UNIVERSITY OF LJUBLJANA, FACULTY OF ARTS

Tantra and the Witch-cult of Western Europe a comparison of marginal spiritual traditions of two continents
A paper for the course Culture of India
Ana Drevenek January, February of 2014

Department of Asian and African studies, mentor: professor Arun Prakash Mishra, PhD

Tantra and Witch-cult of Western Europe: Ana Drevenek, January 2014

Index
Introduction .............................................................................................................................................................2 The philosophical and practical similarities between Tantra and the Witch-cult .................2 The opponents of Tantra and the Witch-cult ...........................................................................................8 Bibliography .......................................................................................................................................................... 12

Introduction
On every continent of the world there is a religion or a set of religions that become institutionalised. This religion acquires all the characteristics of an institution: law, hierarchy and canonised set of teachings that helps the institution act as a religious guide, an authority. The institution also creates a source of income in order to support the functionality of the institution the governing. The religious institution then claims to have the right to judge on what is moral and what is amoral, what behaviours are permitted and which are not, what kind of thinking is permitted and which is not. It establishes a psychological confinement for the people who are then not allowed to think out of the box this would be punished or at least condemned. In this paper, I dive into two spiritual tradition of India and the West and explore the similarities between them. One of the most prominent similarities is the fact that they both experienced some kind of persecution or condemnation and this is why I divided this topic into individual chapter.

The philosophical and practical similarities between Tantra and the Witch-cult
There are a lot of similarities between the Tantric tradition and the Witch-cult of Western Europe but it is important to look at the philosophical basis that lies behind them and not get caught in the appearances. The similarities in the beliefs and teachings are more striking than the practices alone. The word witch actually comes from the word wise and simply means a wise person, a kind of a priest or priestess of the community, the one that is in contact with the Divine. This contact with the Divine was not regarded anything special or unnatural, it was perceived as a right of every individual and so everyone could follow the path of the wise, of the witch. As this tradition was highly individualised, it involved working with personal power and power of the Earth, which evolved in a kind of magic. Its essential part was observation of the environment and knowledge of the properties of the surroundings. The cooperation with the environment, living in harmony with the environment and sharing ones own personal will and wishes with the environment was magic. It was highly spiritual magic as the Nature was perceived as a manifestation of

