Dieukhienmaydien Truyendongdien Chapt2

HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 7 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF AN INDUCTION MACHINE AND THE SUPPLY

2.1. INTRODUCTION
As far as the AC machines are concerned, simple speed control systems are not capable of providing decoupled (independent) flux and torque control. All the so called scalar speed control methods (constant volts/hertz control, slip frequency control, voltage control etc.) are able of controlling the steady-state behaviour of the machine only. All these methods rely on controlling the rms values of AC voltage and/or current while instantaneous torque depends on instantaneous values of currents. Therefore torque developed by the machine exactly corresponds to the commanded torque in steady state only, while the dynamic response is generally sluggish and slow. Transition from one steady-state to another is not controllable and follows internal dynamics of the machine. The idea of field orientation, or vector control as it is called as well, can be briefly stated as a control method that converts an AC machine into its DC machine equivalent from the control point of view and thus enables instantaneous decoupled control of flux and torque. Instantaneous decoupled flux and torque control is made possible by control of instantaneous current values rather than rms values. Extremely fast response, that fully corresponds to the one obtainable from a DC machine, is enabled by this method of speed control. However, the control system capable of realising such a good quality speed control is, due to AC nature of all the variables in the machine, much more complicated. Due to significantly more complex structure of AC machines, compared to DC machines, application of field orientation as a practical speed control method has become possible only by microprocessors. Field oriented control is nowadays applied in variety of manners in conjunction with both induction and synchronous machines (sinusoidal and trapezoidal permanent magnet synchronous machines, wound rotor synchronous machines, synchronous reluctance machines). The emphasis here is on the two most frequent types of AC machines that are utilised in vector controlled drives, namely three phase squirrel cage (singly fed) induction machine (IM) and three phase sinusoidal permanent magnet synchronous machine (SPMSM). As shown shortly, electro-magnetic torque of a three-phase induction motor can be expressed in terms of phase currents of stator and rotor as
Te = LaA sin ia i A + ib i B + ic iC + sin
2 3
( iaiC + ibi A + iciB ) + sin +
2 3
( ia iB + ibiC + ici A )
(2.1)
where denotes instantaneous position of the rotating rotor phase A magnetic axis with respect to stationary stator phase a magnetic axis and LaA is the peak value of the mutual inductance between stator and rotor windings of the machine. This torque expression holds true in both steady-state and transient operation of the induction machine. The angle is determined with the speed of rotation, that is
= dt
(2.2)
Note that rotor currents are induced in rotor windings and they are thus governed by feeding conditions at stator side (and load). Hence both flux and torque component of the current stem from stator (there are no independent windings for separate flux current and torque current control, in contrast to DC machines). The question then arises: is it possible somehow to express the torque of the induction machine in terms of some other, fictitious currents in such a way that it resembles torque expression for a separately excited DC machine? In other words, can the torque be somehow transformed into the form
Te = C d iqs
(2.3)
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where flux may be stator flux, air gap flux or rotor flux linkage, and iqs is a certain fictitious component of the stator current. If such a transformation is possible, then induction machine may be made to behave from the control point of view as separately excited DC machine. FIELD ORIENTED CONTROL (VECTOR CONTROL) is a theory which enables achievement of the stated goal, not only with respect to induction machines but for all the other listed types of AC machines. Field oriented control may be therefore shortly defined as a set of control methods which, with respect to control of the machine, enable conversion of an ac machine into an equivalent separately excited DC machine. Thus field oriented control enables decoupled (independent) control of flux and torque in an AC machine by means of two independently controlled (fictitious) currents, as the case is in a separately excited DC machine. It has to be noted that, as instantaneous time-domain variables are under consideration at all times and the subject of analysis is dynamic (transient) behaviour of an AC machine, it is not possible to use in analysis approach with phasor representation of sinusoidal quantities. The variables are not sinusoidal (except in steady-state) nor are the regimes under consideration steady-states. The whole theory of field oriented control relies on machine modelling in time-domain. Vector control requires existence of the current control, in very much the same way as it was explained in conjunction with a separately excited DC machine. However, in the case of a DC machine instantaneous change of torque requires only instantaneous change of the current amplitude, since the armature current is a DC current. In the case of an AC machine requirement of instantaneous change of current is much more involved. To illustrate this, consider a steady state operation of an induction machine. Let us assume that the supply source is capable of providing purely sinusoidal currents of any amplitude and any frequency. Instantaneous stator phase currents are then given with:
( ) i b = I sin( e t 2 / 3) i c = I sin( e t 4 / 3)
i a = I sin e t
(2.4)
Suppose that a step speed command increase takes place, that asks for instantaneous stepping of the torque. The problem of stepping the torque in the machine from the appropriate steady state value to the maximum permissible value in order to achieve the fastest possible acceleration of the drive may be understood in terms of three-phase stator currents as a problem of providing new set of currents:
( ) i b1 = I 1 sin( e1 t 1 2 / 3) i c1 = I 1 sin( e1 t 1 4 / 3)
i a1 = I 1 sin e1 t 1
(2.5)
such, that a transient-free torque response is obtained. In other words, it is necessary to provide control of stator current amplitude, frequency and phase in an appropriate manner. Field-oriented control actually explains how these parameters have to be changed in order to obtain a transient-free torque response. In order to further examine behaviour of an induction machine torque response, Fig. 2.1 illustrates noload acceleration from standstill, with 50 Hz, rated sinusoidal voltage supply. Note that this is not the case of a variable speed drive and that there is not any control of the motor. It is simply an acceleration transient with mains supply. At time instant zero the motor is connected to the mains. There is no load connected to the shaft. The motor accelerates from standstill to the steady-state no-load speed. In final steady state operation the motor torque is zero, while the speed is constant no-load speed. As witnessed by the torque trace in Fig. 2.1, torque developed by the motor is highly oscillatory during the transient. It even takes negative values in some instants, during which the speed reduces rather than increases. Recall that in a high performance drive torque response is required to be instantaneous and equal to the maximum allowed torque during the transient. Complex nature of an induction machine makes such a torque response rather difficult to achieve and that is why vector control is widely used.
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In a standard induction motor drive with open loop or closed loop V/f speed control torque transient during transition from one operating speed to the other behaves similarly to the trace of Fig. 2.1. Hence more dedicated control has to be used if high performance is to be achieved.
40 Sinusoidal, 50 Hz supply 30 Torque (Nm) 20 10 0 -10 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 Time (s) 0.25 0.3
Torque for no-load acceleration
Fig. 2.1 - Variation of the induction motor torque during no-load acceleration from standstill with 50 Hz sinusoidal supply. On the basis of the considerations of this sub-section and discussion of high performance DC motor drives, the following statements can be made: High performance operation requires that the electro-magnetic torque of the motor is controllable in real time; What the commutator does in a DC machine physically (i.e. enables decoupled flux and torque control), has to be done in an AC machine mathematically (theory of vector control or field oriented control); Instantaneous flux and torque control require that the machine windings are fed from current controlled AC sources; Current and speed sensing is necessary in order to obtain the feedback signals for real time control (current and speed are controlled in closed loop manner, with current control loop embedded within the speed control loop). Compared to the statements given at the end of discussion of high performance DC drives, one notes that the first and the last two are the same. However, the second statement replaces the second and the third in the list for DC drives and is the subject that will be discussed shortly.
2.2.
HISTORY AND APPLICATIONS OF FIELD ORIENTED CONTROL
Rapid development in industry automation asks for permanent improvement of different types of electric drives. The imposed requirements are increased reliability, decrease in electric energy consumption, minimisation of the maintenance costs and improved capability of dealing with complicated and precise tasks required by the given technological process. About 50% of the generated electric energy in developed countries is converted into mechanical energy by means of electrical drives, and about 20 %
