 225 45
230 489
41 759
.
.
The di stance from the horse to
the observer i s i ncreasi ng at
41.759 feet per second.
3. Thi s probl em i nvol ves sol vi ng the
separabl e di fferenti al equati on
dv
dt
t
11
25
7 . Fi rst, we shoul d
separate the vs and ts:
dv t dt
_
,
11
25
7
I ntegrate both si des:
v t t C +
11
50
7
2
To determi ne the val ue of C, we use
the i ni ti al condi ti on gi ven to us i n
the probl em. Si nce v(0) 5 197.28,
then
v C 0 197 28
11
50
0 7 0
2
( ) + .
and C 5 197.28. Now, we have our
expressi on for v i n terms of t:
v t t t ( ) +
11
50
7 197 28
2
.
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(b) Thi s i s a two-part questi on.
Fi rst, we shoul d determi ne how
much ti me i t takes the car to
stop, and then we shoul d i nte-
grate the vel oci ty curve usi ng
that val ue. I n order for the car to
stop, v(t) 5 0.
+
11
50
7 197 28 0
2
t t .
t 5 18
I t takes the car 18 seconds to
come to a stop. Now, to deter-
mi ne how far the car travel s i n
those 18 seconds, we shoul d fi nd
the area under the vel oci ty curve
from t 5 0 to t 5 18:

+
_
,
11
50
7 197 28
1989 36
2
0
18 t
t
dt
.
.
The car travel s 1,989.36 feet
whi l e sl owi ng down.
(c) To wri te the equati on for a l i ne,
we need a poi nt on the l i ne and
the sl ope of the l i ne. To deter-
mi ne the y coordi nate of the
poi nt, we wi l l eval uate v at t 5 9:
v 9
11
50
9 7 9 197 28
2
( ) + .
5 116.46
Thi s tel l s us that (9116.46) i s on
our tangent l i ne. Now, determi ne
the sl ope by eval uati ng the de-
ri vati ve (whi ch we al ready know
from the probl em i tsel f
dV
dt
=
2
11
25
t 2 ~7! at t 5 9:
( ) f 9
11
25
9 7 10 96 .
The tangent l i ne passes through
(9116.46) and has a sl ope of
210.96. We can now wri te i ts
equati on usi ng poi nt-sl ope form:
v 2 116.46 5 2 10.96(t 2 9)
or i n sl ope i ntercept form:
v 5 2 10.96t 1 215.1
(d) Thi s probl em cal l s for the aver-
age val ue formul a appl i ed to the
vel oci ty equati on you found i n
part (A).
1
18 0 0
18
( )
v t dt
You al ready know the val ue of
the i ntegral from your work i n
part (B).
1
18
~1989.36!
5 110.52 ft/sec.
4. (a)
(b) The two curves i ntersect at (2,4).
The area of the regi on R can be
determi ned usi ng the fol l owi ng
defi ni te i ntegral :
A x x dx
x dx
x
x

( )
( )
_
,
8
8 2
8
2
3
16
16
3
32
3
2 2
0
2
2
0
2
3
0
2
|
a
n
s
w
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s
p
r
a
c
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c
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t
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s
t
2
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(c) The vol ume i s easi est to deter-
mi ne usi ng the washer method.
The outer radi us, R(x), i s 8 2 x
2
,
and the i nner radi us, r(x), i s x
2
:
V x x dx
x x x dx
x

+

( ) ( )
1
]
1
( )
8
64 16
64
16
3
2 2
2
0
2
4 4
0
2
2
2
xx
3
0
2
128
128
3
256
3
_
,
_
,
(d) The vol ume of a sol i d wi th

known cross secti ons can be de-
termi ned l i ke thi s:
V A x dx
a
b
( )
The cross secti ons are semi -

ci rcl es whose area formul a i s A 5
1
2
pr
2
.
Now, we need an expressi on i n
terms of x for the radi us of one of
these semi ci rcl es. Because the
hei ght of R i s the di ameter of a
semi ci rcl e, the radi us woul d be
r x x x ( )
( )

1
2
8 2 4
2 2
Thi s l eads to the area of a semi -
ci rcl e:
A(x) 5
1
2
p(4 2 x
2
)
2
5
1
2
p(16 2 8x
2
1 x
4
)
whi ch gi ves us the vol ume of the
sol i d:
V x x dx
x
x x
+
+
+
( )
_
,
_
,
1
2
16 8
1
2
16
8
3 5
2
32
64
3
32
5
128
15
2 4
0
2
3 5
0
2

|
.
5. (a) The l ocal maxi mum occurs at x5
5 because the deri vati ve changes
from posi ti ve to negati ve there.
Thi s means that the functi on
changes from i ncreasi ng to de-
creasi ng there as wel l .
(b) f(7) , f(4) , f(5)
Si nce the functi on i ncreases over
[4,5] and decreases over [5,7],
f(5) i s the greatest of the three.
To determi ne whi ch i s greater,
f(4) or f(7), we exami ne the accu-
mul ated area over [4,7]. Si nce
thi s area i s negati ve, the func-
ti on has a net decrease over [4,7].
Thus, f(4) . f(7).
(c) f has two poi nts of i nfl ecti on: one
at x 5 4 and one at x 5 7. Poi nts
of i nfl ecti on are pl aces where the
graph changes concavi ty. The
graph changes concavi ty when-
ever the deri vati ve changes from
i ncreasi ng to decreasi ng or from
decreasi ng to i ncreasi ng. The de-
ri vati ve changes from i ncreasi ng
to decreasi ng at x 5 4 and from
decreasi ng to i ncreasi ng at x5 7.
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6. (a) Si nce the x and y are not sepa-
rated, we shoul d di fferenti ate
i mpl i ci tl y.
2e
xy
2 y 5 0
2 0 e x
dy
dx
y
dy
dx
xy
+
_
,

2 2 0 xe
dy
dx
ye
dy
dx
xy xy
+
dy
dx
xe ye
xy xy
2 1 2
( )
dy
dx
ye
xe
ye
xe
xy
xy
xy
xy

2
2 1
2
1 2
(b) Di fferenti ati ng i mpl i ci tl y agai n
yi el ds
dy
dx
bye
bxe
xy
xy
1
(c) To determi ne the y-i ntercept, we
l et x 5 0 and sol ve for y:
be
xy
2 y 5 0
be
0
5 y
y 5 b
So, the y-i ntercept i s (0,b).
(d) We just need the sl ope when x 5
0 and y 5 b. We wi l l substi tute
these val ues i nto our expressi on
for
dy
dx
:
dy
dx
b be
b

0
1 0
2
Now, we wri te the equati on for a
l i ne wi th y-i ntercept b and sl ope
b
2
:
y 5 b
2
x 1 b
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
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1. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
2. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
3. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
4. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
5. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
6. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
7. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
8. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
9. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
10. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
11. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
12. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
13. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
14. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
15. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
16. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
17. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
18. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
19. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
20. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
21. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
22. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
23. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
24. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
25. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
26. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
27. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
28. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
29. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
30. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
31. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
32. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
33. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
34. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
35. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
36. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
37. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
38. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
39. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
40. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
41. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
42. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
43. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
44. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
45. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
-
-
-
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answer sheet
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Practice Test 3: AP
Calculus BC
SEC TIO N I, PART A
number.
1. The functi on f i s gi ven by f (x) 5
3x
4
2 2x
3
1 7x 2 2. On whi ch of
the fol l owi ng i nterval s i s f de-
creasi ng?
(A) (2`,`)
(B) (2`,0)
(C)
1
3
,
_
,
(D) 0
1
3
,
_
,
(E)
_
,
1
3
0 ,
2. What i s the area under the
curve descri bed by the paramet-
ri c equati ons x 5 si nt and y 5
cos
2
t for 0
2
t

?
(A)
1
3
(B)
1
2
(C)
2
3
(D) 1
(E)
4
3
p
r
a
c
t
i
c
e
t
e
s
t
3
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
569
3. The functi on f i s gi ven by f(x) 5 8x
3
1 36x
2
1 54x1 27. Al l of these state-
ments are true EXCEPT
(A) 2
3
2
i s a zero of f.
(B) 2
3
2
i s a poi nt of i nfl ecti on of f.
(C) 2
3
2
i s a l ocal extremum of f.
(D) 2
3
2
i s a zero of the deri vati ve
of f.
(E) f i s stri ctl y monotoni c.
4. x x dx ln

(A)
x x x
C
2 2
2 4
ln
+ +
(B)
x
x C
2
4
2 1 ln ( ) +
(C)
x
x x C
2
2 ln + ( )
(D)
x x
x
C ln +
2
4
(E)
ln x
x
x
C
( )
+
2
4
5. Let h x g x ( ) ( ) ln . I f g i s decreasi ng
for al l x i n i ts domai n, then
(A) h i s stri ctl y i ncreasi ng.
(B) h i s stri ctl y decreasi ng.
(C) h has no rel ati ve extrema.
(D) both (B) and (C).
(E) none of the above.
Q UESTIO NS 6, 7, AND 8 REFER TO THE
DIAG RAM AND INFO RM ATIO N BELO W.
The functi on f i s defi ned on [0,7]. The
graph of i ts deri vati ve, f, i s shown above.
6. The poi nt (2,5) i s on the graph of y 5
f (x). An equati on of the l i ne tangent
to the graph of f at (2,5) i s
(A) y 5 2
(B) y 5 5
(C) y 5 0
(D) y 5 2x 1 5
(E) y 5 2x 2 5
7. How many poi nts of i nfl ecti on does
the graph y 5 f (x) have over [0,7]?
(A) 0
(B) 1
(C) 2
(D) 3
(E) 4
8. At what val ue of x does the absol ute
maxi mum val ue of f occur?
(A) 1
(B) 2
(C) 4
(D) 6
(E) 7
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9.
x
x
dx
e
2
1
4 +
_
,
(A)
e
2
9
2
+
(B)
e
2
9
2
(C)
e
2
7
2
+
(D)
e
2
8
2
+
(E)
e
2
4
2
10. The functi on f gi ven by f(x) 5 3x

5
2
4x
3
2 3x i s i ncreasi ng and concave
up over whi ch of these i nterval s?
(A)
_
,
,
2
5
(B)
_
,
2
5
0 ,
(C) ( 2 1, 1)
(D)
2
5
,
_
,
(E) (1, `)
11. I f y 5 2xy 2 x
2
1 3, then when x 5 1,
dy
dx
5
(A) 26
(B) 22
(C)
2
2
3
(D) 2
(E) 6
12. The l ength of the curve descri bed by
the parametri c equati ons x5 2t
3
and
y 5 t
3
where 0 t 1 i s
(A)
5
7
(B)
5
2
(C)
3
2
(D)
5
(E) 3
13. What i s the average val ue of f(x) 5
3si n
2
x 2 cos
2
x over 0
2
,

[ ]
?
(A) 0
(B) 1
(C)
2
(D)
3
(E)

2
p
r
a
c
t
i
c
e
t
e
s
t
Pra c tic e Te st 3: AP C a lc ulus BC 571
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for some constant k. For what val ue
of k wi l l f be di fferenti abl e over i ts
whol e domai n?
(A) 22
(B) 21
(C)
2
3
(D) 1
15. What i s the approxi mati on of the
val ue of e
3
obtai ned by usi ng a
fourth-degree Tayl or pol ynomi al
about x 5 0 for e
x
?
(A) 1 3
9
2
9
2
27
8
+ + + +
(B) 1 3 9
27
8
+ + +
(C) 1 3
27
8
+ +
(D) 3
9
2
9
2
27
4
+
(E) 3 9
27
8
+ +
16. 6
3 3
x e dx
x
(A) e
3x
(9x
3
2 9x
2
1 6x 2 2) 1 C
(B) e x x x C
x 3 3 2
2 2
4
3
4
9
+
_
,
+
(C)
2
9
2 2
4
3
4
9
3 3 2
e x x x C
x
+
_
,
+
(D)
2
9
9 9 6 2
3 3 2
e x x x C
x

( )
+
(E)
2
9
9 9 6 2
3 3 2
e x x x C
x
+
( )
+
17. I f f(x) 5 secx, then f(x) has how
many zeros over the cl osed i nterval
[0,2p]?
(A) 0
(B) 1
(C) 2
(D) 3
(E) 4
18. Consi der the regi on i n the fi rst quad-
rant bounded by y 5 x
2
over [0,3].
Let L
3
represent the Ri emann ap-
proxi mati on of the area of thi s regi on
usi ng l eft endpoi nts and three rect-
angl es, R
3
represent the Ri emann
approxi mati on usi ng ri ght endpoi nts
and three rectangl es, M
3
represent
the Ri emann approxi mati on usi ng
mi dpoi nts and three rectangl es, and
T
3
represent the trapezoi dal approxi -
mati on wi th three trapezoi ds. Whi ch
of the fol l owi ng statements i s true?
(A) R T x dx M L
3 3
2
3 3
0
3
< < < <
(B) L M T R x dx
3 3 3 3
2
0
3
< < < <
(C) M L x dx T R
3 3
2
0
3
3 3
< < < <
(D) L M x dx R T
3 3
2
0
3
3 3
< < < <
(E) L M x dx T R
3 3
2
0
3
3 3
< < < <

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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19. Whi ch of the fol l owi ng seri es con-
verge?
I .
2
1
1
n
n
n +
_
,
I I .
3
1
n
n
I I I .
cos 2
2
1
n
n
n
_
,
(A) I onl y
(B) I I onl y
(C) I I I onl y
(D) I and I I
(E) I and I I I
20. The area of the regi on i nsi de the po-
l ar curve r 5 4si nu but outsi de the
pol ar curve
r 2 2
i s gi ven by
(A) 2 4 1
2
4
3 4
sin
( )
d
(B)
1
2
4 2 2
2
4
3 4
sin
( )
d
(C)
1
2
4 2 2
4
3 4
sin
( )
d
(D)
1
2
16 8
2
4
3 4
sin
( )
d
(E)
1
2
4 1
2
4
3 4
sin
( )
d
21. When x5 16, the rate at whi ch x
3/4
i s
i ncreasi ng i s k ti mes the rate at
whi ch =x i s i ncreasi ng. What i s the
val ue of k?
(A)
1
8
(B)
3
8
(C) 2
(D) 3
(E) 8
22. The l ength of the path descri bed by
the parametri c equati ons x 5 2cos2t
and y 5 si n
2
t for 0 t p i s gi ven by
(A)
4 2
2 4
0
cos sin t t dt +
(B)
2 4 2
0
sin cos sin t t t dt
(C)
4 16 2
2 2 2
0
sin cos sin t t t dt
(D)
4 2 4
2 2 2
0
sin sin cos t t t dt +
(E)
16 2 4
2 2 2
0
sin sin cos t t t dt +
23. Determi ne the i nterval of conver-

gence for the seri es
3 2
2
5 2
0
x
n
n
n
( )
_
,
.
(A)
1
3
1
3
x
(B) < <
1
3
1 x
(C)
1
3
1 x
(D)
1
3
1 x
(E)
1
3
1 x
p
r
a
c
t
i
c
e
t
e
s
t
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24. f x
x x
x x
( )
( )( )
( )( )
+
+
3 4 2 1
2 3 2 1
has a hori zontal
asymptote at x 5
(A)
3
2
(B)
3
2
and 2
1
2
(C) 0
(D) 2
3
4
and
1
2
25.
2 2
2
2
Shown above i s the sl ope fi el d for
whi ch of the fol l owi ng di fferenti al
equati ons?
(A)
dy
dx
x + 1
(B)
dy
dx
x y
(C)
dy
dx
x y
+
2
(D)
dy
dx
y x
(E)
dy
dx
y +1
26.
x
e
x
dx
2
2
(A)
5
e
(B) 10e
2
(C)
10
2
e
(D) 2
(E) 5e
27. The popul ati on P(t) of a speci es sat-
i sfi es the l ogi sti c di fferenti al equa-
ti on
dP
dt
P
P
( )
2
3 100
5 . What i s
lim
t
P t
( )?
(A) 100
(B) 200
(C) 300
(D) 400
(E) 500
28. I f a x c
n
n
n
( )
0
i s a Tayl or seri es
that converges to f(x) for every real x,
then f(c) 5
(A) 0
(B) n(n 2 1)a
n
(C) na x c
n
n
n
( )

1
0
(D) a
n
n
0
(E) n n a x c
n
n
n
( ) ( )
1
0
2
STOP
O F THE TEST.
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SEC TIO N I, PART B
THE EXAM INATIO N.
29. The graph of the functi on repre-
sented by the Tayl or seri es, centered
at x 5 1, 1 2 (x 2 1) 1 (x 2 1)
2
2 (x
2 1)
3
1 . . . 5 ( 2 1)
n
(x 2 1)
n
i nter-
sects the graph of y 5 e
x
at x 5
(A) 29.425
(B) 0.567
(C) 0.703
(D) 0.773
(E) 1.763
30. I f f i s a vector-val ued functi on de-
fi ned by f(t) 5 ,cos
2
t, l n t., then
f(t) 5
(A) 2
1
cos sin , t t
t
(B) 2
1
cos , t
t
(C) 2
1
cos sin , t t
t
(D) + 2 2
1
2 2
2
cos sin , t t
t
(E) 2
1
2
,
t
31. The di agonal of a square i s i ncreas-
i ng at a constant rate of =2 centi -
meters per second. I n terms of the
peri meter, P, what i s the rate of
change of the area of the square i n
square centi meters per second?
(A)
2
4
P
(B)
4
2
P
(C) 2P
(D) P
(E)
P
2
p
r
a
c
t
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c
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s
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32. I f f i s conti nuous over the set of real
numbers and f i s defi ned as
f x
x x
x
( )
+
2
3 2
2
for al l x 2, then
f(2) 5
(A) 22
(B) 21
(C) 0
(D) 1
(E) 2
33. I f 0 k 2 and the area between the
curves y 5 x
2
1 4 and y 5 x
3
from
x 5 0 to x 5 k i s 5, then k 5
(A) 1.239
(B) 1.142
(C) 1.029
(D) 0.941
(E) 0.876
34. Determi ne
dy
dx
for the curve defi ned
by xsi ny 5 1.
(A)

tan y
x
(B)
tan y
x
(C)
sec tan y y
x
(D)
secy
x
(E)

secy
x
35. I f f(x) 5 h(x) 1 g(x) for 0 x 10,
then f x h x dx ( ) ( ) +
( )

2 3
0
10
(A) 2 3
0
10
g x h x dx ( ) ( ) + ( )
(B) g(10) 2 h(10) 1 30

(C) g(10) 2 h(10) 1 30 2 g(0) 2
h(0)
(D) g x h x dx ( ) ( ) ( ) +
30
0
10
(E) g x h x dx ( ) ( ) ( ) +
2 30
0
10
36. Use a fi fth-degree Tayl or pol ynomi al
centered at x 5 0 to esti mate e
2
.
(A) 7.000
(B) 7.267
(C) 7.356
(D) 7.389
(E) 7.667
37. What are al l the val ues of xfor whi ch
the seri es
x
n n
n
n
n
+ ( )
( )
_
,
2
3
1
converges?
(A) 23 , x , 3
(B) 23 x 3
(C) 25 , x , 1
(D) 25 x 1
(E) 25 x , 1
38. Let f x x ( )
2
4 . Let R be the re-
gi on bounded by f, the x-axi s, and the
verti cal l i nes x 5 2 3 and x 5 3. Let
T
6
represent the approxi mati on of
the area of R usi ng the trapezoi dal
rul e wi th n 5 6. The quoti ent
T
f x dx
6
3
3
( )

(A) 0.334
(B) 0.978
(C) 1.022
(D) 1.304
(E) 4.666
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39. Let R be the regi on bounded by y5 3
2 x
2
, y 5 x
3
1 1, and x 5 0. I f R i s
rotated about the x-axi s, the vol ume
of the sol i d formed coul d be deter-
mi ned by
(A) x x dx
3
2
2
2
0
1
1 3 +
( )

( )
( )
(B) +
( )

( )
( )
x x dx
3
2
2
2
1
0
1 3
(C)
2 2
3 2
0
1
x x x dx +
( ) ( )
(D) x x dx
3
2
2
2
1
0
1 3 +
( )

