Physics 201 Lab Manual

PCC Rock Creek Fellman

Table of Contents

General Instructions for Lab Reports "ncertainty #nalysis an$ Propa%ation Micrometer Caliper Instructions )ernier Caliper Instructions Lab 1 Con+ersions an$ Measurement' Lab 2 Position- )elocity an$ #cceleration Lab ! Pro.ectiles Lab & Tension an$ Friction Lab / Circular Motion an$ Centripetal Force Lab ( Conser+ation of 0ner%y Lab * Momentum an$ Collisons Lab , Center of Mass Lab 1 #n%ular Momentum Make2"p Lab Conser+ation of 0ner%y in Rollin% Motion 3ample Lab Report # 3ample Lab Report 4 ' '' ' ' '' '

! & '( * ' , 10 '' 12 ' 1! '' 1& ' 1* 1, ' 20 ' 21 ' 22 '' 2! '' 2*

General Instructions for Lab Reports

For e+ery lab complete$- each person 5ill be responsible for han$in% in a lab report' These reports 5ill be $ue one 5eek from the $ay the e6ercise is complete$at the be%innin% of class' Reports may be type$ or han$5ritten as lon% as they are neat- easy to follo5- an$ contain the follo5in% elements7 Purpose 2 8hat you hope to accomplish throu%h the e6ercise- in your o5n 5or$s' Procedure 2 4rief proce$ural notes in your o5n 5or$s' It is not acceptable to simply 5rite 98e follo5e$ the instructions in the lab han$out': Instea$- your report shoul$ outline the steps you follo5e$ in enou%h $etail so that it 5oul$ make sense to a person 5ho has ne+er seen the lab instructions' Data 2 #ll ori%inal $ata in a 5ell or%ani;e$ format' Uncertainties 2 The ran%e of possible +alues associate$ 5ith e+ery measurement you take' <067 !'/ cm '1 cm= These uncertainties are usually $ue to precision limitations of measurin% e>uipment an$ 5ill also propa%ate throu%h calculations' <3ee uncertainty han$out'= Remember7 0+ery measurement 5e take in the lab has an uncertainty associate$ 5ith it' Calculations 2 Inclu$e formulas- sample calculations- an$ results of all calculations' Graphs 2 <8hen appropriate= 8ith clearly labele$ a6es' Diagrams 2 <8hen appropriate= Free bo$y $ia%rams- electric circuit $ia%rams- etc' Sketches of Equipment 2 <#l5ays appropriate= #lso inclu$e a basic $ia%ram of the e6perimental setup if applicable' Comments 2 ?our thou%hts an$ obser+ations throu%hout the process' Results 2 Clear statement of results' Conclusion 2 The most important part@@@ #lmost anythin% 5ill $o as lon% as it sho5s that you thou%ht about it' 06amples7 8hat $i$ you learnA Bi$ the results make senseA If not- 5hat are the possible reasonsA Relate the concept to an e+ery$ay e6perience' Relate it to somethin% in the te6t' <Get the i$eaA= The conclusion shoul$ be at least a para%raph' !ote that "ith the e#ception of the purpose $at the beginning of the report% and the conclusion $at the end%& these elements should not each be contained in a separate section of the report& but instead "ill flo" naturall' throughout the report( Please see the sample lab reports at the end of this booklet Cnce a%ain- neatness is )0R? important' # 5ell or%ani;e$- easy to rea$ report 5ith mo$erately %oo$ results 5ill recei+e a hi%her %ra$e than a report 5ith e6cellent results that are hi$$en in scribble'

&

"ncertainty #nalysis an$ Propa%ation

0+ery measurement has a ran%e of uncertainty associate$ 5ith it' This uncertainty is usually a result of precision limitations of the instrument use$ to make the measurement' #ny calculations $one usin% a measurement 5ill also ha+e a $e%ree of uncertainty' This is a measure of ho5 confi$ent you are in the result of your calculation' The propa%ation of the uncertainties throu%h +arious calculations has to be carefully consi$ere$' Cne 5ay to procee$ 5ith the concept of uncertainty propa%ation is calle$ the 98orst Case Calculation:- an$ is sho5n in the follo5in% t5o e6amples' 06ample D1 Len%th E 1!'10 cm '0/ cm 8i$th E !'/&0 cm '00! cm #rea E L 8 E <1!'10 cm=<!'/&0 cm= E !21'( cm2 8orst cases7 L F 8 both lar%est possible +alue7 #rea E <1!'1/ cm=<!'/&! cm= E !!0'0 cm2 L F 8 both smallest possible +alue7 #rea E <1!'0/ cm=<!'/!* cm= E !21'1 cm2 Report final result as7 !21'( cm2 '/ cm2 <G'& cm2= <2'/ cm2=

06ample D2 Mass E !2'!2 % '01 % )olume E 1,', cm! '1 cm! Bensity E M H ) E !2'!2 % H 1,', cm! E 1'*2 %Hcm! 8orst cases7 Lar%est M H 3mallest )7 Bensity E <!2'!! %= H <1,'* cm!= E 1'*! %Hcm! 3mallest M H Lar%est )7 Bensity E <!2'!1 %= H <1,'1 cm!= E 1'*1 %Hcm! Report final result as7 E 1'*2 %Hcm! '01 %Hcm! <G'01 %Hcm! = <2'01 %Hcm! =

/ Cn the other han$- 5hen your $ata consists of a number of measurements to be a+era%e$ for a final result- the uncertainty can be reporte$ as the stan$ar$ $e+iation' 06ample D! ?ou are measurin% the ran%e of a pro.ectile' The e6periment has been repeate$ / times- yiel$in% / $ifferent $istances7 !'&1 m- !'(1 m- !'!! m- !'/* m- an$ !'/0 m' First fin$ the a+era%e7 I 6 E 6i E <!'&1G!'(1G!'!!G!'/*G!'/0=m E !'/0 m n / Jo5 fin$ the stan$ar$ $e+iation7 I st' $e+' E <6i 2 6 =2 E <n21= I 6 !'/0 m !'/0 m !'/0 m !'/0 m !'/0 m 6i !'&1 !'(1 !'!! !'/* !'/0 I <6i 2 6 = 2 '01 m G'11 m 2 '1* m G'0* m '00 m

'0*, m2 & <6i 2 6 =2 '00,1 m2 '0!(1 m2 '02,1 m2 '00&1 m2 '0000 m2 '0*, m2

'1& m

m m m m m

<The stan$ar$ $e+iation may also be obtaine$ by usin% your calculatorKs stan$ar$ $e+iation function'= Report final result as7 !'/0 m '1& m

LLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLL Jotice the appropriate use of si%nificant fi%ures an$ $ecimal places in the three e6amples abo+e7 L0ach final result has no more si%nificant fi%ures than any measurement in+ol+e$ in the calculation' LThe smallest $ecimal place of the uncertainty matches the smallest $ecimal place of the measurement or result'

