Engineering Structures 32 (2010) 306318

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Engineering Structures
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/engstruct
A simplified strategy for force finding analysis of suspendomes
Qing-shuai Cao
a,
, Zhi-hong Zhang
b
a
Huasen Architectural & Engineering Design Consultants Ltd., Hangzhou 310012, China
b
China Construction(Shenzhen) Design International, Shanghai 200235, China
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 17 December 2008
Received in revised form
8 September 2009
Accepted 9 September 2009
Available online 8 October 2009
Keywords:
Space structure
Suspendome
Sports building
Tensegrity system
Self-internal-force mode
Prestress
a b s t r a c t
The suspendome has been widely used as the structural roof system of sports buildings in recent years.
It is a kind of hybrid space structure composed of an upper rigid single-layer latticed shell and a lower
flexible tensegrity (cablestrut) system. The prestress level in the lower cablestrut system is of great
significance for the suspendome structure because it has no initial geometric stiffness (for a ribring type)
before prestress is introduced into the lower tensegrity system. The traditional solution for calculating the
self-internal-force mode and the prestress force level (force finding) is somewhat complicated; in general
it is based on the Equilibrium Matrix Theory. In the present paper, a simplified computational strategy
for the determination of the self-internal-force mode based on the nodal equilibrium is presented for the
tensegrity system in a suspendome which is grounded on a newly developed method: the Local Analysis
Method. Two types of cablestrut arrangement, the Levy system and the Geiger system, are addressed,
and the characteristic of each type is expounded. An analytical solution for the self-internal-force mode of
the lower cablestrut systemis put forward together with the equivalent nodal force acting on the upper
single-layer dome for the two types of cablestrut arrangement. The determination of the prestress level
of the lower tensegrity system is then elucidated on the ground of the initial architectural configuration,
the counterbalance of the bearing reaction, the equivalent nodal force, and the wind-induced slackening
effect. An illustrative example is appended in the end to validate the efficiency of this simplified method. It
is shown that force finding, at the viewpoint of structural design, based on this method is of great accuracy
and efficiency. The prestress in the outermost ring generally has the highest level among the cablestrut
system, and has the most influence on the structural performance of the suspendome. The results from
the studies can be referred to not only for direct design use in practical engineering, but also for the design
of similar hybrid space structures.
2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
A tensegrity system is nowadays a hot topic of large-span
space structures. Cablestrut systems as the tensegrity system are
mainly used in two kinds of space structure. The first kind consists
only of tension-only cables and compression-only struts, in which
all elements are pin jointed and no bending moment exists. As
the tensegrity structure has hardly any natural rigidity, it would
become stable only if proper prestress is introduced to the system.
The rigidity of the structure results from the self-equilibration of
forces between the tensile cables and the compressive struts [1,2].
The structural investigation involves firstly the morphological
analysis including the geometric configuration finding (form
finding) [3,4] and the determination of prestress level (force
finding). Analytical and experimental researches on the structural
behavior of tensegrity structures have been performed during

Corresponding author. Tel.: +86 0571 87397327.