( )
( )
(E)
2 2
3 2
0
1
x x x dx +
( ) ( )

and g be defi ned as
g x f t dt
x
( ) ( )
4
for 2 4 t 4.
Whi ch of these i s an equati on for
the tangent l i ne to g at x 5 2?
(A)
4 3 4 2 72 x y + +
(B)
3 2 3 64 2 2 x y
(C)
3 2 3 64 2 2 x y
(D)
3 2 3 64 2 2 x y +
(E)
4 3 4 2 56 x y +
41.
a b
Let g x f t dt
a
x
( ) ( )
t, where a x
b. The fi gure above shows the
graph of g on [a,b]. Whi ch of the
fol l owi ng coul d be the graph of f on
[a,b]?
(A)
a b
(B)
a b
(C)
a b
(D)
a b
(E)
a b
p
r
a
c
t
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42. The sum of the i nfi ni te geometri c se-
ri es
4
5
8
35
16
245
32
1715
+ + + + . . . i s
(A) 0.622
(B) 0.893
(C) 1.120
(D) 1.429
(E) 2.800
43. Let f be a stri ctl y monotoni c di fferen-
ti abl e functi on on the cl osed i nterval
[5,10] such that f(5) 5 6 and f(10) 5
26. Whi ch of the fol l owi ng must be
true for the functi on f on the i nterval
[5,10]?
I . The average rate of change of f
i s 4.
I I . The absol ute maxi mum val ue of
f i s 26.
I I I . f(8) . 0.
(A) I onl y
(B) I I onl y
(C) I I I onl y
(D) I and I I
44. Let F(x) be an anti deri vati ve of f(x) 5
e
2x
. I f F(0) 5 2.5, then F(5) 5
(A) 150.413
(B) 11013.233
(C) 11015.233
(D) 22026.466
(E) 22028.466
45. The base of a sol i d i s the regi on i n
the fi rst quadrant bounded by y 5
2x
2
1 3. The cross secti ons perpen-
di cul ar to the x-axi s are squares.
Fi nd the vol ume of the sol i d.
(A) 3.464
(B) 8.314
(C) 8.321
(D) 16.628
(E) 21.600
STOP
O F THE TEST.
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1. Let f be a functi on that has deri va-
ti ves of al l orders for al l real num-
bers. Assume f(1) 5 3, f(1) 5 21,
f (1) 5 4, and f(1) 5 22.
(a) Wri te the thi rd-degree Tayl or
pol ynomi al for f about x 5 1,
and use i t to approxi mate
f(1.1).
(b) Wri te the second-degree Tayl or
f(1.1).
(c) Wri te the fourth-degree Tayl or
pol ynomi al for
g x f t dt
x
( ) ( )
1
.
(d) Can f(2) be determi ned from
the i nformati on gi ven? Justi fy
your answer.
dy
dx
x x
e
y
+ 3 2
2
.
(a) Fi nd a sol uti on y 5 f(x) to the
di fferenti al equati on that
sati sfi es f(0) 5 2.
(b) What i s the domai n of f?
(c) For what val ue(s) of x does f
have a poi nt of i nfl ecti on?
3. Let R be the regi on encl osed by the
graphs of y 5 2x
2
1 3 and y 5
tan
21
x.
(a) Determi ne the area of R.
(b) Wri te an expressi on i nvol vi ng
one or more i ntegral s that gi ves
the l ength of the boundary of R.
Do not eval uate.
(c) The base of a sol i d i s the regi on
R. The cross secti ons perpen-
di cul ar to the x-axi s are semi -
ci rcl es. Wri te an expressi on
i nvol vi ng one or more i ntegral s
that gi ves the vol ume of the
sol i d. Do not eval uate.
STOP
O F THE TEST.
p
r
a
c
t
i
c
e
t
e
s
t
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4.
1 3 2 4 5 7 6 8 1 2 3
The fi gure above shows the graph of
f, the deri vati ve of some functi on f,
for 2 3 x 8. The graph of f has
hori zontal tangent l i nes at x 5 2 1
and x 5 2, a verti cal tangent l i ne at
x 5 3, and a cusp at x 5 5.
(a) Fi nd al l val ues of x for whi ch f
attai ns a rel ati ve mi ni mum on
(23,8). Expl ai n.
(b) Fi nd al l val ues of x for whi ch f
attai ns a rel ati ve maxi mum on
(23,8). Expl ai n.
(c) For what val ue of x, 2 3 x
8, does f attai n i ts absol ute
mi ni mum? Expl ai n.
(d) For what val ue(s) of x, for
23 , x , 8, does f(x) not
exi st?
dy
dx
5 x(y 2 2).
(a) On the axes provi ded bel ow,
sketch a sl ope fi el d for the
gi ven di fferenti al equati on at
the ni ne poi nts i ndi cated.
1 1
1
2
3
(b) Let y 5 f(x) be a parti cul ar
sol uti on to the gi ven di fferen-
ti al equati on wi th the i ni ti al
condi ti on f(0) 5 3. Use Eul ers
method starti ng at x 5 0 wi th a
step si ze of 0.2 to approxi mate
f(0.4). Show the work that
l eads to your answer.
(c) Fi nd the parti cul ar sol uti on
y 5 f(x) to the di fferenti al
equati on wi th the i ni ti al
condi ti on f(0) 5 3.
6. A movi ng parti cl e has posi ti on (x(t),
y(t)) at ti me t. The posi ti on of the
parti cl e at ti me t 5 1 i s (7,0), and the
vel oci ty vector at any ti me t . 0 i s
gi ven by 3 4
3 2
2 2
+
t t
, .
(a) Fi nd the posi ti on of the parti cl e
at t 5 3.
(b) Wi l l the l i ne tangent to the
path of the parti cl e at (x(t), y(t))
ever have a sl ope of zero? I f so,
when? I f not, why not?
STOP
END O F SEC TIO N II, PART B. IF YO U HAVE ANY TIM E LEFT, G O O VER YO UR
WO RK IN THIS PART O NLY. DO NO T WO RK IN ANY O THER PART O F THE TEST.
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1. D
2. C
3. C
4. B
5. C
6. B
7. C
8. B
9. C
10. E
11. E
12. D
13. B
14. E
15. A
16. E
17. D
18. E
19. C
20. D
21. D
22. E
23. D
24. A
25. C
26. C
27. E
28. A
1. The correct answer is (D). To de-
termi ne where the deri vati ve of a
functi on i s i ncreasi ng, we shoul d fi nd
the zeros of the second deri vati ve
and exami ne a wi ggl e graph.
f(x) 5 3x
4
2 2x
3
1 7x 2 2
f(x) 5 12x
3
2 6x
2
1 7
f(x) 5 36x
2
2 12x 5 0
The second deri vati ve i s equal to
zero when x 5 0 and when x 5
1
3
. By
exami ni ng the wi ggl e graph bel ow,
we can determi ne the i nterval on
whi ch the deri vati ve i s decreasi ng.
+ +
0 1
3
f
The second deri vati ve i s negati ve
over 0
1
3
,
( ) .
2. Thecorrect answer is (C). We can
convert these parametri c equati ons
i nto the fol l owi ng Cartesi an equa-
ti on: y 5 1 2 x
2
. So, the area under
the curve woul d be gi ven by
A x dx
( )
1
2
3
2
0
1
.
3. The correct answer is (C). Al -
though 2
3
2
i s a zero of the deri vati ve,
the deri vati ve does not change si gns
there.
4. Thecorrect answer is (B). Use i n-
tegrati on by parts. Letti ng u 5 l n x
and dv 5 x dx yi el ds
x x dx
x
x
x
x
dx
x
x
x
C
x
x C
ln ln
ln
ln .

( )
+
( ) +
2 2
2 2
2
2 2
2 4
4
2 1
5. The correct answer is (C). Lets
begi n by exami ni ng h(x):
( )
( )
( )
h x
g x
g x
.
I n order for h to have any rel ati ve
extrema, i ts deri vati ve, h, woul d
have to equal zero at some poi nt.
Si nce g i s al ways decreasi ng, g i s
never zero and si nce g i s the nu-
merator of h, h i s never zero. There-
fore, h has no rel ati ve extrema.
6. The correct answer is (B). By
readi ng the graph, we l earn that f(2)
5 0. Usi ng poi nt-sl ope form, we get
an equati on of the tangent at (2,5) to
be
y 2 5 5 0(x 2 2)
whi ch becomes
y 5 5
7. The correct answer is (C). Poi nts
of i nfl ecti on correspond wi th hori -
zontal tangents of the deri vati ve.
Si nce there are two such tangents,
there are two poi nts of i nfl ecti on.
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
p
r
a
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t
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e
s
t
3
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www.petersons.com
maxi mum accumul ated area under
the graph of f occurs at x 5 2.
9. The correct answer is (C). Si nce
the degree of the numerator i s
greater than the degree of the de-
nomi nator, we shoul d fi rst di vi de
and i ntegrate the quoti ent.
x dx
x
x
x
dx
e e
e e
2
1 1
2 2
4 4
2
4
1
2
7
2
+
+
_
,
+
+

10. The correct answer is (E). Thi s
questi on i s aski ng for an i nterval
where both the fi rst and second de-
ri vati ves are posi ti ve.
f(x) 5 3x
5
2 4x
3
2 3x
f (x) 5 15x
4
2 12x
2
2 3 5 0
(15x
2
1 3)(x
2
2 1) 5 0
x 5 6 1
+ +
1 1
f
f(x) 5 60x
3
2 24x 5
12x(5x
2
2 2) 5 0
x
2
5
0 ,
By exami ni ng both of the precedi ng
wi ggl e graphs, we can see that the
curve i ncreases and i s concave up
from 1 to i nfi ni ty.
11. The correct answer is (E). Fi rst,
l ets determi ne the val ue of y when
x 5 1.
y 5 2xy 2 x
2
1 3
l et x 5 1
y 5 2y 2 1 1 3
y 5 2 2
Now, we di fferenti ate the equati on
wi th respect to x:
dy
dx
x
dy
dx
y x
dy
dx
y x
x
x y
dy
dx
+
2 2 2
2 2
1 2
1 2
6
let and
.
l ength of a curve defi ned parametri -
cal l y i s gi ven by
l
dx
dt
dy
dt
dt
a
b
_
,
+

_
,
2 2
Appl yi ng the formul a above gi ves us
l t t dt
t dt
+
36 9
3 5
5
4 4
0
1
2
0
1
.
we are asked for the average val ue,
we use the MVT for i ntegral s.
f c x x dx ( )
( )
2
3
2 2
0
2
sin cos
We need to use power reduci ng for-
mul as.
3
3
1 2
2
1 2
2
3 3 2 1 2
2
2 4
2 2
sin cos
cos cos
cos cos
x x
x x
x x
_
,

+
_
,

ccos
cos
2
2
1 2 2
x
x
Now, i ntegrate to get the answer.
2
1 2 2
2
2
1
0
2
( )
cos x dx
14. The correct answer is (E). For
what val ue of k wi l l the l eft- and
ri ght-hand deri vati ves be equal ? I f
k 5
2
3
, then the deri vati ves wi l l be
the same; however, the functi on i s
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www.petersons.com
then di sconti nuous because the l eft-
and ri ght-hand l i mi ts are di fferent.
a Tayl or or Macl auri n seri es that you
shoul d commi t to memory.
e x
x x x x
+ + + + 1
2 3 4
2 3 4
! ! !
Substi tuti ng 3 for x yi el ds
e
x
+ + + +
+ + + +
1 3
9
2
27
6
81
24
1 3
9
2
9
2
27
8
a very i nvol ved i ntegrati on-by-parts
probl em. Use a chart.
+ +
+
( )
+
2 2
4
3
4
9
2
9
9 9 6 2
3 3 2 3
3
3
3 3 2
x e x e
xe
e C
e x x x C
x x
x
x
x
f(x) 5 secx, f(x) 5 secxtanx. secx i s
never zero, and tanx 5 0 when x 5 0,
x 5 p, or when x 5 2p. So, the an-
swer i s 3.
18. The correct answer is (E). To de-
termi ne R
3
, L
3
, and M
3
, we need to
be abl e to sum the areas of the rect-
angl es. R
3
5 14, L
3
5 5, and M
3
5
35
4
. To determi ne T
3
, we need to
fi nd the area of a tri angl e and two
trapezoi ds. T
3
5
19
2
. Usi ng the fun-
damental theorem, x dx
2
0
3
9
.
19. The correct answer is (C). Appl y-
i ng the rati o test to the fi rst seri es,
lim
lim
,
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
+
+
+ ( )
+ ( )

>
2
2
1
2
2
1
2
2
2 1
1
so I . is diver rgent
Appl yi ng the compari son test to the
second seri es and compari ng i t to the
harmoni c seri es hel ps us concl ude
that I I . i s di vergent as wel l .
The thi rd seri es i s real l y just
1
1
2
n
n
,
whi ch i s a p-seri es wi th p . 1, so i t i s
convergent.
two curves i ntersect at

4
and
3
4
. So, the area woul d be gi ven
by
A d
( )
1
2
16 8
2
4
3 4
sin

21. The correct answer is (D). We
must set the two deri vati ves equal to
each other and sol ve for k.
3
4
2
3
1 4
x
k
x
k
( )
.
22. The correct answer is (E). We ap-
pl y the fol l owi ng formul a:
l
dx
dt
dy
dt
dt
a
b
_
,
+

_
,
2 2
x 5 2 4si n2t and y 5 2si ntcost. So,
l t t t dt +
16 2 4
2 2 2
0
sin sin cos
23. The correct answer is (D). Fi rst,

wel l take the l i mi t of the rati o test:
lim
n
n
n
x
n
n
x
x
+
+
( )
( )
+ ( )
( )

( )
( )
( )

3 2
1 3 2
3 2
3
2
5
2
5
2
3 2 1
1
3
1
x
x
<
< <
I n order to test the end poi nts, we
substi tute each end poi nt i nto the
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
p
r
a
c
t
i
c
e
t
e
s
t
3
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ori gi nal seri es and test for conver-
gence. By l etti ng x 5
1
3
, we get
( )
+
1
2
5 2
0
n
n
n
, whi ch converges.
I f we l et x 5 1, we get
1
5 2
0
n
n
whi ch converges as wel l .

So, the i nterval of convergence i s
1
3
1 x .
24. The correct answer is (A). Hori -
zontal asymptotes are determi ned by
fi ndi ng the l i mi t at i nfi ni ty. I f we
mul ti pl y the bi nomi al s we can see
that the rati o of the l eadi ng coeffi -
ci ents i s
3
2
.
25. The correct answer is (C). Noti ce
that al l of the sl opes on the l i ne y 5
2x are zero (hori zontal ). Any poi nt
on thi s l i ne woul d make
x y +
2
be
zero, si nce x and y are opposi tes.
an i mproper i ntegral and a tri cky
i ntegrati on-by-parts probl em. Fi rst,
wel l deal wi th the i mproper i ntegral
by taki ng the l i mi t of a defi ni te i nte-
gral :
x
e
dx
x
e
dx
x
p
x
p
2
2
2
2

lim .
We now have to use i ntegrati on by
parts on
x
e
x
dx
2
. Wel l choose u 5 x
2
and dv 5 e
2x
dx and get
x
e
dx
x
e
xe dx
x x
x
2 2
2

+

.
Now, wel l l et u 5 2x and dv 5 e
2x
dx
and get
x
e
x
e
e dx
x
e
x
e e
x x
x
x x x
2
2
2
2
2 2
Now, we have to eval uate the i nte-
gral usi ng the l i mi ts of i ntegrati on
and take the l i mi t as p goes to i nfi n-
i ty, so
lim lim
lim
|
p
x
p
p
x x x
p
p
p
x
e
dx
x
e
x
e e
p
e

_
,
2
2
2
2
2
2 2
22 2
4 4 2
4 4 2
10
2 2 2
2 2 2
2
p
e e
e e e
e e e
e
p p
_
,
_
,
+ +
27. The correct answer is (E). I f we

factor out a
1
100
from thi s expres-
si on, we get
dP
dt
P P ( )
2
300
500
Thi s i ndi cates that the maxi mum
popul ati on, P, woul d be 500; any-
thi ng greater and the growth rate
woul d be negati ve.
28. The correct answer is (A). f(x) 5
(n 2 1)na
n
(x 2 c)
n 2 2
. So, f(c) 5 (n
2 1)na
n
(c 2 c)
n 2 2
5 0.
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29. B
30. D
31. E
32. D
33. A
34. A
35. D
36. B
37. D
38. B
39. D
40. D
41. A
42. C
43. E
44. C
45. B
the Tayl or seri es for y 5
1
x
. We can
use our cal cul ator to determi ne that
these two graphs i ntersect at x 5
0.567.
a second deri vati ve probl em.
( )
( ) +
f t t t
t
f t t t
t
2
1
2 2
1 2 2
2
cos sin ,
cos sin ,
31. Thecorrect answer is(E). The for-
mul a for the area of a square i s A 5
x
2
2
, where x i s the l ength of the di -
agonal . I f we di fferenti ate thi s for-
mul a wi th respect to t, we get
dA
dt
x
dx
dt
Si nce we know that

dx
dt
2,
1 2 ( )
dA
dt
x
Now, we have to express x, the di ago-
nal , i n terms of P, the peri meter.
x s 2
where s i s the l ength of
a si de.
So,
P
x
4
2
and
x
P
2
4
Substi tuti ng gi ves us
dA
dt
P
2
need
lim .
x
x x
x
+
( )
_
,
2
2
3 2
2
I f we factor and cancel , we get
lim
x
x
( )
2
1 1
33. Thecorrect answer is(A). For thi s
probl em, we have to sol ve an equa-
ti on for a l i mi t of i ntegrati on. Thi s i s
the equati on we must sol ve:
x x dx
k
2 3
0
4 5 +
( )

.
I f we i ntegrate and appl y the funda-
mental theorem, we get
k
k
k
3 4
3
4
4
5 0 +
We can use our cal cul ator to deter-
mi ne that k 5 1.239.
must di fferenti ate i mpl i ci tl y wi th re-
spect to x.
x y
x y
dy
dx
y
dy
dx
y
x y
y
x
sin
cos sin
sin
cos
tan

1
0
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
p
r
a
c
t
i
c
e
t
e
s
t
3
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probl em i nvol ves si mpl e substi tuti on
and the properti es of the defi ni te i n-
tegral .
f x h x dx
h x g x h x dx
g x h x
( ) ( ) +
( )
( ) + ( ) ( ) +
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
2 3
2 3
0
10
0
10
00
10
0
10
0
10
0
1
3
3
30

+
( ) ( ) ( )
+ ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
+
dx dx
g x h x dx x
g x h x dx
|
00

fi fth-degree Tayl or pol ynomi al for e
x
centered at x 5 0 i s
f x x
x x x x
( ) + + + + + 1
2 6 24 120
2 3 4 5
So,
f 2 1 2 2
4
3
2
3
4
15
7 267
( ) + + + + +
. .
fi rst want to take the l i mi t of the
rati o test.
lim
lim
n
n
n
n
x
n n
x
n n
n
x
n
+
+
+ ( )
( )
+ ( ) +
( )

( )
( )
( )
+ ( )
2
1 1 3
2
1
1
3

+2
nn n
n n
x
+ ( ) +

+
1 1 3
2
3
x +
<
2
3
1
So,
2 5 , x , 1.
I f we test the end poi nts, wel l fi nd
that the seri es converges at both of
them, so the radi us of convergence i s
2 5 x 1
38. The correct answer is (B). Fi rst,
fi gure the trapezoi dal approxi mati on
usi ng n 5 6:
T
6
1
2
5 2 0 2 3 2 4
2 3 2 0 5
15
+ ( ) + ( ) + ( ) +
( ) + ( ) +
_
,
Now, we can use our cal cul ator to

di vi de
15
4
2
3
3
x dx
. Thi s comes out

to 0.978.
39. The correct answer is (D). I f we
exami ne the fi gure, wel l see that y5
3 2 x
2
i s the top curve.
Si nce the two curves i ntersect at
(1,2), the l i mi ts of i ntegrati on are 0
and 1. Usi ng the washer method, the
vol ume woul d be
V x x dx
( )
+
( )
_
,
3 1
2
2
3
2
0
1
.
Si nce thi s i s not a choi ce, we shoul d
swi tch the l i mi ts of i ntegrati on and
factor out a negati ve to get
V x x dx +
( )

( )
_
,
3
2
2
2
1
0
1 3 .
der to determi ne the tangent l i ne, we
need two thi ngs: a poi nt and the
sl ope. To fi nd the sl ope, l ets fi nd
g(2). Thi s i s a si mpl e appl i cati on of
the second fundamental theorem:
( ) g 2 2
To fi nd a poi nt on the tangent l i ne,
we need to eval uate g(2):
g x dx xdx 2
4 2 64
3
2
0
2
4
0
( )
( )
+
So, we wri te the equati on for the l i ne

through 2
4 2 64
3
,

( )
wi th a sl ope of
2
.
y x

( )
4 2 64
3
2 2
Thi s can be transformed i nto
3 2 3 64 2 2 x y +
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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41. The correct answer is (A). We are
l ooki ng for the graph of the deri va-
ti ve of the gi ven graph. Si nce g has
onl y one hori zontal tangent, we can
expect i ts deri vati ve to have onl y one
zero.
42. Thecorrect answer is(C). The for-
mul a for the sum of an i nfi ni te geo-
metri c seri es i s
S
a
r
1
Substi tuti ng a
4
5
and r
2
7
gi ves us
S

4
5
2
7
1
28
25
1 120 .
43. Thecorrect answer is (E). The av-
erage rate of change i s just the sl ope
of the secant, whi ch i s
m=
26 2 6
10 2 5
= 4
Si nce i t i s stri ctl y monotoni c and
f(10) . f(5), then f i s i ncreasi ng over
the i nterval [5,10] and the absol ute
maxi mum must occur at x 5 10. The
absol ute maxi mum i s 26. Si nce 8 i s
on the i nterval [5,10] and f i s i n-
creasi ng over thi s i nterval , f(8) . 0.
44. The correct answer is (C). We are
goi ng to fi nd the anti deri vati ve of
f(x) 5 e
2x
.
F x e dx
F x e C
x
x
( )
( ) +
2
2
1
2
Si nce we are gi ven the i ni ti al condi -
ti on that F(0) 5 2.5,
2 5
1
2
2
0
.
.
+
e C
C
Substi tuti ng thi s gi ves us
F x e
x
( ) +
1
2
2
2
Now, usi ng our cal cul ator, we can de-
termi ne F(5) to be 11015.233.
45. The correct answer is (B). To fi nd
the vol ume of a sol i d wi th known
cross secti ons, we i ntegrate the area
of these cross secti ons. So, the vol -
ume woul d be gi ven by
V x dx +
( )
2
2
0
3
3
8 314 .
1. (a) The formul a for a Tayl or seri es
expansi on i s
f a
n
x a
f a f a x a
f a
x a
n
n
n
( )
( )
( )
( ) + ( ) ( ) +
( )
_
,
( ) +
0
2
2!
++
( )
_
,
( ) +
f a
n
x a
n
n
!