( )icrometer Caliper

In or$er to measure an ob.ect- the ob.ect is place$ bet5een the .a5s an$ the thimble is rotate$ until the ob.ect is li%htly secure$' Make sure to secure the ob.ect 5ith no more pressure than 5as re>uire$ to close the .a5s at ;ero 5hen empty' ?ou may use the small thimble at the en$ of the barrel for the final ti%htenin% <see small fi%ure abo+e- bottom ri%ht corner=' This thimble has a clutch in it that 5ill ensure that you $onKt o+er ti%hten the caliper <you 5ill hear clickin% 5hen the .a5s ti%hten=' The first si%nificant fi%ure is taken from the last %ra$uation sho5in% on the slee+e $irectly to the left of the re+ol+in% thimble' Jote that an a$$itional half scale $i+ision <0'/ mm= must be inclu$e$ if the mark belo5 the main scale is +isible bet5een the thimble an$ the main scale $i+ision on the slee+e' The remainin% t5o si%nificant fi%ures <hun$re$ths of a millimeter= are taken $irectly from the thimble opposite the main scale' 3ee e6amples belo57

The rea$in% is *(+, mm

The rea$in% is *(*- mm

.ernier Caliper

The )ernier Calipers 5e 5ill be usin% ha+e a smallest measurable +alue of 0'02mm or 0'002 cm' "sin% the calipers to measure the si;e of ob.ects 5ill allo5 for a smaller uncertainty than if 5e use$ a ruler' In a$$ition- you 5ill shortly see that the $esi%n of the calipers is more appropriate than a ruler for makin% certain measurements' The $ia%ram belo5 sho5s ho5 to rea$ correct +alue on a )ernier caliper' #s sho5n there is a main scale 5ith ma.or $i+isions marke$ in centimeters an$ sub$i+isions in millimeters' Jotice that there are also marks <sho5n in 5hite here= on the sha$e$ area in the $ia%ram belo5' These marks allo5 you to $etermine the si;e of the ob.ect to the nearest tenth of a millimeter' /o" do "e read this scaleA

This e6ample is for a caliper that has a smallest measurable +alue of 0'1 mm but the concept is the same for all )ernier style calipers' Fin$ 5here the in$e6 mark in the sha$e$ area intersects 5ith the main scale <&'! cm in the $ia%ram sho5n=' This %i+es you the len%th to the nearest millimeter' Jo5 fin$ the line in the sha$e$ area that e6actly lines up 5ith the millimeter marks on the main scale' In the $ia%ram belo5 this 5oul$ correspon$ to the secon$ mark' This %i+es a rea$in% to the nearest 0'1 mm' 3o the rea$in% sho5n in the $ia%ram belo5 5oul$ be7 0(+- cm or 0+(- mm

, Lab 1 Con2ersions 3 )easurement

The purpose of this e6ercise is to familiari;e the be%innin% physics stu$ent 5ith unit con+ersions- measurement techni>ues- an$ measurin% $e+ices' Part # Con+ersions

1' Measure the hei%ht of one of your lab partners in inches' Con+ert this +alue to meters- centimeters- millimeters- an$ kilometers' <BonKt for%et to report an$ con+ert the uncertainty in the measurement as 5ell'= 2' Con+ert the spee$ limit of // mph to kmHh' <Jo- you canKt run out to your car to check your spee$ometer'= !' 8e 5ill learn that the spee$ of li%ht in a +acuum is !'0 6 10, mHs' Mo5 many miles per hour is thisA &' Calculate the number of secon$s that you ha+e been ali+e' /' # physics te6tbook lists the a%e of the uni+erse as /'0 6 101* s' Mo5 many years is thisA Part 4 Measurement

"se the most accurate metho$ possible for each step' BonKt for%et about the uncertainty of the measurements in each case' (' Measure the thickness of a pa%e in the te6tbook' Mo5 certain are you of this measurementA *' Measure the thickness of 10 pa%es' Is this measurement ten times as %reat as the thickness of one pa%eA Boes the ink ha+e a measurable thicknessA ,' Measure the len%th an$ $iameter of a cylin$er' 8hat is the +olume of the cylin$erA 1' Measure the mass of the cylin$er' Bensity is the amount of mass per unit +olume' 8hat is the $ensity of the cylin$erA 10' Measure the mass of one na+y bean' 11' Measure the mass of 10 na+y beans' Bo 10 na+y beans ha+e 10 times the mass of one na+y beanA Bo the measurements a%ree 5ithin the ran%e of uncertaintyA 12' Measure the len%th of your table' 1!' Measure the time it takes for one of your lab partners to 5alk the len%th of the table' 3pee$ is the $istance tra+ele$ $i+i$e$ by the time it took to tra+el that $istance' 8hat 5as the a+era%e spee$ of your lab partner in meters per secon$A 1&' Con+ert this spee$ to miles per hour' Is this a reasonable +alueA In this section you 5ill %ain e6perience 5ith the Bata 3tu$io pro%ram an$ +arious $ata takin% $e+ices' 1/' 3et up the air track an$ air cart- an$ obser+e the motion of the cart 5hen the air is turne$ on' 8hat a$+anta%e $o you think this apparatus 5ill pro+i$e in our stu$ies of motionA 1(' 3et up the photo%ate to measure the +elocity of the air cart' Make sure that you enter the correct len%th of the ob.ect passin% throu%h the photo%ate' 06periment 5ith the ran%e of +elocities you can achie+e' Recor$ three +elocities7 one slo5- one me$ium- an$ one fast'

1 1*' 8hy must you enter the len%th of the ob.ect that passes throu%h the photo%ateA 8hat other information $oes the photo%ate utili;e to calculate +elocityA 1,' Jo5 hook up the smart pulley' 4y spinnin% it 5ith your fin%er- obser+e ho5 it can recor$ position an$Hor +elocity <or e+en acceleration 5hich 5e 5ill %et to in a fe5 $ays=' Comment on ho5 position an$ +elocity +alues chan%e as you spin it at $ifferent rates' 11' Cbser+e an$ recor$ <5ith $ra5in%s= all of the 5ays in 5hich $ata can be $isplaye$ usin% this pro%ram' 20' Relyin% upon the +ast e6perience you ha+e %aine$ usin% the Bata 3tu$io pro%ram to$ay- 5rite an outline of the %eneral proce$ure that must be follo5e$ to take $ata usin% this pro%ram' 4e%in 5ith turnin% the computer on- an$ list the steps that 5oul$ help a person $oin% this for the first time'