E-mail address: caoqingshuai@126.com (Q.S. Cao).
the past several decades [58]. The most successful application
of the tensegrity system is the cable dome structure proposed
by Geiger and Levy, which is exemplified by several famous
gymnasiums built for the Olympic Games [9]. The second kind can
be found in the so-called hybrid space structures, composed of the
rigid primary structure, tension-only cables and compression-only
struts. In the hybrid structure, the cablestrut system is used to
stiffen the primary structure, which may be a column [1014], a
beam[15,16], an arch [17], a plane or space truss, or even a latticed
shell [18]. As a result, various types of hybrid space structures
are explicitly proposed, such as the cable-stayed column, the
beamstring structure, the bowstring structure, the suspendome
structure, etc. Many investigations have been performed for
hybrid space structures, in which structural characteristics such
as the buckling strength and the structural rigidity are proved
to be increased greatly [19,20]. The cable-stiffened latticed shell:
suspendome is a typical example of the hybrid space structure,
which is the focus of this paper.
The suspendome is a newly developed large-span hybrid space
structure which has been widely used for the structural roof
0141-0296/$ see front matter 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.engstruct.2009.09.017
Q.S. Cao, Z.H. Zhang / Engineering Structures 32 (2010) 306318 307
Fig. 1. Suspendome: Beijing University of Technologys Gymnasium (Badminton
and Eurythmics Arena for the 2008 Beijing 29th Olympic Games, China).
system of sports buildings in recent years (Figs. 13). As a new
type of hybrid space structure which organically integrates the
lower flexible tensegrity (cablestrut) system into the rigid upper
single-layer latticed dome, it has been attracting engineers and
researchers throughout the world since it was put forward, and it
has caused vigorous vitality [21]. A suspendome is composed of
three kinds of member: rigid beam members connected usually
with welded hollow balls in the upper single-layer latticed shell,
and compression-only vertical struts and the tension-only cables
in the lower tensegrity system [22,23]. A suspendome can be
derived from two types of structure. (1) It is formed by replacing
the upper cables of the cable dome by rigid members, usually a
single-layer latticed dome. Compared with the cable domes, the
prestress level in the suspendome can be observably reduced.
As the upper rigid members can provide certain initial stiffness
to the structure, the construction techniques are also simplified.
The upper rigid member can resist both the axial force and the
bending moments to increase the rigidity of the structure on
the one hand, and on the other hand the internal stress/force
flow in suspendome could be built in a closed loop, thus making
the structure a self-equilibrated system, and a weak boundary
bearing system becomes possible [22,23]. (2) The upper single-
layer latticeddome is strengthenedby the lower tensegrity system.
The suspendome performs like a double-layer latticed dome when
prestress is introduced to the lower tensegrity system, therefore
enhancing the stiffness of the latticedshell andimproving the load-
carrying capacity of stability. These characteristics make it possible
for the dome to have a larger span, satisfying extremely well the
requirements of architectural design for larger spaces. In addition,
the horizontal bearing reaction induced by the service load is the
reverse of that inducedby the tensegrity system, andthe horizontal
bearing reaction can be reduced to zero if proper prestress in
the tensegrity system is introduced. Compared to the single-layer
dome, the internal force distribution is improved substantially
for a suspendome under service load. As a result, the internal
forces transfer from the upper shell to the lower high-strength
cablestrut system. The maximum value of internal force in the
upper single-layer dome members canconsequently be reduced by
the tensegrity system [2225]. The high tensile strength of cables
is fully employed in the rigidflexible composite structure, and the
self-weight of the upper single-layer dome (steel weight index)
is reduced [23]. Thereby, the suspendome is known as a hybrid
space structure.
The suspendome was first brought forward as a new indepen-
dent space structure in 1993 [2628]. Experimental research on
the structural static and dynamic behavior of suspendomes has
been well investigated through a full-size model, in which the
lower tensegrity system showed great influence on the boundary
Fig. 2. Suspendome: Jinan Olympic Sports Centers Gymnasium (centerpiece for
the 2009 11th National Olympic Games, China).
Fig. 3. Suspendome: Changzhou Olympic Sports Centers Gymnasium(centerpiece
for the 2010 Provincial Olympic Games, China).
reaction and the member internal force of the upper shell [28].
Model tests on a small-scale suspendome with a diameter of 3.0 m
and a rise of 0.45 m have also been carried out [26], in which the
load-carrying capacity of stability and the rigidity were proved
to be increased greatly compared with the single-layer dome.
Finite element (FE) analysis results also showed good agree-
ment with results fromexperiments. Analytical researches on sus-
pendomes have also been carried out in various approaches by
researchers [22,24,25]. One of the most challenging issues in sus-
pendome design involves the determination of the initial prestress
distribution and prestress level in the lower cablestrut system. As
is known to all, the structural integral stiffness K consists mainly of
the integral geometrical stiffness K
G
andthe integral linear stiffness
K
L
(K = K
G
+K
L
). For the flexible cables in the lower tensegrity sys-
tem, the initial geometrical stiffness K
G
is usually so small as to be
omitted before prestress is introduced, and the integral linear stiff-
ness K
L
usually accounts for the structural integral stiffness. Thus,
the determination of rational initial prestress in the lower tenseg-
rity system is of great importance for a suspendome. An analyti-
cal solution, such as the Equilibrium Matrix Theory [2931], has
been put forward for the determination of the self-internal-force
mode in the tensegrity system. The self-internal-force mode and
the mechanical displacement mode can be obtained on the basis of
the decomposition of the equilibrium matrix through a numerical
method: singular value decomposition or Gauss elimination [31].
For better elucidation of the tensegrity system, the concept of
integral feasible prestress involving a specific equilibrium state
was put forward based on the independent self-equilibrium stress
mode of mechanics [9]; in this case, the cables are tension-only
elements and the struts are compression-only elements. The Equi-
librium Matrix Theory was shown to be advantageous for tenseg-
rity systems such as the cable dome, but was a little farfetched
308 Q.S. Cao, Z.H. Zhang / Engineering Structures 32 (2010) 306318
for hybrid (rigidflexible) space structures, such as a suspendome
or beam string structure. It mainly results from the complexity of
beam elements in the upper shell which have a great number of
degrees of freedom(DOFs), consequently resulting in a great num-
ber of self-internal-force modes and difficulty in calculation. To
expand the theory to be used for the hybrid structure, the Local
Analysis Method [22] was then developed based on the subma-
trix of the equilibriummatrix, in which the lower cables and struts
are detached from the suspendome and analyzed separately. The
restrains of the upper single-layer dome to the lower cablestrut
system are applied as boundary conditions for the analyses. The
internal prestress distribution of the upper latticed shell can also
be determined by the equivalent reactions of the lower tensegrity
system.
The suspendome has become popular in recent years due to
its attractive structural performance, which is exemplified by the
sports buildings built worldwide in recent decades, such as the
Hikarigaoka Dome with a span of 35 m in Japan in 1994, and
the Fureai Dome with a span of 46 m in Japan in 1997 [21]. The
suspendome has also been developed rapidly in China, such as the
Kiewitt suspendome with a span of 34.5 m and a rise of 4.6 m
(rise to span ratio 1/7.5) constructed in Tianjin, in 2001 [21,24].
The most attractive are three gymnasiums presently constructed
in China: (1) Beijing University of Technologys Gymnasium(Fig. 1,
constructed in 2006) with a span of 93 m and a rise of 10 m
(rise to span ratio 1/9.3), [32]. It was used as the Badminton and
Eurythmics Arena for the 29thBeijing Olympic Games heldin2008.
(2) Jinan Olympic Sports Centers Gymnasium (Fig. 2, constructed
in 2008) with a span of 122 mand a rise of 12.2 m(rise to span ratio
1/10). It served as the centerpiece of the 11th National Olympic
Games held in the city in 2009 [23]. (3) Changzhou Olympic Sports
Centers Gymnasium(Fig. 3, constructed in 2007) whose roof takes
the shape of an ellipse with a long span of 120 m, a short span of
80 m and a rise of 21.45 m. It will serve as the centerpiece of the
Provincial Olympic Games to be held in the city in 2010.
One of the most significant problems for suspendome design in-
volves initially the determination of the prestress level in the lower
tensegrity system. Whilst the force finding analysis has been ex-
tensively explored by numerical approaches [23,24,33], few stud-
ies have investigated the rational prestress level in suspendomes,
and the optimized prestress level based on the structural perfor-
mance of suspendomes has received even less attention. This pa-
per focuses mainly on the simplified calculation method for the
determination of self-internal-force mode and the rational pre-
stress force level (force finding) in the lower tensegrity system
based on the Local Analysis Method [22], for the purpose of direct
design use in practical engineering of suspendomes.
2. Levy and Geiger types of the lower cablestrut system
A single-layer spherical latticed shell is generally used for the
upper constituent part of suspendomes together with the lower
tensegrity system. Onthe basis of the formof lattice arrangement, a
spherical single-layer shell is usually categorizedinto the following
types: the Keiwitt Pattern, the Sunflower Pattern, the Schwedler
Pattern, the Geodesic Pattern, etc., or a hybrid pattern combining
two or more of the above types [21]. The category of a suspendome
can be specified on the basis of the type of the upper single-layer
latticed shell [34].
Generally, for the lower tensegrity system in a suspendome,
there are two types of cablestrut arrangements, called the Levy
system and the Geiger system, as shown in Fig. 4. The main differ-
ence between these two types is the arrangement of the diagonal
cables. For the Levy type of cablestrut arrangement Fig. 4(1), the
vertical strut and the diagonal cables are not in the same vertical
plane. The positions of the vertical struts are staggered by 180