We are gi ven the val ues of the
functi on and the fi rst three de-
ri vati ves when x5 1. We can just
pl ug these i nto the formul a and
get
f x x
x x
x x
x
( ) + ( ) ( ) +
( )
+
( ) ( )
( ) + ( )
(
3 1 1
4 1
2
2 1
6
3 1 2 1
1
2 3
2 ))
3
3
Now, we use thi s pol ynomi al to
fi nd f (1.1) ' 2.920.
(b) Thi s i s the deri vati ve of the pol y-
nomi al i n part A.
f(x) ' 21 1 4(x 2 1) 2
(x 2 1)
2
f(1.1) ' 20.61
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
p
r
a
c
t
i
c
e
t
e
s
t
3
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(c)
f t dt
t
t
t
t
x x
( )
( )
+
( )
( )
_
,

1
2
3
4
3
1
2
2 1
3
1
12
11
3
1
2
2 1
3
1
12
3
2 3
4

( )
+
( )
( )
x
x x
x
(d) Can f(2) be determi ned from the
i nformati on gi ven? Justi fy your
answer.
No, we onl y have i nformati on
about f(1). We can onl y approxi-
mateval ues other than that.
2. (a)
dy
dx
x x
e
e dy x x dx
e x x C
y
y
y
+
+
( )
+ +

3 2
3 2
2
2
3 2
Si nce f(0) 5 2, we substi tute 0 for
x and 2 for y:
e
2
5 C
Substi tuti ng back, we get
e
y
5 x
3
1 x
2
1 e
2
Now, we sol ve for y by taki ng the
natural l og of both si des:
y 5 l n (x
3
1 x
2
1 e
2
)
(b) Remember, the domai n of a
natural l og functi on i s the set of
al l numbers for whi ch the argu-
ment i s posi ti ve. So, usi ng the
cal cul ator, we can determi ne
that x
3
1 x
2
1 e
2
i s posi ti ve for
al l x . 22.344.
(c) Where does the second deri va-
ti ve change si gns?
y x x e
y
x x
x x e
+ +
( )

+
( )
+ +
( )
ln
3 2 2
2
3 2 2
3 2

+ +
( )
+ ( )
+
( )
+
( )
+ +
( )
y
x x e x
x x x x
x x e
x x
3 2 2
2 2
3 2 2
2
4 3
6 2
3 2 3 2
3 4
22 6 2
2 2 2
3 2 2
2
x e x e
x x e
+ +
+ +
( )
We are real l y concerned about
where the numerator i s zero, so
wel l set i t equal to zero and use
our cal cul ator to sol ve for x.
23x
4
2 4x
3
2 2x
2
1 6e
2
x 1 2e
2
5 0
The graph of y 5 23x
4
2 4x
3
2 2x
2
1 6e
2
x 1 2e
2
crosses the
x-axi s i n two pl aces: x 5 20.331
and x 5 2.128. So, thi s functi on
has two poi nts of i nfl ecti on:
x 5 20.331 and x 5 2.128.
3. (a) We fi rst use our cal cul ators to
determi ne the poi nts of i ntersec-
ti on, whi ch are x 5 22.028 and
x 5 1.428. Al so, we can tel l from
the cal cul ator that y5 2x
2
1 3 i s
the top functi on. So, the area of
R coul d be determi ned l i ke thi s:
A x x dx + ( ) ( )
2 1
2 028
1 428
3
7 243
tan
.
.
.
(b) We are goi ng to use the formul a
for arc l ength twi ce, once for
each curve:
L x dx
x
dx
+
( )
+
+
+
( )
_
,
1 2
1
1
1
2
2
2 028
1 428
2
2
2 028
1 428
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(c) We need to i ntegrate the area of
a semi ci rcl e. Remember, the for-
mul a for the area of a semi ci rcl e
i s A 5
1
2
pr
2
. Fi rst, we shoul d de-
termi ne r. Thi s shoul d be
1
2
the
di stance between the curves. So,
r 5
1
2
(2x
2
1 3 2 tan
21
x). So, the
vol ume of the sol i d i s gi ven by
the fol l owi ng
V
x
x
dx
x
x
_
,
1
2
1
4
3
8
3
2 028
1 428
2
1
2
2
1
.
.
tan
tan
__
,
2
2 028
1 428
dx
.
.
4. (a) A rel ati ve mi ni mum exi sts wher-
ever the val ue of the deri vati ve
changes from negati ve to posi -
ti ve. Thi s happens twi ce: at x 5
22 and at x 5 6.
(b) A rel ati ve maxi mum exi sts wher-
ever the deri vati ve changes from
posi ti ve to negati ve. Thi s occurs
at x 5 4.
(c) There are four possi bl e absol ute
mi ni mums: x 5 23, x 5 22, x 5
6, and x 5 8. These are the rel a-
ti ve mi ni mums and the end
poi nts. We shoul d exami ne the
accumul ated area under the de-
ri vati ves graph for each one.
Upon doi ng so, we see that the
area between the deri vati ves
graph and the x-axi s i s l east at
x 5 22. So, the absol ute mi ni -
mum occurs when x 5 22.
(d) Si nce there i s a verti cal tangent
l i ne at x 5 3, the deri vati ve of
the deri vati ve does not exi st
there. Al so, si nce there i s a cusp
at x 5 5, f(5) does not exi st
ei ther.
5. (a)
1 1
1
2
3
(b) Poi nt (0,3):
dy
dx
= x(y2 2) = 0; Dy=
(.2)(0) = 0. The new poi nt wi l l be
(0 + .2, 3 + 0) = (.2,3).
Poi nt (.2,3):
dy
dx
= x(y2 2) = (.2)(1)
= .2; Dy = (.2)(.2) = .04. The new
poi nt wi l l be (.2 + .2, 3 + .04) =
(.4,3.04).
Therefore, f(0.4) ' 3.04.
(c)
dy
dx
x y
dy
y
x dx
dy
y
x dx
( )

2
2
2

ln y
x
C + 2
2
2
Now, we wi l l substi tute i n our
i ni ti al condi ti on of x 5 0 and
y 5 3:
ln
.
1
0
2
0
+
C
C
By substi tuti on,
ln y
x
y e
x

+
2
2
2
2
2
2
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
p
r
a
c
t
i
c
e
t
e
s
t
3
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6. (a) Thi s i nvol ves fi ndi ng the an-
ti deri vati ves of both components
of the vel oci ty vector:
( )
( ) +
( ) + +
( ) +
x t
t
y t
t
x t t
t
C
y t t
t
C
x
3
3
4
2
3
3
4
2
1
2
2
1
2
and
and
(( ) + +
( ) +

( ) + +
7 3 3
1 0 4 2
1
2
3
3
1
1
2
1
2
C
y C
C
C
x t t
t
and
and
and yy t t
t
x
y
( )
( ) + +
( )
4
2
2
3 9 1 1 11
3 12
2
3
2
28
3
and
So, the posi ti on of the parti cl e
when t 5 3 i s 11
28
3
,
_
,
.
(b) The sl ope of the tangent l i ne i s
equal to
dy
dx
t
t
4
3
2
2
3
2
I n order for the sl ope to be zero,
we woul d need the numerator of
dy
dx
to be zero:
4
2
0
2
+
t
However, there are no val ues for
t that woul d make thi s equati on
true. Therefore, the l i ne tangent
to the path of the parti cl e wi l l
never have a sl ope of zero.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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1. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
E
2. O
A
O
B
O
C
O
D
O
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3. O
A
O
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A
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A
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A
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A
O
B
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A
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O
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A
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O
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A
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O
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A
O
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A
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O
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A
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O
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30. O
A
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31. O
A
O
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32. O
A
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33. O
A
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34. O
A
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O
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35. O
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36. O
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45. O
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answer sheet
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Practice Test 4: AP
Calculus BC
SEC TIO N I, PART A
number.
1.
sin cos x xdx
0
4
(A)
1
4
(B)
1
8
(C)
1
8
(D)
1
4
(E)
3
8
2. I f x 5 l n t and y 5 e
2t
then
dy
dx
5
(A) 2e
2t
(B)
2
2
e
t
t
(C) te
2t
(D) 2te
2t
(E)
te
t 2
2
3. The functi on
y
x
x x
( )
+
2
8 7
2
2
has a l ocal mi ni mum at x 5
(A)
1
2
(B) 1
(C) 2
(D) 7
p
r
a
c
t
i
c
e
t
e
s
t
4
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
595
4.
d
dx
e e
x x
ln cos
( ) ( )

(A) 2e
2x
tan e
x
(B)
e
e
e e
x
x
x x
cos
ln cos +
( )
(C) e
2x
tan e
x
(D) 2e
2x
tan e
x
1 e
x
l n (cos e
x
)
(E) e
x
(e
x
tan e
x
1 l n (cos e
x
))
5. I f f x
x
x
( )
sin
2
, then f (p) 5
(A)
1
2
(B) p
2
(C)
1
2
(D) 21
(E) 0
6.
The graph of y 5 h(x) i s shown above. Whi ch of the fol l owi ng coul d be the graph
of h(x)?
(A) (B) (C)
(D) (E)
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Q UESTIO NS 7 THRO UG H 9 REFER TO THE
FO LLO WING G RAPH AND
INFO RM ATIO N.
1 3 2 4 5 6
1
2
1
2
The functi on f i s defi ned on the cl osed
i nterval [0,6]. The graph of the deri vati ve
f i s shown above.
7. The poi nt (3,2) i s on the graph of y 5
f(x). An equati on for the l i ne tangent
to the graph of f at (3,2) i s
(A) y 5 22x 1 4.
(B) y 5 2x 2 4.
(C) y 1 2 5 22(x 1 3).
(D) y 2 2 5 22(x 2 3).
(E) y 5 2.
8. At what val ue of x does the absol ute
mi ni mum val ue of f occur?
(A) 0
(B) 2
(C) 3
(D) 4
(E) 6
9. How many poi nts of i nfl ecti on does
the graph of f have?
(A) Two
(B) Three
(C) Four
(D) Fi ve
(E) Si x
10. I f 6x
2
1 3y 2 2xy
2
5 3, then when
x 5 0,
dy
dx
5
(A)
1
3
(B)
2
3
(C) 1
(D)
4
3
(E)
5
3
11.
ln x
x
dx
2
3

(A)
1
3
(B)
l n3+1
3
(C)
l n3
3
(D) 1 1 l n 3
(E) I t i s di vergent.
12. x x dx sec
2

(A) xtanx 2
1
2
sec
2
x 1 C
(B) xtanx 1 l n U sec xU 1 C
(C) xtanx 2 l n U cos xU 1 C
(D) xtanx 1 l n U cos xU 1 C
(E) xtanx 2 l n U sec x + tan xU 1 C
13.
x
x
x x
( )
+
_
,

1
2
3
3 2
lim
ln
(A)
1
3
(B) 0
(C) 2
(D) 6
p
r
a
c
t
i
c
e
t
e
s
t
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14. What i s the approxi mati on of the val ue
of cos 2 obtai ned by usi ng the si xth-
degree Tayl or pol ynomi al about x50
for cosx?
(A) 1 2 2 +
2
3
2
4
45
(B) 1 + 2 +
16
24
+
64
720
(C) 1 2
1
2
+
1
24
2
1
720
(D) 2 2
4
3
+
4
15
2
8
315
(E) 2 +
8
6
+
32
120
+
128
5040
15. Whi ch of the fol l owi ng sequence(s)
converges?
I .
3
7 1
2
3
n
n
I I .
7
n

I I I .
3
7
4
2
n
n
(A) I onl y
(B) I I onl y
(C) I I I onl y
(D) I and I I
16. A parti cl e moves on a pl ane curve so
that at any ti me t . 0 i ts posi ti on i s
defi ned by the parametri c equati ons
x(t) 5 3t
2
2 7 and y t
t
t
( )
+ 4 1
3
2
. The
accel erati on vector of the parti cl e at
t 5 2 i s
(A) 6
1
12
,
(B) 17
17
6
,
(C) 12
47
12
,
(D) 12
33
12
,
(E) 6
17
6
,
17.
Shown above i s the sl ope fi el d for
whi ch of the fol l owi ng di fferenti al
equati ons?
(A)
dy
dx
5 1 1 x
(B)
dy
dx
5 x 2 y
(C)
dy
dx
=
x +y
2
(D)
dy
dx
5 y 2 x
(E)
dy
dx
5 y 1 1
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18.
x
x
t dt
x
_
,
2
3
2
2
4
lim
is
(A) 0.
(B) 2.
(C) 4.
(D) 8.
(E) nonexi stent.
19.
x
x
dx
2
3 +
(A)
1
2
x
2
1 3x 1 C
(B)
1
3
x
3
1 3x 1 C
(C)
3
2
x
2
1 C
(D)
x
2
2
+ 3l nU xU + C
(E) x 1
3
x
1 C
20. I f f(x) 5 sec
2
x, then
_
,
f

3
(A)
3
2
(B)
3 3
2
(C)
8 3
(D)
4 3
(E)
2 3
3
21. What i s the i nstantaneous rate of
change of the deri vati ve of the func-
ti on f(x) 5 l n x
2
when x 5 3?
(A)
2
3
(B)
2
9
(C)
2
9
(D)
2
3
(E) l n 9
22.
x
x x x
x x
+
( )
( ) + ( )

lim
2
7 9
2 2 3
(A) 27
(B) 0
(C)
1
2
(D) 2
23.
d
dx
(sec x
2
l n e
cosx
2
) 5
(A) sec sin 2
2 2
x x x
(B) 2
2 2 2
x x x x sec tan cos
(C) 21
(D) 0
(E) 1
24. What i s the approxi mati on of the
area under y 5 x
2
2 2x 1 1 for 0
x 4 usi ng the trapezoi dal rul e wi th
4 subi nterval s?
(A)
4
3
(B) 8
(C)
28
3
(D) 10
(E) 16
p
r
a
c
t
i
c
e
t
e
s
t
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25. Let f be the functi on gi ven by the
fi rst four nonzero terms of the Ma-
cl auri n pol ynomi al used to approxi -
mate the val ue of e
x
. Determi ne the
area bounded by the graph and the
x-axi s for 0 x 2.
(A) 4
(B)
64
15
(C) 5
(D) 6
(E)
20
3
26.
1 2 3
The graph of a twi ce-di fferenti abl e
functi on f i s shown i n the above fi g-
ure. Whi ch of the fol l owi ng i s true?
(A) f(2) , f(2) , f(2)
(B) f(2) , f(2) , f(2)
(C) f(2) , f(2) , f(2)
(D) f(2) , f(2) , f(2)
(E) f(2) , f(2) , f(2)
27.
e
x
dx
x
1
9
(A)
e e
3
2
(B) e
3
2 e
(C) 2e(e
2
2 1)
(D) 2e
3
(E)
e
3
3
28. The l ength of the path descri bed by
the parametri c equati ons x t
4
3
2
and y t
1
2
3
, where 0 t 2, i s
(A)
64
9
1
2
0
2
t dt +

(B)
9
4
1
4
0
2
t dt +

(C)
64
9
9
4
2 4
0
2
t t dt +

(D)
1
2
64
9
9
4
2 4
0
2
t t dt

(E)
1
4
16
9
1
4
4 6
0
2
t t dt +

STOP
O F THE TEST.
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SEC TIO N I, PART B
THE EXAM INATIO N.
29. For what i nteger k . 1 wi l l both
( )

_
,

1
3
2
1 1
kn
n
n n
n
k
and converge?
(A) 2
(B) 3
(C) 4
(D) 5
(E) 6
30. The vol ume of the sol i d formed when
the regi on bounded by y x 4
2
,
x 5 0, and y 5 0 i s rotated about the
l i ne y 5 22 i s gi ven by whi ch of
these defi ni te i ntegral s?
(A) 2 4
2
0
2
x x dx
(B) 4
2
0
2
( )
x dx
(C)
4
2
2
0
2
_
,
x dx
(D) 4 2 4
2
2
0
2
+
_
,

1
]
1
x dx
(E)
2 4
2
2
0
2
x x dx
_
,
31. I f f i s a vector-val ued functi on
defi ned by f t e t
t
( )
2
2 , cos , then
f(t) 5
(A) 2 2 2
2
e t
t
, sin
(B) 4 4 2
2
e t
t
, cos
(C) 4 2 2
2
e t
t
, sin
(D) 4 4 2
2
e t
t
, cos
(E) e t
t 2
2 , cos
32. e x dx
x
sin
(A)
1
2
e
x
~si n x 2 cos x! + C
(B)
1
2
e
x
~si n x 1 2 cos x! + C
(C) 2e
x
cos x + C
(D) e
x
(si n x 2 cos x) + C
(E) e
x
si n x + e
x
cos x + C
p
r
a
c
t
i
c
e
t
e
s
t
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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33. The graph of the functi on repre-
sented by the Macl auri n seri es
1 2
4
3
2 4
1 2
2
2 2
+ +
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
x x
n n n
x
n
!
!
i nter-
sects the graph of y 5 3x
3
2 2x
2
1 7
at x 5
(A) 21.248
(B) 21.180
(C) 21.109
(D) 21.063
(E) 21.056
34. The accel erati on of a parti cl e i s de-
scri bed by the parametri c equati ons
( ) + x t t
t
2
4
and ( ) y t
t
1
3
. I f the
vel oci ty vector of the parti cl e when
t 5 2 i s 4,1n 2 , what i s the vel oci ty
vector of the parti cl e when t 5 1?
(A)
5
4
1
3
,
(B)
23
12
4
3
,
ln
(C)
23
12
2
3
,
ln
(D)
5
4
2
3
2 , ln
(E)
23
12
1
3
2 , ln
35. What i s the average rate of change of
f x
x
x
( )

2
3
1
over [2,5]?
(A)
9
8
(B)
3
2
(C) 3
(D)
9
2
(E)
11
2
36. Let f be defi ned as the functi on f(x) 5
x
2
1 4x 2 8. The tangent l i ne to the
graph of f at x 5 2 i s used to approxi -
mate val ues of f. Usi ng thi s tangent
l i ne, whi ch of the fol l owi ng best ap-
proxi mates a zero of f?
(A) 2 5.464
(B) 21.500
(C) 0
(D) 1.464
(E) 1.500
37.
4 3 3
2 3
2
2
x x
x x
dx
+
+

(A) 4x 2 12 l n U x + 3U 1 l n U x 2 1U
1 C
(B) 4x 2 12 l n U x + 3U 2 l n U x 2 1U
1 C
(C) 4x 1 12 l n U (x + 3)(x 2 1)U 1 C
(D) l n U x
2
+ 2x 2 3U 1 C
(E)
8 9 18
2 6 18
3 2
3 2
x x x
x x x
C
+
+
+
38. The revenue from the sal e of the wi d-
gets i s 108x 1 1,000 dol l ars, and the
total producti on cost i s 3x
2
1 16x 2
500 dol l ars, where x i s the number of
wi dgets produced. How many wi d-
gets shoul d be made i n order to
maxi mi ze profi ts?
(A) 0
(B) 10
(C) 15
(D) 20
(E) 24
39. What are al l the val ues of xfor whi ch
the seri es
2 3
1
x
n
n
n
+ ( )
converges?
(A) 22 , x , 21
(B) 22 x 21
(C) 22 , x 21
(D) 22 x , 21
(E) 22 x , 1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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40. I f
f (x)
e
x
, x < ln 2
2, x ln 2
then
lim
ln x
f x
( )
2
(A)
1
2
(B) l n 2
(C) 2
(D) e
2
41.
x
x
x

1
2
2
1
lim
ln
(A) 21
(B) 0
(C) 1
(D) e
42. At whi ch point i s the graph of f(x) 5
x
4
2 2x
3
2 2x
2
2 7 decreasi ng and
concave down?
(A) (1,210)
(B) (2,215)
(C) (3,2)
(D) (21,26)
(E) (22,17)
43. A popul ati on, P(t) where t i s i n years,
i ncreases at a rate proporti onal to i ts
si ze. I f P(0) 5 40 and P(1) 5 48.856,
how many years wi l l i t take the
popul ati on to be doubl e i ts ori gi nal
si ze?
(A) 0.347 years
(B) 3.466 years
(C) 3.792 years
(D) 34.657 years
(E) 37.923 years
44. Let f be a conti nuous and di fferen-
ti abl e functi on on the cl osed i nterval
[1,5]. I f f(1) 5 f(5), then Rol l es theo-
rem guarantees whi ch of the fol l ow-
i ng?
(A) f(c) 5 0 for some c on (1,5)
(B) f (c) 5 0 for some c on (1,5)
(C) f i s stri ctl y monotoni c
(D) I f c i s on [1,5], then f(c) 5 f(1)
(E) f (3) 5 0
p
r
a
c
t
i
c
e
t
e
s
t
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45. A parti cl e starts from rest at the ori gi n and moves al ong the x-axi s wi th an
i ncreasi ng posi ti ve vel oci ty. Whi ch of the fol l owi ng coul d be the graph of the
di stance s(t) that the parti cl e travel s as a functi on of ti me t?
(A) (B) (C)
(D) (E)
STOP
O F THE TEST.
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www.petersons.com
1. Let R be the regi on i n the fi rst quad-
rant encl osed by the graphs of
y 5 e
2x
1 4 and y 5 3x .
(a) Sketch the regi on R on the axes
provi ded.
1 3 2 4 5 6 7
1
2
3
4
5
6
(b) Determi ne the area of the
regi on R.
(c) Fi nd the vol ume of the sol i d
generated when R i s rotated
about the x-axi s.
(d) The regi on R i s the base of a
sol i d. Each cross secti on perpen-
di cul ar to the x-axi s i s an equi -
l ateral tri angl e. Fi nd the
vol ume of thi s sol i d.
2. The rate at whi ch ai r i s l eaki ng out
of a ti re i s proporti onal to the
amount of ai r i n the ti re. The ti re
ori gi nal l y was fi l l ed to capaci ty wi th
1,500 cubi c i nches of ai r. After one
hour, there were 1,400 cubi c i nches
of ai r l eft i n i t.
(a) Express the amount of ai r i n
the ti re i n cubi c i nches as a
functi on of ti me t i n hours.
(b) A ti re i s sai d to be fl at i f i t i s
hol di ng
2
3
of i ts capaci ty or l ess.
After how many hours woul d
thi s ti re be fl at?
3. Consi der the curve defi ned by 9x
2
1
4y
2
2 54x 1 16y 1 61 5 0.
(a) Veri fy that
dy
dx
x
y