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of drives are variable speed drives. Variable speed drives which were for an extended period of time based on standard DC machines are more and more being substituted with appropriate variable speed AC drives. The annual rate of substitution varies in different areas of applications, but attains even such value as 15 % per year in the field of servo drives. The main reason for such a widespread utilisation of DC drives in the past is the capability of decoupled flux and torque control in DC machines, which asks for just a moderate investment in appropriate power electronics source. It was not until the fundamentals of field oriented control were set forth, that such a decoupled control of flux and torque in AC machines became feasible. Basic principles of field oriented control show that it is possible to realise theoretically perfectly decoupled control of flux and torque in AC machines. The idea of field oriented control requires that instantaneous values of magnitude and position of the stator current space vector with respect to the appropriate flux space vector in the machine, in relation to which the orientation is performed, can be controlled. The way of obtaining field oriented control is to orientate stator current space vector with respect to rotor flux space vector. The notion of "space vector" stems from the general theory of electric machines and the other popular name for field oriented control which is widely used, namely "vector control", has its origin in the fact that field oriented control is frequently dealt with in terms of space vectors, which are commonly applied in analysis and modelling of AC machines. Realisation of decoupled control of flux and torque is possible with both induction and synchronous machines and they can be fed from a converter which is either of the voltage or current source type . The original realisations of rotor flux oriented control from early seventies employ analogue techniques. Due to the complexity of the control part of the system, which is caused mainly by necessity to perform co-ordinate transformation, analogue versions of the field oriented control did not find wider application. Development in microprocessors in the late seventies made however realisation of vector controlled induction motor drives both attractive and achievable. During the last fifteen years, research in the area of field oriented control has become subject of wide interest in the whole world. Superiority of dynamics of vector controlled induction machines in relation to classic control algorithms represents the fundamental reason for such a trend in development of controlled AC drives. On the other hand, the complexity of the control system inevitably forces researchers to look for simpler control schemes which should still be able to retain dynamic behaviour comparable to vector controlled drives. However, for high performance drives, where the most severe constraints are imposed on dynamics, simplified control methods can not be expected to replace field oriented control due to poorer dynamic behaviour. As a conclusion to this discussion it can be stated that field oriented control remains the best available choice for the applications where decoupled control of flux and torque is an absolute "must" in order to obtain the highest possible accuracy and speed of the drive response. Application areas of vector controlled induction machines in industry are numerous. One of the most frequent applications is in machine tools, were usually induction machines with rated speed of 1500 rpm are utilised and field weakening feature extends the range of operating speeds up to 4500-6000 rpm. Completely digital versions of field oriented controllers for machine tools, manufactured by Bosch, are capable of operating at as high speeds as 10.000 rpm, thus providing for speed range in the field weakening region of up to 1:6. The advantage of vector controlled induction machines in relation to field oriented permanent magnet synchronous machines, in the domain of machine tools, is simple provision for field weakening feature. Another important area of application are servo drives where either permanent magnet synchronous machines or induction machines are used, depending on operating requirements. If operation in the field weakening region is needed, induction machines are advantageous and they are used in servo drives for positioning. The applications discussed so far comprise low and medium power range. Induction motor drives with field oriented control are however used in high power range as well. This type of application was initiated in Japan in late seventies. The complete automation of a production line in paper industry, where requirement on speed control accuracy is 0.02% and speed has to be varied in the range 180:1, is performed by five induction machines with power ratings 340-500
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kW in 1979. A number of vector controlled induction machines with power ratings of the order 100300 kW have been installed in the period 1980-1983 in steel industry. Two complete production lines were introduced in 1979 in Japan in steel rolling mills, each containing 40 vector controlled induction machines in the power range 5.5-11 kW. The research in the area of field oriented control, due to the complexity of the overall system, runs in parallel in a number of different sub-areas, namely VLSI design, power electronic converters, modern control techniques and parameter variation effects and parameter identification (as will be shown later, vector control schemes require accurate knowledge of induction machine parameters). New laboratory prototypes utilise single chip for all the control functions, or are alternatively based on application specific integrated circuits. Topologies of power electronic converters which ask for semiconductor switches with bi-directional current flow and bi-directional voltage blocking capabilities are gaining more and more attention recently, because it is expected that such switches will become available in the near future. At this stage, instead of bi-directional switches, appropriate combinations of unidirectional switches are utilised for experimental purposes. As the bi-directional switches are still not available, converter topology with resonant DC link at the moment seems to be more prosperous solution. Development of high-speed low-cost microprocessors and signal processors enables implementations of more and more sophisticated control algorithms in vector controlled drives. Different methods based on modern control theory are being proposed with ultimate goal to further improve the drive performance. Among the large variety of the methods, the most important seem to be application of state observers, model reference adaptive control and state-space controllers. The need for application of modern control theory stems from the complexity of an AC machine as a control object, whose parameters are variable. The ideal decoupled control of flux and torque can be obtained by means of standard vector control approach only if the parameters of an AC machine are exactly known and constant. This is unfortunately not the case in reality. The parameters of machines are subject to variation due to their dependency on operating state of the machine. A discrepancy between parameter values assumed at the stage of the control system design and actual parameter values in the machine results, causing loss of decoupled torque and flux control and deterioration in quality of dynamic response.
2.3.
PHASE-DOMAIN MODEL TRANSFORMATION
OF
AN
INDUCTION
MACHINE
AND
ITS
2.3.1. Model of the machine in terms of physical phase variables As the field oriented control asks for instantaneous control of machine flux and torque via instantaneous current control, it is not possible to deal with induction machine representation in terms of equivalent circuit and phasors. Instead, time domain mathematical model in the original phase reference frame has to be utilised as a starting point. Furthermore, this model has to be mathematically transformed into new fictitious reference frame by suitably chosen mathematical transformation. It becomes obvious even from this short discussion that the process of designing and achieving decoupled flux and torque control in an induction machine is much more tedious than with DC machines. The procedure of mathematical modelling of an induction machine is subject to a number of different common assumptions and idealisations. More specifically, it is assumed that stator phase windings are identical with mutual space displacement of exactly 120 degrees, that magneto-motive force of a winding is sinusoidally distributed along the air gap circumference, that air gap is constant, that rotor cage winding can be substituted with a balanced three-phase winding, that winding resistances and leakage inductances are constant parameters, eddy-currents and iron losses are neglected as well as all the parasitic capacitances, and finally, it is assumed that magnetising curve can be treated as a linear function, i.e. that the main flux saturation can be neglected. Voltage equilibrium equations of a three-phase induction machine in original phase domain, if the above listed assumptions are adopted, are given with the following expressions (underlined symbols denote matrices) in terms of time domain instantaneous variables:
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HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 12 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------v abc = Rs i abc + v ABC = Rs i ABC d