/m
in the circumferential direction compared with the neighboring
rings; herein, m is the number of equally divided segments of the
hoop cable. The vertical strut in the outer ring is connected at the
top end with two adjacent diagonal cables in the neighboring inner
ring (the connection joints in a practical suspendome are as shown
in Fig. 5), thus making the cablestrut system a geometrically sta-
ble system in both radial and circumferential directions. For the
Geiger type of cablestrut arrangement Fig. 4(2), the vertical strut
and the diagonal cable are in the same vertical plane and are ar-
ranged radially and circumferentially (ribring type). The vertical
strut in the outer ring is only radially connected at the top end with
one diagonal cable in the neighboring inner ring (the connection
joints in a practical suspendome are as shown in Fig. 6), thus mak-
ing the cablestrut system a geometrically stable system only in
the radial direction. Structural measures, such as adding of the di-
agonal cables or rods in the hoop plane, are used to strengthen the
circumferential stiffness. With respect to their different character-
istics, the Levy type usually matches a sunflower patterned latticed
dome, and the Geiger type usually matches a Schwedler latticed
dome. As for the sunflower patterned latticed dome, the lattices
become denser and denser from the boundary to the center, re-
sulting in the uneven length of members and difficulty during the
fabrication and construction. For the improvement of the member
arrangement of the sunflower patterned latticed dome, a hybrid
lattice arrangement is preferred as a rule, in which several central
rings of members are rearranged in another pattern, such as the
Keiwitt pattern. Such engineering examples could be established
by Beijing University of Technologys Gymnasium (with five rings
of cables and struts of Levy type) Fig. 7(a), Jinan Olympic Sports
Centers Gymnasium(withthree rings of cables andstruts of Geiger
type) Fig. 7(b), and Changzhou Olympic Sports Centers Gymna-
sium (with six rings of cables and struts of Levy type) Fig. 7(c). The
inner Keiwitt pattern and outer sunflower hybrid pattern are used
in these three single-layer shells.
3. Determination of the self-internal-force mode
On the basis of the construction procedure of the suspendome,
three typical reference configurations are defined explicitly in the
Chinese Technical Specification for Prestressed Steel Structure [34]:
(1) The zero state geometry, which refers to an equilibrium state
without prestress and without self-weight in the structure to
determine the lofting during construction. (2) The initial state
geometry, which is the equilibrium state with prestress in the
structure and with self-weight and partial or all service loads (for
example 1.0 times the dead load plus 0.5 times the live load)
after cambering, corresponding to the constructed configuration
of the structure. (3) The loading state geometry, which is the
equilibrium state after loading. The initial configuration (i.e. the
architectural configuration when constructed) is usually presented
by the architect as the reference configurationfor structural design.
The initial prestress distribution in the tensegrity system (force
finding) and structural deformation are always based on the initial
state geometry of suspendome as the reference configuration in
this paper, except if it is specifically stated. It is also proved
that the discrepancy of geometric configurations between the
zero state and the initial state is rather slight, and this is even
more obvious for a suspendome with a comparatively rigid upper
latticed shell. Different from the tensegrity structure, the form
finding analysis for suspendome, from the viewpoint of structural
design, is usually dispensable for the sake of the simplification of
design, while a force finding analysis is essential. Inaddition, a form
finding analysis is also necessary for cases where the geometric
configuration under zero state is expected to be accurately
determined.
Q.S. Cao, Z.H. Zhang / Engineering Structures 32 (2010) 306318 309
(a) Plan view
(b) Front view
(c) Perspective view
(a) Plan view
(b) Front view
(c) Perspective view
(1) Levy type of cablestrut arrangement. (2) Geiger type of cablestrut arrangement.
Fig. 4. Two types of cablestrut arrangement in the lower tensegrity system. (Note: DC, diagonal cable; HC, hoop cable; VB, vertical strut.)
Fig. 5. Real Levy type of cablestrut connection joint used in Beijing University of Technologys Gymnasium, China.
Fig. 6. Real Geiger type of cablestrut connection joint used in Jinan Olympic Sports Centers Gymnasium, China.
The previous method (Equilibrium Matrix Theory) for the
determination of the self-internal-force mode in the lower
tensegrity system seems very complicated and lengthy, and it
is usually incomprehensive to the practicing engineers. In this
section, a simplified strategy for calculation of the self-internal-
force mode is presented based on the Local Analysis Method [22].
3.1. Simplified calculation method for initial prestress distribution of
the Levy type arrangement
For the lower tensegrity system with n rings of cables and
struts, all of the rings are independent of each other, as every
ring is connected only with the upper single-layer dome [22,23];
here, n (n = 1, 2, . . . i, . . ., from the outermost to the innermost
ring) is the number of rings in the lower tensegrity system.
Nodal equilibrium can be obtained separately from each ring of
the cablestrut system. Typical nodal force equilibrium of the
cablestrut arrangement of Levy type in the lower tensegrity
system is shown in Fig. 8.
The suspendome is usually designed as a centrosymmetric
spherical structure with a certain topology rule of member con-
nection. So the structural deformation and the internal force are
induced regularly under the symmetrical load (such as the full-
span dead or live load). As the upper single-layer dome is con-
310 Q.S. Cao, Z.H. Zhang / Engineering Structures 32 (2010) 306318
(a) Beijing University of Technologys
Gymnasium.
(b) Jinan Olympic Sports Centers
Gymnasium.
(c) Changzhou Olympic Sports Centers
Gymnasium.
Fig. 7. Hybrid lattice in the upper single-layer shell.
Fig. 8. 3-D axial force equilibrium in typical node i for the Levy type arrangement.
nected with the lower tensegrity system through m nodes (m is
the number of equally divided segments of the hoop cable) at
the top of the vertical strut in each ring, these m nodes have
the same displacement for symmetry under full-span uniformly
distributed load (which is usually the case) and the equivalent
nodal force induced by the ith ring of cables and struts. The m
nodes at the upper single-layer dome are specified as one group,
and the number of groups is equal to that of the rings in the
lower tensegrity system. So the group number is also specified as
Group 1, . . . , Group i, . . . , Group n from the outer to the inner.
3.1.1. Determination of the self-internal-force mode
In the vertical symmetrical plane formed by the intersection
of the Symmetry line and the vertical strut and the horizontal
projected plane, the nodal force equilibrium equations in the
vertical and the horizontal directions at node i can be expressed
as follows:
_
2 cos(
i
)N
di
+ N
vi
= 0
2 sin(
i
) cos(
i
/2)N
di
2 cos(
i
/2)N
hi
= 0
(1)
where
N
hi
denotes the axial force of the hoop cable in the ith ring;
N
di
denotes the axial force of the diagonal cable in the ith ring;
N
vi
denotes the axial force of the vertical strut in the ith ring;

i
denotes the inner angle between the neighboring hoop cables
in the ith ring;

i
denotes the angle between the diagonal cable and the vertical
strut in the ith ring;

i
denotes the inner angle between the projections in the
horizontal projected plane of the two neighboring diagonal
cables in the ith ring.
The force equilibriumin the third direction is satisfied automat-
ically for symmetry.
Solving the above equations, the axial force N
vi
, N
di
can be
obtained expressed by N
hi
:
N
vi
= 2 cot(
i
)
cos(
i
/2)
cos(
i
/2)
N
hi
= k
vi
N
hi
(2)
N
di
= csc(
i
)
cos(
i
/2)
cos(
i
/2)
N
hi
= k
di
N
hi
(3)
where k
vi
and k
di
are given by
k
vi
= 2 cot(
i
)
cos(
i
/2)
cos(
i
/2)
k
di
= csc(
i
)
cos(
i
/2)
cos(
i
/2)
.
Assuming N
hi
= 1, and that a unit constant k
hi
= 1 is specified,
the self-internal-force mode in the ith ring of the tensegrity system
can be expressed as follows:
[N
hi
, N
di
, N
vi
]
T
= [k
hi
, k
di
, k
vi
]
T
. (4)
Herein, superscript T denotes the transpose of the vector, and k
vi
=
N
vi
/N
hi
is the coefficient of prestress efficiency.
It should be pointed out that the prestress force of the
outermost ring has the most influence on the suspendome [23,24].
In other words, the most effective way to improve the rigidity of
suspendome is to increase the angle
1
, as the coefficient k
v1
is
proportional to the hyper nonlinear function cot(), provided the
angle
1
,
1
remains unchanged (which is usually the case). For
instance, if
1
is initially 80

, and is optimized to 75

, then the
coefficient k
v1
increases by 54.3% for a small increment of the angle