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the deities that were both male and female and magic was used for personal transformation, a personal improvement. The origins of the Witch-cult are not scientifically provable. In the beginning of 20 th century, Margaret Murray, an anthropologist, suggested that the Witch-cult started in the times of prehistory, in the Paleolithic and that we can trace a continuum of the religion to modern times. She made this conclusion on the facts that the Witch-cult was highly related to worship of Nature, it was polytheistic, included both female and male deities and had traces of shamanic practices, in rituals for example, that were much more participatory than the rituals of modern religions like Christianity. Margaret Murray was also the first one to use the term Witch-cult. (Murray 1921) There are also many other names for the Witch-Cult, like Wicca (also meaning wise), Witchcraft etc. It is also known as the Old Religion and nowadays as neo-paganism. The explanation of the origins of the Witch-cult is similar to some explanations of the origins of Tantra that became popular among the academics: According to this view, Tantra is rooted in the ancient Indus Valley civilization, which is alleged to have been a matriarchal culture centering around goddess worship and fertility cults. With the coming of the Indo-Europeans or Aryan invaders, sometime around 1700 b.c.e., the story goes, sexual practices and goddess worship were pushed underground, where they survived as the autochthonous substratum of later Hinduism; only a millennium later did they resurface and work their way into the textual record. At the same time, Eliade and others have argued that Tantra is closely tied to non-Hindu, indigenous, and aboriginal traditions, such as the many tribal groups that survive today, above all in the marginal areas like Bengal, Assam, and the northwest mountains. (Urban 2003, 24) But, the Tantric schools and teachers claim quite oppositely; they say that Tantric teachings originate from the Vedas, they represent a deeper explanation of Vedic teachings and a development that is necessary for the Vedic teachings to be useful and applicable in the kail-yuga. Tantras, scriptures of specific teachings from which the whole Tantric movement originates, offer their own explanation of their origin: There is of course no lack of myths and legends about the origins of particular tantras. Many of the Hindu tantras offer their own narrative of a mythic origin, often in the form of the tantravatara or descent of the text, in which Lord Shiva or the Goddess re veals the scripture. According to the narrative of the Tantraraja Tantra, for example, the teaching was originally revealed by Shiva to the supreme Shakti at the dawn of the first cosmic age; it was then transmitted through a series of nine Nathas, or perfected masters, who descended in a chain from Shivas realm to earth, through whom the tantra was revealed to humankind: by these nine, the tantra was spread throughout this world; the Primordial Supreme Shakti revealed it in the Krta Yuga. (Urban 2003, 24) The Tantric teachings are so revealed, directly from Shiva, to function as tool for the spiritual aspirants of the kali-yuga. Tantra is a very complex term as the practitioners of Tantric practices and philosophies do not call their tradition Tantra. However, Tantra has become the name of the specific traditions. The term Tantra comes from the texts that include Tantric teachings:
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A very common expression in English writings is the Tantra; but its use is often due to a misconception. For what does Tantra mean? The word denotes injunction (vidhi), regulation (niyama), Mstra generally or treatise. . . . A secular writing may be called Tantra. We cannot speak of the Treatise nor of the Tantra, any more than we ca n or do speak of the PurJa, the SaFhit. We can speak of the Tantras as we do of the PurJas. Sir John Woodroffe, Shakti and Shakta (1918) Tantras are, as explained in the passage, specific texts and not the name of the tradition itself. But the term Tantra itself has a specific meaning that could be connected to the philosophy of Tantra: However, most scholars seem to agree (with Panini, a Sanskrit grammarian) that the term probably derives from the root tan, which means basically to stretch, to spread, or to weave, and, metaphorically, to lay out, to explain, or to espouse. (Urban 2003) The most important aspect of Tantra, in my opinion, is its relevance for the modern times, as Tantra itself states. Tantra is very cosmological and knows complicated maps of existence, different dimensions of existence and history of the Universe. It emphasises the cycles of existence that makes it quite relative and takes the power to govern it from anyone. It also puts itself into this big cosmological picture, stating that was created especially for modern times, the kali-yuga that is so deficient in spiritual virtues that conventional practices do not serve their purpose. Tantra does not emphasise its superiority or authority, it just recognizes the need and answers it. It is also very realistic about who is Tantra meant for; definitely not for everyone as it requires too great a psychological effort and change. Kularnava Tantra puts it this way: Vedic worship is greater than all others. But greater than that is Vaishnava worship; and greater than that is Shaiva worship; and greater than that is Dakaianacara. Greater than Dakaianacara is Vamacara; and greater than Vama is Siddhanta; greater than Siddhanta is Kaulaand there is none superior to Kaula. Devi, this Kula is more secret than secret, more essential than the essence, greater than the supreme, given directly by Shiva, proceeding from ear to ear. The most significant similarity between Tantra and Witch-cult is the emphasis on the individual experience and knowledge through direct relationship between the individual and the Divine. Whatever Tantra you may read, you will always discover and emphasis on personal experimentation and experience. (Feuerstein 1998, 19) Beyond this, the Goddess and God can help us change our lives. Because the deities are the creative forces of the universe (not just symbols), we can call upon them to empower our rites and to bless our magic. Again, this is in direct opposition to most religions. The power is in the hands of every practitioner, not specialized priests or priestesses who perform these feats for the masses. This is what makes Wicca a truly satisfying way of life. We have direct links with the deities. No intermediaries are needed; no priests or confessors or shamans. We are the shamans. (Cunningham 2004, 14) Another similarity is the attitude towards the deities that are in both cases of both sexes (which is not so strange, as it is a normal feature of the majority of ancient religions).