10 Lab Part # Position& .elocit' 3 4cceleration

Position- )elocity- an$ #cceleration Graphs

8hen usin% the motion sensor- be%in by familiari;in% yourself 5ith the %raphin% capabilities of the Bata 3tu$io soft5are' In particular- learn ho5 to $isplay only the $esire$ portion of your %raph on the optimal scale' 1' 3et up the motion sensor to %raph position' 8hen it is recor$in% position- it acts as the ori%in- 5ith all $istances in front of it bein% positi+e' 4efore you start recor$in% any $ata- sketch four position +s' time %raphs that you 5oul$ e6pect to obtain for the follo5in% situations7 a= stan$in% still b= 5alkin% at a constant slo5 spee$ a5ay from the $etector c= 5alkin% at a constant fast spee$ a5ay from the $etector $= 5alkin% at a constant slo5 spee$ to5ar$ the $etector 2' Jo5 create position %raphs usin% the motion sensor for each of the four cases' Bo they match your pre$ictionsA If not- $escribe ho5 you 5oul$ mo+e to make a %raph that looks like your pre$iction' !' Jo5 set up the motion sensor to %raph +elocity' 4efore you start recor$in% any $ata- sketch four +elocity +s' time %raphs that you 5oul$ e6pect to obtain for the pre2ious situations- in addition to four ne" ones5 e= 5alkin% at an increasin% spee$ a5ay from the $etector f= 5alkin% at an increasin% spee$ to5ar$ the $etector %= 5alkin% at a $ecreasin% spee$ a5ay from the $etector h= 5alkin% at a $ecreasin% spee$ to5ar$ the $etector &' Jo5 create +elocity %raphs usin% the motion sensor for each of the ei%ht cases' Bo they match your pre$ictionsA If not- $o you no5 un$erstan$ 5hyA /' 3ketch constant acceleration %raphs for all ei%ht situations <most importantly$eci$e for 5hich situations the acceleration 5oul$ be positi+e an$ for 5hich it 5oul$ be ne%ati+e=' )erify the si%n of the acceleration in each case usin% the motion sensor' Jote7 please inclu$e your pre$ictions in your report as 5ell as representations of the computer %raphs' I may be a little skeptical if anyone mana%e$ to pre$ict e+erythin% correctly' Part 4 Reaction Time (' Ma+e one of your lab partners hol$ a meter stick at one en$- lettin% it han% +ertically $o5n5ar$' Jo5 ha+e another person in your %roup hol$ their thumb an$ in$e6 fin%er appro6imately 2 inches apart at about the mi$point of the meter stick' 8hen the person hol$in% the meter stick une6pecte$ly $rops it- recor$ the $istance the meter stick falls before the other person catches it' *' "se this $istance alon% 5ith the accepte$ +alue for %ra+itational acceleration <%= to calculate the reaction time' ,' Repeat the process so that e+eryone in your %roup %ets to measure their reaction time' If you 5ant to- 5rite your name an$ reaction time on the boar$ so that 5e can see 5ho is the fastest@

11

Part C #cceleration Bue To Gra+ity In the pre+ious section- 5e use$ the accepte$ +alue for %ra+itational acceleration at the earthKs surface' In this section- 5e 5ill preten$ that 5e $onKt kno5 its +alue- an$ so 5e are %oin% to $o an e6periment to $etermine it' 1' 3et up the photo%ate to measure +elocity' #s you $rop the picket fence throu%h the photo%ate- the computer 5ill recor$ the +elocity of each soli$ panel as it passes the sensor' To arri+e at a +alue for the acceleration- obtain a %raph of +elocity +s' time- an$ rea$ the a+era%e slope of the %raph' 10' Calculate the percenta%e error bet5een this +alue an$ the accepte$ +alue in your te6tbook' 11' 8oul$ $roppin% a soli$ colore$ panel ha+e 5orke$A 8hat information from the e6periment $i$ the soft5are utili;e to create the %raphA 12' Gi+e a $etaile$ $escription of ho5 you 5oul$ calculate the acceleration by han$ usin% this information'

12 Lab + Pro6ectiles

The purpose of this lab is to e6plore an actual e6ample of t5o2$imensional motion' C#"TICJ@@@@ These pro.ectiles can be $an%erous@ Make sure that the ran%e is clear before loa$in% the apparatus' #lso- please use only the plastic balls unless specifically aske$ to $o other5ise' There ha+e been complaints from our $o5nstairs nei%hbors in the past' 1' "se a piece of paper an$ carbon paper to measure the a+era%e ran%e of the ballistic launcher aime$ in the hori;ontal $irection' There are three $ifferent launch positions- make sure that you are usin% the first launch position <1 click= for this step' Get at least fi+e $ata points an$ fin$ the a+era%e ran%e' 1' 8hat other information $o you nee$ to calculate the initial +elocityA Recor$ this $ata as 5ell' 2' In treatin% this as a te6tbook problem- 5hat factor<s= $o 5e i%nore in our calculationA !' Calculate the initial +elocity of the pro.ectile' BonKt for%et about uncertainties' )erify your result 5ith me before procee$in%' &' Jo5 calculate the initial +elocities <an$ associate$ uncertainties= for the 2n$ an$ !r$ launch positions in the same manner as abo+e' #%ain- +erify your results for both of these +elocities 5ith me before procee$in%' /' Pre$ict 5hich one 5ill %o farther- the steel ball or the plastic ball' Test your pre$iction <only once please@=' 8as once enou%h to tell the $ifferenceA 3peculate on the reason for the $ifference in the ran%e of the t5o balls' (' Jo5- 5ith the launcher set to a (0N launch an%le- fin$ the spot on the floor 5here the ball lan$s- an$ place a 3tyrofoam cup at this point' Fire the launcher 10 times an$ recor$ ho5 many times the ball %oes into the cup' This 5ill %i+e you some i$ea of ho5 consistent the launcher is- plus it is fun