+
27 9
4 8
.
(b) Wri te the equati on for each
verti cal tangent l i ne of the
curve.
(c) The poi nts (3,1) and (1,22) are
on the curve. Wri te the equa-
ti on for the secant l i ne through
these two poi nts.
(d) Wri te the equati on for a l i ne
tangent to the curve and
paral l el to the secant l i ne from
part C.
STOP
O F THE TEST.
p
r
a
c
t
i
c
e
t
e
s
t
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www.petersons.com
4.
1 3 2 5 6
Above i s the graph of the vel oci ty of a
bug crawl i ng al ong the x-axi s over a
si x-second i nterval .
(a) At what ti me(s) t, 0 , t , 6,
does the bug change di recti ons?
(b) At what ti me t, 0 , t 6, i s the
bug farthest from i ts starti ng
poi nt? Expl ai n your reasoni ng.
(c) Over what i nterval (s) i s the
bug sl owi ng down?
5. The path of a parti cl e from t 5 0 to
t 5 10 seconds i s descri bed by the
parametri c equati ons x t t ( )
( )
4
2
cos

and y t t ( )
( )
3
2
sin

.
(a) Wri te a Cartesi an equati on for
the curve defi ned by these
parametri c equati ons.
(b) Fi nd
dy
dx
for the equati on i n
part A.
(c) Determi ne the vel oci ty vector
for the parti cl e at any ti me t.
(d) Demonstrate that your answers
for part A and part B are
equi val ent.
(e) Wri te, but do not eval uate, an
i ntegral expressi on that woul d
gi ve the di stance the parti cl e
travel ed from t 5 2 to t 5 6.
6. Let P x x ( ) + ( ) ln2 1
x x x ( ) ( ) ( )
+
1
2
1
3
1
4
2 3 4
be the fourth-
degree Tayl or pol ynomi al for the
functi on f about x 5 1. Assume that f
has deri vati ves of al l orders for al l
real numbers.
(a) Fi nd f(1) and f
(4)
(1).
(b) Wri te the thi rd-degree Tayl or
f(1.2).
(c) Wri te the fi fth-degree Tayl or
pol ynomi al for
g x f t dt
x
( ) ( )
1
about x 5 1.
STOP
O F THE TEST.
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www.petersons.com
1. D
2. D
3. A
4. D
5. C
6. A
7. D
8. D
9. B
10. B
11. B
12. D
13. A
14. A
15. D
16. A
17. B
18. B
19. D
20. C
21. B
22. E
23. D
24. D
25. D
26. B
27. C
28. C
a strai ght-forward u-substi tuti on i n-
tegrati on probl em. I f we l et u 5 si nx,
then du 5 cosx dx and
sin cos x x dx u du
0 0
4 2 2

5
1
4
member that
dy
dx
=
dy
dt
dx
dt
. Fi rst, wel l
fi nd
dx
dt
:
x 5 l n t
dx
dt
=
1
t
Now, wel l fi nd
dy
dt
:
y 5 e
2t
dy
dt
5 2e
2t
So,
dy
dx
=
2e
2t
1
t
52te
2t
3. The correct answer is (A). To fi nd
the l ocal mi ni mum, we need to deter-
mi ne when the deri vati ve changes
from negati ve to posi ti ve. Fi rst, we
determi ne the deri vati ve:
y
x
x x
( )
+
2
8 7
2
2

+
( )
( )
( ) ( )
+
( )
y
x x x
x x
x x
2
2
2
2
8 7 2 2
2 2 8
8 7
( ) ( )
+
( )
2 2 2 1
8 7
2
2
x x
x x
I f we set y 5 0 and sol ve for x, we
see that x 5
1
2
and x 5 2 are zeros
of the deri vati ve. By exami ni ng the
wi ggl e graph bel ow, we can see that
the l ocal mi ni mum occurs at x 5 2
1
2
.
probl em cal l s for the product rul e.
We must di fferenti ate each term
wi th respect to x.
d
dx
e e
e
e e
e
e e
e e e
x x
x
x x
x
x x
x x x
ln cos
sin
cos
lncos
tan
( ) ( )

+
+
2
1nccose
x
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
p
r
a
c
t
i
c
e
t
e
s
t
4
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www.petersons.com
5. The correct answer is (C). Here,
we use the quoti ent rul e to deter-
mi ne the deri vati ve; then, eval uate i t
at x 5 p.
f x
x
x
( )
sin
2
( )

f x
x x x x
x
2
4
2 cos sin
( )

f

2
4
2 cos sin

1
2
6. The correct answer is (A). The

graph of h(x) i s concave down for al l
x , 0 and concave up for al l x . 0.
Thi s i mpl i es that the second deri va-
ti ve i s negati ve for al l x , 0 and
posi ti ve for al l x . 0. Choi ce (A) i s
the onl y graph that meets thi s re-
qui rement.
7. The correct answer is (D). To
wri te the equati on of a tangent l i ne,
we need a poi nt and the sl ope. The
poi nt i s gi ven to us: (3,2). The sl ope
i s merel y the y-coordi nate that corre-
sponds to x 5 3 on the graph of f .
Si nce f (3) 5 22, then the sl ope of
the tangent l i ne i s 22. I n poi nt-sl ope
form, the equati on of the tangent
l i ne i s
y 2 2 5 22(x 2 3)
an area accumul ati on probl em. We
can see that the accumul ated area i s
l east when x 5 4.
9. The correct answer is (B). Poi nts
of i nfl ecti on on the graph of a func-
ti on correspond to hori zontal tan-
gents on the graph of the deri vati ve.
Si nce there are three, the functi on
has three poi nts of i nfl ecti on.
an i mpl i ci t di fferenti ati on probl em.
Remember, we need to use the prod-
uct rul e to di fferenti ate 2xy
2
.
6x
2
1 3y 2 2xy
2
5 3
12x 1 3
dy
dx
2 4xy
dy
dx
2 2y
2
5 0
dy
dx
y x
xy
2 12
3 4
2
Now, we determi ne the correspond-
i ng y val ue by substi tuti ng x 5 0 i nto
the ori gi nal equati on.
0 1 3y 2 0 5 3
y 5 1
Fi nal l y, we substi tute x 5 0 and y 5
1 i nto
dy
dx
.
dy
dx
5
2
3
11. The correct answer is (B). For an
i mproper i ntegral , we fi rst change i t
to a l i mi t of a defi ni te i ntegral .
ln
lim
ln x
x
dx
x
x
dx
p
p
2 2
3 3

Now, we have to address that tri cky
i ntegrand. We do i ntegrati on by
parts and l et u 5 l n x and dv 5
x
22
dx. So,
p
p
p
p
x
x
dx
x
x
x dx
p
1
]
1
lim
ln
lim
ln
2
3
2
3 3

_
,
p
p
x
x x
lim
ln 1
3

_
,
_
,
p
p
p p
lim
ln ln 1 3
3
1
3
+ ln3 1
3
Note: lim
ln
p
p
p
0 by LHpi tal s
rul e.
an exampl e of a strai ghtforward i n-
tegrati on-by-parts probl em. We l et
u 5 x and dv 5 sec
2
x dx.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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www.petersons.com
x x dx x x x dx sec tan tan
2

5 xtanx 1 l n U cos xU 1 C
13. The correct answer is (A). I f we
try to eval uate thi s l i mi t usi ng di rect
substi tuti on, we wi l l get an i ndeter-
mi nate form:
0
0
. So, we can use
LHpi tal s rul e and take the deri va-
ti ve of the numerator and denomi na-
tor; then, eval uate the l i mi t.
x
x
x
x
x
x x x

( )
+

1
2
3
1
2
2
3 2 3 3
lim
ln
lim
ln
I f we eval uate the l i mi t now, we sti l l
get
0
0
. So, we try LHpi tal s rul e
agai n.
x
x
x
x 1
2 2
2
6
lim
ln
5
1
3
14. The correct answer is (A). cosx
centered at x 5 0 i s one Tayl or pol y-
nomi al that we shoul d be abl e to gen-
erate from memory. I t goes l i ke thi s:
cos
! !
x
x x x
+ + 1
2 4 6
2 4 6
To fi nd the val ue for cos2, we substi -

tute 2 for x:
1 2
2
3
4
45
+
15. The correct answer is (D). Both I .
and I I . converge to 0, whi l e I I I . i s
di vergent.
accel erati on i s associ ated wi th the
second deri vati ve of posi ti on, we
must determi ne the second deri va-
ti ve for each of these parametri c
equati ons and eval uate them at
x 5 2.
x(t) 5 3t
2
2 7
x(t) 5 6t
x(t) 5 6
x(2) 5 6
Rewri te y(t) as y t t t ( ) +
4
3
1
3
1
.
( ) y t t
4
3
1
3
2

( ) y t t
2
3
3
( ) y 2
1
12
The accel erati on vector of the par-
ti cl e at x 5 2 i s 6
1
12
, .
17. The correct answer is (B). Noti ce
that al l of the sl opes on the l i ne y5 x
are zero.
18. The correct answer is (B). Thi s
i s a wel l -di sgui sed appl i cati on of
LHpi tal s rul e. We shoul d take the
deri vati ve of the numerator and the
deri vati ve of the denomi nator and
then eval uate the l i mi t.
x
x
x
t dt
x
x
x
_
,

2
3
2
2
2
3
4 2
2 lim lim
Noti ce we use the Fundamental
Theorem, Part Two to determi ne the
deri vati ve of the numerator.
19. The correct answer is (D). When
i ntegrati ng a rati onal expressi on
wi th a numerator of greater degree
than the denomi nator, we fi rst di vi de
and then i ntegrate.
x
x
dx x
x
dx
2
3 3 +
_
,
_
,

+ +
x
x C
2
2
3ln
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
p
r
a
c
t
i
c
e
t
e
s
t
4
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www.petersons.com
20. Thecorrect answer is (C). We wi l l
determi ne the deri vati ve of thi s func-
ti on by usi ng both the power and
chai n rul es. Then, we wi l l eval uate i t
at x 5
p
3
.
( ) f x x x x 2sec sec tan
_
,
f

3
2
3 3
2
sec tan
8 3
aski ng for the deri vati ve of the de-
ri vati ve when x 5 3. So, we need the
second deri vati ve of the functi on.
( ) f x
x
x x
2 2
2
( ) f x
x
2
2
( ) f 3
2
9
22. The correct answer is (E). Si nce
the degree of the numerator i s
greater than the degree of the de-
nomi nator, the l i mi t as x approaches
i nfi ni ty does not exi st because i t i s
i nfi ni te.
tri ck to thi s probl em i s to recogni ze
that
ln cos
cos
e x
x
2
2
So now al l we need to fi nd i s the

deri vati ve of secx
2
cosx
2
, whi ch i s
equal to 1. The deri vati ve of 1 i s 0.
member the trapezoi dal rul e:
A
b a
n
f a f x
f x f b
T
n

( ) + ( ) +
( ) + ( )
_
,
2
2
2
1
1
Appl yi ng thi s to the functi on y 5 x

2
2 2x 1 1 over [0,4] wi th n 5 4 yi el ds
A
T
+ ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + ( )
4
8
1 2 0 2 1 2 4 9 10
functi on i s
f x x
x x
( ) + + + 1
2 3
2 6
.
We i ntegrate thi s from x5 0 to x5 2.
1
2 6
2 6 24
2 3
0
2
2 3 4
0
2
+ + +
_
,

+ + +
_
,
x
x x
dx
x
x x x

+ + + 2 2
4
3
2
3
5 6
26. The correct answer is (B). By
readi ng the graph, we can tel l that
f(2) , 0. Si nce there i s a hori zontal
tangent l i ne at x 5 2, f(2) 5 0.
f(2) . 0 because the curve i s
concave up at x 5 2. Therefore,
f(2) , f(2) , f(2).
a rather compl i cated u-substi tuti on
i ntegrati on probl em. I f we l et u =
=x, then du 5
dx
2=x
.
e
x
dx e du
x
u
1
9
1
3
2

5 2e
3
2 2e5 2e(e
2
2 1)
28. The correct answer is (C). We
need to determi ne
dx
dt
and
dy
dt
fi rst.
dx
dt
t
8
3
dy
dt
t
3
2
2
Now, we i ntegrate from x 5 0 to x 5
2 the square root of the sum of the
squares of
dx
dt
and
dy
dt
.
l t t dt +
64
9
9
4
2 4
0
2

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www.petersons.com
29. A
30. D
31. B
32. A
33. B
34. B
35. B
36. E
37. A
38. C
39. D
40. C
41. C
42. A
43. B
44. B
45. B
29. The correct answer is (A). I f we
l et k 5 2, the fi rst seri es becomes
1
2
1
n
n
and converges si nce i t i s a

p-seri es wi th p . 1. I f k 5 2, the
second seri es becomes
2
3
1
_
,
n
n
and
converges si nce i t i s a geometri c
seri es wi th R , 1.
30. The correct answer is (D). Begi n
by drawi ng a di agram.
You coul d use the shel l method, but
wel l use the washer method. Use
verti cal rectangl es, si nce they are
perpendi cul ar to the hori zontal axi s
of rotati on. R(x) i s the outer radi us,
and R(x) i s the i nner radi us.
R x x x
r x
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
+

4 2 4 2
0 2 2
2 2
Now, appl y the washer method:
R r x x dx
x dx
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1
]
+
( )
1
]
1
2 2
0
2
2
2
0
2
4 2 4

Use your graphi ng cal cul ator to
eval uate the i ntegral . The vol ume
wi l l be 56.234.
31. The correct answer is (B). We
must determi ne the second deri va-
ti ve for each component:
f t e t
t
( )
2
2 , cos
( ) f t e t
t
2 2 2
2
, sin
( ) f t e t
t
4 4 2
2
, cos
an i ntegrati on by parts wi th a twi st
toward the end. Lets l et u 5 si nx
and dv 5 e
x
dx, so
e xdx e x e x dx
x x x
sin sin cos

We need to i ntegrate by parts agai n.
Wel l l et u 5 cosx and dv 5 e
x
dx,
conti nui ng:
e xdx e x e x
e xdx C
x x x
x
sin sin cos
sin

+
Heres the twi st. We are goi ng to add

*(e
x
si nx) dx to both si des of the equa-
ti on:
2 e x dx e x e x C
x x x
sin sin cos
+
To sol ve for *(e
x
si nx) dx, we wi l l di -
vi de both si des by 2:
e x dx e x e x C
x x x
sin sin cos

( )
+
1
2
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
p
r
a
c
t
i
c
e
t
e
s
t
4
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www.petersons.com
der to succeed wi th thi s probl em, we
must readi l y recogni ze sl i ght vari a-
ti ons of seri es that we have memo-
ri zed previ ousl y. Remember the
Macl auri n seri es for cosx:
cos
! !
x
x x
+ 1
2 3
2 3
The seri es i n thi s probl em i s the Ma-
cl auri n seri es for cos2x. So, we are
bei ng asked to determi ne at what
x val ue the graphs of y 5 cos2x and
y 5 3x
3
2 2x
2
1 7 i ntersect. Our
cal cul ators wi l l tel l us that happens
when x 5 21.180.
34. The correct answer is (B). We are
goi ng to determi ne the anti deri va-
ti ve of each component of the accel -
erati on vector, sol ve for the constants
of i ntegrati on, and pl ug and chug to
determi ne the vel oci ty vector when
t 5 1. Fi rst, we deal wi th the x com-
ponent:
( ) + x t
t
t
2
4
( ) + + x t
t t
C
3 2
1
12 2
( ) + + x C 2 4
2
3
2
1
C
1
4
3
( ) + + x t
t t
3 2
12 2
4
3
( ) + + x 1
1
12
1
2
4
3
23
12
Now, we do i t al l agai n for y:
( ) y t
t
1
3
( ) + y t t C
1
3
2
ln
( ) + y C 2 2
1
3
2
2
ln ln
2
3
2
2
ln C
( ) + y t t
1
3
2
3
2 ln ln
( ) + y 1
1
3
2
3
2 ln ln 1
2
3
2 ln
ln 4
3
Note that
2
3
2
1
3
2 2
1
3
4 ln ln ln ( )
(by l og properti es).
Fi nal l y, the vel oci ty vector of the
parti cl e when t 5 1 i s
23
12
4
3
,
ln
.
35. The correct answer is (B). To fi nd
the average rate of change of a func-
ti on over an i nterval , we need the
sl ope of the secant l i ne over that i n-
terval .
m
f b f a
b a
( ) ( )
11
2
1
3
3
2
need to fi nd the equati on for the tan-
gent l i ne of the graph at x 5 2 and
use our cal cul ator to determi ne
where that l i ne crosses the x-axi s.
Remember, to wri te an equati on for a
tangent l i ne, we need a poi nt on the
l i ne and the sl ope of the l i ne. Si nce
f(2) 5 4, (2,4) i s on the l i ne. The sl ope
i s
f (x) 5 2x 1 4
f (2) 5 8
Usi ng poi nt-sl ope form,
y 2 4 5 8(x 2 2)
y 5 8x 2 12
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www.petersons.com
Usi ng the cal cul ator (or maybe your
head), x 5 1.5 i s a zero of y 5 8x
2 12.
have to use the method of parti al
fracti ons i n order to get the i nte-
grand i nto a form that i s i ntegrabl e.
To start, si nce the degrees of the nu-
merator and denomi nator are equal ,
we use pol ynomi al l ong di vi si on. So,
4 3 3
2 3
4
11 15
3 1
2
2
x x
x x
dx x
x
x x
dx
+
+
_
,
+
+
+ ( )( )

To i ntegrate
+
+ ( )( )
11 15
3 1
x
x x
dx
, use
parti al fracti ons:
+
+ ( )( )

+
+
11 15
3 1 3 1
x
x x
A
x
B
x
Mul ti pl y through by (x13)(x21) to
get
+ ( ) + + ( )
+ +
+ ( ) + + ( )
11 15 1 3
3
3
x A x B x
Ax A Bx B
x A B A B
Thi s gi ves you the system of equa-
ti ons A 1 B 5 211 and 2A 1 3B
515. Sol vi ng si mul taneousl y, we get:
A 5 212 and B 5 1
The i ntegral can now take the easi er
form
11 15
3 1
12
3
1
1
x
x x
dx
x
x
dx
x
dx
+
+ ( )( )

+
+

Conti nui ng wi th the i ntegrati on
from above:
4
12
3
1
1
4 12 3 1
x
x x
dx
x x x C
+

+
+

+ + +
ln ln
38. The correct answer is (C). For
thi s probl em, we need to real i ze that
profi ts 5 revenue 2 cost. So, to fi nd
profi ts,
P(x) 5 108x 1 1,000 2 3x
2
2
16x 1 500
5 23x
2
1 92x 1 1,500
The deri vati ve i s P(x) 5 26x 1 92.
Set thi s equal to zero, and we fi nd
that P(x) i s maxi mi zed at
x
92
6
15 333 . .
39. The correct answer is (D). To de-
termi ne the i nterval of convergence,
we take the l i mi t of the rati o test.
n
n
n
x
n
n
x
+
+ ( )
+ + ( )
lim
2 3
1 2 3
1
5 U 2x 1 3 U
U 2x 1 3U converges i f i t i s l ess than 1.
U 2x 1 3 U , 1
2 1 , 2x 1 3 , 1
2 2 , x , 2 1
By testi ng the endpoi nts, we fi nd
that the seri es converges when x 5
22 and di verges when x 5 21. So
the i nterval of convergence i s 22
x , 21.
40. The correct answer is (C). I n or-
der for the l i mi t to exi st, the l eft- and
ri ght-hand l i mi ts have to exi st and
be equal to each other. Si nce both of
these are equal to 2,
lim
ln x
f x
( )
2
2
.
41. The correct answer is (C). Be-
cause we get
0
0
when we try to eval u-
ate by di rect substi tuti on, we need to
use LHpi tal s rul e on thi s l i mi t.
x x
x
x
x
x x

1
2
2
1
2
1 2
2
lim
ln
lim
x x 1
2
1
lim
5 1
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
p
r
a
c
t
i
c
e
t
e
s
t
4
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www.petersons.com
42. The correct answer is (A). The
qui ckest and easi est way to attack
thi s probl em i s by graphi ng i t. Whi ch
x-val ue makes both the fi rst and sec-
ond deri vati ves negati ve?
43. The correct answer is (B). When-
ever the rate of a functi on i ncreasi ng
or decreasi ng i s proporti onal to i t-
sel f, i t must be an exponenti al func-
ti on of the form P(t) 5 Ne
kt
. N i s the
i ni ti al val ue, so i n thi s case, N 5 40.
We use P(1) 5 48.856 to determi ne
the val ue of k.
48.856 5 40e
k
k ln
. 48 856
40
5 0.200
To determi ne how l ong i t wi l l take
the popul ati on to doubl e,
80 5 40e
0.200t
2 5 e
0.200t
t
ln
.
2
0 200
5 3.466 years
44. The correct answer is (B). Rol l es
theorem deal s wi th the i dea that i f
the functi on passes through the
same y-coordi nate twi ce, i t must
have a zero deri vati ve somewhere
between these two poi nts.
the vel oci ty i s posi ti ve, the posi ti on
functi on must be i ncreasi ng. Si nce
the vel oci ty i s i ncreasi ng, the posi -
ti on functi on must be concave up.
The onl y choi ce to meet both of these
requi rements i s choi ce (B).
1. (a)
1 3 2
R
4 5 6 7
1
2
3
4
5
6
(b) A e x dx
x
+
( )
4 3
8 106
0
5 346 .
.
(c) We use the washer method to de-
termi ne the vol ume:
+
( )

1
]
1
e x dx
x
4 3
160 624
2
0
5 346 .
.
(d) I t woul d be good to know that
the area of an equi l ateral tri -
angl e wi th si de s i s gi ven by
A s
3
4
2
. So, the vol ume of thi s
sol i d woul d be gi ven by
V e x dx
x
+
( )
3
4
4 3
8 511
2
0
5 346 .
.
2. (a) Si nce the rate of decrease i s pro-
porti onal to the functi on i tsel f,
we have an exponenti al functi on
of the fol l owi ng form:
A(t) 5 Ne
kt
Si nce the ti re i ni ti al l y had 1,500
cubi c i nches of ai r, C 5 1500. We
are gi ven that A(1) 5 1,400:
1,400 5 1500e
k
Sol vi ng for k,
14
15
14
15
e
k
k
ln
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Substi tuti ng thi s expressi on for
k yi el ds
A(t) 5
1 500
14 15
,
ln t ( )
(b) Si nce
2
3
of 1,500 i s 1,000, we can
substi tute 1,000 i nto the formul a
for A(t) and sol ve for t:
1,000 5 1,500e
t l n(14/15)
2
3
14 15
( )
e
t ln
ln ln
2
3
14
15
t
t
ln
ln
2
3
14
15
5 5.877 hours
3. (a) We have to use i mpl i ci t di fferen-
ti ati on and di fferenti ate wi th re-
spect to x:
9x
2
1 4y
2
2 54x 1 16y 1 61 5
0
18 8 54 16 0 x y
dy
dx
dy
dx
+ +
dy
dx
x
y

