Increasing Risks Coastal erosion is a great risk to people living near the coasts.

Important factors like the geology, type of wave and rock arrangement make a difference to the rate of erosion. Waves can either be constructive or destructive: Constructive: o o o o sediment builds up Shallow gradient of sediment. 6-8 breaks per min Swash stronger than backwash

Destructive: o o o o o sediment removed Steep gradient of sediment. 12-14 breaks per min Backwash stronger than swash Causes hydraulic action, corrosion and abrasion

Rock arrangement can either be concordant or discordant: Concordant: rocks parallel to sea (creates coves and caves) Discordant: rocks perpendicular to sea (creates headlands and bays) Hydraulic action and abrasion can cause a crack to open up and form a cave. If it is enlarged and extends through to the other side of the headland, it can create an arch and if the roof part eventually collapses, it creates a stack which may eventually collapse to create a stump. Spits are long narrow beaches of sand or shingle that are attached to the land at one end. Tombolos are spits that have continued to grow seawards until they reach and join an island. Geology is important and can either be soft rock or hard rock: Soft rock: clay Hard rock: limestone, chalk

Sea can attack the bottom of the cliff slowly eroding it to create a wave- cut notch. The backwash carries the rubble to the sea creating a wave- cut platform.

Example of erosion: Holderness Coast (northeast coast of England):

Suffers from fastest rate of coastal erosion in Europe 20-30 metre high cliffs Retreating at 1m a year, occasionally up to 10m Over last 2000 years, coastline has retreated 4km Destructive waves and eroded material is carried into sea so doesnt act as protection and some is carried by long shore drift to Spurn Head

Attempts to protect the area is very hard due to costs and forces of nature Main reasons for erosion at Holderness are: Geology The fetch Longshore drift and beach material

-Geology Made up of mainly chalk and boulder clay

-Fetch (how far the waves have travelled)

Holderness is exposed to winds and waves from the north-east which has a small fetch of about 500800km across the North Sea.
Size of the wave is increased by four factors: Currents- Atlantic current adds energy to waves of the North Sea so the waves are often powerful destructive waves. Low pressure weather systems passing over the North Sea are often intense and produce strong winds and waves. Enclosed seas like the North Sea often generate huge waves during storms so the waves slop against the cliffs Sea floor is deep so the waves reach the cliffs without being weakened by any friction with shallow beaches.

-Longshore Drift and beach material

Boulder clay erodes to produce particles which are easily transported out to se rather than accumulating close to the cliffs as beach sand. There are beaches but there is never enough sand to stop the waves reaching the cliff base at high tide Beaches are narrow and offer little friction to absorb the wave energy and protect the cliffs. Sand produced is taken southwards by longshore drift leaving cliffs hardly protected.

Managing erosion at Holderness Hard- engineering Wooden groynes at Hornsea -traps sediment carried by longshore drift. This protects the cliffs and town and the increased amount of sediment decreases the energy of the waves as there is more friction. However this meant that Mappletons beach had little sediment as it was trapped at Hornsea hence causing severe coastal erosion. By the 1990s, 4m of cliff per year was being eroded. Rock groynes at Mappleton -built in response to lack of sediment, cost 2 million -boulders of Norwegian granite laid out like groynes -cliff face was also re-shaped to make less steep and more stable. However this has caused erosion in Cowden, further on from Mappleton. All this is called terminal groyne syndrome Revetments at Easington -protects the gas terminal - consists of large granite boulders -the absorb the wave energy Sea walls at Withernsea -straight walls reflect wave energy out to sea and form a barrier to prevent undercutting. However after a time they are scoured and are undercut causing them to collapse. -recurved walls spread out the wave energy so reduces erosion at the base of the wall so last longer Withernsea replaced its straight wall with a recurved one costing 6.3 million. The cost benefit analysis proved it worthwhile as it has saved tourism and local property. However waves are noisier as they break against the wall and views have been restricted. Soft engineering Beach nourishment at Hornsea -creates a wider beach to protect cliff line -can be removed easily by wind and storms so has to be replaced often Coastal zoning -red lining identifies areas at risk of erosion which are not worth protecting so no developments can be built in that area. Managed retreat -policy where residents have to move. Homes can be demolished and built further inland with the help of the council -zones at high risk of erosion are refused planning permission for new buildings Shoreline Management Plans- devising plans that apply to the whole stretch of coast.

Coastal Flooding Storm surges are caused by low air pressure which raises the height of the sea combined with onshore winds. Sea levels rising due to global warming due to ice caps melting and expansion of waters Tsunamis from earthquakes can also cause flooding

Example of storm surge: 1953 East Coast Venice Rise in sea level due to global warming Flooding on 200 days of the year Some say the extraction of methane gas in the sea off Venice is sinking it Worst natural disaster in Europe on 200 years Storm surge created by weather and tidal conditions 307 people died 24,000 houses damaged

Cotonou (Africa) Sea levels are expected to rise and will affect the whole area. Impacts such as: o Loss of fisherman camps and holiday villages o Poorer public health o Coastal erosion o Drinking Estimated that 195 hectares of land will be lost over the next 20 years Measures introduced: o Mosquito nets too prevent malaria o Ensure wider vaccinations o Desalinate water for drinking o Recycle rainwater o Could move key installations to safer areas to protect them like airports

Thames Estuary Water levels rising due to factors like higher sea levels, more storms, increasing tide amplitude, tilting of British Isles and settling of London on its bed of clay. Thames Barrage (1984) reduced flood risk and protected central London. Thames Gateway is an area along the Thames and estuary so is in danger of flooding

Grand Isle, Louisiana Hurricane Katrina (2005) damaged it badly yet it has since redeveloped and is very popular. A lot of USA coastal areas are developing with expensive properties being built etc. but is it a path for destruction?