1! Lab 0 Part # Tension an$ 8ei%ht 7ension and 8riction

1' First make sure the air track is le+el' "se the air track- smart2pulley- an$ computer interface to measure the acceleration of the air cart pulle$ by the 5ei%ht of three $ifferent masses7 m E 20 %- !0 %- an$ &0 % ' 2' 3ketch a %enerali;e$ free bo$y $ia%ram of the han%in% mass' Remember7 free bo$y $ia%rams are sketches of CJ0 bo$y an$ #LL forces actin% on TM#T bo$y' !' #pply Je5tonKs 2n$ la5 to the han%in% mass' "se the resultin% e>uation to sol+e for the tension in each of the three trials' &' Jo5 sketch a %enerali;e$ free bo$y $ia%ram of the cart' 8here is the normal force comin% from in this caseA /' #pply Je5tonKs 2n$ la5 to the hori;ontal motion of the cart' "se the resultin% e>uation to sol+e for the mass <M= of the cart for each of the three trials' #+era%e these results an$ fin$ the stan$ar$ $e+iation' (' Jo5 measure the actual mass of the cart' Mo5 $o the measure$ an$ calculate$ +alues compareA *' Jo5- 5ithout actually settin% it up- calculate the acceleration you 5oul$ e6pect if the air cart 5ere pulle$ by a mass of 2/ %' Jee$ a hintA Consi$er the e>uations from steps ! an$ /' These 5ere results of applyin% Je5tonKs secon$ la5 to the motion of both ob.ects' Combine these t5o e>uations an$ t5o unkno5ns to arri+e at a formula for the acceleration' ,' Jo5- +erify your ans5er by actually tryin% it out' Part 4 Tilte$ #ir Track 1' Tilt the air track usin% 5oo$ blocks so that the pulley en$ of the track is hi%hest' 10' Man% .ust enou%h mass from the strin% to hol$ the cart near the center of the incline$ plane 5ithout motion <in e>uilibrium= 5hile the air is turne$ on' 8hat is the sum of the forces on the cart at this pointA 11' Gi+e the cart an initial +elocity by %ently pushin% it $o5n the track- an$ measure its acceleration usin% the computer interface' 4efore the brief push- 5hat 5as the sum of the forces on the cartA #fter the brief push- 5hat is the sum of the forces on the cartA 8hat shoul$ the acceleration beA <Mint7 This >uestion re>uires no calculation'= 12' 3ketch a free bo$y $ia%ram of the cart' Part C Friction

1!' Place the friction block flat on your table- an$ slo5ly increase the tension in the strin% <runnin% o+er a pulley= until the block .ust be%ins to sli$e' #t this pointthe tension in the strin% is e>ual to fs-ma6- the ma6imum static frictional force' "se this fact to calculate the static coefficient of friction- s' Bra5 a free bo$y $ia%ram of the block' 1&' Jo5- usin% the same setup- carefully fin$ the tension in the strin% that causes the block to sli$e alon% the table at constant +elocity after a brief push' #t this point- the tension in the strin% is e>ual to fk- the kinetic frictional force' "se this fact to calculate the kinetic coefficient of friction- k' Bra5 a free bo$y $ia%ram of the block' 4e sure to inclu$e #LL free bo$y $ia%rams in your report'

1& Lab 9 Circular motion and Centripetal 8orce

8hen an ob.ect of mass m- attache$ to a strin% of len%th r- is rotate$ in a hori;ontal circle- the centripetal force on the mass is %i+en by7

F=

mv 2 r

$Equation 1%

To$ay 5e 5ill be +erifyin% this e>uation- an$ e6plorin% the relationships bet5een the centripetal force- mass- +elocity an$ ra$ius of a rotatin% ob.ect' 1' First you must le+el the rotational apparatus' This e6periment re>uires the apparatus to be extremely le+el' If the track is not le+el- the e6perimental results 5ill be 5il$ly $ifferent from the theoretical results' Carry out the follo5in% steps7 Purposely make the apparatus unbalance$ by attachin% the black !00% s>uare mass onto the en$ of the aluminum track that is nearest the brass ob.ect 5ith ! hooks' #$.ust the le+elin% scre5 on one of the le%s of the base until the en$ of the track 5ith the s>uare mass is ali%ne$ o+er the le+elin% scre5 on the other le% of the base' <see fi%ure 1= Jo5 rotate the track 10 $e%rees so it is parallel to one si$e of the 9#: <see fi%ure 2= an$ a$.ust the other le+elin% scre5 until the track 5ill stay in this position' The track is no5 le+el an$ it shoul$ remain at rest re%ar$less of its orientation' CJC0 L0)0L- BC JCT MC)0 TM0 4#30 CF ?C"R #PP#R#T"3@@

8igure 1 8igure -

2' Jo5 try to spin the rotatin% platform at a nearly constant rate- an$ measure the time it takes to make ten complete rotations' Bi+i$e this time by ten to obtain the perio$ of motion' !' In or$er to calculate the linear spee$ of a point on the e$%e of the platform- 5hat other measurement $o you nee$A Take the appropriate $ata- an$ calculate this spee$' ?ou 5ill be follo5in% this same %eneral proce$ure in the follo5in% steps to calculate the spee$ of a rotatin% ob.ect'

1/ &' Jo5 remo+e the s>uare black mass- an$ attach a clamp2on pulley to the en$ of the track nearer to the !2hooke$2ob.ect' #ttach a strin% to the open hook of the !2hooke$2ob.ect- an$ han% a kno5n mass o+er the pulley' <see fi%ure !=

8igure +

/' Calculate the 5ei%ht of the han%in% mass' This 5ill be the amount of centripetal force 5e 5ill be usin% later in our calculation' 0nter this force into a table like the one belo57 Table 1 Centripetal Force

Ra$ius

3pee$

Mass

(' Jo5 select a ra$ius by ali%nin% the line on the si$e post 5ith any $esire$ position on the measurin% tape' 8hile pressin% $o5n on the si$e post to assure that it is +ertical- ti%hten the thumb scre5 on the si$e post to secure its position' Recor$ this ra$ius in the table' *' The !2hooke$2ob.ect must han% perfectly +ertically7 on the center post- a$.ust the sprin% bracket +ertically until the strin% from 5hich the !2hooke$ ob.ect han%s is ali%ne$ 5ith the +ertical line on the post' If there is too much slack in the strin%- 5in$ the e6tra strin% securely aroun$ the hook it is fastene$ to' ,' #li%n the in$icator bracket on the center post 5ith the oran%e in$icator' This is $one by sli$in% the bracket +ertically an$ ti%htenin% the thumb scre5 5hen it is at the correct le+el' 1' Cnce these a$.ustments ha+e been ma$e- remo+e the mass that is han%in% o+er the pulley- an$ remo+e the clamp2on pulley' 10' Rotate the apparatus- increasin% the spee$ until the oran%e in$icator is centere$ in the in$icator bracket on the center post' This in$icates that the strin% supportin% the han%in% ob.ect is once a%ain +ertical an$ thus the !2hooke$2 ob.ect is at the $esire$ ra$ius' 11' Maintainin% this spee$- use a stop5atch to time ten re+olutions' "se this information to calculate the spee$ of the !2hooke$2ob.ect- an$ enter this spee$ into the table' 12' Remo+e the !2hooke$2ob.ect from the apparatus an$ measure its mass- enterin% this information into the table' 1!' Jo5 that the table is complete- use these +alues to +erify e>uation 1'

1( 1&' If the mass of the !2hooke$2ob.ect 5ere chan%e$ to half of its current +alue5hat 5oul$ happen to the +alue of the spee$A Biscuss this 5ith your %roup- an$ formulate a hypothesis' Jo5 carry out the e6periment by remo+in% the t5o si$e masses from the !2hooke$ ob.ect- effecti+ely re$ucin% its mass by half' Make a ne5 table- enter the ne5 +alues- an$ make sure that e>uation 1 is obeye$ once a%ain' 1/' Repeat the e6periment usin% a $ifferent ra$ius' 1(' Repeat the e6periment usin% a $ifferent amount of centripetal force' 1*' Biscuss the interrelationships bet5een centripetal force- mass- spee$ an$ ra$ius in relation to the beha+ior of this particular system <i'e' 5hat happens 5hen you increase or $ecrease their +aluesA=