+
54 18
8 16

+
27 9
4 8
x
y
(b) Verti cal tangent l i nes exi st wher-
ever the denomi nator of the de-
ri vati ve equal s zero, and the
numerator does not. So, we de-
termi ne where the denomi nator
i s equal to zero.
4y 1 8 5 0
y 5 22
Si nce we are wri ti ng the equa-
ti on for one or more verti cal
l i nes, we real l y need to know the
correspondi ng x-coordi nate(s). To
thi s end, we wi l l substi tute y 5
22 i nto the ori gi nal equati on
and sol ve for x.
9x
2
1 4(22)
2
2 54x 1 16(22) 1
61 5 0
9x
2
2 54x 1 45 5 0
x
2
2 6x 1 5 5 0
x 5 1 and x 5 5
So, the equati ons for the verti cal
tangent l i nes are x 5 1 and
x 5 5.
(c) We wi l l fi rst fi nd the sl ope, wri te
the equati on i n poi nt-sl ope form,
and then convert to sl ope-
i ntercept form.
m5
22 2 1
1 2 3
5
3
2
y x ( ) 1
3
2
3
y x
3
2
7
2
(d) Si nce the l i nes are paral l el , they
have equal sl opes. So, the sl ope
of the tangent l i ne i s
3
2
. Now, we
need the poi nt(s) on the curve
where the deri vati ve i s equal to
3
2
. To determi ne thi s, we set the
deri vati ve equal to
3
2
, sol ve for y,
substi tute back i nto the ori gi nal
equati on, and sol ve for x.
dy
dx
x
y

+

27 9
4 8
3
2
54 2 18x 5 12y 1 24
y x
5
2
3
2
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
p
r
a
c
t
i
c
e
t
e
s
t
4
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Substi tuti ng thi s expressi on for y
i nto the ori gi nal equati on and
sol vi ng for x gi ves us
9 4
5
2
3
2
54
16
5
2
3
2
61 0
2
2
x x x
x
+
_
,
+
_
,
+
Wi th hel p from our cal cul ators,
x 5 1.586 and x 5 4.414. By sub-
sti tuti ng these x-val ues i nto
y x
5
2
3
2
, we get the corre-
spondi ng y-val ues to be y5 0.121
and y 5 24.121, respecti vel y. So,
there are two tangent l i nes par-
al l el to the l i ne from part C; they
have the fol l owi ng equati ons:
y x + ( ) 4 121
3
2
4 414 . .
y x ( ) 0 121
3
2
1 586 . .
4. (a) The bug changes di recti ons at
t 5 3 and t 5 5. Thi s i s true
because the vel oci ty changes
from posi ti ve to negati ve and
negati ve to posi ti ve, respecti vel y.
(b) The bug i s farthest from i ts
starti ng poi nt at ti me t 5 3. The
bug i s movi ng i n the posi ti ve
di recti on (away from the start-
i ng poi nt) from t 5 0 to t 5 3.
Then, the bug turns around and
moves toward the starti ng poi nt
for two seconds before changi ng
di recti ons agai n. By exami ni ng
the area under the curve, we
can see that the bug i s cl oser to
the starti ng poi nt at t 5 6 then
i t was at t 5 3.
(c) Sl owi ng down means decreas-
i ng speed, not vel oci ty. So, we
need to i ncl ude not onl y where
the vel oci ty i s posi ti ve and de-
creasi ng, but al so where the ve-
l oci ty i s negati ve and i ncreasi ng.
The vel oci ty i s posi ti ve and de-
creasi ng over the i nterval (1.5,3),
and i t i s negati ve and i ncreasi ng
over the i nterval (4,5). So, the
bug i s sl owi ng down over these
two i nterval s.
5. (a) We want to try to i sol ate
cos
2
2
_
,
and sin
2
2
_
,
i n order
to use the i denti ty si n
2
x 1 cos
2
x
5 1. Looki ng at the x component
of the curve, we fi rst square both
si des:
x t
x t
x
t
_
,
_
,
_
,
4
2
16
2
16 2
2 2
2
2
cos
cos
cos
And now for the y component:

y t
y t
y
t
_
,
_
,
_
,
3
2
9
2
9 2
2 2
2
2
sin
sin
sin
By combi ni ng these equati ons,

we get:
x y
2 2
16 9
1 +
(b) Usi ng i mpl i ci t di fferenti ati on,
x y dy
dx 8
2
9
0 +

_
,

dy
dx
x
y

9
16
(c)
( )

_
,
y t t
3
2 2

cos
( )

_
,

_
,
V t t t 2
2
3
2 2

sin , cos
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(d) From part C:
dy
dx
t
t
dy
dt
dx
dt

3
2 2
2
2

cos
sin

_
,
3
4 2
tan

t
From part B:

( ) ( )
( ) ( )

_
,
9
16
9 4
16 3
3
4 2
2
2
x
y
t
t
t
cos
sin
tan
(e) We wi l l use the formul a for arc

l ength:
L
dx
dt
dy
dt
dt
a
b
_
,
+

_
,
2 2

_
,
+
_
,
2
2
3
2 2
2
2
2
6

sin
cos
t
t
dt
6. (a) Recal l the formul a for a Tayl or
pol ynomi al centered at x 5 1:
f x f f x
f x f x
f x
( ) ( ) + ( ) ( ) +
( ) ( )
+
( ) ( )
+
( )
1 1 1
1 1
2
1 1
6
1
2
4 ( )
11
24
( )
Thi s i mpl i es that f(1) 5 l n 2 and
f
4
(1) 5 26.
(b) f (x) 5 1 2 (x 2 1) 1
(x 2 1)
2
2 (x 2 1)
3
f(1.2) 5 1 2 0.2 1
0.04 2 0.008
5 0.832
(c)
g x f t dt
x
x
x x x
x
( )
( ) +
( )
+
( )
+
( )
( )
( )
ln