abc
dt d ABC + dt
(2.6)
abc
= L s i abc + L sr i ABC = Lr i ABC + Ltsr i abc
(2.7)
ABC
where lower case indices apply to stator quantities, while upper case indices denote rotor quantities, and
v abc = va v ABC = v A vb vB vc
t
i abc = ia
t
ib ic
vC
i ABC = i A iB
iC
(2.8.a)
cos L sr = LaA cos cos + 2 3 2 3
cos +
2 3
cos cos +
2 3 2 3
cos cos 2 3
(2.8.b)
cos
Laa L s = Lba Lca
Lab Lbb Lcb
Lac Lbc Lcc
L AA L r = LBA LCA
L AB LBB LCB
L AC LBC LCC
(2.8.c)
Each matrix equation in (2.6)-(2.7) is therefore an abbreviated way of writing three equations, one per phase. The angle , as already discussed, denotes instantaneous position of magnetic axis of rotor phase A winding with respect to stationary magnetic axis of stator phase a winding and is correlated with rotor (electrical) speed of rotation through dependence
= dt
(2.2)
The mechanical equation of motion is the same as for a DC or any other motor (a torque that describes mechanical losses is now included and the equation is given in terms of electrical speed of rotor rotation)
Te TL = J d 1 + k P dt P
(2.9)
where is once more electrical speed of rotation of rotor, mechanical power is taken as positive when it leaves the machine (for motoring) and electromagnetic torque can be expressed in terms of instantaneous phase currents as
Te = LaA sin ia i A + ib i B + ic iC + sin
2 3
( iaiC + ibi A + iciB ) + sin +
2 3
( ia iB + ibiC + ici A )
(2.1)
Equation (2.1) for electromagnetic torque is, as already discussed, significantly more complicated than the corresponding equation for a DC machine (2.3). The main reasons are that the machine under consideration is an AC, three phase machine, and, additionally, currents in rotor windings are induced current (i.e. rotor and stator windings are not fed from separate supplies, as in a DC machine). Hence the excitation current and armature current in the case of an induction machine stem from the same supply. Schematic representation of a three-phase induction machine in original phase domain is given in Fig. 2.2. Model described with (2.1), (2.9) is very inconvenient for any type of analysis and it has to be transformed by applying an appropriate mathematical transformation. The main shortcomings of this model are time dependent coefficients of differential equations (all the mutual inductances between stator and rotor phases are indirectly time dependent through dependence on rotor angular position ),
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and full inductance matrix with 36 non-zero inductance terms. The system of differential equations that describe the machine is said to be non-linear, with time-varying coefficients. There are all together seven first-order differential equations, six for the electrical sub-system (voltage equilibrium equations) and one for the mechanical sub-system (equation of rotor motion).
b C A c B a
Fig. 2.2 - Schematic representation of a three-phase induction machine: all the windings are placed on magnetic axes (windings are illustrated for phases a and A); rotor windings A,B,C rotate with rotor, while stator windings a,b,c are stationary.
2.3.2. Transformation of the model into a common reference frame, rotating at an arbitrary angular speed
Mathematical model of an induction motor, expressed in terms of phase variables and parameters, can be transformed into a corresponding model in the so-called common reference frame, by means of appropriate mathematical transformations. In general, two approaches are possible. The first one utilises the model given in the preceding section as the starting point and relies on the use of matrix transformations. The second approach at first defines so-called space vectors and then applies appropriate transformation without resorting to the use of matrices. The approaches lead to the same final result. In what follows, the matrix transformation approach is used. Space vectors are defined in the following sub-section. Regardless of which approach is used, the idea is to replace the physically existing machine with its three-phase stator and rotor windings with a fictitious machine whose all windings are in the common reference frame. This means that stationary stator windings and rotor windings that rotate at rotor speed are all replaced with new fictitious stator and rotor windings that all have the same speed. This speed of the common reference frame can be arbitrarily selected for an induction machines, due to the uniform air gap. In order to transform the model of the machine from the original phase variables into new variables, it is necessary to apply appropriate transformation matrices on stator and rotor variables. If the stator equations and rotor equations are transformed by means of As and Ar transformation matrices respectively,
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HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 14 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------cos s As = 2 3 sin s 1 2 cos r Ar = 2 3 sin r 1 2 cos s sin s 1 2 cos r 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 cos s + 2 3 2 3
sin s + 1 2 cos r + sin r + 1 2
(2.10.a)
2 3 2 3
sin r 1 2
(2.10.b)
equations of an induction machine in arbitrary common reference frame result. Note that the transformation matrices for stator and rotor windings differ in the sense that different angles are met in sin and cos terms in these two matrices. The procedure of transforming equations of an induction machine from original phase domain into so called arbitrary reference frame may be viewed, as already pointed out, as substitution of actual phase windings with new fictitious windings. These new windings are all, in general, rotating; it is important to realise that both original stator (stationary) and rotor (rotating) windings are substituted with new windings that have the same arbitrary speed of rotation (hence the name "common reference frame"). The model obtained after the application of the transformation may be given as follows (indices "s" and "r" denote stator and rotor variables and parameters, respectively):
vds = Rsids + d ds a qs dt d qs vqs = Rsiqs + + a ds dt d os vos = Rsios + dt
(2.11)
d dr ( a ) qr dt d qr vqr = Rriqr + + ( a ) dr dt d or vor = Rrior + dt vdr = Rridr +
(2.12)
where d-q-o axis flux linkages are given with