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Not just that the deities are of both sexes, they are not perceived as eternal, unchanging beings, but as temporal, relative manifestations of the One, of the original, creative divine power that created the universe and thus them also: In Wiccan thought, the deities didnt exist before our spiritual ancestors acknowledgement of them. However, the energies behind them did; they created us. Early worshippers recognized these forces as the Goddess and God, personifying them in an attempt to understand them. (Cunningham 2004, 10) Tantric view is very similar: The Western mind tends to hastily dismiss this aspect of Tantra as mere superstition or, at beast, as a projection of archetypal imagery resident in the human psyche. For the Tantric practitioners the deities are very real, however, each corresponding to a particular energetic presence that can be palpably felt in meditation and even at other times. The tantrikas tap into those energetic presences to accomplish their goal of selftransformation, to block or dispel negative forces impinging upon them, and also to help others in their spiritual life or material struggles. (Feuerstein 1998, 71) The similarity between Wiccan and Tantric perception is strikingly huge and both are not deluded by some imagery of supernatural forces, but, quite oppositely, view the deities as a part of nature, cosmos, as very real and as a huge help in the process of spiritual transformation. The Tantric worldview affirms the existence of deities long-lived higher beings on subtle planes who are endowed with extraordinary powers. The tantrikas seek out their help through invocation, prayer, ritual, meditative visualization, and not the least mantra recitation. At the same time, however, they understand that these deities, despite their elevated status, are not yet fully mature spiritual beings like the perfected masters (siddha). The gods and goddesses are powerful but not liberated. According to a widely held view in Hinduism, they can attain liberation only by first incarnating as a human being. (Feuerstein 1998, 70-71) Tantra also gives a very important suggestion about how to worship the deities. Aghora practitioner and master Vimalananda explains it to Robert Svoboda: I have told you many times, and I still maintain, that it is much easier to surrender to a personal God than it is to surrender to some cosmic form. It is all well and good to appreciate the vastness of the cosmos, but how can you grab hold of it to love it? You cant; but you can grab hold of Krishna, or Ma, or Whoever, though, and love Them. (Svoboda 1993, 173) Practices, counted in the above quote are all without exception also a part of the Witchcult, also known as Wicca. Invocation is an integral part of the Wiccan ritual, as is prayer, meditation and visualization. The Witch-cult also includes practices that could be named mantra recitation. It is called the chanting of the sacred names, namely the names of the gods and goddesses which serves as an induction of alternative states of consciousness and closer relationship with the deities. Today, Wicca has dropped the ordeals of pain and the use of hallucinogens in favour of chanting, meditation, concentration, visualization, music, dance, invocation and ritual drama. With these spiritual tools, the Wicca achieve a state of ritual consciousness similar
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to those attained by the most brutal shamanic ordeals. // Wicca teaches that nature includes a broad spectrum of mental and spiritual states of which most of us are ignorant. Effective Wiccan ritual enables us to slip into such states, allowing communication and communion with the Goddess and God. Unlike some religions, Wicca doesnt view deity as distant. The Goddess and God are both within ourselves and manifest in all nature. This is the universality: there is nothing that is not of the gods. (Cunningham 2004, 4) This universality of the deity is a concept that is also a part of the cosmology of Tantra that is so different from the Shankracharyas Advaita Vedantas postulation that the world we live in is an illusion, does not really exist: Above all, they [Tantric scriptures] view the world as a manifestation of the ultimate Reality and the body as a temple of the Divine. For this reason, they look askance at the kind of extreme asceticism favoured by verticalism and criticized already by the Buddha around 500 BCE. Thus in the Kula-Arnava-Tantra Shiva addresses the goddess in the following way: Fools deluded by your power of illusion (maya) aspire to the Invisible (paroksha) by such means as asceticism of the body and abstention from food. How can there be liberation for the ignorant through the punishment of the body? What great serpent has ever died from striking an anthill? Are asses and the like yogins because they roam in the world naked without shame and for whom house and forest are the same? O Goddess, if people could become liberated by smearing themselves with mud and ashes, then villagers who live amid mud and ashes should all be liberated. O Goddess, are parrots and myna birds great scholars because they talk and repeat amusing things before people? (Feuerstein 1998, 50) Another similarity between the Witch-cult and Tantra is the understanding of the architecture of the invisible worlds. They share some points about the so called elemental energies. The Tantric view of the elemental energies is thus: Wedged between our familiar material universe and the ultimate Reality are the multiple layers of subtle (sukshma) existence. In their endeavour to reach the One, the Tantric practitioners inevitably must traverse those intermediate realms, which are invisible to ordinary sight but nonetheless as real (or unreal) as the material world. The idea of a subtle dimension of existence can be found already in the ancient Vedas and is shared by
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many, if not most, other spiritual and religious traditions. These subtle realms are considered the home of deities, ancestral spirits, and other entities, including various kinds of earthbound demonic beings (called bhutas, or elementals). (Feuerstein 1998, 140) There are also a lot of references to astral beings and spirits in Svobodas work on Aghora. Wicca perceives the astral beings as beings that belong to the elements earth, fire, water and air. These are fairies, gnomes, elves and other creatures that are in the West well known as fairy-tale characters. Those beings are considered guardians of the elements and the elemental power. They are described like this: There are varied Wiccan teachings and ideas regarding these four rulers. Some link them with the elements; thus the spirit or ruler of the east is related to air; the south, to fire; the west, to water; the north, to earth. Then again, some Wiccans dont see them a s necessarily elemental in nature, but simply as anciently placed guardians or watchers of the four directions, perhaps by the goddesses and gods of earlier times. Still other Wiccans view them as the Mighty Ones, former humans who have spiralled up the incarnational path until theyve reached perfection. This allows them to dwell with the Goddess and God. These Mighty Ones are mythologically linked to the four directions. (Cunningham 2004, 106) The mention of the incarnational path brings me to the last similarity that I would like to discuss in this paper. The Witch-cult believes, oppositely from the Christianity that is the ruling religion of the West, in the doctrine of reincarnation. Reincarnation is actually part of all the inner, Gnostic, spiritual traditions or spiritual branches of religious traditions. Sufis of the Muslims, Qabalah of the Jews, Gnostics of Christianity all embrace the doctrine of reincarnation as their integral part. Their religious counterparts, however, do not embrace it and rather teach the doctrine of only one life and the promise of eternal heaven or hell which is more irrational and thus a stronger rhetorical tool than teachings of more lives, the purpose of which is spiritual growth something that requires responsibility. It is no wonder, then, that the Witch-cult that emphasises individual spiritual experience and transformation, embraces such a doctrine that is based on transformation and growth. There are some differences between the Wiccan and Indian view on reincarnation, which are explained by Cunningham in his book: Unlike some eastern philosophies, however, Wicca doesnt teach that upon physical death our souls will reincarnate in anything other than a human body. Also, few of the Wicca believes that we begin our existence as rocks, trees, snails, or birds before we evolved to the point where we could incarnate as human beings. Though these creatures and substances do possess a type of soul, its not the sort we humans have. (Cunningham 2004, 5)