1* Lab : Part # Conser2ation of Energ'

Gra+itational Potential 0ner%y

1' Brop a rac>uetball from the hei%ht of one of the counters- an$ measure the hei%ht of the bounce' Bo this at least fi+e times to %et an a+era%e of the bounce hei%ht' 2' 8hat is the initial potential ener%y of the ballA 8hat is the potential ener%y at the hei%ht of the first bounceA !' Mo5 much mechanical ener%y 5as lostA I$entify t5o 5ays in 5hich mechanical ener%y coul$ ha+e been $issipate$' Part 4 Conser+ation of 0ner%y in )ertical Motion

In this section- 5e 5ill be usin% the ballistic launcher a%ain' Mo5e+er- this time it 5ill be set up to launch +ertically- an$ 5e 5ill be usin% superballs to cut $o5n on the noise' &' 3et up the photo%ate so that it measures the +elocity of the ball .ust as it lea+es the launcher' "sin% the first launch position- recor$ the +ertical launch +elocity of the superball' <Bo it se+eral times to %et an a+era%e'= Mo5 much kinetic ener%y $oes the ball ha+e 5hen it is launche$A /' Mo5 much kinetic ener%y $oes the ball ha+e as it reaches the top of its tra.ectoryA (' 8hat must be the increase in potential ener%y bet5een these t5o pointsA *' Jo5 measure the hei%ht $ifference bet5een these t5o points <a+era%e se+eral trials=- an$ calculate the correspon$in% chan%e in the potential ener%y of the superball' Boes this +alue a%ree 5ith your ans5er for the pre+ious stepA ,' Repeat this process for the secon$ an$ thir$ launch positions' This timecalculate the e6pecte$ hei%ht before you actually measure it' 1' Bo you nee$ to kno5 the mass of the ball to calculate the hei%htA 10' Mo5 $i$ the calculate$ an$ measure$ hei%hts compare in each caseA 8as there a tren$ in your resultsA Gi+e a possible e6planation for any $iscrepancy' Part C 11' Conser+ation of 0ner%y on an Incline

3et up the air track 5ith one en$ tilte$ up' Compress the bumper of the air cart a%ainst the bottom en$ of the track- an$ then release it >uickly so that it tra+els a %oo$ $istance up the track before startin% back $o5n' 12' "se the photo%ate to measure the +elocity of the cart shortly after it is release$- an$ also recor$ the hi%hest position reache$ by the cart' 1!' Mo5 much kinetic ener%y $oes the cart ha+e as it is passin% throu%h the photo%ateA 1&' Mo5 much kinetic ener%y $oes the cart ha+e at its hi%hest position on the trackA 1/' 8hat must be the increase in potential ener%y bet5een these t5o pointsA 1(' Think of a 5ay to measure the $ifference in potential ener%y bet5een these t5o points' Bo the +alues a%ree 5ithin the ran%e of uncertaintyA 1*' Try the process one more time for a $ifferent initial +elocity'

1, Lab * )omentum and Collisions

Part # 0stimation an$ Calculation of Momentum #n essential part of science is the in+esti%atorKs ability to estimate >uantities 5ithout precise measurement' Cne important aspect of this ability is use$ 5hen an e6perimenter $esi%ns an e6periment to in+esti%ate some physical phenomenon' In e+ery$ay life this skill is also >uite +aluable- so 5e 5ill be practicin% the art of estimation 5hile $eterminin% the momentum of +arious ob.ects that are in motion at $ifferent spee$s' There is no ri%ht or 5ron% ans5er- but the use of lo%ic an$ reasonable assumptions in the estimation process is important for your result to be close to the ans5er you 5oul$ obtain from an e6act measurement' For the follo5in%- estimate both the mass an$ spee$- an$ report the resultin% momentum in scientific notation' a= a bu% cra5lin% across the si$e5alk b= a butterfly flyin% past you c= a bo5lin% ball rollin% $o5n the lane $= a fastball thro5n by a ma.or lea%ue pitcher e= an a+era%e bicyclist at me$ium spee$ f= a car at hi%h5ay spee$ %= a *&* at cruisin% spee$ h= a supertanker cruisin% from the Mi$$le 0ast full of oil Part 4 Momentum an$ Oinetic 0ner%y in Collisions

The first ob.ecti+e of this section is to >ualitati+ely obser+e se+eral types of collisions' 8e 5ill then +erify >uantitati+ely the e>uations for +elocities resultin% from +arious types of collisions' 8e 5ill be consi$erin% both elastic an$ inelastic collisions bet5een aircarts ha+in% +arious initial +elocities an$ masses' 1' Pualitati+e Cbser+ation For each of the follo5in% collisions bet5een rou%hly e>ual masses- pre$ict the outcome by $ra5in% a $ia%ram of the carts both before an$ after the collision- usin% +ectors to illustrate their +elocities in each case' Then test your pre$ictions by obser+in% each actual collision' Make sure the air track is le+el' 0lastic collisions a= +elocities7 b= +elocities7 c= +elocities7 Inelastic collisions $= +elocities7 e= +elocities7 f= +elocities7 mass 1 22222 22222 22222 22222 22222 22222 mass 2 0 22222 2 0 22222 2

Jo5 repeat se+eral of the abo+e collisions- this time %i+in% the carts $ifferent masses by a$$in% 5ei%hts' Make sure you in$icate the mass $ifferences on your $ia%rams' BonKt for%et to $ra5 your pre$ictions first- then test your pre$ictions by obser+ation'

11

2' Puantitati+e Measurement ?ou 5ill be settin% up each of the follo5in% collisions- a$$in% 5ei%ht to the air carts 5hen necessary' For each one- use the photo%ates to measure the +elocities of each cart both before an$ after the collision' Remember that the photo%ates $o not reco%ni;e $irection- so you must inclu$e the appropriate si%ns for +elocity' Then- for each collision- use the appropriate e>uations from your te6t to calculate the e6pecte$ final +elocities- an$ compare these to your e6perimental +alues' a= # mo+in% aircart colli$es elastically 5ith a secon$ aircart that is initially at rest an$ has t5ice as much mass' b= # mo+in% aircart colli$es elastically 5ith a secon$ aircart that is initially at rest an$ has half as much mass' c= The same situation as part a=- but this time a completely inelastic collision' $= The same situation as part b=- but this time a completely inelastic collision' For 5hich of these four collisions 5oul$ 5e e6pect kinetic ener%y to be conser+e$A For 5hich of these four collisions 5oul$ 5e e6pect momentum to be conser+e$A