ds = Lsids + Lmidr qs = Lsiqs + Lmiqr os = Losios dr = Lridr + Lmids qr = Lriqr + Lmiqs or = Lorior
(2.13)
(2.14)
for stator and for rotor equivalent windings, respectively. In equations (2.13)-(2.14) the inductance terms are correlated with phase domain inductances through the following expressions
Ls = Laa Lab = Ls + Lm Lr = LAA LAB = Lr + Lm Lm = ( 3 / 2) LaA Ls = Laa + 2 Lab Lr = LAA + 2 LAB
(2.15)
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According to (2.11)-(2.12) each set of three-phase windings is substituted with a new set of three windings. These are labelled d,q and o. It turns out however that if the machine is star connected without connected neutral, or if the machine is fed from a symmetrical three-phase source, the o components cannot exist. It is for this reason that corresponding o fictitious windings are completely omitted from further considerations. One obvious benefit of being able to omit a pair of windings is that from now on the machine with six windings can be described with only four equivalent windings. The total number of voltage equilibrium equations thus reduces from six to four. A graphical illustration of transformation of original phase domain windings into equivalent rotating windings in arbitrary d,q frame of reference is given in Fig. 2.3. Mutual correlation between different angles defined in equations (2.10) is self-explanatory from Fig. 2.3 Correlation between original phase domain and new d,q,o domain is described with (superscripts s and r refer to stator and rotor variables, respectively)
s is dqo = A s i abc s v dqo = As v s abc
dqo
= As s
abc abc
ir dqo
Ar i r abc
vr dqo
Ar v r abc
r dqo
= Ar r
(2.16)
Note however that the rotor windings are not accessible and therefore phase values of rotor currents cannot be measured. This means that the transformation expressions that are relevant are only those that apply to stator. The same transformation applies to voltages, current and flux linkages. Hence, the transformation and inverse transformation for stator variables, described with (2.16), is governed with the following algebraic equations:
i ds = (2 / 3)(i a cos s + i b cos( s 2 / 3) + i c cos( s 4 / 3)) i qs = ( 2 / 3)(i a sin s + i b sin( s 2 / 3) + i c sin( s 4 / 3)) v a = v ds cos s v qs sin s v b = v ds cos( s 2 / 3) v qs sin( s 2 / 3) v c = v ds cos( s 4 / 3) v qs sin( s 4 / 3)
(2.17)
i a = i ds cos s i qs sin s i b = i ds cos( s 2 / 3) i qs sin( s 2 / 3) i c = i ds cos( s 4 / 3) i qs sin( s 4 / 3) v ds = ( 2 / 3)(v a cos s + v b cos( s 2 / 3) + v c cos( s 4 / 3)) v qs = ( 2 / 3)( v a sin s + v b sin( s 2 / 3) + v c sin( s 4 / 3))
The angles introduced in the transformation matrices and the instantaneous rotor angular position angle are defined and mutually correlated through the following expressions:
t t
r = s ;
= ( 0) + dt ;
0
s = s ( 0) + a dt
0
(2.18)
The equation of mechanical equilibrium remains unchanged,