1
2
3 4 5
1 2
1
2
1
6
1
12
1
20
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
APPENDIX
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
COLLEGE-BY-COLLEGE GUIDE TO AP CREDIT
AND PLACEMENT
College-by-College
Guide to AP Credit
and Placement
For the past two decades, nati onal and i nternati onal parti ci pati on i n the AP
Program has grown steadi l y. Col l eges and uni versi ti es routi nel y award credi t
for AP exam scores of 3, 4, or 5, dependi ng on the exam taken. The fol l owi ng
chart i ndi cates the score requi red for AP credi t, how many credi ts are granted,
what courses are wai ved based on those credi ts, and other pol i cy sti pul ati ons
at more than 400 sel ecti ve col l eges and uni versi ti es.
Use thi s chart to di scover just how val uabl e a good score on the AP Cal cul us
Test can be!
a
p
p
e
n
d
i
x
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
621
School Name Test
Required
Score C
r
e
d
i
t
s
G
r
a
n
t
e
d
Course
Waived Stipulations
Agnes Scott Col l ege (GA) AB 3 0 See
Department
for
Pl acement
I f student takes MAT 119 & earns a C
or above she wi l l get 4 hours & MAT
118 exempti on.
AB 45 4 MAT 118
BC 12w/AB3 0 See
Department
for
Pl acement
I f student takes MAT 119 & earns a
C- or above she gets 4 hours & MAT
118 exempti on.
BC 12w/AB4 4 MAT 118 I f student takes MAT 119 & earns a
C- or above she wi l l get 4 hours &
MAT 118 exempti on.
BC 3 4 MAT 118
BC 45 8 MAT 118 &
119
Al bany Col l ege of Pharmacy of
Uni on Uni versi ty (NY)
AB/BC 45
Al bertson Col l ege of I daho (I D) AB/BC 35
Al bi on Col l ege (MI ) AB 4 MATH 141
BC 45 MATH
141(4),
MATH
143(5)
Al bri ght Col l ege (PA) AB/BC 45
Al l egheny Col l ege (PA) AB/BC 45
Al ma Col l ege (MI ) AB 4 MATH 121
BC 34 MATH
121(3),
MATH
121,122(4)
Ameri can Uni versi ty (DC) AB/BC 35
Asbury Col l ege (KY) AB 3 3 MAT 132
AB 4 4 MAT 181
BC 2 3 MAT 132
BC 3 4 MAT 181
Auburn Uni versi ty (AL) AB 3 7 MATH 1120
& 1610
AB 4 7 MATH 1120
& 1610
AB 5 7 MATH 1120
& 1610
BC 35 8 MATH 1610
&1620
Augustana Col l ege (I L) AB 3 3 MATH 219
BC 3 6 MATH 219
& 220
Augustana Col l ege (SD) AB/BC 45
APPENDIX 622
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
www.petersons.com
School Name Test
Required
Score C
r
e
d
i
t
s
G
r
a
n
t
e
d
Course
Waived Stipulations
Austi n Col l ege (TX) AB/BC 45 MATH 151
Azusa Paci fi c Uni versi ty (CA) AB 34 5 MATH 251
AB 5 9 MATH 251
& 252
BC 3 5 MATH 251
BC 45 9 MATH 251
& 252
Babson Col l ege (MA) AB/BC 45
Bal dwi n-Wal l ace Col l ege (OH) AB 35 4 MTH 141
BC 35 8 MTH 141 &
142
Bard Col l ege (NY) AB/BC 5
Barnard Col l ege (NY) AB 45 3 Exempti on
from
Cal cul us 1
BC 4 3 Exempti on
from
Cal cul us 1
BC 5 4 6 pts on compl eti ng Cal cul us I I I or
Honors Math I I I wi th C or better.
Exempti on from Cal cul us I , I I . Al so
el i gi bl e for Honors Math I I I .
Bates Col l ege (ME) AB 4 MATH 105
AB 5 MATH 105
BC 3w/AB 4 or
5
MATH 105
BC 45 MATH 105
& 106
Bayl or Uni versi ty (TX) AB 4 MATH 1321
BC 3 MATH 1321
& 1322
Bel mont Uni versi ty (TN) AB 45 MATH 1210
BC 3 MATH 1210
Bel oi t Col l ege (WI ) AB/BC 45 4 Credi t wi l l be granted once a student
matri cul ates to Bel oi t Col l ege and
provi des offi ci al score reports to the
Regi strars Offi ce.
Benedi cti ne Uni versi ty (I L) AB 3 0 MATH 110
AB 45 4 MATH 210
BC 35 8 MATH 210
& MATH
211
C olle g e - b y- C olle g e G uid e to AP C re d it a nd Pla c e m e nt 623
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
www.petersons.com
School Name Test
Required
Score C
r
e
d
i
t
s
G
r
a
n
t
e
d
Course
Waived Stipulations
Bentl ey Col l ege (MA) AB/BC 45 Hi gh school graduates who have
taken the AP exams may be awarded
credi t for scores of 4 or 5, on any
subject test.
Berea Col l ege (KY) AB/BC 35
Bernard M. Baruch Col l ege of
the Ci ty Uni versi ty of New
York (NY)
AB/BC 45
Bi rmi ngham-Southern
Col l ege (AL)
AB 4 MATH 231
BC 4 MATH 231
& 232
Boston Col l ege (MA) AB/BC 4
Boston Uni versi ty (MA) AB 35 MA 123
BC 35 MA 123 &
MA 124
Bowdoi n Col l ege (ME) AB 35
Bradl ey Uni versi ty (I L) AB 4 4 MTH 121
AB 5 8 MTH 121 &
122
AB/BC 3 4 MTH 121
BC 45 8 MTH 121 &
122
Brandei s Uni versi ty (MA) AB 4 MATH 10a
AB 5 MATH 10a,b
BC 3 MATH 10a
BC 45 MATH 10a,b
Bri gham Young Uni versi ty (UT) AB 3 6 MATH 110
& MATH
111
AB 45 7 MATH 110
& MATH
112
BC 35 8 MATH 112
& MATH
113
Bryan Col l ege (TN) AB/BC 35
Bryn Mawr Col l ege (PA) AB/BC 4
Bucknel l Uni versi ty (PA) AB 3 Take MATH
205
AB 45 MATH 202
BC 3 MATH 202
BC 45 MATH 211
Butl er Uni versi ty (I N) AB 45 5 MA 106
BC 45 9 MA 106 &
MA 107
APPENDIX 624
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
www.petersons.com
School Name Test
Required
Score C
r
e
d
i
t
s
G
r
a
n
t
e
d
Course
Waived Stipulations
Cal vi n Col l ege (MI ) AB/BC 3 4 MATH 161
Cani si us Col l ege (NY) AB 3 4 Free el ecti ve
AB 45 4 MATH 111
or MATH
115
BC 12 w/AB
45
4 MATH 111
or MATH
115
BC 3 w/AB 3 8 2 Free
el ecti ves
BC 3 w/AB 45 8 MATH 111
or MATH
115 and 1
Free el ecti ve
BC 45 8 MATH 111
& MATH
112 or
MATH 115
& MATH
116
Carl eton Col l ege (MN) AB 35 6 Cal cul us I I 6 credi ts granted whi ch count toward
a mathemati cs major (for Cal cul us I )
after successful compl eti on of
Cal cul us I I wi th grade of C- or better.
BC 35 12 Cal cul us I I I 12 credi ts granted whi ch count
toward a mathemati cs major (for
Cal cul us I and I I ) after successful
compl eti on of Cal cul us I I I wi th grade
of C- or better.
Carnegi e Mel l on Uni versi ty (PA) AB/BC 45
Carrol l Col l ege (MT) AB/BC 35
Carson-Newman Col l ege (TN) AB/BC 45
Case Western Reserve
Uni versi ty (OH)
AB 45 4 MATH 121
& MATH
125
BC 3 4 MATH 121
& MATH
125
BC 45 8 MATH 121
& MATH
125 or
MATH 122
& MATH
126
Cedarvi l l e Uni versi ty (OH) AB 4 3 or 4 GMTH 1030
or GMTH
1040
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
www.petersons.com
School Name Test
Required
Score C
r
e
d
i
t
s
G
r
a
n
t
e
d
Course
Waived Stipulations
Cedarvi l l e
Uni versi tycontinued
AB 5 3,4, or
5
GMTH 1030
or GMTH
1040
May chal l enge MATH-1710 Cal cul us I
wi th no charge for credi ts earned i f
passi ng score i s achi eved.
BC 4 3,4, or
5
GMTH 1030
or GMTH
1040
May chal l enge MATH-1710 Cal cul us I
wi th no charge for credi ts earned i f
passi ng score i s achi eved.
BC 5 5 or 10 MATH 1710 May chal l enge MATH-1720 Cal cul us
I I wi th no charge for credi ts earned i f
passi ng score i s achi eved and MATH
1710 Cal cul us I .
Central Col l ege (I A) AB/BC 35
Centre Col l ege (KY) AB/BC 45
Chapman Uni versi ty (CA) AB 4 3 MATH 110
BC 3 3 MATH 110
BC 4 6 MATH 110
& MATH
111
Chri stendom Col l ege (VA) AB/BC 45
Chri sti an Brothers
Uni versi ty (TN)
AB/BC 45
Cl aremont McKenna
Col l ege (CA)
AB 45 Pl acement i n Math 31. Credi t for
Math 30 i f grade i n 31 i s B1 or
better i n the freshman year.
BC 4 Pl acement i n Math 32. Credi t for
better i n freshman year.
BC 5 MATH 30 Pl acement i n Math 32. Credi t for
better i n freshman year.
Cl arkson Uni versi ty (NY) AB 45 MA 131
BC 4 MA 131
BC 5 MA 131 &
MA 132
Cl ark Uni versi ty (MA) AB/BC 45
Cl emson Uni versi ty (SC) AB 35 4 MTHSC 106
BC 35 8 MTHSC 106
& MTHSC
108
Coe Col l ege (I A) AB/BC 45
Col by Col l ege (ME) AB/BC 45
Col gate Uni versi ty (NY) AB/BC 45
Col l ege of Charl eston (SC) AB 3 4 MATH 120
BC 3 8 MATH 120
& MATH
220
AB subscore of 3 or 4 5 MATH 120
The Col l ege of New Jersey (NJ) AB 45 MAT 127 or
MAT 125
APPENDIX 626
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
www.petersons.com
School Name Test
Required
Score C
r
e
d
i
t
s
G
r
a
n
t
e
d
Course
Waived Stipulations
The Col l ege of New Jersey
continued
BC 3 MAT 127 or
MAT 125
BC 45 MAT 127 &
MAT 128
Col l ege of Sai nt Benedi ct (MN) AB 45 4 MATH 119
BC 3 4 MATH 119
BC 45 8 MATH 119
& MATH
120
The Col l ege of St.
Schol asti ca (MN)
AB 45 4 MATH 2221
BC 45 4 MATH 2222
Col l ege of the Atl anti c (ME) AB/BC 45
Col l ege of the Hol y Cross (MA) AB/BC 45
The Col l ege of Wi l l i am and
Mary (VA)
AB 45 A score of 4 or 5 on the Cal cul us AB
exami nati on wi l l be awarded 4 hours
credi t for Mathemati cs 111.
BC 35 A score of 3 wi l l be awarded 4 credi ts
for Mathemati cs 111 and a score of 4
or 5 wi l l be awarded 8 credi ts for
Mathemati cs 111 and 112.
The Col l ege of Wooster (OH) AB/BC 45
Col orado Chri sti an
Uni versi ty (CO)
AB/BC 35
The Col orado Col l ege (CO) AB 35 Pl acement i nto MA 128
BC 3 Pl acement i nto MA 128
BC 45 Pl acement i nto MA 203
Col orado School of Mi nes (CO) AB 45 4 Cal cul us I
BC 4 4 Cal cul us I
BC 5 8 Cal cul us I &
Cal cul us I I
Col orado State Uni versi ty (CO) AB 35 9 M CC 117,
118, 124,
125, 126,
160
BC 35 13 M CC 117,
118, 124,
125, 126,
160, 161
Col umbi a Col l ege (NY) AB 45 3 Requi res compl eti on of MATH V1102
wi th a grade of C or better.
BC 4 3 Requi res compl eti on of MATH V1102
wi th a grade of C or better.
BC 5 6 Requi res compl eti on of MATH V1201
or V1207 wi th a grade of C or better.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
www.petersons.com
School Name Test
Required
Score C
r
e
d
i
t
s
G
r
a
n
t
e
d
Course
Waived Stipulations
Col umbi a Uni versi ty, The Fu
Foundati on School of
Engi neeri ng and Appl i ed
Sci ence (NY)
AB/BC 5 4 Requi res begi nni ng wi th, and
compl eti on of, at l east Cal cul us I I I A
(MATH V1201) wi th a grade of C or
better.
Concordi a Col l ege (MN) AB 4 Math 121AK
BC 3 Math 121AK
BC 4 Math
121AK/
122AK
Connecti cut Col l ege (CT) AB/BC 45
Converse Col l ege (SC) AB 34 3
AB 5 6
BC 3 3
BC 45 6
Cooper Uni on for the
Advancement of Sci ence and
Art (NY)
BC 45 4 MA 111
Cornel l Col l ege (I A) AB/BC 35
Cornel l Uni versi ty (NY) AB 35 4 MATH 106,
111112, &
MATH 121
Permi ssi on to take Math 112, 122,
190, 191, or 231. Engi neeri ng or BEE
students recei ve no credi t.
BC 45 8 MATH 106,
111112,
121122,
190 & 191
Engi neeri ng or BEE students recei ve
onl y 4 credi ts. Permi ssi on to take
Math 213, 221, 223, or 231. Students
wi shi ng to take engi neeri ng cal cul us
wi l l pl ace i nto Math 192.
Cornerstone Uni versi ty (MI ) AB 45 4 MAT 131
BC 45 8 MAT 131 &
MAT 132
Covenant Col l ege (GA) AB 4 4 MAT 145
BC 4 8 MAT 145 &
MAT 146
Crei ghton Uni versi ty (NE) AB 3 4 MTH 245
BC 3 8 MTH 245 &
MTH 246
Dartmouth Col l ege (NH) AB 45 MTH 3
BC 45 MTH 3 &
MTH 8
Davi dson Col l ege (NC) AB 35 w/BC 3 MAT 130
AB 45 MAT 130
BC 45 MAT 130 &
MAT 139
MAT 139, a credi t used onl y for AP
and other transfer credi ts, i s forfei ted
i f the student takes MAT 235 at
Davi dson.
Deni son Uni versi ty (OH) AB/BC 45 MATH 199 I f student takes and successful l y
passes (grade of C or better) Math
124 (Cal cul us I I ), then MATH 199
wi l l be converted to MATH 123.
APPENDIX 628
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
www.petersons.com
School Name Test
Required
Score C
r
e
d
i
t
s
G
r
a
n
t
e
d
Course
Waived Stipulations
DePauw Uni versi ty (I N) AB 3 I f MATH 152 i s compl eted wi th a C-
or better, 1.00 credi t wi l l be awarded
for MATH 151.
AB 45 MATH 151 Student may enrol l i n MATH 152.
BC 3 I f MATH 251 i s compl eted wi th a C-
or better, 1.00 credi t wi l l be awarded
for MATH 152.
BC 45 MATH 151
& MATH
152
Student may enrol l i n MATH 251.
Di cki nson Col l ege (PA) AB 3 Credi t for 161 gi ven upon successful
compl eti on of 162.
AB 4 MATH
General Cr.
Math General Credi t changed to
credi t for 161 upon successful
AB 5 MATH 161
BC 3 MATH 161 Credi t for 162 gi ven upon successful
BC 4 MATH 161
& MATH
General Cr.
MATH General Credi t changed to
credi t for 162 upon successful
BC 5 MATH 161
& MATH
162
Domi ni can Uni versi ty (I L) AB 35 4 Pl acement i nto MATH 262 i n
consul tati on wi th Math Facul ty.
BC 35 8 Pl acement i nto MATH 270 i n
consul tati on wi th Math Facul ty.
Drake Uni versi ty (I A) AB 3 4 MATH 50
BC 3 8 MATH 50 &
MATH 70
Drew Uni versi ty (NJ) AB 45 4 MATH 7
BC 3 4 MATH 7
BC 45 8 MATH 7 &
MATH 8
Drexel Uni versi ty (PA) AB 45
BC 45
Drury Uni versi ty (MO) AB 45 4 MATH 231
BC 3 4 MATH 231
BC 45 8 MATH 231
& MATH
232
Duke Uni versi ty (NC) AB 5 MATH 31
BC 3 MATH 31
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
www.petersons.com
School Name Test
Required
Score C
r
e
d
i
t
s
G
r
a
n
t
e
d
Course
Waived Stipulations
Duke Uni versi tycontinued BC 45 MATH 31 &
MATH 32
Duquesne Uni versi ty (PA) AB 45 4 MATH 115
AB/BC 3 4 MATH 104
BC 4 4 MATH 115
BC 5 4 MATH 116
Earl ham Col l ege (I N) AB 45 3
BC 45 6
BC AB sub 45 3 Pl ease note that i f a student earns
credi ts for the BC exam, the AB
sub-score credi ts are not awarded. A
maxi mum of si x credi ts wi l l be
awarded for al l AP Cal cul us scores.
El i zabethtown Col l ege (PA) AB 35 4 MA 121
BC 35 8 MA 121 &
MA 122
I f the Cal cul us BC score i s l ess than a
3 but the subgrade for Cal cul us AB i s
a 3 or above, credi t wi l l be granted for
MA121 onl y.
El mi ra Col l ege (NY) AB 3 3 Regi strar and Mathemati cs facul ty
wi l l determi ne pl acement.
AB 45 6 Regi strar and Mathemati cs facul ty
wi l l determi ne pl acement.
BC 3 3 MAT 2010
BC 45 6 MAT 2010 &
MAT 2020
AB and BC wi th a score of 5 wi l l get
9 credi ts and Regi strar and
Mathemati cs facul ty wi l l determi ne
pl acement.
El on Uni versi ty (NC) AB 35 4 MTH 121
BC 35 8 MTH 121 &
MTH 221
Embry-Ri ddl e Aeronauti cal
Uni versi ty (AZ)
AB/BC 35
Emerson Col l ege (MA) AB/BC 35
Emory Uni versi ty (GA) AB 45 4
BC 4 Students who do not recei ve credi t for
Cal cul us BC but who score a four or
fi ve on the Cal cul us AB sub-grade of
the Cal cul us BC exami nati on wi l l
recei ve four hours of credi t for
Cal cul us AB.
BC 45 8 Students recei vi ng credi t for the
Cal cul us BC exami nati on may not
recei ve credi t for the Cal cul us AB
exami nati on as wel l .
Erski ne Col l ege (SC) AB/BC 45
Eugene Lang Col l ege The New
School for Li beral Arts (NY)
AB/BC 45
APPENDIX 630
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
www.petersons.com
School Name Test
Required
Score C
r
e
d
i
t
s
G
r
a
n
t
e
d
Course
Waived Stipulations
Fai rfi el d Uni versi ty (CT) AB 45 6 MA 121 &
MA 122
BC 45 8 MA 171 &
MA 172
Fl ori da I nsti tute of
Technol ogy (FL)
AB 45 4 Cal cul us I
Cal cul us I I
Fl ori da I nternati onal
Uni versi ty (FL)
AB 35 4 MAC 2311
BC 3 4 MAC 2311
BC 45 8 MAC 2311
& MAC
2312
Fl ori da State Uni versi ty (FL) AB 35 4 MAC 2311
BC 3 4 MAC 2311
BC 45 8 MAC 2311
& MAC
2312
Fordham Uni versi ty (NY) AB/BC 35 Currentl y, a grade of 3 wi l l be
accepted as el ecti ve credi t. However,
grades of 4 or 5 may be appl i ed
towards the core curri cul um.
Franci scan Uni versi ty of
Steubenvi l l e (OH)
AB/BC 45
Frankl i n and Marshal l
Col l ege (PA)
AB/BC 45 MAT 109
Furman Uni versi ty (SC) AB 45 MATH 11
BC 3 MATH 11
BC 45 MATH 11 &
MATH 12
I f a student earns l ess than a 3 on
the BC exam but makes a 4 or 5 on
the AB subscore of the BC exam,
credi t earned i s for Math 11.
George Fox Uni versi ty (OR) AB 3 4 MATH 201
AB 45 8 MATH 201
& MATH
202
BC 45 11 MATH 201,
202, & 301
Georgetown Col l ege (KY) AB/BC 35 36
Georgetown Uni versi ty (DC) AB 45 4 MATH 035 I f a student takes the Cal cul us AB
and Cal cul us BC tests, the hi gher
score i s used because credi t i s
awarded onl y once for both tests.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
www.petersons.com
School Name Test
Required
Score C
r
e
d
i
t
s
G
r
a
n
t
e
d
Course
Waived Stipulations
Georgetown Uni versi ty
continued
AB/BC 3 3 MATH 003 I f a student takes the Cal cul us AB
BC 45 8 MATH 035
& MATH
036
I f a student takes the Cal cul us AB
BC AB 35 For an AB subscore of 3, 4, or 5 i n the
Cal cul us BC test, the student shoul d
see the deans offi ce for eval uati on of
any credi t award.
The George Washi ngton
Uni versi ty (DC)
AB 45 3 MATH 31
Georgi a I nsti tute of
Technol ogy (GA)
AB 45 4 MATH 1501
BC 35 4 MATH 1501
Georgi a State Uni versi ty (GA) AB/BC 35
Gettysburg Col l ege (PA) AB/BC 45 4
Gonzaga Uni versi ty (WA) AB 45 4 MATH 157 Students i ntendi ng to use AP cal cul us
credi t as a prerequi si te for advanced
mathemati cs course work must
consul t Gonzagas Mathemati cs
Department facul ty pri or to doi ng so.
BC 4 4 MATH 157 Students i ntendi ng to use AP cal cul us
BC 5 8 MATH 157
& MATH
258
Students i ntendi ng to use AP cal cul us
Gordon Col l ege (MA) AB/BC 45
Goshen Col l ege (I N) AB 45 6 Hal f of Cal c
I I
AB/BC 3 4 Cal c I
BC 45 8 Cal c I I
Goucher Col l ege (MD) AB/BC 45
Gri nnel l Col l ege (I A) AB 45 4
BC 35 4
Grove Ci ty Col l ege (PA) AB/BC 45
Gustavus Adol phus
Col l ege (MN)
AB/BC 45
Haml i ne Uni versi ty (MN) AB 45 MATH 1170
BC 45 MATH 1170
& MATH
1180
APPENDIX 632
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
www.petersons.com
School Name Test
Required
Score C
r
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d
i
t
s
G
r
a
n
t
e
d
Course
Waived Stipulations
Hampshi re Col l ege (MA) AB/BC 35
Hanover Col l ege (I N) AB 35 I f a student has earned a 3 i n an
Advanced Pl acement course, the
deci si on as to acceptance for credi t
wi l l l i e wi th the department
concerned, whi ch may read and
eval uate the students Advanced
Pl acement course exami nati on.
BC 35
Hardi ng Uni versi ty (AR) AB 3 5 MATH 201
BC 3 10 MATH 201
& MATH
251
Harvard Uni versi ty (MA) AB 5 Math 1a,
Xa, Xb
Pl acement i n Math 1b, 20
BC 5 Math 1a, 1b,
Xa, Xb
Pl acement i n Math 19, 20, 21a, 23a,
25a, 55a (wi th permi ssi on of
i nstructor).
Harvey Mudd Col l ege (CA) BC 5 MATH 11
Haverford Col l ege (PA) AB/BC 45 The regi strar wi l l award one course
credi t for an AP score of 5 and
one-hal f course credi t for a score of 4.
No credi t i s awarded for scores under
4.
Hendri x Col l ege (AR) AB 45 MATH 130
BC 3 MATH 130
BC 45 MATH 130
& MATH
140
Hi l l sdal e Col l ege (MI ) AB 3 4 MTH 213
AB 45 8 MTH 213 &
MTH 214
BC 35 8 MTH 213 &
MTH 214
Hi ram Col l ege (OH) AB/BC 45
Hobart and Wi l l i am Smi th
Col l eges (NY)
AB/BC 45
Hope Col l ege (MI ) AB/BC 45
Houghton Col l ege (NY) AB 45 4 Cal cul us I
Cal cul us I I
I l l i noi s Col l ege (I L) AB/BC 45
I l l i noi s I nsti tute of
Technol ogy (I L)
AB 35 5 MATH 151
BC 3 5 MATH 151
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
www.petersons.com
School Name Test
Required
Score C
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d
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s
G
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a
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t
e
d
Course
Waived Stipulations
I l l i noi s I nsti tute of Technol ogy
continued
BC 45 10 MATH 151
& MATH
152
I l l i noi s Wesl eyan Uni versi ty (I L) AB/BC 45 Credi t wi l l be granted and recorded
by I WU onl y after the successful
compl eti on of four course uni ts of
study i n resi dence.
I owa State Uni versi ty of Sci ence
and Technol ogy (I A)
AB/BC 35
I thaca Col l ege (NY) AB 35 4 Cal cul us I
313111
BC 35 8 Cal cul us I
313111 &
Cal cul us I I
313112
James Madi son Uni versi ty (VA) AB 45 4 MATH 235 Students who recei ve a score of 3 may
want to take a departmental
exami nati on to earn credi t i n ei ther
MATH 205 or MATH 235.
BC 45 8 MATH 235
& MATH
236
Students who recei ve a score of 3 may
want to take a departmental
exami nati on to earn credi t i n ei ther
MATH 205 or MATH 235.
John Brown Uni versi ty (AR) AB 35 MTH 1134 No credi t for subscores.
BC 3 MTH 1134
BC 45 MTH 1134
& MTH
1144
John Carrol l Uni versi ty (OH) AB 3 4 MT 135
AB 45 8 MT 135 &
MT 136
BC 35 8 MT 135 &
MT 136
The Johns Hopki ns
Uni versi ty (MD)
AB 45 4 MATH 110,
106 or 108
BC 3 4 MATH 110,
106 or 108
BC 45 8 MATH 110,
106 & 107
or MATH
110, 108 &
109
Juni ata Col l ege (PA) AB/BC 45
Kal amazoo Col l ege (MI ) AB/BC 45
Kenyon Col l ege (OH) AB 3 Pl acement i n Math 111
AB 45 MATH 111 Pl acement i n Math 112
BC 3 MATH 111 Pl acement i n Math 112
APPENDIX 634
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
www.petersons.com
School Name Test
Required
Score C
r
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d
i
t
s
G
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a
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t
e
d
Course
Waived Stipulations
Kenyon Col l egecontinued BC 45 MATH 111
& MATH
112
Pl acement i n Math 213
Ketteri ng Uni versi ty (MI ) AB 35 4 MATH 101
BC 3 4 MATH 101
BC 45 8 MATH
101-MATH
102 &
MATH 122
Knox Col l ege (I L) AB 45 MATH 151
BC 3 MATH 151
BC 45 MATH 151
& MATH
152
Lafayette Col l ege (PA) AB 45 MATH 161
BC 35 MATH 161
& MATH
162
Lake Forest Col l ege (I L) AB/BC 45
Lawrence Technol ogi cal
Uni versi ty (MI )
AB 3 4 MCS 1254 Enrol l i n MCS 1424. I f the student
earns a C or better i n the fi rst
attempt, he/she shoul d contact the
Regi strars Offi ce to request credi t for
MCS 1414.
AB 4 34 MCS 1224
or MCS
2313
AB 5 4 MCS 1414
BC 35 8 Enrol l i n MCS 2424. I f a student
earns a C or better i n the fi rst
attempt, he/she shoul d contact the
Regi strars Offi ce to request credi t for
MCS 1414 & MCS 1424.
Lawrence Uni versi ty (WI ) AB/BC 45
Lebanon Val l ey Col l ege (PA) AB 45 3 MAS 161
BC 45 4 MAS 161 &
MAS 162 or
MAS 111
Lehi gh Uni versi ty (PA) AB 45 4 MATH 21
BC 45 8 MATH 21 &
MATH 22
Credi t for Math 21 and 22 or both
may al so be earned by passi ng the
exami nati on offered by the
Mathemati cs Department duri ng
Freshman Ori entati on.
LeTourneau Uni versi ty (TX) AB 34 36 MATH 1903
or MATH
1603 &
MATH 1613
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
www.petersons.com
School Name Test
Required
Score C
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d
i
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s
G
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a
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t
e
d
Course
Waived Stipulations
LeTourneau Uni versi ty
continued
AB 5 6 MATH 1903
& 2013 or
MATH 1603
& 1613
Lewi s & Cl ark Col l ege (OR) AB 4 Pl acement i n Math 132. AP Cal cul us
4 or 5: No more than 8 credi ts for
Cal cul us AB and BC wi l l be awarded.
AB 5 Pl acement i n Math 215 or 233. AP
Cal cul us 4 or 5: No more than 8
credi ts for Cal cul us AB and BC wi l l
be awarded.
BC 3 Pl acement i n Math 132. AP Cal cul us
4 or 5: No more than 8 credi ts for
Cal cul us AB and BC wi l l be awarded.
BC 45 Pl acement i n Math 215 or 233. AP
Cal cul us 4 or 5: No more than 8
credi ts for Cal cul us AB and BC wi l l
be awarded.
Li nfi el d Col l ege (OR) AB/BC 45
Li pscomb Uni versi ty (TN) AB 35 4 MA 1314
BC 34 8 MA 1314
BC 5 8 MA 1314 &
MA 2314
Loui si ana State Uni versi ty and
Agri cul tural and Mechani cal
Col l ege (LA)
AB 3 3 MATH 1431
or MATH
1441
AB 45 5 MATH 1550
BC 3 5 MATH 1550
BC 45 9 MATH 1550
& MATH
1552
Loyol a Col l ege i n
Maryl and (MD)
AB/BC 45
Loyol a Marymount
Uni versi ty (CA)
AB 45 4 MATH 131
BC 45 8 MATH 131
& MATH
132
Loyol a Uni versi ty Chi cago (I L) AB 4 3 MATH 131
AB 5 6 MATH 131
& MATH
132
BC 3 3 MATH 131
BC 45 8 MATH 161
& MATH
162
Loyol a Uni versi ty New
Orl eans (LA)
AB 45 4 MATH A257
APPENDIX 636
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
www.petersons.com
School Name Test
Required
Score C
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G
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t
e
d
Course
Waived Stipulations
Loyol a Uni versi ty New
Orl eanscontinued
BC 45 8 MATH A257
& MATH
A258
Luther Col l ege (I A) AB/BC 45 4
Lycomi ng Col l ege (PA) AB 45 4 MATH 128
BC 45 8 MATH 128
& MATH
129
Lyon Col l ege (AR) AB/BC 45
Macal ester Col l ege (MN) AB 35 Pl acement i n Math 137. Students who
take at l east one mathemati cs course
at Macal ester Col l ege wi l l get credi t
for MATH 194-Topi cs i n Col l ege
Cal cul us, wi th a grade of S.
BC 35 Pl acement i n Math 236 or 237.
Students who take at l east one
mathemati cs course at Macal ester
Col l ege wi l l get credi t for MATH
194-Topi cs i n Col l ege Cal cul us, and
for MATH 137-Si ngl e Vari abl e
Cal cul us, wi th a grade of S for each.
Mari st Col l ege (NY) AB 35 4 MATH 241L
BC 35 8 MATH 241L
& MATH
242L
Marl boro Col l ege (VT) AB/BC 45 8
Marquette Uni versi ty (WI ) AB 35 4 MATH 80
BC 35 8 MATH 80 &
MATH 81
Maryvi l l e Col l ege (TN) AB/BC 35
Maryvi l l e Uni versi ty of Sai nt
Loui s (MO)
AB/BC 35
Massachusetts I nsti tute of
Technol ogy (MA)
AB 45 Pl acement i nto the accel erated
cal cul us sequence 18.01A & 18.02A
BC 45 18.01-
Cal cul us I
The Masters Col l ege and
Semi nary (CA)
AB/BC 45
McDani el Col l ege (MD) AB/BC 45 Students may recei ve advanced
pl acement pl us up to 8 hours credi t.
McGi l l Uni versi ty (QC) AB 45 3 MATH 140
BC 45 7 MATH 140
& MATH
141
McKendree Col l ege (I L) AB 3 3 El ecti ve
credi t
AB 45 4 MTH 210
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
www.petersons.com
School Name Test
Required
Score C
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d
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s
G
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a
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t
e
d
Course
Waived Stipulations
Mercer Uni versi ty (GA) AB/BC 35
Messi ah Col l ege (PA) AB 3 4 MAT 111 May be counted toward General
Educati on.
AB 45 8 MAT 111 &
MAT 112
May be counted toward General
Educati on.
BC 2 4 MAT 111 May be counted toward General
Educati on.
BC 3 8 MAT 111 &
MAT 112
Educati on.
BC 45 12 MAT 111,
MAT 112 &
MAT 211
Educati on.
Mi ami Uni versi ty (OH) AB 35 5 MTH 151
BC 3 5 MTH 151 Then enrol l i n a Cal cul us I I course.
Profi ci ency credi t for MTH 251(4
hours) may be possi bl e; check wi th
chi ef departmental advi ser.
BC 45 9 MTH 151 &
MTH 251
Then enrol l i n a Cal cul us I I I course
and/or MTH 222, or MTH 222.T and
331.T.
Mi chi gan State Uni versi ty (MI ) AB 3 0 MTH 132
AB 45 3 MTH 132
BC 2 w/AB 45 0 MTH 132
BC 35 7 MTH 132 &
MTH 133
Mi chi gan Technol ogi cal
Uni versi ty (MI )
AB 2 0 Student can be pl aced i nto MA 1160.
AB 3 0 Student may enrol l i n MA 2160 but
wi l l not be awarded credi t for MA
1160 unl ess a grade of C or hi gher
i s earned i n MA 2160.
AB 45 4 MA 1160
BC 45 8 MA 1160 &
MA 2160
Student i s pl aced i nto MA 3160.
Students scori ng 3 or l ower wi l l
recei ve credi t based on thei r AB
subscore and the AB gui del i nes.
Mi ddl ebury Col l ege (VT) AB 45 MATH 0121
BC 3 MATH 0121
BC 45 MATH 0121
& MATH
0122
Mi l l i gan Col l ege (TN) AB 35 4 MATH 211
BC 35 8 MATH 211
& MATH
212
Mi l l saps Col l ege (MS) AB 45 4 MATH 1220
APPENDIX 638
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
www.petersons.com
School Name Test
Required
Score C
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i
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s
G
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t
e
d
Course
Waived Stipulations
Mi l l saps Col l egecontinued BC 45 8 MATH 1220
& MATH
2230
Mi l l s Col l ege (CA) AB/BC 45
Mi ssi ssi ppi Col l ege (MS) AB 45 3 MAT 121
BC 45 6 MAT 121 &
MAT 122
Mi ssouri State Uni versi ty (MO) AB 35 5 MTH 261
BC 35 10 MTH 261 &
MTH 280
Moravi an Col l ege (PA) AB/BC 45
Morehouse Col l ege (GA) AB/BC 45
Mount Hol yoke Col l ege (MA) AB/BC 45 4
Mount Sai nt Vi ncent
Uni versi ty (NS)
AB/BC 45
Muhl enberg Col l ege (PA) AB/BC 35
Murray State Uni versi ty (KY) AB 35 5 MAT 250
BC 3 5 MAT 250
BC 45 10 MAT 250 &
MAT 308
New Col l ege of Fl ori da (FL) AB/BC 35
New Jersey I nsti tute of
Technol ogy (NJ)
AB 5 4 MATH 111
& MATH
113 or
MATH 138
AB/BC 3 3 MATH 138
AB/BC 4 4 MATH 111
or MATH
113 or
MATH 138
BC 5 8 MATH 111
& 112 or
MATH 113
& 114
New Mexi co I nsti tute of Mi ni ng
and Technol ogy (NM)
AB/BC 3 Recei ve 2 el ecti ve credi ts i n
mathemati cs. Students proceed
di rectl y i nto MATH 131.
AB/BC 45 4 MATH 131 Students proceed di rectl y i nto MATH
132.
New York Uni versi ty (NY) AB 45 4 V63.0121
BC 45 8 V63.0121
0122
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
www.petersons.com
School Name Test
Required
Score C
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d
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s
G
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e
d
Course
Waived Stipulations
North Carol i na State
Uni versi ty (NC)
AB 3 Pl acement i n MA 241 or 231,
dependi ng upon curri cul um. Upon
compl eti on of thi s course wi th a C- or
better on the fi rst attempt, 4 hours
credi t wi l l be awarded for MA 141, or
3 hours for MA 131, dependi ng on
curri cul um.
AB 45 4 hours credi t for MA 141 or 3 hours
credi t for MA 131 or MA 121,
dependi ng upon curri cul um.
BC 2 Pl acement i n MA 241 or 231,
dependi ng upon curri cul um. Upon
compl eti on of thi s course wi th a C- or
better on the fi rst attempt, 4 hours
credi t wi l l be awarded for MA 141 or
3 hours credi t for MA 131 or 121,
dependi ng upon curri cul um.
BC 3 4 hours credi t for MA 141 or 3 hours
for MA 131 or MA 121, dependi ng on
curri cul um
BC 45 8 hours for MA 141 and 241 or 7
hours for MA 131 & 231, dependi ng
on curri cul um.
North Central Col l ege (I L) AB 45 MTH 151 &
MTH 152
AB/BC 3 MTH 130 I f student enrol l s i n MTH 152 and
earns a B- or hi gher, may repl ace
credi t wi th MTH 151 OR student may
enrol l i n MTH 153. I f a grade of B- or
hi gher i s earned, then MTH 130 may
be repl aced wi th MTH 151 and 152.
Ful fi l l s mathemati cs requi rement.
BC 4 MTH 151 &
MTH 152
Student may enrol l i n MTH 254. I f
he/she successful l y compl etes MTH
254 wi th a B- or hi gher, he/she wi l l
recei ve 3 addi ti onal credi t hours for
MTH 153. Ful fi l l s mathemati cs
requi rement.
BC 5 MTH 151,
152, & 153
Northwestern Col l ege (I A) AB 45 5 MAT 112
BC 35 5 MAT 211
Northwestern Col l ege (MN) AB 34 4 MAT 2121
AB 5 8 MAT 2121 &
MAT 2122
BC 3 4 MAT 2121
BC 45 8 MAT 2121 &
MAT 2122
Northwestern Uni versi ty (I L) AB 4 MATH 220
APPENDIX 640
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
www.petersons.com
School Name Test
Required
Score C
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G
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e
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Course
Waived Stipulations
Northwestern Uni versi ty
continued
AB 5 MATH 220
& MATH
224
BC 45 MATH 220
& MATH
224
Occi dental Col l ege (CA) AB/BC 45
Ogl ethorpe Uni versi ty (GA) AB 35 4 MAT 131
BC 35 8 MAT 131 &
MAT 132
Ohi o Northern Uni versi ty (OH) AB 34 4 MATH 163
AB 5 8 MATH 163
& MATH
164
BC 3 w/AB 34 4 MATH 163
BC 3 w/AB 5 8 MATH 163
& MATH
164
BC 4 w/AB 34 4 MATH 163
BC 4 w/AB 5 8 MATH 163
& MATH
164
BC 5 w/AB 5 12 MATH 163,
164, & 165
The Ohi o State Uni versi ty (OH) AB 35 10 MATH 150
& MATH
151
BC 3 10 MATH 150
& MATH
151
BC 45 15 MATH 150,
151, & 152
Ohi o Wesl eyan Uni versi ty (OH) AB 45 MATH 110 Student shoul d begi n any further
math study MATH 111.
BC 3 MATH 110
BC 45 MATH 110
& MATH
111
Student shoul d be pl aced i n MATH
210 or MATH 250.