1
(cot(80

) = 0.1736, cot(75

) = 0.2679), although the angles

i
,
i
,
i
in different rings are actually very close.
3.1.2. Determination of the equivalent nodal force
For a suspendome with n rings of cables and struts, the
equivalent nodal forces in each group induced by the n rings of
cables and struts which act on the connection joints of the upper
single-layer dome with the vertical strut are investigated and
presented in detail in this section.
For the nth (innermost) group of nodes (upper end node of the
vertical strut), with which the upper single-layer latticed shell is
only stiffened by a vertical strut, the equivalent nodal force is the
counterforce of the axial force of the vertical strut; thus,
F
Ehi
= 0 (i = n) (5)
F
Evi
= N
vi
= k
vi
N
hi
(i = n). (6)
For the ith (i = 1, 2, . . . , n 1) group of nodes, the upper
single-layer latticed dome is stiffened by the vertical struts of the
Q.S. Cao, Z.H. Zhang / Engineering Structures 32 (2010) 306318 311
ith ring and meanwhile pulled radially downwards by the diagonal
cables of the (i + 1)th ring and the upward supporting force to
the upper single-layer dome is usually counterbalanced partially
by the diagonal cable; thus the equivalent nodal forces induced
by the lower cables and struts in the horizontal (radial) and the
vertical directions are expressed as
F
Ehi
= 2 cos(
i+1
/2 /m
i+1
)
cos(
i+1
/2)
cos(
i+1
/2)
N
h,i+1
= k
Ehi
N
h,i+1
(i = 1, 2, . . . , n 1) (7)
F
Evi
= N
vi
N
d,i+1
cos(
i+1
) = N
vi
+ N
v,i+1
= k
vi
N
hi
k
v,i+1
N
h,i+1
(i = 1, 2, . . . , n 1) (8)
in which k
Ehi
is given by
k
Ehi
= 2 cos(
i+1
/2 /m
i+1
)
cos(
i+1
/2)
cos(
i+1
/2)
, and
F
Ehi
denotes the horizontal equivalent nodal force acting on the
nodes of the ith group;
F
Evi
denotes the vertical equivalent nodal force acting on the nodes
of the ith group;
m
i+1
denotes the number of equally divided segments of the hoop
cable in the (i + 1)th ring;
denotes the circumference ratio
.
= 3.14159.
It is obvious fromEq. (8) that any improvement of the rigidity of
the upper single-layer dome would be irrealizable if the axial force
of the vertical strut in the ith ring is less than that in the (i + 1)th
ring. In order to strengthen the vertical rigidity of the upper single-
layer dome, the upward resultant force F
Evi
(i = 1, 2, . . . , n 1)
should be not less than zero. That is to say, the axial force of the
vertical strut in the outer ring should be greater than that in the
inner ring; thus,
F
Evi
> 0, i.e.
N
vi
> N
v,i+1
, or
k
vi
N
hi
> k
v,i+1
N
h,i+1
. (9)
For the boundary joints, the equivalent nodal forces acting on
the boundary which are induced by the diagonal cable of the
outermost (i = 1) ring of cables and struts are expressed in the
horizontal (radial) and vertical directions as follows:
F
Eh1
= 2 cos(
1
/2 /m
1
)
cos(
1
/2)
cos(
1
/2)
N
h1
= k
Eh1
N
h1
(10)
F
Ev1
= 2 cos(
1
)N
d1
= N
v1
= k
v1
N
h1
(11)
in which k
Eh1
is given by
k
Eh1
= 2 cos(
1
/2 /m
1
)
cos(
1
/2)
cos(
1
/2)
, and
F
Eh1
denotes the bearing horizontal equivalent nodal force induced
by the first ring;
F
Ev1
denotes the bearing vertical equivalent nodal force inducedby
the first ring;
m
1
denotes the number of equally divided segments of the hoop
cable in the first ring.
Generally, a suspendome is supported at the bottomring beam.
The bearing joints are restrained in the circumferential, radial
and vertical directions (Ux, Uy, Uz). Large reactions are induced
when the upper single-layer dome is under the service load
or prestressed by the lower tensegrity system separately. From
finite element analysis, it is found out that the inner (i > 1)
rings of cables and struts have little influence on the boundary
bearing reactions and the boundary reactions induced by the low
tensegrity system are mainly originated from the outermost (i =
1) ring of cables and struts. Herein, the analytical expression
Fig. 9. 3-Daxial force equilibriumintypical node i for the Geiger type arrangement.
for the joint reaction induced by the lower tensegrity system is
chiefly addressed. For an upper single-layer dome prestressed by
the outermost ring of cables and struts, the force equilibrium
in the vertical direction is automatically satisfied; consequently
the bearing joint reaction in the vertical direction is zero. The
bearing joint reactions in the horizontal (radial) direction result
fromthe horizontal component of axial forces of the diagonal cable
in the outermost ring and the horizontal pull force induced by the
arch effect of the dome when supported by the vertical strut
in the outermost ring. The bearing joint horizontal (radial) and
vertical reactions R
h
and R
v
induced by the tensegrity system can
be expressed as
R
h
= 2 cos(
1
/2 /m
1
)
cos(
1
/2)
cos(
1
/2)
N
h1
tan(
1
)N
v1
= k
Eh1
N
h1
+ R
ha
= k
Eh1
N
h1
+ k
Ra1
N
h1
= k
Rh
N
h1
(12)
R
v
= 0 (13)
in which k
Ra1
and k
Rh
are given by
k
Ra1
=
2 cos(
1
/2)
cos(
1
/2)
;
k
Rh
= k
Eh1
+ k
Ra1
= 2 [cos(
1
/2 /m
1
) + 1]
cos(
1
/2)
cos(
1
/2)
, and
R
ha
= k
Ra1
N
h1
denotes the horizontal pull force induced by the
arch effect of the dome when supported by the
vertical strut in the outermost ring; it is an approx-
imate value obtained by the numerical fitting;
R
h
= k
Rh
N
h1
denotes the bearing joint horizontal reaction in-
duced by the outermost ring of cables and struts;
R
v
denotes the bearing vertical reaction induced by the
outermost ring of cables and struts.
3.2. Simplified calculation method for initial prestress distribution of
the Geiger type arrangement
Based on the same method, the self-internal-force mode for a
cablestrut arrangement of Geiger type is presentedas follows. The
typical nodal force equilibrium state for Geiger type in the lower
tensegrity system is illustrated in Fig. 9.
3.2.1. Determination of the self-internal-force mode
In the vertical symmetrical plane formed by the intersection of
the Sym. line and the vertical strut and the horizontal projected
plane, the force equilibrium equations in the vertical and the
horizontal directions in node i can be expressed as
_
N
vi
+ N
di
cos (
i
) = 0
N
di
sin (
i
) 2N
hi
cos (
i
/2) = 0
(14)
where
312 Q.S. Cao, Z.H. Zhang / Engineering Structures 32 (2010) 306318
N
hi
denotes the axial force of the hoop cable in the ith ring;
N
di
denotes the axial force of the diagonal cable in the ith ring;
N
vi
denotes the axial force of the vertical strut in the ith ring;