Te TL = J d 1 + k P dt P
(2.9)
while electromagnetic torque may be expressed in terms of new variables as

Te = 3 2 P dsiqs qsids
(2.19)
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Note that the transformation expressions (2.17) are always applied in one direction for voltages and in the opposite direction for currents (say a,b,c to d,q for voltages and d,q to a,b,c for currents, or the other way round).
q stationary axis a qs a qr A s r a d dr ds
d-axis a r s 90 rotor q-axis stator
A-axis
a-axis
Fig. 2.3 - Illustration of winding transformation from phase domain to arbitrary common frame of reference As already noted, zero-sequence components can be omitted from further consideration, so that four instead of six voltage equilibrium equations have to be considered. The second important result of the applied transformation is that time dependence in coefficients in the model has been eliminated and the number of non-zero inductance terms has been greatly reduced, to only eight in the absence of zerosequence components. Last but not least, the model in an arbitrary frame of reference enables easy derivation of vector control principles. Note that the torque equation (2.19) is significantly simplified already, compared with (2.1). Note as well that the new d-q axes in Fig. 2.3 are mutually perpendicular. Summarising the derivation so far, the equations of the new model relevant for further considerations are the following:
d ds dt d qs dt d dr dt d qr dt
v ds = R s i ds + v qs = R s i qs +
a qs + a ds
0 = R r i dr + 0 = R r i qr +
( a ) qr
(2.20)
+ ( a ) dr
ds = Lsids + Lmidr qs = Lsiqs + Lmiqr

Te = Te =
dr = Lr i dr + Lm i ds qr = Lr i qr + Lm i qs
(2.21)
3 2 3 2
P dsiqs qsids =
( (
3 2
Lm Lr
( (
dr iqs
qr ids
)
(2.22)
P dmiqs qmids =
3 2
PLm idr iqs iqr ids
where alternative form of the torque equation is obtained by simple algebraic manipulation, using (2.21). As a singly fed induction machine is discussed here, rotor phase voltages and hence d-q axis voltages as well are equal to zero. The model is completed with transformation expressions (2.17):
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HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 17 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------f ds = ( 2 / 3)( f a cos s + f b cos( s 2 / 3) + f c cos( s 4 / 3)) f qs = (2 / 3)( f a sin s + f b sin( s 2 / 3) + f c sin( s 4 / 3)) f a = f ds cos s f qs sin s f b = f ds cos( s 2 / 3) f qs sin( s 2 / 3) f c = f ds cos( s 4 / 3) f qs sin( s 4 / 3)
(2.23)
where f stands for currents or voltages. The model (2.20)-(2.23) in an arbitrary frame of reference yields corresponding model for any specified value of the common reference frame angular velocity. Typical values of the angular velocity of the common reference frame fall into one of the two categories: constant ones or variable ones. The constant angular velocity of the common reference frame is usually selected for simulation of the motor dynamics. Typical choices are the stationary frame of reference (a = 0; normally selected for simulation of a mains fed induction motor) and synchronous reference frame (a = 250; often selected for analysis of an inverter fed induction machine). If the machine is a wound rotor one and there is a power electronic converter on the rotor side, a variable speed reference frame firmly attached to the rotor A axis (a = ) is usually selected in simulations. However, from the point of view of the control, quite different choices are made. As discussed shortly, common reference frame is selected as firmly attached to one of the flux linkage space vectors (variable speed common reference frames) and the whole concept of vector control is based on such a selection. The issue is deferred for section 3 and only one specific reference frame is looked at in more detail next. In the special case when a = 0, equations in stationary , frame of reference result:
vs = Rsis + vr = Rsir + Te = 3 2 d s dt d r + r dt vs = Rsis + vr = Rsir + d s dt d r dt r
(2.24) (2.25) (2.26)
P s i s sis
The equations (2.21) remain valid, provided that appropriate index substitution is done, d and q , and provided that it is recognised that due to a = 0 , it follows that s = 0 and r = . Transformation expressions (2.23) take the form
f s = (2 / 3)( f a 0.5 f b 0.5 f c ) f s = (2 / 3)( f b 3 / 2 + f c 3 / 2) f a = f s f b = 0.5 f s + f s 3 / 2 f c = 0.5 f s f s 3 / 2
(2.27)
By performing the mathematical transformation described above, actual stator and rotor three phase windings, which are stationary with respect to stator and rotor respectively, have all been substituted, as already mentioned, with new equivalent windings that rotate at an arbitrary speed a. Consequently, relative motion between stator and rotor windings has been eliminated by this transformation as now both stator and rotor equivalent windings have the same angular velocity. It has to be noted that both stator and rotor voltages, currents and flux linkages have been transformed, so that correlation between phase and d-q axis variables has to be accounted for in any application of the model.
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2.3.3. Space vectors and space vector models of an induction machine
Stator voltage space vector and stator current space vector are defined in stationary a = 0 common frame of reference as (symbols for space vectors are underlined while superscript "s" denotes stationary reference frame):
vs = s is = s 2 3 2 3
( va + avb + a 2 vc )
, a=e
j
2 3
(2.28)
( ia + aib + a 2ic )
Each of the two defined space vectors is a simultaneous representation of all the three three-phase quantities. This means that the complete three-phase system may be treated using a single quantity for any of the variables. Note that space vectors, as defined in (2.28) are complex variables, and are, in contrast to phasors, functions of time. Note that, in contrast to phasors, no requirement has been imposed that phase quantities must be sinusoidal. Space vectors are therefore applicable to both sinusoidal and non-sinusoidal supply. Note that no requirement on steady-state conditions has been imposed, as the case is with phasors. Space vectors are therefore applicable to both steady-state and transient operation. Since space vectors are complex numbers, they can be represented in the complex plane. As complex plane is orthogonal system of axes, real and imaginary part of a space vector are essentially the components in the stationary reference frame defined in (2.27). Hence
j s vs s = vs + jvs = vse j s is s = is + jis = ise
(2.29)
An illustration of stator voltage and current space vectors is given in Fig. 2.4. Note that, in contrast to phasors, space vectors are not stationary in this complex plane. They move as time goes by and therefore illustration in Fig. 2.4 applies to only one specific instant in time.
Im ( axis) v s Im ( axis) vss vs iss i s is is
s
vss s
Re ( axis) vs
s is
Re ( axis)
Fig. 2.4 - Illustration of stator voltage and stator current space vectors in one specific instant in time.
In order to transform space vectors from stationary reference frame to a common reference frame rotating at an arbitrary speed, it is only necessary to change the argument (phase) of the space vectors by an angle of transformation s. Hence in an arbitrary reference frame stator voltage and current space vectors can be given as
j s vs = vs se j s is = i s se
(2.30a)
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The term e j s is often called vector rotator as it rotates the space vector in stationary reference frame by an angle s. Substituting (2.29) into (2.30a) yields
v s = v ds + jvqs = v s e i s = ids + jiqs = is e
j s s
)
(2.30b)
j s s
The scaling factor
2 present in equations (2.28) and in transformation matrices (2.10) is correlated with 3
ratio of powers in original three phase domain and in the new reference frame. By application of (2.29) or (2.10) per-phase power in original and new reference frame is invariant (but the total power is not, as the new reference frame is essentially two-phase). Space vectors of rotor quantities are defined in exactly the same way as for stator voltage and current. From (2.30b) one observes that a complex stator voltage space vector is defined as real d-axis component plus j times imaginary q-axis component. Thus the real d-q axis model given with (2.20)(2.21) can be converted into a corresponding complex model. From (2.30b) and (2.20) one has
v s = v ds + jv qs = R s i ds + = R s (i ds + ji qs ) + = R s (i ds + ji qs ) + = Rs i s + d dt
s
d ds
dt d ( ds + j qs ) dt d ( ds + j qs ) dt
s
a qs + j R s i qs +
d qs dt
+ a ds =
a ( qs j ds ) =
(2.31)
+ j a ( ds + j qs ) =
+ j a
The procedure for derivation of the other equations of the complex space vector model is identical to the one applied in (2.31). Hence the complete space vector model, that results by manipulating d and q axis equations of (2.20)-(2.21) as real and imaginary parts of complex variables can be written as:
v s = Rs i s + 0 = Rr i r +
s
d dt d dt
+ j a
(2.32)
r
+ j (a )
= Ls i s + Lm i r = Lr i r + Lm i s
r
(2.33)
where the remaining space vectors are, analogously to (2.30b), given with
= se
s j s s j s
= r e
r
j r s
i r = ir e
s ir = ir e
j r s
)
(2.34)
s = se
s
s = r e
r
j r
j r
Electromagnetic torque can be expressed in terms of space vectors as