Okl ahoma Ci ty Uni versi ty (OK) AB 45 4 MATH 2004
BC 45 8 MATH 2004
& MATH
2104
Okl ahoma State
Uni versi ty (OK)
AB 35 4 MATH 2144
BC 35 7 MATH 2144
& MATH
2153
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
www.petersons.com
School Name Test
Required
Score C
r
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d
i
t
s
G
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a
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t
e
d
Course
Waived Stipulations
Paci fi c Lutheran
Uni versi ty (WA)
AB 35 4 MATH 151
BC 3 4 MATH 151
BC 45 8 MATH 151
& MATH
152
Paci fi c Uni versi ty (OR) AB/BC 45 4
Peabody Conservatory of Musi c
of The Johns Hopki ns
Uni versi ty (MD)
AB/BC 45
The Pennsyl vani a State
Uni versi ty, Uni versi ty Park
Campus (PA)
AB 45 4 MATH 140
BC 3 4 MATH 140
BC 45 8 MATH 140
& MATH
141
Pepperdi ne Uni versi ty (CA) AB 35 4 MATH 214
& MATH
210.01
BC 35 8 MATH 210
& MATH
211
Pi tzer Col l ege (CA) AB/BC 45
Poi nt Loma Nazarene
Uni versi ty (CA)
AB/BC 3 3
AB/BC 45 6
Pol ytechni c Uni versi ty, Brookl yn
Campus (NY)
AB 45 4 MA 1012 &
MA 1022
BC 45 6 MA 1012,
1022 & 1112
Pomona Col l ege (CA) AB 45 One course credi t i s gi ven for a score
of 4 or 5 on the Cal cul us AB or the
Cal cul us BC AB Subscore when
Cal cul us I I (Math 31) or i ts
equi val ent has been taken and passed
wi th a grade of C- or better.
BC 45 Two course credi ts are gi ven for
Cal cul us BC when Cal cul us I I I (Math
32) or i ts equi val ent has been taken
and passed wi th a grade of C- or
better.
Presbyteri an Col l ege (SC) AB 34 3 MATH 201
AB 5 6 MATH 201
& MATH
202
BC 34 6 MATH 201
& MATH
202
APPENDIX 642
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
www.petersons.com
School Name Test
Required
Score C
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G
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e
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Course
Waived Stipulations
Presbyteri an Col l egecontinued BC 5 9 MATH 201,
202, & 301
Pri nceton Uni versi ty (NJ) AB 45 MATH 103
BC 45 MATH 103
& MATH
104
Two uni ts granted upon successful
compl eti on of the 200-l evel course.
(Students who do not take the course
wi l l recei ve the AP uni ts to whi ch
thei r AB or BC exam scores otherwi se
enti tl es them.)
Provi dence Col l ege (RI ) AB/BC 45
Purdue Uni versi ty (I N) AB 45 4 MA 165
BC 45 8 MA 165 &
MA 166
Queens Uni versi ty at
Ki ngston (ON)
AB 45 TBA
BC 45 MATH 121
Qui ncy Uni versi ty (I L) AB/BC 45
Qui nni pi ac Uni versi ty (CT) AB 45 3 MA 141
BC 45 6 MA 141 &
MA 142
Randol ph-Macon Womans
Col l ege (VA)
AB/BC 45
Reed Col l ege (OR) AB/BC 45
Renssel aer Pol ytechni c
I nsti tute (NY)
AB 45 4 Cal cul us I
BC 3 4 Cal cul us I
I I
Rhodes Col l ege (TN) AB 45 4 MATH 121
BC 4 4 MATH 121
BC 5 8 MATH 121
& MATH
122
Ri ce Uni versi ty (TX) AB 45 3 MATH 101
BC 45 6 MATH 101
& MATH
102
Rochester I nsti tute of
Technol ogy (NY)
AB 45 1016281
BC 3 1016281
BC 4 1016
281,282
BC 5 1016
281,282, &
283
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
www.petersons.com
School Name Test
Required
Score C
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G
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t
e
d
Course
Waived Stipulations
Rol l i ns Col l ege (FL) AB/BC 45 4
Rose-Hul man I nsti tute of
Technol ogy (I N)
AB 45 5 MA 111
BC 45 10 MA 111 &
MA 112
Rutgers, The State Uni versi ty of
New Jersey, Newark (NJ)
AB/BC 45
Rutgers, The State Uni versi ty of
New Jersey, New Brunswi ck/
Pi scataway (NJ)
AB/BC 45
Sai nt Franci s Uni versi ty (PA) AB 3 MATH 105
& 106 or 111
& 112 or
121 & 122
Score of 3 recei ves wai ver from one
of the fol l owi ng combi nati ons:
Mathemati cs 105 and 106,
Mathemati cs 111 and 112, or
AB 45 MATH 105
& 106 or 111
& 112 or
121 & 122
Score of 4 or 5 recei ves credi t for
one of the fol l owi ng combi nati ons:
BC 3 Score of 3 recei ves wai ver from one
of the fol l owi ng combi nati ons:
Mathemati cs 121 and 122, and al so
recei ves a wai ver from Mathemati cs
221 and 222.
BC 45 Score of 4 or 5 recei ves credi t for
one of the fol l owi ng combi nati ons:
Mathemati cs 121 and 122, and al so
recei ves credi t for Mathemati cs 221
and 222.
Sai nt Johns Uni versi ty (MN) AB 45 4 MATH 119
BC 3 4 MATH 119
BC 45 8 MATH 119
& MATH
120
Sai nt Josephs Uni versi ty (PA) AB 45 4 MAT 1351 Al l except Bi ol ogy majors.
AB 45 3 MAT 1251 Bi ol ogy onl y.
BC 45 8 MAT 1351 &
MAT 1361
St. Lawrence Uni versi ty (NY) AB 45 MATH 135
BC 45 MATH 135
& MATH
136
St. Loui s Col l ege of
Pharmacy (MO)
AB/BC 45
Sai nt Loui s Uni versi ty (MO) AB 45 4 MT A 142
APPENDIX 644
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
www.petersons.com
School Name Test
Required
Score C
r
e
d
i
t
s
G
r
a
n
t
e
d
Course
Waived Stipulations
Sai nt Loui s Uni versi ty
continued
BC 45 8 MT A 142 &
MT A 143
Sai nt Marys Col l ege (I N) AB 3 3 MATH 105
AB 4 6 MATH 105
& MATH
106
AB 5 8 MATH 131
& MATH
132
BC 3 4 MATH 131
BC 45 8 MATH 131
& MATH
132
Sai nt Marys Col l ege of
Cal i forni a (CA)
AB 3 MATH 00E
AB 45 MATH 27
BC 3 MATH 27
BC 45 MATH 27 &
MATH 28
St. Marys Col l ege of
Maryl and (MD)
AB/BC 45
St. Norbert Col l ege (WI ) AB/BC 35
St. Ol af Col l ege (MN) AB 45 MATH 126
or MATH
128
BC 3 w/AB 45
BC 45 Soph l evel
math course
Sal em Col l ege (NC) AB 3 MATH 100
& MATH
101
Credi t for Math 100 pl us pl acement
i n Math 101.
AB 45 MATH 100
& MATH
101
Math 100 pl us pl acement i n Math
101.
BC 3 MATH 100,
101, & 102
Credi t for Math 100 and 101 pl us
pl acement i nto Math 102.
BC 45 MATH 100,
101, & 102
Math 100 and 101 pl us pl acement
i nto Math 102.
Samford Uni versi ty (AL) AB 35 4 MATH 240
BC 35 8 MATH 240
& MATH
260
San Di ego State Uni versi ty (CA) AB 35 4 MATH 150 Exempts from CSU Entry l evel
Mathemati cs Test.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
www.petersons.com
School Name Test
Required
Score C
r
e
d
i
t
s
G
r
a
n
t
e
d
Course
Waived Stipulations
San Di ego State Uni versi ty
continued
BC 35 6 MATH 150
& MATH
151
Santa Cl ara Uni versi ty (CA) AB 45 8 MATH 11 &
12 or MATH
30 & 31
BC 3 4 MATH 11 or
MATH 30
BC 45 12 Math11 or
30, 12 or 31,
and 13
Sarah Lawrence Col l ege (NY) AB/BC 45
Scri pps Col l ege (CA) AB/BC 45
Seattl e Paci fi c Uni versi ty (WA) AB 45 5 MAT 1225
BC 45 10 MAT 1225 &
MAT 1226
Seattl e Uni versi ty (WA) AB 3 5 MATH 130
AB 4 5 MATH 134
AB 5 10 MATH 134
& MATH
135
BC 3 5 MATH 134
BC 4 10 MATH 134
& MATH
135
BC 5 10 MATH 134
& MATH
135
I f requested, Mathemati cs
department can test to see i f MATH
136 credi t can al so be al l owed.
Sewanee: The Uni versi ty of the
South (TN)
AB/BC 45 4
Si ena Col l ege (NY) AB/BC 45
Si mpson Col l ege (I A) AB/BC 35
Ski dmore Col l ege (NY) AB 45 I n most cases such credi ts wi l l count
onl y as el ecti ve credi t toward the
degree and, wi th few excepti ons, wi l l
not repl ace speci fi c al l -col l ege or
major requi rements.
BC 45
Smi th Col l ege (MA) AB/BC 45
Southern Methodi st
Uni versi ty (TX)
AB 45 3 MATH 1337
BC 3 w/AB 45 3 MATH 1337
BC 4 3 MATH 1337
BC 5 6 MATH 1337
& MATH
1338
Southwest Bapti st
Uni versi ty (MO)
AB 35 5 MAT 1195
APPENDIX 646
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
www.petersons.com
School Name Test
Required
Score C
r
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d
i
t
s
G
r
a
n
t
e
d
Course
Waived Stipulations
Southwest Bapti st Uni versi ty
continued
BC 35 10 MAT 1195 &
MAT 2255
Southwestern Uni versi ty (TX) AB/BC 45 34
Stanford Uni versi ty (CA) AB 4 5 MATH 42
AB 5 10 MATH 51
BC 3 5 MATH 42
BC 45 10 MATH 51
State Uni versi ty of New York at
Bi nghamton (NY)
AB/BC 34 4 Unspeci fi ed
l ower-l evel
math
AB/BC 5 8 MATH 221
& 4 credi ts
of
Unspeci fi ed
l ower-l evel
math
State Uni versi ty of New York at
Buffal o (NY)
AB/BC 35
State Uni versi ty of New York
Col l ege at Geneseo (NY)
AB 3 4 MATH 1TR
AB 45 4 MATH 221
BC 3 4 MATH 221 Students who take the Cal cul us BC
exam recei ve a Cal cul us AB subgrade.
I f a student does not qual i fy for BC
credi t, the AB subgrade wi l l be used
to determi ne AB credi t.
BC 45 8 MATH 221
& MATH
222
Students who take the Cal cul us BC
exam recei ve a Cal cul us AB subgrade.
I f a student does not qual i fy for BC
credi t, the AB subgrade wi l l be used
to determi ne AB credi t.
State Uni versi ty of New York
Col l ege of Envi ronmental
Sci ence and Forestry (NY)
AB/BC 45
Stetson Uni versi ty (FL) AB 3 3 MS 101
AB 45 4 MS 201
BC 3 4 MS 201
BC 45 8 MS 201 &
MS 202
Stevens I nsti tute of
Technol ogy (NJ)
AB/BC 45 3 MA 115 or
MA 117
Stonehi l l Col l ege (MA) AB/BC 4 4 Cal cul us I
AB/BC 5 8 Cal cul us I &
I I
BC w/AB 45 8 Cal cul us I &
I I
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
www.petersons.com
School Name Test
Required
Score C
r
e
d
i
t
s
G
r
a
n
t
e
d
Course
Waived Stipulations
Stony Brook Uni versi ty, State
Uni versi ty of New York (NY)
AB 3 3 None
AB 45 4 MAT 131
BC 45 8 MAT 131 &
MAT 132
Susquehanna Uni versi ty (PA) AB/BC 45 I n excepti onal cases, the department
may al so recommend credi t for scores
of 3.
Swarthmore Col l ege (PA) AB 5 MATH 015,
the fi rst hal f
of 025, &
pl acement
026
AB/BC 4 MATH 015
BC 5 MATH 015
& MATH
025
Sweet Bri ar Col l ege (VA) AB/BC 45
Syracuse Uni versi ty (NY) AB 3 6 MAT 285 &
MAT 286
AB 45 6 MAT 285 &
286 or MAT
295
Engi neeri ng and Computer Sci ence: 4
credi ts awarded for MAT 295 onl y
pendi ng resul ts of the math
pl acement exami nati on.
BC 45 8 MAT 295 &
MAT 296
Engi neeri ng and Computer Sci ence:
Up to 8 credi ts awarded for MAT 295
and 296 pendi ng resul ts of the math
pl acement exami nati on.
Tabor Col l ege (KS) AB 45 8 MA 106 &
MA 111
A score of 3 i s subject to facul ty
revi ew.
BC 45 8 MA 111 &
MA 112
A score of 3 i s subject to facul ty
revi ew.
Tayl or Uni versi ty (I N) AB 3 3 MAT 140
AB 4 4 MAT 151
AB 5 8 MAT 151 &
MAT 230
BC 2 3 MAT 140
BC 3 4 MAT 151
BC 45 8 MAT 151 &
MAT 230
Tennessee Technol ogi cal
Uni versi ty (TN)
AB 3 3 MATH 1830
AB 4 4 MATH 1910
AB 5 4 MATH 1910
(secti on 800)
BC 3 4 MATH 1910
APPENDIX 648
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
www.petersons.com
School Name Test
Required
Score C
r
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d
i
t
s
G
r
a
n
t
e
d
Course
Waived Stipulations
Tennessee Technol ogi cal
Uni versi tycontinued
BC 4 8 MATH 1910
& MATH
1920
BC 5 8 MATH 1910
& MATH
1920
(secti on 800)
Texas A&M Uni versi ty (TX) AB 45 4 MATH 151 Credi t i n MATH 151 may be
substi tuted for MATH 131, 142, or
171. Credi t i n MATH 152 may be
substi tuted for credi t i n MATH 172.
BC 3 4 MATH 151 Credi t i n MATH 151 may be
substi tuted for MATH 131, 142, or
171. Credi t i n MATH 152 may be
substi tuted for credi t i n MATH 172.
BC 45 8 MATH 151
& MATH
152
Texas Chri sti an Uni versi ty (TX) AB 35 4 10524
BC 34 4 10524
BC 5 8 10524,
20524
Texas Tech Uni versi ty (TX) AB 45 3 MATH 1351
BC 45 6 MATH 1351
& MATH
1352
Transyl vani a Uni versi ty (KY) AB/BC 45
Tri ni ty Col l ege (CT) AB 45 MATH 131
BC 45 MATH 131
& MATH
132
Tri ni ty Uni versi ty (TX) AB 45 3 MATH 1311
BC 45 36 MATH 1311
& MATH
1312
Truman State Uni versi ty (MO) AB 3 4 MATH 192
AB 45 5 MATH 198
BC 35 10 MATH 198
& MATH
263
Tufts Uni versi ty (MA) AB 45 One accel erati on credi t, equi val ent to
Mathemati cs 11, and pl acement i nto
Mathemati cs 12.
BC 3 w/AB 45 One accel erati on credi t, equi val ent to
Mathemati cs 12.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
www.petersons.com
School Name Test
Required
Score C
r
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d
i
t
s
G
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a
n
t
e
d
Course
Waived Stipulations
Tufts Uni versi tycontinued BC 4 One accel erati on credi t, equi val ent to
Mathemati cs 12.
BC 5 MATH 11 &
MATH 12
Pl acement i nto MATH 13 or MATH
46
Tul ane Uni versi ty (LA) AB 45 4 MATH 121
BC 3 4 MATH 121
BC 45 8 MATH 121
& MATH
122
Uni on Col l ege (NE) AB/BC 35
Uni on Col l ege (NY) AB/BC 35
Uni on Uni versi ty (TN) AB 35 4 MAT 211
BC 35 8 MAT 211 &
MAT 212
The Uni versi ty of Al abama i n
Huntsvi l l e (AL)
AB 45 4 MA 171
BC 3 4 MA 171
BC 45 8 MA 171 &
MA 172
The Uni versi ty of Ari zona (AZ) AB 35 3 MATH 125
BC 3 3 MATH 125
BC 45 6 MATH 125
& MATH
129
Uni versi ty of Arkansas (AR) AB 34 MATH 2554
AB 5 MATH
2554H
BC 34 MATH 2554
& MATH
2564
BC 5 MATH
2554H &
MATH
2564H
Uni versi ty of Cal i forni a,
Berkel ey (CA)
AB/BC 35
Davi s (CA)
AB 3 4 Maxi mum credi t al l owed: 8 uni ts for
al l Mathemati cs exams
AB 45 4 Mathemati cs
12, 16A, 17A
or 21A
Maxi mum credi t al l owed: 8 uni ts for
BC 34 8 Mathemati cs
12, 16A, 17A
or 21A
APPENDIX 650
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
www.petersons.com
School Name Test
Required
Score C
r
e
d
i
t
s
G
r
a
n
t
e
d
Course
Waived Stipulations
Davi scontinued
BC 5 8 Mathemati cs
12, 16A-16B,
17A-17B or
21A-21B
I rvi ne (CA)
AB 3 4 El ecti ve
credi t onl y
AB 45 4 MATH 2A
BC 3 8 MATH 2A Students who take the Cal cul us BC
exami nati on and earn a subscore of 3
or hi gher on the Cal cul us AB porti on
wi l l recei ve credi t for the Cal cul us AB
exami nati on, even i f they do not
recei ve a score of 3 or hi gher on the
BC exami nati on.
BC 45 8 MATH 2A &
MATH 2B
Students who take the Cal cul us BC
exami nati on and earn a subscore of 3
or hi gher on the Cal cul us AB porti on
wi l l recei ve credi t for the Cal cul us AB
exami nati on, even i f they do not
recei ve a score of 3 or hi gher on the
BC exami nati on.
Uni versi ty of Cal i forni a, Los
Angel es (CA)
AB/BC 35
Ri versi de (CA)
AB 35 4 MATH 009A Addi ti onal subject coverage may be
granted after i ndi vi dual counsel i ng.
BC 35 8 MATH 009A
& MATH
009B
Addi ti onal subject coverage may be
granted after i ndi vi dual counsel i ng.
Uni versi ty of Cal i forni a, Santa
Barbara (CA)
AB 35 4 Mathemati cs
3A, 15, 34A,
or
equi val ent
BC 35 8 Mathemati cs
3A, 3B, 15,
34A, 34B, or
equi val ent
Uni versi ty of Cal i forni a, Santa
Cruz (CA)
AB 35 4 A maxi mum of one I N wi l l be granted
from mathemati cs and stati sti cs.
BC 35 8 Ei ther AP exam sati sfi es one I N and
Q. Maxi mum of 8 credi ts granted for
both AP exams. A maxi mum of one I N
wi l l be granted from mathemati cs and
stati sti cs.
Uni versi ty of Central
Arkansas (AR)
AB 35 MATH 1591
BC 35 MATH 1591
& MATH
2561
Uni versi ty of Central
Fl ori da (FL)
AB 35 MAC 2311
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
www.petersons.com
School Name Test
Required
Score C
r
e
d
i
t
s
G
r
a
n
t
e
d
Course
Waived Stipulations
Uni versi ty of Central Fl ori da
continued
BC 3 MAC 2311
BC 45 MAC 2311
& MAC
2312
Uni versi ty of Chi cago (I L) AB 5 MATH
15100
A student who wi shes to recei ve
credi t for MATH 15300 or to regi ster
ei ther for MATH 16100-16200-16300
or for PHYS 14100-14200-14300, or
both, i s requi red to take the cal cul us
pl acement test duri ng Ori entati on.
BC 4 MATH
15100
ei ther for MATH 16100-16200-16300
or for PHYS 14100-14200-14300, or
BC 5 MATH
15100 &
MATH
15200
ei ther for MATH 16100-16200-16300
or for PHYS 14100-14200-14300, or
Uni versi ty of Col orado at
Boul der (CO)
AB 45 9 MATH 1300
or APPM
1350
BC 12 w/AB
45
9 MATH 1300
or APPM
1350
BC 3 w/AB 35 9 MATH 1300
or APPM
1350
BC 45 18 MATH 1300
& MATH
2300 or
APPM 1350
& APPM
1360
Uni versi ty of Connecti cut (CT) AB 45 4 MATH 115Q
BC 3 4 MATH 115Q
BC 45 8 MATH 115Q
& MATH
116Q
Uni versi ty of Dal l as (TX) AB 35 4 MAT 1404 Three credi ts of approved math must
be taken at the Uni versi ty.
BC 35 8 MAT 1404 &
MAT 1411
Three credi ts of approved math must
be taken at the Uni versi ty.
Uni versi ty of Dayton (OH) AB 45 4 I f a student recei ves a score of 3 and
passes the Department of
Mathemati cs test, 4 credi t hours wi l l
be gi ven. Students wi th a score of 5
may be el i gi bl e for addi ti onal credi t.
APPENDIX 652
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
www.petersons.com
School Name Test
Required
Score C
r
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d
i
t
s
G
r
a
n
t
e
d
Course
Waived Stipulations
Uni versi ty of Daytoncontinued BC 4 4
BC 5 8
Uni versi ty of Del aware (DE) AB 35 4 MATH 241
BC 3 4 MATH 241
BC 45 8 MATH 241
& MATH
242
Uni versi ty of Denver (CO) AB 4 4 MATC 4
AB 5 8 MATC 4/4
el ecti ve
BC 3 4 MATC 4
BC 4 8 MATC 4/4
el ecti ve
BC 5 12 MATC 4/8
el ecti ve
Uni versi ty of Evansvi l l e (I N) AB/BC 45
Uni versi ty of Fl ori da (FL) AB 35 4 MAC 2311 Mathemati cs Requi rement.
BC 3 4 MAC 2311 Mathemati cs Requi rement.
BC 45 8 MAC 2311
& MAC
2312
Mathemati cs Requi rement.
Uni versi ty of Georgi a (GA) AB 3 0 MATH 1113 Students who score a 3 on the AB test
shoul d be pl aced i nto MATH 2200 and
urged to take the MAT 1113 Auxi l i ary
test.
AB 45 3 MATH 2200
BC 34 3 MATH 2200
BC 5 3 MATH 2200
& MATH
2210
Uni versi ty of I l l i noi s at
Chi cago (I L)
AB 12 Students i n thi s category are i nvi ted
to take a profi ci ency exami nati on i n
Mathemati cs 180. Passi ng thi s
exami nati on gi ves 5 semester hours of
credi t i n Mathemati cs 180 and
advanced pl acement i n Mathemati cs
181.
AB 35 5 MATH 180 Advanced Pl acement i n Mathemati cs
181.
BC 1 Students i n thi s category are i nvi ted
to take a profi ci ency exami nati on i n
Mathemati cs 180. Passi ng thi s
exami nati on gi ves 5 semester hours of
credi t i n Mathemati cs 180 and
advanced pl acement i n Mathemati cs
181.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
www.petersons.com
School Name Test
Required
Score C
r
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d
i
t
s
G
r
a
n
t
e
d
Course
Waived Stipulations
Chi cagocontinued
BC 2 5 MATH 180 Advanced Pl acement i n Mathemati cs
181.
BC 35 10 MATH 180
& MATH
181
Advanced Pl acement i n any course for
whi ch Mathemati cs 181 i s a
prerequi si te.
UrbanaChampai gn (I L)
AB 45 5 MATH 220
BC 3 w/AB 45 5 MATH 220
BC 45 8 MATH 220
& MATH
231
The Uni versi ty of I owa (I A) AB 45 4 22M:017,
22M:021,
22M:025,
22M:031
BC 35 8 22M:017,
22M:021
022, 22M:
025026,
22M:031
032
Uni versi ty of Kansas (KS) AB/BC 35 5 MATH 121
Uni versi ty of Kentucky (KY) AB 35 4 MA 113
BC 35 8 MA 113 &
MA 114
4 credi t hours each for MA 113, 114
wi th a grade of CR.
Uni versi ty of Maryl and,
Bal ti more County (MD)
AB 3 4 MATH 150 I f the Math Department approves
pl acement i n MATH 152, credi t for
MATH 151 wi l l be assi gned upon
successful compl eti on of MATH 152.
AB 45 4 MATH 151
BC 3 4 MATH 151
BC 45 8 MATH 151
& MATH
152
Uni versi ty of Maryl and, Col l ege
Park (MD)
AB 45 4 MATH 140 MATH 141 may be compl eted through
credi t-by-exam. MATH 140 ful fi l l s
both CORE-Fundamental Studi es
Math requi rement and CORE-Math &
Formal Reasoni ng non-l ab
requi rement.
BC 45 8 MATH 140
& MATH
141
Students who recei ve credi t for
MATH 140 or 140 & 141 may not
recei ve credi t for MATH 220 or 220 &
221.
Uni versi ty of Mary
Washi ngton (VA)
AB 35 3 MATH 0121
BC 35 6 MATH 0121
& MATH
0122
Uni versi ty of Mi ami (FL) AB 5 4 MTH 131
APPENDIX 654
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
www.petersons.com
School Name Test
Required
Score C
r
e
d
i
t
s
G
r
a
n
t
e
d
Course
Waived Stipulations
Uni versi ty of Mi ami continued BC 4 4 MTH 131
BC 5 8 MTH 131 &
MTH 132
Uni versi ty of Mi chi gan (MI ) AB 45 2 MATH 120 No credi t for ei ther Math 120 or Math
121 i f Math 105 or 115 i s el ected. 2
addi ti onal credi ts for Math 120
granted after successful compl eti on of
thi s course wi th grade of C or better.
BC 45 4 MATH 120
& MATH
121
No credi t for ei ther Math 120 or Math
121 i f Math 105 or 115 i s el ected. 2
addi ti onal credi ts for each of Math
120 and Math 121 granted upon
successful compl eti on of thi s course
wi th grade of C or better.
Uni versi ty of
Mi chi ganDearborn (MI )
AB 35 MATH 115
BC 3 MATH 115
BC 45 MATH 115
& MATH
116
Uni versi ty of Mi nnesota,
Morri s (MN)
AB 34 5 MATH 1021
AB 5 5 MATH 1101
BC 3 5 MATH 1101
BC 45 10 MATH 1101
& MATH
1102
Uni versi ty of Mi nnesota, Twi n
Ci ti es Campus (MN)
AB 35 4 MATH 1271 Ful fi l l s mathemati cal thi nki ng
requi rement.
BC 12 w/AB
35
4 MATH 1271 Ful fi l l s mathemati cal thi nki ng
requi rement.
BC 3 4 MATH 1271 Ful fi l l s mathemati cal thi nki ng
requi rement.
BC 45 8 MATH 1271
& MATH
1272
Ful fi l l s mathemati cal thi nki ng
requi rement.
Uni versi ty of
Mi ssouri Col umbi a (MO)
AB 35 8 MATH 110
& MATH
1500
Math 1100 (Col l ege Al gebra) credi t
wi l l be added to a students transcri pt
at the end of the fi rst term of
enrol l ment.
BC 35 13 MATH 110,
1500 & 1700
Math 1100 (Col l ege Al gebra) credi t
wi l l be added to a students transcri pt
at the end of the fi rst term of
enrol l ment.
Uni versi ty of Mi ssouri Kansas
Ci ty (MO)
AB 35 4 MATH 210
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Uni versi ty of Mi ssouri Kansas
Ci tycontinued
BC 35 8 MATH 210
& MATH
220
Uni versi ty of
Mi ssouri Rol l a (MO)
AB 45 5 Math/Stat 8
BC 3 5 Math/Stat 8
BC 45 10 Math/Stat 8
& 21
Uni versi ty of Nebraska
Li ncol n (NE)
AB 35 5 MATH 106
BC 35 10 MATH 106
& MATH
107
The Uni versi ty of North
Carol i na at Ashevi l l e (NC)
AB 35 4 MATH 191
BC 3 4 MATH 191
BC 45 8 MATH 191
& MATH
192
Carol i na at Chapel Hi l l (NC)
AB 35 3 MATH 110P
& MATH
231
AB 35 6 MATH 110P
& MATH
231 &
MATH 232
Carol i na Wi l mi ngton (NC)
AB 35 4 MAT 161
BC 35 8 MAT 161 &
MAT 162
Uni versi ty of North Fl ori da (FL) AB 35 4 MAC 2311
BC 3 4 MAC 2311
BC 45 8 MAC 2311
& MAC
2312
Uni versi ty of Notre Dame (I N) AB 45 4 MATH
10550
AB/BC 3 3 MATH
10250
BC 45 8 MATH
10550 &
MATH
10560
Uni versi ty of Okl ahoma (OK) AB 35 MATH 1823
BC 3 MATH 1823
BC 45 MATH 1823
& MATH
2423
Uni versi ty of Pennsyl vani a (PA) AB 0 0 no credi t
APPENDIX 656
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Uni versi ty of Pennsyl vani a
continued
BC 5 MATH 104 An i nternal departmental
exami nati on i s al so avai l abl e for
credi t.
Uni versi ty of Pi ttsburgh (PA) AB 35 4 MATH 0220
BC 35 8 MATH 0220
& MATH
0230
Uni versi ty of Puget Sound (WA) AB 35 MATH 121 Credi t i s not al l owed for both AB and
BC exams.
BC 35 MATH 121
& MATH
122
Credi t i s not al l owed for both AB and
BC exams.
Uni versi ty of Redl ands (CA) AB/BC 35
Uni versi ty of Rhode I sl and (RI ) AB 35 7 MATH 111
& MATH
141
Students scori ng a 3 on these AP
tests shoul d consul t a URI academi c
advi sor for appropri ate cl ass
pl acement.
BC 35 8 MATH 141
& MATH
142
Students scori ng a 3 on these AP
tests shoul d consul t a URI academi c
advi sor for appropri ate cl ass
pl acement.
Uni versi ty of Ri chmond (VA) AB 45 3 MATH 211
BC 45 6 MATH 211
& MATH
212
Uni versi ty of Rochester (NY) AB 23 Pl acement i n MTH 161, 161Q or 162
determi ned by department. I f pl aced
i n MTH 162 and earns C- or better,
credi t gi ven for MTH 161.
AB 45 MTH 161 Pl acement i n MTH 162 or 171Q.
BC 2 Pl acement i n MTH 161, 161Q or 162
determi ned by department. I f pl aced
i n MTH 162 and earns C- or better,
credi t granted for MTH 161.
BC 3 MTH 161 Pl acement i n MTH 162 or 171Q.
BC 45 MTH 161 &
MTH 162
Pl acement i n MTH 163, 164, 165, or
173Q by department. Student may
choose to regi ster for MTH 171Q and
recei ve credi t for MTH 161 but not
162.
Uni versi ty of St. Thomas (MN) AB 35 MATH 113
BC 35 MATH 113
& MATH
114
BC 35 w/AB
35
MATH 113
Uni versi ty of St. Thomas (TX) AB 45 MATH 1431
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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continued
BC 45 MATH 1431
& MATH
1432
The Mathemati cs Department offers a
col l ecti on of pl acement exams for
entry-l evel students. An appl i cant
wi th a score of 4 or 5 on an AB
porti on of the Advanced Pl acement
exam i n Mathemati cs wi l l earn four
hours of credi t for MATH 1431.
Uni versi ty of San Di ego (CA) AB/BC 35
The Uni versi ty of Scranton (PA) AB/BC 45 36
Uni versi ty of South
Carol i na (SC)
AB 35 MATH 141
BC 35 MATH 141
& MATH
142
Students who score a 1 or 2 but
recei ve a 3 or above on the Cal cul us
AB subscore wi l l earn credi t for
MATH 141.
Uni versi ty of Southern
Cal i forni a (CA)
AB/BC 35 4
The Uni versi ty of Tennessee at
Chattanooga (TN)
AB 35 4 MATH 151
& MATH
152
BC 35 8 MATH 151,
152, 161, &
162
The Uni versi ty of Texas at
Austi n (TX)
AB 3 M 408C, B
AB 45 M 408C, A
BC 3 M 408C, B
or M 408K,
408L, B
BC 4 M 408C, A
or M 408K,
A; M 408L,
B
BC 5 M 408C, A
or M 408K,
408L, A
Dal l as (TX)
AB 3 MATH 2312
AB 45 MATH 2312
& MATH
1325
BC 3 MATH 2312
& MATH
1325
BC 4 MATH 2312
1 2417 or
MATH 2312
1 1325
APPENDIX 658
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Dal l ascontinued
BC 5 MATH 2312
1 2417 or
MATH 1325
1 1326[]
Uni versi ty of the Paci fi c (CA) AB 45 6 MATH 51
BC 45 3 MATH 53
Uni versi ty of the Sci ences i n
Phi l adel phi a (PA)
AB/BC 35
Uni versi ty of Tul sa (OK) AB 35 4 MATH 2014
BC 35 8 MATH 2014
& MATH
2024
Uni versi ty of Utah (UT) AB 35 8 QA/QB
Requi rement
Pl acement by Department. A score of
2 i n the Cal cul us AB or Cal cul us BC
wi l l wai ve the QA Requi rement but
no credi t hours wi l l be awarded.
BC 35 8 QA/QB
Requi rement
A score of 2 i n the Cal cul us AB or
Cal cul us BC wi l l wai ve the QA
Requi rement but no credi t hours wi l l
be awarded. Pl acement by
Department.
Uni versi ty of Vi rgi ni a (VA) AB 45 4 MATH 131
BC 45 8 MATH 131
& MATH
132
Uni versi ty of Washi ngton (WA) AB 2 Pl acement onl y i nto MATH 124.
Pl acement i nto fi rst quarter of
cal cul us.
AB 34 5 MATH 124 Fi rst quarter of cal cul us.
AB 5 10 MATH 124
& MATH
125
BC 2 w/AB 35 5 MATH 124 Fi rst quarter of cal cul us. Counts
toward Natural Worl d general
educati on requi rement for graduati on.
Al so sati sfi es Quanti tati ve and
Symbol i c Reasoni ng graduati on
requi rement.
BC 3 5 MATH 124 Fi rst quarter of cal cul us. Counts
requi rement.
BC 45 10 MATH 124
& MATH
125
Fi rst two quarters of cal cul us. Counts
requi rement.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Uni versi ty of Wi sconsi nLa
Crosse (WI )
AB/BC 35 5 MATH 207
Uni versi ty of Wi sconsi n
Madi son (WI )
AB 3 3 Mathemati cs
El ecti ves
Exempt from Quanti tati ve Reasoni ng
Part A.
AB 45 5 MATH 221
BC 2 5 MATH 221
BC 35 10 MATH 221
& MATH
222
Uni versi ty of Wi sconsi nRi ver
Fal l s (WI )
AB 35 4 MATH 166
BC 3 4 MATH 166
BC 45 8 MATH 166
& MATH
167
Ursi nus Col l ege (PA) AB/BC 45
Val parai so Uni versi ty (I N) AB 4 4 MATH 131
AB 5 8 MATH 131
& MATH
132
BC 3 4 MATH 131
BC 45 8 MATH 131
& MATH
132
Vanderbi l t Uni versi ty (TN) AB 45 6 MATH 150a
& MATH
150b
BC 3 w/AB 45 6 MATH 150a
& MATH
150b
BC 45 8 MATH 155a
& MATH
155b
Vassar Col l ege (NY) AB/BC 45
Vi l l anova Uni versi ty (PA) AB/BC 45
Vi rgi ni a Mi l i tary I nsti tute (VA) AB 35 3 MA 115
BC 35 6 MA 115 &
MA 116
Vi rgi ni a Pol ytechni c I nsti tute
and State Uni versi ty (VA)
AB 35 3 MATH 1205
BC 3 3 MATH 1205
BC 45 6 MATH 1205
& MATH
1206
APPENDIX 660
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Wabash Col l ege (I N) AB 45 The excepti on bei ng for Engl i sh
Composi ti on, Mathemati cs, and
Modern and Anci ent l anguages, where
the department may grant or deny
Advanced Pl acement credi t based on
profi ci ency exam performance and
may wai ve the addi ti onal course
requi rement.
BC 45
Wagner Col l ege (NY) AB/BC 45
Wake Forest Uni versi ty (NC) AB 45 4 MTH 555
BC 3 4 MTH 555
BC 45 4 MTH 111
Wartburg Col l ege (I A) AB/BC 3 MA 201
AB/BC 45 MA 201 &
MA 202
Washi ngton & Jefferson
Col l ege (PA)
AB/BC 45
Washi ngton and Lee
Uni versi ty (VA)
AB 5 3 MATH 101
BC 5 6 MATH 101
& MATH
102
Washi ngton Col l ege (MD) AB 35 4 MAT 201
BC 35 8 MAT 201 &
MAT 202
Washi ngton Uni versi ty i n St.
Loui s (MO)
AB 4 Take Math Pl acement test. You wi l l
probabl y be pl aced i nto Math 132.
AB 5 3 MATH 131 You wi l l be pl aced i n MATH 132.
BC 4 Take Math Pl acement test. You wi l l
probabl y be pl aced i nto Math 233.
BC 5 6 MATH 131
& MATH
132
You wi l l be pl aced i nto Math 233. An
AB Subscore of 5 wi l l earn 3 uni ts of
credi t for Math 131.
Wel l esl ey Col l ege (MA) AB 45 MATH 115
BC 3 MATH 115
BC 45 MATH 115
& 116 or
MATH 115
& 120
Wel l s Col l ege (NY) AB/BC 45
Wesl eyan Col l ege (GA) AB/BC 45
Wesl eyan Uni versi ty (CT) AB 45 Wesl eyan courses requi red for credi t:
Student must compl ete any 200-l evel
mathemati cs course wi th a grade of
C- or better.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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The student passes Math 122 or a
200-l evel Mathemati cs course wi th a
grade of C- or better.
BC 45 Wesl eyan courses requi red for credi t:
Student must compl ete any 200-l evel
mathemati cs course wi th a grade of
C- or better.
Western Washi ngton
Uni versi ty (WA)
AB/BC 35 9 MATH 240
&
Quanti tati ve
& Symbol i c
Reasoni ng
Student may recei ve credi t for ei ther
AB or BC, but not both unl ess
recommended by Mathemati cs
Department after pl acement.
Westmi nster Col l ege (UT) AB 3 8 MATH 141
& MATH
100T
AB 45 8 MATH 141
& MATH
201
BC 3 8 MATH 141
& MATH
201
BC 45 8 MATH 201
& MATH
202
Westmont Col l ege (CA) AB/BC 45
Wheaton Col l ege (MA) AB/BC 45
Whi tman Col l ege (WA) AB 45 3 MATH 125
BC 45 6 MATH 125
& MATH
126
Whi tworth Col l ege (WA) AB 34 4 MA 110
AB 5 8 MA 110 &
MA 111
BC 35 8 MA 110 &
MA 111
Wi l l amette Uni versi ty (OR) AB 45 MATH 141 Credi t for these courses may be
appl i ed toward the Quanti tati ve and
Anal yti cal Reasoni ng requi rement.
BC 4 MATH 141 Credi t for these courses may be
BC 5 MATH 141
& MATH
142
Credi t for these courses may be
Wi l l i am Jewel l Col l ege (MO) AB 45 4 GEN 104
BC 45 8 GEN 104 &
MAT 200
APPENDIX 662
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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& STAT 101
I f a score of 4 or 5 i s earned on the
Cal cul usAB test, the student i s
el i gi bl e to reduce the requi rements i n
the Math major by one course. I f
course credi t i s bl ank, there i s no
reducti on i n the number of courses
requi red for that major.
AB 45 MATH 104,
105, 251, &
STAT 201
BC 12 MATH 104
& STAT 101
I f a score of 4 or 5 i s earned on the
Cal cul usAB test, the student i s
el i gi bl e to reduce the requi rements i n
the Math major by one course. I f
course credi t i s bl ank, there i s no
reducti on i n the number of courses
requi red for that major.
BC 35 MATH 104,
106, 251 &
STAT 201
Wi nona State Uni versi ty (MN) AB/BC 35
Wi ttenberg Uni versi ty (OH) AB/BC 45
Wofford Col l ege (SC) AB 45 3 MATH 181
BC 3 3 MATH 181
BC 45 6 MATH 181
& MATH
182
Worcester Pol ytechni c
I nsti tute (MA)
AB 45 MA 1021 &
MA 1022
BC 45 MA 1021,
1022, &
1023
Xavi er Uni versi ty (OH) AB 35 4 MATH 170
BC 3 4 MATH 170
BC 45 8 MATH 170
& MATH
171
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Master The AP Calculus AB & BC, 2nd Edition (Peterson's Ap Calculus)