i
denotes the inner angle between the neighboring hoop cables
in the ith ring;

i
denotes the angle between the diagonal cable and the vertical
strut in the ith ring.
The force equilibrium in the third direction is also satisfied
automatically for symmetry.
Combining the above equations, the axial force N
vi
, N
di
can be
obtained expressed by N
hi
:
N
vi
=
2 cos (
i
/2)
tan (
i
)
N
hi
= k
vi
N
hi
(15)
N
di
=
2 cos (
i
/2)
sin (
i
)
N
hi
= k
di
N
hi
(16)
where k
vi
and k
di
are given by
k
vi
=
2 cos (
i
/2)
tan (
i
)
k
di
=
2 cos (
i
/2)
sin (
i
)
.
Assuming N
hi
= 1, and that a unit constant k
hi
= 1 is specified,
the self-internal-force mode in the ith ring of the tensegrity system
can be expressed as follows:
[N
hi
, N
di
, N
vi
]
T
= [k
hi
, k
di
, k
vi
]
T
. (17)
3.2.2. Determination of the equivalent nodal force
For the nth (innermost) group of nodes, the equivalent nodal
force is expressed as
F
Ehi
= 0 (i = n) (18)
F
Evi
= N
vi
= k
vi
N
hi
(i = n). (19)
For the ith (i = 1, 2, . . . n 1) group of nodes, the equivalent
nodal forces in the horizontal (radial) and the vertical directions
are expressed as
F
Ehi
= 2 cos(
i+1
/2)N
h,i+1
= k
Ehi
N
h,i+1
(i = 1, 2, . . . , n 1) (20)
F
Evi
= N
vi
N
d,i+1
cos(
i+1
) = N
vi
+ N
v,i+1
= k
vi
N
hi
k
v,i+1
N
h,i+1
(i = 1, 2, . . . , n 1) (21)
in which k
Ehi
is given by
k
Ehi
= 2 cos(
i+1
/2), and
F
Ehi
denotes the horizontal equivalent nodal force acting at the
nodes of the ith group;
F
vhi
denotes the vertical equivalent nodal force acting at the nodes
of the ith group.
In order to strengthen the vertical rigidity of the upper single-
layer dome, the upward resultant force F
Evi
(i = 1, 2, . . . , n 1)
should be also not less than zero; thus
F
Evi
> 0, i.e.
N
vi
> N
v,i+1
, or
k
vi
N
hi
> k
v,i+1
N
h,i+1
. (22)
For the boundary joints, the equivalent nodal forces acting on
the boundary which are induced by the diagonal cable of the
outermost (i = 1) ring of cables and struts are expressed in the
horizontal (radial) and vertical directions as follows:
F
Eh1
= 2 cos(
1
/2)N
h1
= k
Eh1
N
h1
(23)
F
Ev1
= 2 cos(
1
)N
d1
= N
v1
= k
v1
N
h1
(24)
in which k
Eh1
is given by
k
Eh1
= 2 cos(
1
/2), and
F
Eh1
denotes the bearing horizontal equivalent nodal force induced
by the first ring;
F
Ev1
denotes the bearing vertical equivalent nodal force inducedby
the first ring.
On the basis of the same viewpoint, the bearing joint horizontal
(radial) and vertical reactions R
h
and R
v
induced by the tensegrity
system can be expressed as
R
h
= 2 cos(
1
/2)N
h1
tan(
1
)N
v1
= k
Eh1
N
h1
+ R
ha
= k
Eh1
N
h1
+ k
Ra1
N
h1
= k
Rh
N
h1
(25)
R
v
= 0 (26)
in which k
Ra1
and k
Rh
are given by
k
Ra1
= 2 cos(
1
/2)
k
Rh
= k
Eh1
+ k
Ra1
= 4 cos(
1
/2), and
R
ha
= k
Ra1
N
h1
denotes the horizontal pull force induced by the
arch effect of the dome when supported by the
vertical strut in the outermost ring; it is an approx-
imate value obtained by the numerical fitting;
R
h
= k
Rh
N
h1
denotes the bearing joint horizontal reaction in-
duced by the outermost ring of cables and struts;
R
v
denotes the bearing vertical reaction induced by the
outermost ring of cables and struts.
In addition, the geometrical stability of the independent ring
of cables and struts in the two kinds of tensegrity system is also
investigated by the EquilibriumMatrix Theory [2931]. The results
from singular value decomposition of the equilibrium matrix
indicate that the number of independent self-internal-force modes
s = 1 and the number of independent inextensional displacement
modes m = 0 for the Levy type arrangement, and s = 1, m = 1
for the Geiger type arrangement. In most cases, some diagonal
cables are usually added in the vertically hoop plane for the
Geiger type arrangement; the system thus becomes kinematically
determinate. As no internal inextensional displacement exists,
both types of tensegrity system studied here are geometrically
stable.
4. Determinationof prestress force level inthe lower tensegrity
system
The introduction of prestress is of great significance for a
suspendome because it has no initial geometric stiffness before
being prestressed in the lower tensegrity system. No criteria
of recommendations have been provided so far for a rational
prestress level in the lower tensegrity system of a suspendome,
although some recommendations are available from Refs. [3537]
on cable-tensioned structures and bowstring structures. The
prestress ratio among the hoop cables of each ring is specified
discretionarily only to satisfy inequality (9) or (22) in the previous
literatures; for instance, the prestress ratio from the outermost
to the innermost hoop cables is defined empirically as 5:4:3:2:1
for a suspendome with five rings of cables and struts [24,25,33].
The prestress level has great influence on the load-carrying
capacity and the initial configuration of the suspendome [22,23].
The proper prestress level is supposed to not only assure the
consistency with the architectural configuration, but also to
simplify the construction of the suspendome. This is because a very
large prestress level would undoubtedly add to the difficulty of
elemental fabrication and structural construction. Accordingly, a
reasonable prestress ratio should be specified on the ground of its
effects.
It is also addressed in Chinese technical specification [34] that
the determination of the prestress level in the low tensegrity
system should be grounded on the principle that the equivalent
Q.S. Cao, Z.H. Zhang / Engineering Structures 32 (2010) 306318 313
nodal force of the service load on the upper single-layer dome
is counteracted by the tensegrity system to a minimum and the
bearing reaction is reduced to a minimum. This section presents
the design method for obtaining a reasonable prestress level in
the lower tensegrity system based on the initial architectural
configuration, the bearing counterbalance, the equivalent nodal
force and the wind-induced slackening effect.
4.1. Design method based on the initial architectural configuration
On the basis of the definition of the initial state of a sus-
pendome [34], the upper single-layer dome identical to the ar-
chitectural configuration is supposed to keep undeformed when
it performs under the service load combined with the equivalent
force of the lower tensegrity system. For a suspendome withnrings
of cables and struts, the consistent equation of the nodal vertical
deflection in the n groups is expressed as follows:
_
_
_
d
11
. . . d
1n
.
.
. d
ij
.
.
.
d
n1
. . . d
nn
_
_
_
nn
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
N
h1
.
.
.
N
hj
.
.
.
N
hn
_