20 Lab , Part # Meter 3tick 1' Place the meter stick on the balancin% stan$ in or$er to locate its center of mass' Recor$ this +alue' Recall that the center of mass is that point of a ri%i$ bo$y 5here all of its mass can be consi$ere$ to act' 2' 8ithout actually settin% it up- suppose that a /0 % mass 5ere suspen$e$ from the meter stick at the 1/ cm mark- an$ calculate the ne5 center of mass of the system' !' Jo5 test your calculation by placin% the stan$ at the center of mass position you .ust calculate$' Boes it balanceA If not- ho5 far from the true balance point 5as itA ?our results shoul$ $efinitely fall 5ithin the ran%e of e6perimental uncertainty' If they $onKt- fin$ out 5hy an$ correct your setup' &' #$$ an a$$itional han%in% 5ei%ht of your choice to the system at a position of your choice' Fin$ the ne5 center of mass by calculation an$ e6periment- an$ compare them' Cnce a%ain- the results shoul$ a%ree' /' "ntil this point- you ha+e most likely been calculatin% the center of mass by measurin% all $istances from the 0 cm en$ of the meter stick' Interestin%ly$istances can be measure$ from any position on the meter stick' Try $oin% the calculation from part &- but this time measurin% all $istances from some arbitrary position on the meter stick' <Jote that some $istances 5ill no5 be ne%ati+e'= (' Bo the calculation one more time- measurin% all $istances from the ori%inal center of mass of the meter stick foun$ in part 1' 8hy is this the easiest 5ay to $o the calculationA Part 4 People *' 3tan$ 5ith your heels an$ back a%ainst a 5all an$ try to ben$ o+er an$ touch your toes' 06plain 5hy this $oesnKt 5ork' ,' Measure the minimum $istance of your heels from the 5all for 5hich you can touch your toes' Compare this $istance 5ith others in the room' Cn a+era%e- $o men or 5omen nee$ to stan$ farther from the 5allA 8hat $oes this imply about our centers of massA Center of )ass

21 Lab ; 4ngular )omentum

1' The purpose of this first part is to e6perience the effects of a chan%in% moment of inertia on an%ular +elocity' Mol$ one 5ei%ht in each han$- an$ sit on a rotatin% stool' 3tart to spin 5ith your arms e6ten$e$- them brin% your arms in to5ar$ your chest an$ notice the $ifference in your an%ular +elocity' Bescribe the effectan$ e6plain the reasonin% behin$ it' 2' This part is fun 2 e+eryone shoul$ try it@ 3ittin% on a rotatin% stool a%ain- take the bicycle 5heel an$ %et it spinnin% as fast as you can- hol$in% it so that the momentum +ector is pointin% strai%ht up' The stool shoul$ stay still 5hen you lift your feet up' Jo5- keepin% your feet up off the %roun$- turn the 5heel <as >uickly as you can= so that the momentum +ector is pointin% strai%ht $o5n' 06plain in 5or$s an$ pictures <complete 5ith momentum +ectors= 5hat happens in terms of conser+ation of an%ular momentum' !' For the rest of this e6ercise- 5e 5ill be usin% a rotational apparatus' Make sure the platter is le+el' "sin% the rotatin% platter alone- apply a tor>ue to it by 5rappin% strin% aroun$ one of the center spools- then runnin% the strin% o+er the smart pulley an$ han%in% a /0 % mass from the loose en$' Measure the tan%ential acceleration usin% the computer interface' "se this tan%ential acceleration an$ the ra$ius of the spool to calculate the an%ular acceleration of the system' &' Calculate the tor>ue that is applie$ to the $isk by the force of the han%in% 5ei%hts7 tor>ue E <force= 6 <le+er arm=- 5here the le+er arm is the ra$ius of the spool aroun$ 5hich the strin% 5as 5oun$' /' "sin% the an%ular acceleration foun$ in part ! an$ the tor>ue foun$ in part &calculate the moment of inertia of the platter usin% Je5tonKs 2n$ la5 for rotational motion' (' Jo5- remo+e the metal rin% from the bo6' "sin% the appropriate formula for an ob.ect of this shape <see the boar$=- calculate the moment of inertia of the rin%' *' Reco%ni;in% the fact that moments of inertia are a$$iti+e- calculate the total moment of inertia that 5oul$ result from a$$in% the rin% to your system' ,' "sin% Je5tonKs 2n$ la5 for rotational motion- calculate the an%ular acceleration that shoul$ result from a$$in% the rin% to your system' Con+ert this into a tan%ential acceleration that can be measure$ 5ith the smart pulley' 1' Jo5 a$$ the rin% to your system- measure the resultin% acceleration- an$ compare it to the +alue that you .ust calculate$'

22 )ake<Up Lab5 Rolling )otion Part # Conser+ation of 0ner%y

1' In or$er to obser+e rollin% motion 5e nee$ an incline$ surface' Raise one en$ of your table by puttin% three stackin% blocks un$er each le% at that en$' Jo5 measure the time it takes for the soli$ ball to roll the entire len%th of the tablestartin% from rest' This timin% can be tricky- but a %oo$ metho$ 5ill yiel$ surprisin%ly accurate results' Make sure that the ball rolls nearly strai%ht $o5n the table- an$ that no bumpin% or slippin% occurs' Most importantly- a+era%e many $ifferent trials 5ith +arious people operatin% the stop5atch' 2' 8e are intereste$ in the translational spee$ of the ball at the bottom of the table' "sin% the fact that it e6perience$ constant linear acceleration as it rolle$- an$ takin% into consi$eration the len%th of your table- calculate its spee$ at the bottom' <Mint7 think back a fe5 chapters'= !' Jo5 5e 5ill +erify that mechanical ener%y 5as conser+e$' The t5o points at 5hich 5e 5ill consi$er the ener%y of the ball are the top of the table an$ the bottom' #t the top7 8hat is its %ra+itational potential ener%yA 8hat is its translational kinetic ener%yA 8hat is its rotational kinetic ener%yA 8hat is the sum of the mechanical ener%y at the topA 8hat is its %ra+itational potential ener%yA 8hat is its translational kinetic ener%yA 8hat is its rotational kinetic ener%yA 8hat is the sum of the mechanical ener%y at the bottomA

#t the bottom7

?our results shoul$ reflect that fact that mechanical ener%y 5as conser+e$ <5ithin the ran%e of uncertainty='

Part 4

Rotational Inertia

&' Cbtain one of each of the follo5in% four $ifferent ob.ects7 soli$ sphere- hollo5 sphere- soli$ cylin$er- an$ hollo5 cylin$er' Recall that in a race- the or$er these ob.ects finish is $etermine$ by their shape- an$ not by their mass or ra$ius' Look at the table in your te6tbook of the moments of inertia for the +arious shapes' Rank the ob.ects from smallest to lar%est rotational inertia' /' Jo5 roll all four ob.ects $o5n the table- releasin% them simultaneously' <Mint7 race t5o at a time if you are ha+in% trouble racin% all & at the same time'= (' Mo5 $oes the or$er in your rotational inertia list compare to the finishin% or$er that you obtaine$ in your e6perimentA Biscuss the results you obtaine$ in terms of the relationship bet5een rotational inertia an$ rotational acceleration'

2!