Te = 3 2 P Lm Lr Im i s
r
(2.35)
where line above the symbol denotes complex conjugation. Illustration of stator voltage and current space vectors in the reference frame defined with s = s is given in Fig. 2.5. Note that, compared to Fig. 2.4, the only thing that has been changed is the common reference frame, that is, the axes of the complex plane. Since the angle of vector rotation (or matrix transformation) has been selected as equal to the stator voltage space vector instantaneous position (s = s), d-axis (real axis) is at all times aligned with the voltage space vector. This means that the voltage space vector in this specific rotating
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reference frame is a pure real quantity, since its imaginary part is zero. As will be shown shortly, this idea of having certain quantity as a pure real number in a conveniently chosen reference frame constitutes the basis of vector control.
axis Im (q axis) s = s e 90 s iss axis
Re (d axis) vs
Fig. 2.5 - Stator voltage and current space vectors in the common reference frame firmly attached to the stator voltage space vector ( a = e , e = stator voltage angular frequency).
Equations (2.32)-(2.33) enable construction of an equivalent circuit, similarly as it is done with phasor equations. Space vector equivalent circuit of an induction machine is shown in Fig. 2.6. Note that although the appearance of the circuit resembles the steady state phasor equivalent circuit of an induction machine, the principle difference is in the variables present in the circuit. The other difference of equally the same importance is the fact that the circuit shown in Fig. 2.6 describes both transient and steady state operation of the machine. Here the variables are space vectors which will become equal to (scaled) phasors only in steady-state operation in synchronous reference frame, provided that the supply voltages are sinusoidal (this will be shown in one of the examples shortly). It should be noted once more that the d-q axis variables are simply real (d) and imaginary (q) components of space vectors. Therefore space vectors are complex variables of time and are sometimes termed instantaneous space phasors. All the voltage sources shown in Fig. 2.6 represent rotational electromotive forces. Note that their values (except for the one in rotor circuit) are dependent on selected speed of the reference frame, a
Rs is vs
L s
j a L s i s + Lm +
L r ir im j a Lm i m
Rr
j a L r i r +
jr
Fig. 2.6 - Dynamic equivalent circuit of an induction machine in arbitrary frame of reference in terms of space vectors.
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Summarising this sub-section, an induction machine can be described with the complex space vector model
v s = Rs i s +
s
d dt
+ ja
0 = Rr i r +
r
d dt
+ j (a )
= Ls i s + Lm i r
Te = 3 2 P Lm Lr Im i s
r
= Lr i r + Lm i s
}
)
i s = ids + jiqs = i s e
j s s
(2.36)
v s = vds + jv qs = v s e
j s s
This complex model now contains only two differential equations for voltage equilibrium. Note however that the reduction from four equations in real d-q model to only two equations in complex space vector model is only apparent; each complex equation contains real and imaginary part. Hence the total number of differential equations that have to be solved remains five (one for mechanical motion and four for voltage equilibrium).
2.4.
MODELLING OF THE SUPPLY
2.4.1. Sinusoidal three-phase supply
As already noted, an induction motor used in a high performance drive will have to be supplied from a source of variable voltage, variable frequency, such as an inverter. Modelling of such a supply is considered in the following sub-section, while this one examines standard mains sinusoidal supply of fixed voltage and fixed frequency. There are two reasons for this. The first one is that the induction machine models, described in the previous section, were originally developed for the analysis of dynamic behaviour of the machine under sinusoidal supply conditions, rather than for the control purposes. The second reason is that, as will be shown in Chapter 3, control part of the system in any vector controlled drive generates sinusoidal references for currents or voltages. The fact that a power electronic converter has to be used for supply in a high performance drive is a necessity which stems from non-availability of an ideal sinusoidal voltage source generator, which could deliver purely sinusoidal voltages of any required voltage and frequency. Let the induction motor be supplied from a three-phase voltage source with the following phase to neutral voltages (angular frequency of the voltages is denoted just with , for simplicity; note that, when the motor model is under consideration, this symbol stands for rotor speed of rotation):
va = 2V cost vb = 2V cos(t 2 / 3) vc = 2V cos(t 4 / 3)
(2.37)
Angular frequency and the rms value of the voltage are constants in these expressions. In what follows different reference frames will be looked at and the expressions for transformed stator voltage will be derived. Next, corresponding space vectors will be found and the so obtained stator voltage space vectors will then be used to examine the operation of the machine by means of the dynamic equivalent circuit of Fig. 2.6 under steady-state sinusoidal operating conditions. A correlation between phasors and space vectors will thus be established for steady-state sinusoidal operation and it will be shown that for these specific conditions dynamic equivalent circuit reduces to well-known steady-state phasor equivalent circuit.
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Let us at first determine components of the stator voltages in the stationary reference frame. From equation (2.27) on has
vs = ( 2 / 3)(v a 0.5vb 0.5v c ) v s = ( 2 / 3)( vb 3 / 2 + vc 3 / 2)
(2.38)
Substitution of phase to neutral voltages (2.37) into (2.38) enables calculation of the phase voltage components in the stationary reference frame:
vs = ( 2 / 3)(v a 0.5vb 0.5v c ) = ( 2 / 3) 2V ( cost 0.5 cos( t 2 / 3) 0.5 cos( t 4 / 3) ) = = (2 / 3) 2V ( cost 0.5 cost cos 2 / 3 0.5 sin t sin 2 / 3 0.5 cost cos 4 / 3 0.5 sin t sin 4 / 3) = = (2 / 3) 2V cost + 0.25 cost + 0.25 cost 0.25 3 sin t + 0.25 3 sin t = = (2 / 3) 2V ( 3 / 2) cost vs = 2V cost v a v s = ( 2 / 3)( vb 3 / 2 + vc 3 / 2 ) = 1 / 3 vb vc = 2 3V ( cos( t 2 / 3) cos(t 4 / 3) ) = = 2 3V ( cost cos 2 / 3 + sin t sin 2 / 3 cost cos 4 / 3 sin t sin 4 / 3) = = 2 3V 2 sin t 3 / 2 v s = 2V sin t
)(
Hence
vs = 2V cost va v s = 2V sin t
(2.39)
Alfa component is thus identically equal to the phase a voltage. This is so since the alfa axis and the phase a axis are aligned (i.e. they coincide). Beta component is 90 degrees displaced from alfa component - this is so since alfa-beta co-ordinate system is an orthogonal co-ordinate system. Note that both components have the peak value equal to the peak value of the phase voltages and that the both components are of the same frequency as phase voltages. Hence these two components continuously vary in time. Space vector of stator phase voltages is determined with (2.28) in terms of phase voltages, or with (2.29) in terms of alfa-beta components of the phase voltages. From (2.29)
vs = v s + jv s = v s e s
2 2
j s
vs = 2V ( cos t + j sin t ) = 2V exp( jt ) s v s = v s + v s = 2V
(2.40)
s = t
The space vector of stator phase voltages continuously travels in the complex plane as time goes by, since its phase is a function of time. The amplitude of the space vector is constant. Hence the trajectory that the space vector describes in a complex plane is a circle. The space vector will make one full revolution in the complex plane for the time interval equal to the period of the phase voltages. Projections of the space vector on real and imaginary axes of the complex plane are alfa-beta components; since the argument of the space vector continuously changes, its projections on the real and imaginary axes vary continuously in time as well. Figure 2.7 illustrates space vector of stator phase voltages in the complex plane for a couple of characteristic instants. At time instant zero space vector is aligned with the real axis and therefore alfa component equals peak voltage, while beta component is zero. In time instant equal to one quarter of the period, space vector is along imaginary axis; hence beta component equals peak voltage, while real part - alfa component - is zero.
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Thus we conclude that the voltage space vector for sinusoidal supply conditions continuously travel along the circle, of radius equal to the peak value of the phase voltages. The speed at which the space vector moves along the circle is equal to the angular frequency of the phase voltages, .
Im () t=90
t=135
vss
t=45
t=0 2V
Re ()
Fig. 2.7 - Space vector of stator phase voltages for sinusoidal supply conditions.
As already noted, space vector can be calculated directly from (2.28) using phase voltages defined in (2.37). This is illustrated next, although the result is, of course, the same expression already given with (2.40). From (2.28) one has
vs s =
2 3 2 3
( va + avb + a vc )
2
a=e
2 3
vs = s
2V ( cost + a cos(t 2 / 3) + a 2 cos( t 4 / 3) )
The expression for the space vector is now most easily found if one recalls the well-known correlation
cos = 0.5( exp( j ) + exp( j ))
Hence
vs = s =
2 3 2 3 2V 2V
(e 2
1 1
jt
+e
jt
+ ae
j ( t 2 / 3 )
+ ae
j ( t 2 / 3)
+ a 2e
jt
j ( t 4 / 3 )
+ a 2e
j ( t 4 / 3 )
)=
e +e ( 2
j t
jt
+ aa *e
jt
+ aae
jt
+ a 2 a 2* e
+ a 2 a 2e
jt
1+ a + a2 = 0
a* = a 2 vs = s = vs = s
2 3 2 3 2 3 1 2 1 1 2
a 2* = a
a3 = 1 a + aa 2 ) + e
jt jt
a4 = a
2V 2V 2V
( e (1 + a
j t j t
(1 + a 2 + a) ) =
e ( 3) + e ( 2
( 0)
jt
vs = 2Ve s
jt
The symbol * denotes complex conjugate. Consider next an arbitrary common reference frame, with the speed of rotation equal to a. The instantaneous position of the real axis (d-axis) of this reference frame
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with respect to the stationary phase a axis (that coincides with alfa axis) is then determined with the angle s = a dt . In all the cases when speed a is constant, the angle simply becomes s = a t . Let us now investigate correlation between space vectors and d-q axis components in the arbitrary reference frame and the corresponding quantities in the stationary reference frame. The speed of the common reference frame will now be selected as equal to the angular frequency of the stator sinusoidal voltages, a = . Hence s = t . Such a reference frame is usually called synchronously rotating reference frame. Space vector of stator voltages in this new reference frame can be most easily found using the concept of vector rotator, introduced in (2.30). From (2.30) and (2.40) one gets
v s = vds + jv qs = v s e s
j s
= vse
j s j s
= vse
j s s
)
(2.41)
s = t
v s = 2V = vds
s = t
j ( t t )
= v s = 2V
v qs = 0
In this new common reference frame d-axis is selected as aligned with the voltage space vector. Real component of the space vector is therefore at all times equal to the space vector itself, while the imaginary component is zero at all times. Moreover, real component and the space vector itself are pure constant DC quantities. This is an important result. It shows that the AC property of the space vector in stationary reference frame has been eliminated by selecting the reference frame firmly attached to the space vector itself. This idea will be used later on, in derivation of vector control principles. Figure 2.8 illustrates voltage space vector in the common reference frame aligned with the space vector. Note that this is the same vector as the one of Fig. 2.7. The only thing that has changed is the coordinate system. Instead of the stationary complex plane, as in Fig. 2.7, we have now a complex plane that rotates in synchronism with the space vector (d-q axes). The voltage space vector and the reference frame are both rotating now, at the same speed equal to the angular frequency of the phase voltages. Moreover, d-axis of the complex plane is aligned with the voltage space vector at all times.
Im (q) a = vs s=s = t =45 2V Re (d) a =
Fig. 2.8 - Voltage space vector in the synchronously rotating reference frame aligned with the vector itself, for one specific instant in time.
In a more general case the common reference frame can be selected as rotating at the same speed as does the space vector of stator voltages, but with certain constant angular displacement between the space vector of the stator voltages and the d-axis of the reference frame. In other words, a = and s = t + o , o = const. In such a case d-q axis components still remain constant DC quantities but now both of them exist (that is, q-axis component is not equal to zero). Derivation is identical to the one of (2.41):
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HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 25 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------v s = vds + jv qs = v s e s