_
n1
+
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
d
L1
.
.
.
d
Li
.
.
.
d
Ln
_

_
n1
=
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
0
.
.
.
0
.
.
.
0
_

_
n1
(27a)
which is rewritten for short as follows:
[D] {N} + {d
L
} = {0} (27b)
in which
[D] =
_
_
_
d
11
. . . d
1n
.
.
. d
ij
.
.
.
d
n1
. . . d
nn
_
_
_
nn
is the flexibility matrix;
{N} =
_
N
h1
, . . . , N
hj
, . . . , N
hn
_
T
is the force vector of the hoop
cables;
{d
L
} = [d
L1
, . . . , d
Li
, . . . , d
Ln
]
T
is the vertical displacement
vector of the nodes in the n groups under service load;
d
ij
is the vertical displacement of the nodes in the ith group
resulting from the equivalent force of the jth ring (usually
assuming the unit axial force in the hoop cable, i.e. N
hj
= 1);
d
Li
is the vertical displacement of the nodes in the ith group
induced by the full-span uniformly distributed service load
(e.g. 1.0 dead load +1.0 live load).
Solving the above equation, the axial force in the hoop cables of
the lower tensegrity system can be obtained by
{N} = [D]
1
{d
L
} (28)
where [D]
1
is the inverse matrix of [D], and the prestress level
of the hoop cables in each ring can be obtained. Subsequently,
the prestress level of the whole tensegrity system is also obtained
according to the internal force mode defined by Eq. (4) or Eq. (17).
The coefficients d
ij
and d
Li
are very convenient to identify by
carrying out finite element (FE) analyses, in which only the FE
model of the upper single-layer dome is needed. In the definition of
d
Li
, the uniformly distributedloadp is generally requiredto convert
to the equivalent nodal force for simplification of calculation.
The equivalent nodal force of the service load p is derived from
the product of the service load p with the nodal tributary area
which is shown in Fig. 10. The nodal tributary area A
i
in the
horizontal projective plane is accurately defined; it is formed by
the enclosure of the centroids of the relevant areas (the areas
related in the common node i) for the inner node and the centroids
of the relevant area and midpoint of the boundary element for
the boundary node (Fig. 10). Assuming that the enclosed area is
Fig. 10. Nodal tributary area of the inner node and the boundary node in the
latticed shell.
A
i
about node i, then the equivalent nodal force can be expressed
as
F
Eqvi
= A
i
p. (29)
F
Eqvi
is the vertical equivalent nodal force induced by the service
load;
A
i
is the ith node tributary Area;
p is the uniformly distributed service load, the nominal
combination of the load effect may be chosen as the service
load p.
As the vertical deflections of nodes in the n groups are designed
to be zero in the initial state, the designed configuration is identical
for these nodes and approximate to the architectural configuration
for other nodes. Accordingly, the designed configuration could best
satisfy the architectural requirements.
4.2. Design method based on the counterbalance of bearing reaction
For an integral prestressed structure, such as a cable dome or
a membrane structure, a relatively rigid boundary, such as a rigid
ring beam, is absolutely essential as a constituent of the structure.
Compared to an integral prestressed structure, a suspendome is
usually satisfied with a relatively flexible boundary as it is a self-
equilibrium system. Theoretically speaking, if proper prestress is
introduced, the horizontal restraint at the boundary is no longer
needed when the horizontal reaction induced by the prestress
force in the tensegrity system could counterbalance that induced
by the service load. On the grounds of the above standpoint, the
second design criterion could be obtained:
R
h
+ R
L
= 0, or (30)
k
Rh
N
h1
+ R
L
= 0 (31)
in which
R
h
is the bearing joint horizontal reaction induced by the
outermost ring of cables andstruts as defined inEq. (12) or (25);
R
L
is the bearing joint horizontal reaction induced by the full-span
uniformly distributed service load, as can be determined by the
finite element analysis of a single-layer dome.
Solving the above equations, N
h1
can be obtained:
N
h1
= R
L
/k
Rh
. (32)
Subsequently, the prestress force in other hoops N
hi
(i = 2,
. . . , i, . . . , n) can be established assuming the same prestress force
ratio among the hoop cables as defined in Eq. (28). The prestress
level of the whole tensegrity systemcan be also obtained according
to the internal force mode defined by Eq. (4) or Eq. (17).
4.3. Design method based on the counterbalance of equivalent nodal
force
One of principles of the determination of prestress force level
is the reduction of the equivalent nodal force of the upper single-
layer dome induced by the service load, which is also specified
314 Q.S. Cao, Z.H. Zhang / Engineering Structures 32 (2010) 306318
(a) Uniform wind suction. (b) Uniform self-weighted pressure.
Fig. 11. Schematic pressure distribution of wind action and roof weight. (Note: This is not a real but rather an approximate wind pressure distribution on a shallow dome
shape.)
in the Chinese Technical Specification [34]. Namely, the vertical
equivalent nodal forces induced by the lower cables and struts and
that induced by the service load are counteracted by each other at
the same nodes of the n groups in the vertical direction; thus
F
Evi
+ F
Eqvi
= 0 (i = 1, 2, . . . , n) (33)
in which
F
Evi
is the vertical equivalent nodal force induced by the lower
cables and struts which acts at the nodes of the ith group, as
defined in Eqs. (6) and (8) or (19) and (21);
F
Eqvi
is the vertical equivalent nodal force induced by the service
load as defined in Eq. (29).
For the nth (innermost) group of nodes, based on Eq. (6) or (19),
the Eq. (33) is rewritten as
N
hi
= F
Eqvi
/k
vi
(i = n). (34)
For the ith (i = 1, 2, . . . n 1) group of nodes, based on Eq. (8)
or (21), Eq. (33) is rewritten in detail as
F
Eqvi
= k
vi
N
hi
k
v,i+1
N
h,i+1
, or (35)
N
hi
=
_
k
v,i+1
N
h,i+1
F
Eqvi
_
/k
vi
(i = 1, 2, . . . , n 1) (36)
and the prestress level of the hoop cables in each ring can then be
obtained. Subsequently, the prestress level of the whole tensegrity
system can be also obtained according to the internal force mode
defined by Eq. (4) or Eq. (17). With the above two methods,
finite element analyses are not required for the determination of
the prestress force level, and the design based on the method is
the simplest. Since the structural configuration is not taken into
consideration during design, there is usually a great discrepancy
between the designed and the anticipated configurations.
4.4. Design method based on the wind-induced slackening effect
It is noteworthy that wind action is supposed to introduce
an upward pressure (suction) to the whole structural roof for a
shallow dome, such as with the rise to span ratio f /L being less
than 0.25 [3840]. For a shallow dome with f /L = 0.1, the shape
coefficient
s
ranges only from 0.85 to 1.0 for areas all over
the dome, and this is considered as a constant
s
= 1.0 in
this paper. The wind suction on the roof may be determined by
the expression w =
z