Tantra and Witch-cult of Western Europe: Ana Drevenek, January 2014

The opponents of Tantra and the Witch-cult

On 5th of December of 1484 Malleus Maleficarum Der Hexenhammer (The Witchs Hammer) was published. It was written by two German Dominican priests Jakob Sprenger and Heinrich Institoris. The book was a kind of manual for prosecuting the so called witches and included everything a witch-prosecutor had to know; who are witches, how to recognize them, what exactly are their sins. It goes on to explain the exact methods of interrogation and torture techniques that were to be used as a part of interrogation and as a means to get the accused ones confession. Some scholars believe that the writers falsified the The Faculty of Theology of the University of Cologne s letter of approval of publication and that the Malleus was published illegally. The fact weather the publication was approved by authorities or not is not important as the book soon became widely spread and republished more than twenty times. It became the principal manual of the witch hunts. According to more conventional studies it is estimated that around 60.000 people were killed during the time of the witch hunts (from 15 th to 18th century) but as different academics research deeper into the subject they all speak about much greater numbers, around 5 or 6 millions. The hostility towards non-Christian believers in Europe was nothing new though. When Christianity became an organized religion with its see in Rome it became its 2000 years long prosecution of every philosophy, religion, ideology and individuals expressing their fondness towards them. Inquisition was established in 12 th century in France in order to prosecute Cathars in Languedoc, southern France. Inquisition spread all over Europe very soon and acted as Catholic institution that prosecuted people whom she believed suspicious and endangering the authority of the Church by means of torture and execution. Inquisition prosecuted Christian heresies groups of Christians that interpreted Jesus teachings differently from Vatican; later it also prosecuted scientists, witches and other people who did not follow the Churchs doctrine. In India, a specific current of traditions known under different names but having the philosophical and practical aspects in common (traditions known as for example Kapalikas, Pashupatas, and Vamas) is now widely and especially in the West known as Tantra, tantrism or Hindu Tantra (as opposed to Buddhist Tantra). The orthodox Hindus perceive Tantra as abomination, a deviation from the pure path: Perhaps the earliest reference to such groups is a passage from a fourth century c.e. portion of the Mahabharata (12.335.40), which names the Pashupatas and the Pacaratras as non-Vedic. However, far more colourful and vivid descriptions appear in the Puranas, which often identify Shiva as the founder of specifically non-Vedic and transgressive sects, such as the Kapalikas, Pashupatas, and Vamas. According to the Kurma Purana, for example, Shiva is said to have taught these false and heretical non8