j s
= vse
j s j s
= vse
j s s
s = t
s = t + o
j t t o
= vse
j o
= 2Ve
j o
(2.42)
v s = 2V cos o j sin o vds = 2V cos o = const.
)
vqs = 2V sin o = const.
The reference frame and the space vector of stator voltages are illustrated in Fig. 2.9.
Im (q) a =
Re (d) a = vds s=t+25=45 vs s = t =20
2V
vqs
Fig. 2.9 - Voltage space vector in the synchronously rotating reference frame that is not aligned with the voltage space vector. Space vector of stator voltages in a = , s = t reference frame (or indeed in any other rotating reference frame) can be found using at first transformation of stator phase voltages into d-q axis reference frame. From (2.23) and (2.30) one has
vds = ( 2 / 3)( va cos s + vb cos( s 2 / 3) + v c cos( s 4 / 3)) vqs = ( 2 / 3)(v a sin s + vb sin( s 2 / 3) + vc sin( s 4 / 3))
v s = vds + jvqs
Substituting (2.37) and using s = t one gets:

vds = ( 2 / 3) 2V (cost cost + cos(t 2 / 3) cos(t 2 / 3) + cos(t 4 / 3) cos(t 4 / 3)) vqs = ( 2 / 3) 2V (cost sin t + cos(t 2 / 3) sin(t 2 / 3) + cos(t 4 / 3) sin(t 4 / 3)) vds = ( 2 / 3) 2V cos t + 0.25 cos t + 0.75 sin t + 0.25 cos t + 0.75 sin t vds = ( 2 / 3) 2V 15 . cos t + sin t vds = 2V vqs = 0 v s = 2V = vds vqs = 0
vqs = ( 2 / 3) 2V ( 0.5 sin 2t + 0.5 sin 2 (t 2 / 3) + 0.5 sin 2(t 4 / 3) )
The result is of course the same as before and this derivation illustrates the possibility of obtaining the same result using alternative defining expressions.
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Only the space vector of stator voltages has been considered so far. Stator phase currents will be in the case of steady-state operation with sinusoidal supply sinusoidal as well and will lag the phase voltages by an angle . Thus
ia = 2 I cos( t ) ib = 2 I cos( t 2 / 3 ) ic = 2 I cos( t 4 / 3 )
(2.43)
The procedure of finding stator current components in stationary reference frame and the corresponding stator current space vector in stationary reference frame is identical to the one applied for voltages. The result is
is = 2 I cos( t ) i s = 2 I sin(t ) is s
(2.44)
= is + ji s = 2 I ( cos( t ) + j sin( t ) ) = 2 I exp[ j ( t ) ] = 2 I exp( j s )
Similarly, the procedure of finding the stator current space vector and the corresponding d-q axes components in a common reference frame that rotates at a specified speed is identical to the one used for voltages. In the already introduced synchronous reference frame firmly attached to the voltage space vector (a = , s = t ) one obtains
i s = i ds + ji qs = 2 Ie i ds = 2 I cos
j
i qs = 2 I sin( )
(2.45)
Space vector of stator currents therefore lags the voltage space vector by angle (power factor angle) regardless of the reference frame. Figure 2.10 illustrates mutual relationship between the voltage and the stator current space vectors in the stationary reference frame and in the synchronously rotating reference frame firmly attached to the voltage space vector.
Im () vss s = t iss Re () Im (q) vs s = t = s is Re (d)
s = t =s
Fig. 2.10 - Illustration of stator voltage space vector and stator current space vector in the stationary reference frame and in the reference frame firmly attached to and aligned with voltage space vector, for one specific instant in time. Next, it is interesting to examine the dynamic equivalent circuit of Fig. 2.6 for steady-state operation of an induction machine under sinusoidal conditions. The circuit and the corresponding equations (2.32)(2.33) are given for the arbitrary reference frame. Let us at first look at the synchronously rotating reference frame, a = , s = t. From the previous consideration we now know that in this specific reference frame
v s = 2V i s = 2 Ie
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j
(2.46)
Since in the motor model the symbol stands for rotor speed of rotation, let the synchronous angular frequency (i.e. frequency of the supply voltages) be denoted as e instead of just , while retains the same meaning as before (rotor speed of rotation). Equation (2.46) shows that both the stator voltage and the stator current space vectors are pure DC quantities, of constant magnitude. In any steady-state operation time derivative of such DC quantities equals zero and the equations (2.32)-(2.33) become, by setting d/dt = 0, equal to:
v s = Rs i s + je
s r
= Ls i s + Lm i r
s
0 = Rr i r + j (e )
= Lr i r + Lm i s
r
(2.47)
Substitution of flux linkage equations into voltage equations yields

v s = R s i s + je L s i s + Lm i r = R s i s + j e Ls i s + Lm (i s + i r )
0 = Rr i r + j e Lr i r + Lm i s = Rr i r + j e Lr i r + Lm (i s + i r )
)(
)(
(2.48)
Introducing reactances and slip s one further gets

v s = Rs i s + jX s i s + jX m i s + i r 0 = Rr i r +
e e
j X r i r + X m
) (i
+ ir
)]
(2.49)
v s = Rs i s + jX s i s + jX m i s + i r 0 = Rr i r + sj X r i r + X m or finally v s = Rs i s + jX s i s + jX m i s + i r
( (i (
) + i )]
r
0 = Rr / s i r + j X r i r + X m i s + i r
)]
These equations describe the well-known phasor equivalent circuit of an induction machine for steadystate operation with sinusoidal supply, Fig. 2.11. The only difference is that now all the variables are space vectors rather than phasors. Procedure for analysing the steady-state operation of an induction motor using space vectors is therefore identical to the one used when phasors are applied. In other words, given the space vector of the supply sinusoidal voltages, current space vector can be simply calculated using
is = vs Z Z = R s + jX s + jX m Rr / s + jX r
)
jXs jXr ir jXm Rr/s
(2.50)
Rr / s + jX r + jX m
Rs
is vs = 2 V
im
Fig. 2.11 - Equivalent circuit for steady-state operation with sinusoidal supply, synchronously rotating reference frame.
It has to be noted once more that this is valid only for steady-state operation with sinusoidal supply.
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It is interesting to further examine dynamic equivalent circuit for the stationary reference frame, again assuming sinusoidal supply conditions and the steady-state operation. The general space vector model in stationary reference frame is directly obtainable from (2.32)-(2.33) by setting the speed of the reference frame to zero. Hence
vs = Rs i s + s s
s
d s
s
dt
s 0 = Rr i r +
d s
r
dt
j s
r
(2.51)
s s = Ls i s + Lm i r s
s s = Lr i r + Lm i s s r
From the consideration of the stator voltage and current space vectors, we already know that in the stationary reference frame
vs = 2V exp( j e t ) s is = 2 I exp( j e t ) exp( j ) s
(2.52)
Thus in steady-state operation with sinusoidal supply all the quantities in the stationary reference frame are AC, of angular frequency e. Time derivative d/dt therefore becomes in stationary reference frame equal to je. Then it follows from (2.51) that
s s vs = Rs i s + je Ls i s + Lm i r = Rs i s + j e Ls i s + Lm (i s + ir ) s s s s s s
s s s s 0 = Rr i r + j e Lr i s + Lm i s = Rr i r + j e Lr i r + Lm (i s + ir ) s s r
)(
)(
which is identical to (2.48). Hence the resulting equivalent circuit is again described with (2.49) and (2.50) remains valid. The circuit is illustrated in Fig. 2.12 and the only difference compared to Fig. 2.11 is that all the variables now have a frequency dependent term, exp(jet).
Rs iss vss = 2 V exp(jet) ims jXm jXs jXr irs Rr/s
Fig. 2.12 - Equivalent circuit for steady-state operation with sinusoidal supply, stationary reference frame.
It is important to underline once more the differences between phasors and space vectors. Phasors can be used only for sinusoidal quantities and for steady-state operation. In contrast to this, space vectors are applicable to non-sinusoidal supply conditions and describe both the steady-state and dynamic operation. Space vectors are, in general, functions of time, in contrast to phasors. For sinusoidal operation space vectors have amplitude equal to peak values (while phasors have magnitude equal to rms values) and space vectors contain a time varying exponential term in all the reference frames except for the synchronous. As already pointed out, any high performance drive will be fed from a power electronic converter since an ideal sinusoidal voltage source of variable frequency and variable magnitude is not available. The most frequently used supply is the so-called voltage source inverter (VSI). Operation and modelling of the VSI are therefore examined next.
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2.4.2. Voltage source inverter (VSI)
Variable voltage, variable frequency operation of induction machines is realised utilising autonomous inverters, in conjunction with a rectifier and a DC link circuit. The voltage source inverter (VSI) is the most frequently applied power supply source for speed control of induction motors. It can be operated in six-step mode or in PWM mode. Six-step operation will be considered first. Three-phase VSI contains three inverter legs. Input voltage for a three-phase VSI is provided by a threephase (or single-phase) bridge rectifier with capacitor placed at the output. The capacitor provides smoothing of the DC voltage and, for sufficiently large capacitance, DC voltage at the rectifier output approaches a constant value. It will therefore be assumed that inverter input voltage is constant in all the subsequent analysis. Power circuit of a voltage source inverter is shown in Fig. 2.13. As the inverter itself controls only the frequency of the output voltage when operated with switching frequency equal to output fundamental frequency (six-step mode), a controllable rectifier must be used in order to provide control of the output voltage magnitude (output voltage magnitude is proportional to the input DC voltage). Each switch in the inverter circuit is composed of two back-to-back connected semiconductor devices. One of these two is a controllable switch, while the other one is a diode. The three inverter legs are controlled in such a way that leg voltages constitute three-phase system of square-wave voltages. This means that, assuming that upper transistor in leg A is fired at time instant zero, firing of upper transistor in leg B will take place after 120 degrees, while firing of the upper transistor in leg C will be delayed for another 120 degrees. The conduction of each of the six semiconductor switches is again 180 degrees so that at any time three out of six switches are on and the remaining three switches are off. The resulting output voltage waveforms for line-to-line voltages are quasi-square waves, with two 60 degrees zero intervals and two 120 degrees intervals in which line-to-line voltage equals plus and minus DC voltage, respectively. VSI operated in the 180 degrees conduction mode is therefore usually called six-step inverter. Leg voltages of the inverter are given in Fig. 2.14 with respect to the negative pole of the DC link. Line-to-line voltages applied to the induction machine are obtained directly from leg voltages as
C VDC A B C
IM Rectifier and inverter control
Fig. 2.13 - Three-phase voltage source inverter (VSI) fed induction motor drive.
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vAn
VDC
vAB
VDC
vBn
vBC
vCn
vCA
60
120 180 240 300 360 t []
Leg voltages Line-to-line voltages va 2/3 VDC 1/3VDC
vb
Phase to neutral voltages vc
Fig. 2.14 - Leg, line-to-line and phase to neutral voltages in VSI fed induction machine. vAB = vAn - vBn vBC = vBn - vCn vCA = vCn - vAn Line-to-line voltages are shown in Fig. 2.14 as well. Finally, if the machine is star connected, it can be shown that in the system of Fig. 2.13 phase to neutral voltages of the machine (included in the Fig. 2.14) are determined with the following expressions: (2.53)
( ) vb = 2 / 3v Bn 1 / 3( v An + vCn ) vc = 2 / 3vCn 1 / 3( v Bn + v An )
va = 2 / 3v An 1 / 3 v Bn + vCcn
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(2.54)
Let us consider now situation in a three-phase PWM voltage source inverter (VSI) with regard to space vector theory. From the point of view of the distinct non-zero voltage values that can be obtained, there is no difference between six-step VSI and a PWM VSI. A six-step VSI is therefore analysed. Power circuit of the VSI and associated voltage wave-forms, valid for six-step operation, are those of Figs. 2.13 and 2.14. As can be seen From Fig. 2.14, change in any one of the three leg voltages takes place after every sixty degrees. Leg voltages have constant values within sixty degrees intervals. Thus it follows that the space vector of leg voltages will have six distinct and discrete values and that, instead of uniformly rotating in the complex plane, it will be jumping from one position to the other. Table 2.1 summarises values of leg voltages in the six sixty degrees intervals, lists switches that are on, and defines a corresponding space vector for each interval. Apart from the six non-zero voltage space vectors, that can be obtained in the six-step mode of operation, two additional vectors (no. 7 and 8) are added at the bottom of the Table. These two vectors can be obtained only in PWM operation of the VSI and they describe the condition when the induction motor terminals are short circuited either through the positive rail of the dc supply (vector 7) or through the negative rail of the dc supply (vector 8). Calculation of the leg voltage space vectors is rather simple. From the definition of the voltage space vector in (2.28) one gets, by substituting individual leg voltages of Table 2.1 for each of the six sixty degrees intervals, the following (note that stationary reference frame is considered at all times; superscript s is omitted):
vs = s 2 3
( v An + av Bn + a 2 vCn )
a = exp( j 2 3) , a 2 = exp( j 4 3) v 2 = ( 2 3)V DC exp( j / 3)
(2.28)
v 1 = ( 2 3)V DC
v 4 = ( 2 3)V DC exp( j )
v 5 = ( 2 3)V DC exp( j 4 / 3)
v 3 = ( 2 3)V DC exp( j 2 / 3) v 6 = ( 2 3)V DC exp( j 5 / 3)
(2.55) Table 2.1 - Leg voltages