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Master The AP Calculus AB & BC, 2nd Edition (Peterson's Ap Calculus)

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PETERSO NS

F(a), i f F i s the anti deri vati ve

Diffe re ntia l Eq ua tions

( ) does not exi st. There-

I f f has hori zontal asymptote y 5 2, then

Factor compl etel y to get

ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIO NS

Example 1: Use the di fference quoti ent to veri fy that

PART II: AP C a lc ulus AB & BC Re vie w 124

. I n thi s probl em, the x

Solution: Thi s probl em begi ns wi th the Product Rul e.

wi l l requi re the Quoti ent and Chai n Rul es.

You al ready know that

3. Fi rst, fi nd the y that corresponds to x 5 0:

2. Accordi ng to the formul a, (k

. Unti l now, you were unabl e to

, and i ts ti me to whi p out LHpi tal ;

, whi ch i s 0, accordi ng to our speci al l i mi t rul es from

, so appl y LHpi tal s a second ti me.

Example 7: Fi nd the deri vati ve,

whi ch matches the answer we got i n Exampl e 7.

i nto both, you get the coordi nate

, and the deri vati ve i s

for the pol ar equati on r 5 si n u cos u.

, the correspondi ng rectangul ar coordi nate i s (7.460,5.712); when t 5

Sol ve thi s proporti on for r and you get r 5

. The perfect choi ce i s tangent, and the equati on

You sti l l need to fi nd u and

, and the tangent sl ope i s g(x).

. Si mi l arl y, you set 2si n x cos x 5 0 and pl ot the

). I n case you are skepti cal ,

Substi tute back i nto the ori gi nal equati on to get

. The correspondi ng l ength wi l l be

PART II: AP C a lc ulus AB & BC Re vie w 238

Thi s expressi on can be rewri tten as

Thi s i ntegral must fi rst be rewri tten as

Thi s can be rewri tten as *x

Fi rst, rewri te thi s probl em as *csc

, i f a and b are real numbers

ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIO NS

Translation: I n order to eval uate the defi ni te i ntegral f x dx

, fi nd the anti deri va-

So, you need to fi nd the anti deri vati ve of x

cosx dx, and expl ai n the answer geometri cal l y.

actual l y gi ves the di stance the car travel ed between ti me a and b.

The upper bound i s h

C ha p te r 7: Inte g ra tion 275

, whi ch i s all of the accumul ated area from x 5 0 to x 5 4. The

. You know that the i ntegral of

Fi nal l y, use the Chai n Rul e to fi nd g(x):

sin sin cos cos

, but not cos5x dx

. I f you thought cos5x dx

At thi s poi nt, you can pul l the

The i ntegral of cos u i s si n u, so you get

Nothi ng i s easi er to i ntegrate than e

Thi s i s real l y easy to i ntegrate:

and you can i ntegrate thi s qui te easi l y.

Solution: Begi n by pul l i ng the constant 4 out of the i ntegral to get

. Now, set u equal to the val ue i nsi de the radi cal .

At thi s poi nt, i t i s i ncorrect to wri te

. The boundari es 2 and 3 are x bound-

I ntegrate and appl y the Fundamental Theorem to fi ni sh.