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Vedic paths in order to help save certain individuals from still worse heresies by which they had been deluded. Assuming his terrible form, covered in ashes and adorned with skulls, Shiva revealed the Kapalika, Vama, Pashupata, and other texts as lures to attract certain people away from even more dangerous teachings, using them as stepping stones to lead them ultimately back to the Vedas. (Urban 2003, 36) So Tantra is perceived as non-vedic and heretical even though the Tantras claim that they originate from the Vedas. They simply state that the practices taught in the Vedas are not suitable for the present kali-yuga which demands different kinds of sadhana in order to bear fruit and so the Tantras are Shivas revelation , his teachings about how to achieve in the dark kali-yuga: In any case, Mahanirvana-Tantra does not reject Vedic revelation in its entirety but uses it as the foundation for its own, novel brand of esotericism. It is not that the Vedic repertoire of psychospiritual practices is considered worthless in itself, only that people of the kali-yuga are incapable of employing them successfully. In the Kula-Arnava-Tantra Shiva even declares that he extracted its teachings by chrurning the ocean of the Vedas and Agamas with the staff of wisdom. This is a clear vote of confidence in the Vedic revelation. Yet in the same Tantra we find this stanza (uttered by Shiva): O Beloved, those who are proficient in the four Vedas but ignorant of the kula are dog cookers. However, even a low-caste dog cooker who knows the kula is superior to a brahmin. (Feuerstein 1998, 13-14) Tantras do not reject the Vedas, they respect them and see them as their foundation and origin, they simply see the need for different kind of action in the kali-yuga because the Vedas were only efficient in the satya-yuga when they were composed. Common Indians (not those proficient in Sanskrit or scholars of the sacred texts) also have a negative attitude towards Tantra: One often need only mention the word tantra to many Indians (as I did to my Bengali teacher in Calcutta) to elicit responses of ooph! M go! (literally, Oh, mother! used as an emphatic expression) and a clucking of tongues. In most vernacular languages today, the term tantra is typically associated with a whole range of intense associations, usually relating to the darker realms of the magical, the immoral (sometimes the illegal), and the occult. (Urban 2003, 38) In general, Tantra is perceived as connected to black magic, moral depravity, criminal behavior, and illicit sexual practices:

Tantra and Witch-cult of Western Europe: Ana Drevenek, January 2014

In sum, if tantra in the Sanskrit texts simply means a particular treatise that spreads knowledge and saves, tantra in the popular imagination means something quite different indeeda frightening, dangerous path that leads to this-worldly power and control over the occult forces on the dark side of reality. (Urban 2003, 39)
Shaitan Tantrik is a Bollywood horror film from 1999. It depicts a mean Tantric that cheats young maidens and takes them away to sacrifice them in a ritual to te goddess Kali. It shows the general attitude of Indians towards Tantra.