s
w
0
[38]. For simplification in the
preliminary design, the dynamic factor
z
is assumed as 1.61.8,
and
z
= 0.5(
zb
+
zt
), in which
zb
,
zt
are the exposure factors
for wind pressure in height level above ground at the domes
bottomand top, respectively. The values are rough approximations
and are expected to be conservative [41]. The typical wind
pressure distribution is assumed to be approximately uniform;
this is illustrated in Fig. 11(a). Light cladding materials such as
a membrane or a rigid profiled steel sheet are normally used in
the roof for a large span structure. As a result, the uniform self-
weighted load is usually less than 1.0 kN/m
2
, and the approximate
distribution of self-weighted load is illustrated in Fig. 11(b). It
is presumed that the weight of the roof is easily counteracted
and surpassed by the wind load. In such circumstance, the wind-
induced effect would dominate the structural design, inducing the
unloading of members in the lower tensegrity system. It should
be guaranteed to avoid the slackening of cables for the designed
prestress level, or the whole tensegrity system would not work.
Based on the membrane theory of shells [42,43], the continuous
distributed reaction q
w
, q
g
in the boundary can be obtained for a
spherical shell under two cases of pressure distribution, as shown
in Fig. 11.
The meridional membrane resulting force q
w
per unit length in
the continuous shell for uniform wind suction (Fig. 11(a)) can be
calculated by the following expression [42]:
q
w
=
1
2
wr.
The horizontal radial drag force in each bearing joint caused
by wind pressure can thus be determined by integral of the above
expression and expressed as
R
wh
=
1
2
wrL cos () sin
_

m
1
_
. (37)
The meridional membrane resulting force q
g
per unit length in
the continuous shell for uniformself-weighted load (Fig. 11(b)) can
be calculated by the following expression [42]:
q
g
=
1
1 + cos ()
gr.
The horizontal radial push force in each bearing joint caused by
self-weighted load is thus expressed as
R
gh
= grL
cos ()
1 + cos ()
sin
_

m
1
_
. (38)
As is described in many reports [40,41], the bearing reaction
induced by the wind suction is normally opposite to that induced
by the service load. The cables in the low tensegrity system,
especially cables in the outermost ring, would slacken only if the
reaction induced by the wind is greater than that induced by the
self-weight. This is especially obvious for diagonal cables in the
outermost ring directly connected to the bearing joint. The bearing
junction used in a practical engineering case, Jinan Olympic Sports
Centers Gymnasium, is shown in Fig. 12. To avoid the slackening
of cables in the lower tensegrity system, especially cables in the
outermost ring, the following inequality should be satisfied:
R
h
> R
wh
+ R
gh
, i.e.
(N
h1
)
min
=
1
k
Rh
_
R
wh
+ R
gh
_
=
rL cos ()
k
Rh
sin
_

m
1
_

_
1
2
w
1
1 + cos ()
g
_
(39)
Q.S. Cao, Z.H. Zhang / Engineering Structures 32 (2010) 306318 315
Fig. 12. Bearing junction in a practical suspendome (Note: DC, diagonal cable; CRB,
concrete ring beam; LSM, latticed shell member).
(a) Plan view
(b) Front view
(c) Perspective view
Fig. 13. Sunflower patterned suspendome for illustration.
in which
w is the uniform wind suction;
w
0
is the reference wind pressure;
g is the uniform self-weighted pressure;
L is the span of the dome;
f is the rise of the dome;
r is the radius of the spherical dome;
q
w
is the meridional reaction per unit length under w;
q
g
is the meridional reaction per unit length under g.
If (N
h1
)
min
determined by Eq. (39) is less than zero, it suggests
that the wind suction is so small as not to induce slackening of
the cables. If a positive (N
h1
)
min
is expected, the prestress level of
the whole tensegrity system can also be determined, as stated in
Section 4.2.
As mentioned before, the prestress level is of great significance
for a suspendome structure from both technical and economic
aspects. Too high or too low a prestress force level is equally
disadvantageous for a suspendome. Generally, for a low prestress
level, the following shortcoming would be expected: (1) it would
contribute little to the improvement of the limiting load-carrying
capacity of stability, (2) it would make little improvement to
the boundary condition, and (3) large differences would be
existent between the designed configuration and the architectural
configuration. In spite of the above disadvantages, a suspendome
at a low prestress level is favorable for technical operation and
for cost of fabrication and construction. The proper prestress
Fig. 14. Numbers of typical nodes and elements in the upper latticed shell.
Fig. 15. Vertical displacement in typical nodes (under 1.0 dead+1.0 live).
level should be grounded on the comparison of the cost and the
technique, and a design method on the combination of the above
criteria is usually anticipated. The prestress level for a practical
suspendome design (Jinan Olympic Sports Centers Gymnasium)
was successfully determined. For detailed information, please
refer to Ref. [23]. In addition, the designed prestress force level
is supposed to satisfy the structural requirements, such as the
deflection and the internal force allowance, the load-carrying
capacity of stability, etc., under any load case. Otherwise, the
prestress force level should be redesigned until all requirements
are satisfied.
5. An illustrative example
A sunflower patterned suspendome is chosen as an example;
it has a span of 60 m and a height of 6 m, making the rise
to span ratio 1/10 (Fig. 13). Steel pipes with diameter 180 mm
and thickness 10 mm are used for all members in the upper
single-layer dome and the vertical struts. Two rings of cables
and struts of Geiger type are arranged in the lower tensegrity
system, in which the angles are
1
= 150