Sample Lab Report A:

Lab 05 7ension and !e"ton=s -nd La"

Purpose7 The purpose of this lab is to stu$y the effect of tension in $ifferent situations' First 5e 5ill consi$er the tension cause$ by a han%in% mass that is connecte$ to another mass restin% on a flat surface' 3ince the t5o masses are connecte$ usin% a strin% of ne%li%ible mass runnin% o+er a frictionless pulley- an$ one of the masses is restin% on a frictionless surface- 5e 5ill be able to ne%lect friction' Burin% the secon$ part- 5e 5ill a%ain ne%lect friction- but this time the han%in% mass is connecte$ to a mass restin% on an inclined plane' 8e 5ill attempt to fin$ the sum of the forces actin% on the cart 5hich is on the incline$ plane' Procedure& Data& Calculations& Diagrams5 Part #7 Tension an$ 8ei%ht m1

m2

1' "sin% the computer interface- 5e measure$ the acceleration of the air cart pulle$ by three $ifferent han%in% masses' The air cart represente$ in the $ra5in% by m1- is restin% on a frictionless surface an$ is connecte$ to the han%in% mass m2- by means of a frictionless pulley' The pulley is also interface$ 5ith the computer an$ 5ill be use$ to measure the acceleration of m1' 8e measure$ the acceleration for three $ifferent han%in% masses <m2= of 20- &0- an$ (0 %rams' The follo5in% table is the result of these tests7 /anging mass m4cceleration of m1 $in m>s-% 20% '*1/ &0% 1'&&* (0% 2'00(

2' Mere is a free bo$y $ia%ram for our han%in% mass- m27 7 The only forces actin% on the han%in% mass are %ra+ity- 5hich is pullin% the han%in% mass to5ar$ the %roun$- an$ the tension of the strin% 5hich is pullin% the mass up5ar$' The tension in the strin% is present because of the mass it is attache$ to on the flatfrictionless plane'

m2 m- g

2& !' Je5tonKs secon$ la5 tells us that the sum of the forces actin% on an ob.ect in any one $irection is e>ual to its mass multiplie$ by its acceleration in that $irection' 3ince both forces actin% on the han%in% block are alon% the +ertical a6is- 5e can apply Je5tonKs secon$ la5 to it as follo5s7 $sum of forces do"n% ? $mass%$acceleration do"n% $m-g<7% ? $m-%$a% Then- 5e can rearran%e it to sol+e for the tension7 7 ? m-g @ m-a ? m-$g<a% 3ince 5e use$ three $ifferent masses 5hich resulte$ in three $ifferent accelerations- 5e ha+e to sol+e for three $ifferent +alues of T7 7$-Ag% ? $(A-A kg%B$;(,m>s-% @ $(*;9 m>s-%C ? (1,A! 7$0Ag% ? $(A0A kg%B$;(,m>s-% @ $1(00*m>s-%C ? (++0! 7$:Ag% ? $(A:A kg%B$;(,m>s-% @ $-(AA:m>s-%C ? (0:, ! &' Je6t 5e 5ill $ra5 a free bo$y $ia%ram for the air cart7 In this case- the cart is restin% on a cushion of airThus the air cushion is 5here the normal force is comin% from' 3ince there is no motion in the +ertical $irection- it is safe for us to assume that 7 the normal force- FJ- is e>ual to an$ in the opposite $irection as %ra+ity' Therefore these t5o forces cancel each other out' #t the same timesince there is no friction- any amount of force actin% in the hori;ontal $irection 5ill pro$uce an acceleration for the cart' 8!

m1

m1 g

/' #pplyin% Je5tonKs secon$ la5 to the cart tells us that the sum of the forces actin% in the hori;ontal $irection 5ill be e>ual to the cartKs mass times the cartKs acceleration in the hori;ontal $irection' 3ince the only force actin% in the hori;ontal $irection is the tension- T- of the strin%- 5e can set up a relationship bet5een T- m1 an$ a7 $sum of the forces in the # direction% ? 7 ? $m1%$a% m1 ? 7>a Jo5 5e are rea$y to pre$ict a +alue for m1 for each of our three trial cases7 m20 % &0 % (0 % 7$m-% '1,0 J '!!& J '&(, J a$m-% '*1/ mHs2 1'&&* mHs2 2'00( mHs2 m1?7>a 22( % 2!1 % 2!! %

#+era%in% these results for m1- 5e %et a +alue of -+A g'

2/ (' 8e measure$ the actual mass of the cart on the $i%ital scale to be --1 g- so our a+era%e 5as only off by about &Q' Part 47 Tilte$ #ir Track *' Jo5 5e 5ill tilt the air track so that the pulley en$ of the track is hi%hest7

m2

,' 3ince the cart is no lon%er on a le+el plane- %ra+ity 5ill no5 ha+e some effect in pullin% the air cart to5ar$s the %roun$- or the lo5er en$ of the air track' Therefore- to balance the cart 5e must apply a force in the opposite $irection- 5hich can be accomplishe$ by han%in% a mass from the other en$' 8e ha$ to han% 1/ % on the strin% for the cart to remain in e>uilibrium' #t this point- since there is no motion in any $irection- the sum of the forces actin% on the cart is ;ero' 1' Jo5 5e 5ill %i+e the cart an initial +elocity by %ently pushin% it $o5n the track' 3ince the sum of the forces is ;ero before the push- it must also be ;ero after the push- an$ therefore the acceleration shoul$ be ;ero also' "sin% the computer interface- 5e measure$ an acceleration for the cart of '00& mHs2- 5hich is +ery close to ;ero' 8e 5oul$ also e6pect the cart to ha+e ;ero acceleration <constant +elocity= after the push in consi$eration of Je5tonKs first la5- 5hich states that an ob.ect in motion 5ill continue in strai%ht line motion if no force acts' 10' Jo5 5e 5ill sketch a free bo$y $ia%ram for the cart' I ha+e inclu$e$ the ori%inal $irection of the force $ue to %ra+ity- but only 5ith a $otte$ line as it is resol+e$ into the $irections of the tilte$ 6 an$ y a6es for our calculations' 8! 7
m
1

m1gsin m-gsin m 1%

2( Conclusion5 Lookin% at the t5o separate parts of this lab- I fin$ a common link7 Je5tonKs secon$ la5 of motion- 5hich tells us that the force actin% on an ob.ect in any $irection is e>ual to the ob.ectKs mass times the ob.ectKs acceleration in that $irection' 3ureit soun$s pretty strai%htfor5ar$- but as this lab has sho5n- 5e run into $ifferent kin$s of obstacles 5hen applyin% this la5' 3o 5hat I ha+e learne$ by $oin% this lab is that in applyin% Je5tonKs secon$ la5- 5e must also consi$er the an%le at 5hich the ob.ect is mo+in%- as 5ell as any kin$s of frictional forces that may be resistin% the ob.ectKs motion- not to mention all the uncertainties in+ol+e$ in the motion of e+ery$ay ob.ects that 5e ha+e not e+en consi$ere$ in this lab'