Tantric practices are considered as deviant, sinful, implementing the elements that are forbidden by orthodox Hindu religion, like meat, alcohol and sexual act. Even though the use of this element is much more complex, it became the hot-button issue for anti-Tantra advocates. The tenets of the Shaktas open the way for gratification of all the sensual appetites; they hold out encouragement to drunkards, thieves and dacoits; they present the means of satisfying every lustful desire . . . and lead men to commit abominations which place them on a level with the beasts. The Shaktas, Calcutta Review (1885) The Maharashtra Prevention and Eradication of Human Sacrifice and other Inhuman, Evil and Aghori Practices and Black Magic Act that was proposed by Narendra Dabholkar (anti-superstition activist) in 2003 and accepted as a law of the state of Maharashtra in 2013 also shows wide-spread negative attitude towards tantrism because of one detail in the name. It says that it is against Aghori practices. Aghora is a part of Tantra and known as the most extremist version of Tantric tradition. By including the term Aghori in the name of the bill, the composer clearly expressed that he considers Aghora and so Tantra as evil and inhuman practices. It shows that the composer have not a t all burrowed himself into the word he uses and does not know anything whatsoever about the historical and philosophical background of the word. He uses it in a superstitious way, in a way he tries to eradicate in the first place. This way of using a word highly resembles the use of the Word witch in the Western setting, especially a few hundred years ago. It was used in a completely biased way, letting out the specific historical, cultural and religious background of the word which was also the purpose of the persecutors. The persecutors were creating a new kind of consciousness, a consciousness that was afraid of what was normal and beneficial in the past. A consciousness that was completely redirected, toward the new power-centre that was no longer within the individuals but within the Church. This new consciousness was made oblivious of its own past, its own history .
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Despite the fear of Tantra, disgust towards Tantra, even paranoia about Tantra, India is still different in many way in terms of prosecuting those who think and live differently from the mainstream society. It is and has always been an all-inclusive society that lets the diversity flourish. This acceptance of everything is also imprinted in the Indian mind: The Rig Veda, considered the womb of Hinduism, does not believe that every question has an answer. Contrast this with all the revealed religions of West Asia where religions, as far as their fundamentals are concerned, were revealed often in a flash of a moment and are true eternally thereafter. The great thing about the truth is it cannot be known so long as you are caught in the illusion of untruth. And this is why, although the Hindu religion has enormous disagreement between its various adherents and schools of thinking, it is not bothered about reconciling there contradictions. Thus there is and inbuilt sense of eclecticism in Hinduism so that a Hindu is not constrained by his belief from believing something more or something different. (Aiyar summer 2007, 43) In favour of Tantra, Aiyar continues to say: Although this genuflection is not really required by the Hindu, yet even when a great revolt took place within Hindu society in the seventh century BC under Mahavir Jain and Gautama Buddha, they did not attempt to replace the existing religion with a new religion. (Aiyar summer 2007, 43) This confirms that despite the multitude of religions and spiritual tradition, it was the goal of very few to actually conquer the whole land, to convert the whole nation. However there tends to exist a certain deafness about the importance of the marginal traditions as the religious propaganda of the ruling religion and current of thought is so strong: However, the impact of their revolutionary thought was such that their followers established these as separate religions. I feel it is not adequately asserted to our schoolchildren (and therefore not firmly in the public consciousness) that for about a thousand years from the time of Ashoka except for a short period under the Guptas and some of their successors the state religion of India was either Buddhism or Jainism. Hinduism had been driven on to the margins of our society not in absolute numbers, but in terms of its dominance over our political life. (Aiyar summer 2007, 44) However, these differences, such as the divisions between the Shaivites and Vaishnavites very serious in our intellectual, philosophical and religious history tended to be intellectual arguments rather than the kind of fratricide that so characterized Europe through its Hundred Years War and Thirty Years War. (Aiyar summer 2007, 44) Aiyar mentions the illuminated world-view of Mahatma Gandhi that thought about religion in a very sober way which is little similar to general Indians attitude towards religious plurality: Gandhi insisted that not only should India be a state without religion but, more importantly, that there should be affirmative action in favour of the minorities. This is called in some circles thushtikaran, which I regard as the noblest aspect of secularism and it denotes a special regard for minorities. (Aiyar summer 2007, 45) In the West, Tantra did not have such a attractive reputiation as it has now. Previously, in the times of colonisation and Orientalist literature, Tantra was perceived as
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abomination. The Orientalist writers connected Tantra to their theory of Arian invasion and described Arians as superior and Tantra as a religion of the inferior and primitive natives: Not surprisingly, the development of Tantra was quickly identified with this imagined non-Aryan, Dravidian, goddess-worshiping culture of pre- Vedic India. Tantra was the very essence of this feminine, weak, and passive race that had initially been conquered by the invading Aryans but that was now causing the progressive decline of the noble Aryan spirit in India. (Urban 2003, 55) So, we could say that the Christian Puritanism (in the service of psychological repression) merged with Hindu Puritanism (probably in the service of the same thing) and created a common disgust towards Tantra. Only later, under different circumstances and originated from different groups of people did Tantra became very popular in the West and sadly, despite the great adoration, it was mostly heavily misunderstood. Tantra became all of the sudden a point of erotic fantasies, unfulfilled in the Western environment that tried to find their realisation in Tantra. Most people completely misunderstood Tantra for most Westerners it became a kind of sexology, even though it could not be further from that. But, this was the product of the meeting of a neurotic Western mind and an Indian spiritual tradition that has nothing to do with material reality.

Bibliography
Aiyar, Mani Shankar. Politics and Religion in India. India International Centre Quarterly, summer 2007: 42-50. Feuerstein, Georg. Tantra, The Path of Ecstasy. Boston, Massachusetts: Shamballa South Asia Editions, 1998. Murray, Margaret Alice. The Witch Cult in Western Europe. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1921. Urban, Hugh B. Tantra: Sex, Secrecy, Politics and Power in the Study of Religion. Los Angeles, Berkley, London: University of California Press, Ltd, 2003.

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