,
1
= 70

,
2
=
150

,
2
= 75

. The cables are made of high-strength seven-

steel wires (seven strands with nineteen wires per strand). The
material Q345B [44] is used in the members of upper single-layer
dome and the vertical struts which have properties typical of steel:
an elastic modulus of 2.06 10
5
N/mm
2
, a Poissons ratio of 0.3
and a designed strength of 310 N/mm
2
. The cables have an elastic
modulus of 1.90 10
5
N/mm
2
, a Poissons ratio of 0.3 and the
ultimate tensile capacity 1670 N/mm
2
[45]. Both types of material
have a mass density of 7850 kg/m
3
. The uniformly distributed
316 Q.S. Cao, Z.H. Zhang / Engineering Structures 32 (2010) 306318
(a) Radial element. (b) Hoop element.
Fig. 16. Axial force in typical elements (under 1.0 dead+1.0 live).
service load in the gravity projected direction is applied to the
structure: dead 1.0 kN/m
2
(structural gravity load included), live
0.3 kN/m
2
[44]. The uniform wind suction on dome external
surface is assumed to be 2.0 kN/m
2
. The analysis is carried out
using the commercial general purpose finite element package
ANSYS. The isoparametric beam element BEAM188 is used to
discretize the members in the upper latticed shell and the spar
element LINK8 is used to model the struts. As high tensile stresses
are usually introduced to the cables, the sagging effect due to self-
weight can be left out, and the spar element LINK10 is used to
model the cables. All translational degrees of freedom (DOFs) are
peripherally fixed at the bottom of the structure (Ux, Uy, Uz).
The equivalent nodal forces of service load (1.0 dead plus 1.0
live) based on Eq. (29) are 42.536, 15.207, 33.410, 49.394,
64.523, 78.535, 47.885 kN from Node 1 to Node 7, as shown
in Fig. 14. The vertical displacement under service load from the
finite element analysis is as follows:
{d
L
} = [71.524, 43.144]
T
mm.
The self-internal-force mode is obtained by Eq. (4) as follows:
[k
h1
, k
d1
, k
v1
]
T
= [1, 0.5509, 0.1884]
T
;
[k
h2
, k
d2
, k
v2
]
T
= [1, 0.5359, 0.1387]
T
.
The prestress level is determined by the method stated in
Sections 4.14.4, and listed in Table 1. The prestress is also
presented based on the method stated in Ref. [24]. Due to different
boundary conditions from Ref. [24], the vertical displacement at
Nodes 1, 3, 5 (Fig. 14) is chosen as the critical displacement in
this example. The table shows that the prestresses obtained from
the different methods differ from each other: the prestress in the
first hoop cable based on Ref. [24]-5 is almost 2.05 times that
based on the method in Section 4.3. The structural behavior of
the suspendome with the various prestress levels in Table 1 is
investigated under service load (1.0 dead plus 1.0 live). The vertical
displacement in typical nodes (Fig. 14) is shown in Fig. 15. It is
shown that prestress Level 1 is most rational fromthe viewpoint of
structural configuration. Upward displacement of the suspendome
under prestress Level 5 and Level 7 even occurs in a major portion
of the structure due to the unreasonable prestress ratio. The
axial force in typical elements is shown in Fig. 16. The radial
elements are usually compressive for Level 1Level 4, but a tensile
force for Level 5 and Level 7 is also observed. The hoop element
near the structural center is tensile and that near the boundary
is compressive; the discrepancy between the compressive and
tensile force tends to increase for Level 5 and Level 7. This
suggests that prestress Level 5 and Level 7 are unfavorable for the
redistribution of internal forces and thus unpractical due to the
unreasonable prestress ratio.
6. Nonlinearity during self-prestressing
As is known, one of the notable features of a tensegrity system
is the self-adaptiveness, which refers to the capacity of the system
to adjust and redistribute increasingly the integral stiffness during
prestressing. Self-adaptiveness also indicates high nonlinearity
with large displacement; herein, the geometrical stiffness K
G
of
the system increases with the increasing of the prestresses. In
such cases, the effects of prestressing on the integral stiffness K
of tensegrity system should not be negligible, and the geometrical
stiffness K
G
might so much as account for the structural integral
stiffness. Prestressing of a tensegrity system is closely correlated
with the topology, the morphology, the prestress distribution and
prestress level. The process of self-prestressing thus completes the
construction of a tensegrity system.
Whilst the effects of geometrical and material nonlinearity on
rigidspace structures under external actions have beenextensively
explored [46], studies on the nonlinearity of a flexible tensegrity
system during prestressing and under external actions have not
amply been carried out. Kebiche et al. [47] proposed a calculation
method for a tensegrity system taking geometrical nonlinearity
into account with the Total Lagrangian formulation. A four-
strut tensegrity system under external actions and various self-
stress levels was investigated. The procedure for the nonlinear
elastoplastic analysis of tensegrity systems under static loads was
also presented [48]; it considered both geometric and material
nonlinearities, using an updated Lagrangian formulation and a
modified NewtonRaphson iterative scheme with incremental
loading. Yuan et al. [9] performed a geometrically nonlinear
analysis of the static behavior of cable domes on the basis
of the available integral feasible prestress state. A nonlinear
analysis of hybrid structures composed of rigid elements and a
cablestrut systemwas presented by Liewet al. [3537], in which a
cable-tensioning technique was used to investigate the nonlinear
behavior of hybrid structures during self-prestressing and under
external actions. A cable truss, dome with a cablestrut system,
barrel vault stiffened by cables, and square-grid and hexagonal-
grid space trusses were considered as illustrative examples in
their work [35,36]. An advanced analysis method considering both
geometrical and material nonlinearities has been developed to
predict the collapse behavior of pre-tensioned steel structures in
their recent work [37], in which bowstring structures were used
as examples. Their contributions have provided a good insight into
the behavior of hybrid space structures by nonlinear analysis.
In this section, the nonlinearity of a suspendome during self-
prestressing is investigated using the same model as that shown in
Q.S. Cao, Z.H. Zhang / Engineering Structures 32 (2010) 306318 317
Table 1
Prestress level in the lower cablestrut system (unit: kN).
Method Level HC1 DC1 VB1 HC2 DC2 VB2
Section 4.1 1 840.7 463.1 158.4 327.4 175.5 45.4
Section 4.2 2 677.2 373.1 127.6 263.7 141.4 36.6
Section 4.3 3 519.8 286.4 97.9 240.9 129. 1 33.4
Section 4.4 4 522.8 288.0 98.5 203.6 109.1 28.2
Ref. [24]-1 5 1040.6 573.3 196.0 520.3 278.8 72.2
Ref. [24]-3 6 641.4 353.3 120.8 320.7 171.9 44.5
Ref. [24]-5 7 1064.1 586.2 200.5 532.1 285.2 73.8
Fig. 17. Prestressing displacement curves for various prestress levels.
Fig. 13. The arc-length solution technique by iterative equilibrium
is used to followthe structural full-course responses. The behavior
of a suspendome during self-prestressing (considering 1.0 dead
plus1.0 live) is shown in Fig. 17 by relating the vertical deflection
of Node 1 (Fig. 14) and the various prestress levels determined
in Table 1. As different zero state geometry would be produced
for various prestress level, the zero state configuration is used
as the reference configuration for the definition of structural
deformation during self-prestressing. It is shown in Fig. 17 that
the self-prestressing process for large prestress level (e.g. Level 5
and Level 7) is highly nonlinear; nevertheless it is almost linear for
relatively small prestress levels (e.g. Levels 14). It is also proved
by the nonlinear FE results that the material nonlinearity starts
well beyond the initiation of geometric nonlinearity; usually the
peak elastic Von Mises equivalent strain never exceeds 0.2%. So,
an analysis taking only geometrical nonlinearity into account is
feasible for a suspendome during self-prestressing.
7. Conclusions
The prestress force level in the lower cablestrut system of
a suspendome is of great significance to the structural behavior.
This paper is mainly concerned with the simplified computational
method for the determination of the self-internal-force mode
and the prestress force level in the lower tensegrity system of
a suspendome. An analytical solution for the self-internal-force
mode of two types of low cablestrut arrangement, called the
Levy system and the Geiger system, is put forward together with
the equivalent nodal force acting on the upper single-layer dome
and the reaction on the boundary ring beam. The determination
of the prestress force level of the lower tensegrity system is
also elucidated on the grounds of the initial configuration, the
counterbalance of the bearing reaction, the equivalent nodal force
and the wind-induced slackening effect. The results from the
studies can be referred to not only for direct design use for a
suspendome in practical engineering, but also for the design of
similar hybrid space structures, such as beamstring structures, etc.
Acknowledgments
The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of the Commit-
tee of National Science Foundation of China (Grant 50638050#).
The authors also wish to thank the anonymous reviewers for their
constructive comments and suggestions.
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