2* Sample Lab Report B: Introduction to Circuits Purpose5 To e6plore the relationship bet5een +olta%e- resistance an$ current in a circuit' Procedures 3 Comments5 1' "sin% a multimeter- measure an$ recor$ the +olta%e of t5o $ifferent batteries' 4attery 1 )olta%es 1'/02 ) 4attery 2 1'/1! ) 4attery Pak <1F2 combine$= !'010 )

If the leads are re2ersed "hen measuring 2oltage& the multimeter "ill displa' the same magnitude but "ill indicate that the 2oltage is negati2e( 2' #' From their color ban$s- $etermine an$ recor$ the resistance an$ the uncertainty ratin% for fi+e $ifferent resistors' 4' Measure an$ recor$ the resistance 5ith the multimeter' Resistor Color Gui$e 4an$ Color 4lack 4ro5n Re$ Cran%e ?ello5 4an$ Color Green 4lue Purple Gray 8hite

0 1 2 ! &

/ ( * , 1

"ncertainty7 3il+er E 10Q R Gol$ E /'0Q

Resistor7

1' Re$- Purple- 4lack- 3il+er 2' Re$- Re$- ?ello5- 3il+er !' Re$- Purple- Re$- 3il+er &' Cran%e- Cran%e- Re$- Gol$ /' 4ro5n- Green- ?ello5- 3il+er Betermine$ Resistance- 2*S10T0 22S10T& 2*S10T2 Betermine$ "ncertainty- Q 10 10 10 Measure$ Resistance- !0'0S10T0 2!'2S10T& 21'0S10T2 #ctual Bifference- Q 10'0 /'1* ('10

Resistor 1 2 !

2, & / !!S10T2 1/S10T& / 10 !!'2S10T2 1/'2S10T& 0'(0 1'!2

All of the measured values fall within the range given by the color bands.
!' "sin% t5o resistors of the same or$er or ma%nitu$e <the thir$ ban$ of the same color=- connect them in series an$ measure an$ recor$ the resistance of the combination' Repeat t5ice a%ain 5ith $ifferent resistors'

0>ui+alent Resistance E R1 G R2 Resistors !F& 2F/ &F/ Measure$ Resistance- ('2!S10T! !',!S10T/ 1'//S10T/ Calculate$ Resistance- ('22S10T! !',&S10T/ 1'//S10T/

&' "sin% t5o resistors of the same or$er or ma%nitu$e <the thir$ ban$ of the same color=- connect them in parallel an$ measure an$ recor$ the resistance of the combination' Repeat t5ice a%ain 5ith $ifferent resistors'

1 H 0>ui+alent Resistance E 1 H R1 G 1 H R2 Resistors !F& 2F/ &F/ Measure$ Resistance- 1'//S10T! 1'1,S10T& !'2/S10T! Calculate$ Resistance- 1'//S10T! 1'1,S10T& !'2/S10T!

/' Rules for a$$in% 0>ui+alent Resistances an$ Capacitances in 3eries an$ Parallel Circuits7 3eries Resistance7 RER1GR2GR!G Parallel 1HRE1HR1G1HR2G1HR!G CEC1GC2GC!G

Capacitance71HCE1HC1G1HC2G1HC!G

6. A series circuit acts like a one-lane highway and therefore all of the traffic must pass along the same path, which resists and slows down flow.

21

A parallel circuit acts like a freeway and therefore the traffic can always take the path of least resistance, which allows it to flow freely.

7. Construct a circuit consisting of a battery and a resistor and measure the current.

Resistor 3

!easured Calculated

oltage, 3.""

Resistance, #.$"%&"'3 (R)*

Current, A &."3%&"'-3 &."3%&"'-3

Measured and calculated answers agree. +. Construct a circuit consisting of a battery and two resistors, with roughly the same order of magnitude, in series and measure the current. Resistors 3 , -

!easured Across Current, A oltage,

.attery -.+"%&"'-3.""

Resistor 3 -.+"%&"'-&.-"

Resistor -.+"%&"'-&.6"

!0

In series the current must be the same through all elements . The voltage measured across resistor 3 and 4 equaled 1.40 V and 1. 0 V res!ectively. The sum of these two voltages equals 3.00 V" which is the same as the voltage of the battery. In series the sum of the voltages through all of the elements must equal the power source. $. Construct a circuit consisting of a battery and the two resistors used in procedure + in parallel and measure the current through the battery, the first resistor and the second resistor. /hen measure the 0oltage across each resistor. Resistors 3 , -

!easured Across Current, A oltage,

.attery &.$3%&"'-3 #.$$

Resistor & &."3%&"'-3 #.$$

Resistor # $.""%&"'-#.$$

In parallel the voltage must be the same through all elements . The current measured across resistor 3 and 4 equaled 1.03#10$%3 A and &.00#10$%4 A res!ectively. The sum of these two currents equals 1.&3#10$%3 A" which is the same as the current through the battery. In parallel the sum of the currents through all of the elements must equal to the current through the power source.
Conclusion5 The resistance of a resistor can be $etermine$ easily by $ecipherin% its color ban$s' These $etermine$ resistances- althou%h not perfect- are >uite accurate' "sin% the multimeter to measure +olta%e- resistance an$ current is strai%ht for5ar$but one must take special consi$eration 5hen measurin% current not to $ama%e to meter' For series circuits- the e>ui+alent resistance is e>ual to the sum of the resistances of the resistorsR an$ the reciprocal of the e>ui+alent capacitance is e>ual to the sums of the reciprocals of the capacitances of the capacitors' #n$ for parallel circuits .ust the re+erse is true' The reciprocal of the e>ui+alent resistance is e>ual to the sum of the reciprocals of the resistances of the resistorsR an$ the e>ui+alent capacitance is e>ual to the sum of the capacitances of the capcitors' In a series

!1 circuit the current is the same throu%h all of the elements in the circuitR an$ the sum of the +olta%es throu%h the elements in the circuit are e>ual to the +olta%e of the po5er source' #n$ for parallel circuits- a%ain .ust the re+erse is true' The +olta%e is the same throu%h all of the elements in a circuitR an$ the sum of the currents throu%h the elements in the circuit are e>ual to the current throu%h the po5er source' 8hene+er possible all circuit lab 5ork shoul$ be $one on the brea$boar$' It is easier to han$le an$ is a much more efficient 5ay to $o e6perimentation'