switching state 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 switches on 1,4,6 1,3,6 2,3,6 2,3,5 2,4,5 1,4,5 1,3,5 2,4,6 space vector v1 v2 v3 v4 v5 v6 v7 v8 Leg voltage vAn VDC VDC 0 0 0 VDC VDC 0 Leg voltage vBn 0 VDC VDC VDC 0 0 VDC 0 Leg voltage vCn 0 0 0 VDC VDC VDC VDC 0
The two remaining space vectors are identically equal to zero as either all the leg voltages are zero or all the leg voltages have the same value (1 + a + a 2 = 0 ). Hence
v7 = v8 = 0
(2.56)
It follows from (2.55) that all the non-zero space vectors have identical amplitudes. However, they are stationary, indicating that only discrete values of the leg voltage space vector are possible in a VSI. In the six-step mode of operation transition from one space vector to the other takes place after each sixty degrees interval (for 50 Hz output, after 3.33 ms). In the PWM mode of operation the non-zero values remain to be given with (2.55). PWM mode adds two more possible vectors, called zero vectors, (2.56). Additionally, transition from one vector to the other takes place at much higher frequency than the
E Levi, 2001
output frequency and each vector is utilised many times in creation of the output voltage of the given frequency. Distinct values of leg voltages (2.55) can be described with a single equation
v leg = ( 2 3)V DC exp j ( k 1)
k = 1,2,3,4,5,6
(2.57)
For k = 7 and k = 8 leg voltage space vector equals zero. As can be seen from (2.57), time is not present in this equation, confirming that the vector does not travel continuously in time. Frequency is not present either, so that the rate at which certain vector value is applied will be governed by switching frequency in the PWM VSI. Space vector values for the leg voltage are shown in Fig. 2.15. Consider next line-to-line voltages at the output of the inverter, shown in Fig. 2.14. Table 2.2 summarises values of line-to-line voltages in different sixty degree intervals and again lists two more states, obtainable in PWM mode only, when all the line-to-line voltages are zero. There are again six non-zero values of the voltage space vector and two conditions that yield zero value of the voltage space vector.
3 7,8 4
Re ()
Fig. 2.15 - Discrete values of the leg voltage space vector.
Table 2.2 - Line-to-line voltages

switching state 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 switches on 1,4,6 1,3,6 2,3,6 2,3,5 2,4,5 1,4,5 1,3,5 2,4,6 space vector v1L v2L v3L v4L v5L v6L v7L v8L Line-to-line voltage vAB VDC 0 VDC VDC 0 VDC 0 0 Line-to-line voltage vBC 0 VDC VDC 0 VDC VDC 0 0 Line-to-line voltage vCA VDC VDC 0 VDC VDC 0 0 0
Space vector of line-to-line voltages is again calculated using the definition of the space vector, (2.28). Substitution of individual line-to-line voltages into (2.28) for each of the six sixty degrees intervals produces the following result:
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HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 33 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------v 1 L = ( 2 3) 3V DC exp( j / 6) v 2 L = ( 2 3) 3V DC exp( j / 2)
v 3 L = ( 2 3) 3V DC exp( j 5 / 6)
v 5 L = ( 2 3) 3V DC exp( j 3 / 2)
v 4 L = ( 2 3) 3V DC exp( j 7 / 6)
(2.58)
v 6 L = ( 2 3) 3V DC exp( j11 / 6)
Space vector of line-to-line voltages is again equal to zero in states 7 and 8,

v 7 L = v8 L = 0
(2.59)
Line-to-line voltages are therefore characterised with six discrete values, whose amplitude is 3 larger than for the leg voltages, and they are shifted in phase by 30 degrees with respect to the corresponding values of the leg voltage space vector. Values of the line-to-line voltage space vector are shown in Fig. 2.16. Space vector of line-to-line voltages, whose discrete values are given in (2.58), can be described with an expression similar to (2.57)
vL = 2 3 3V DC exp j ( 2 k 1)
k = 1,2,3,4,5,6
(2.60)
For k = 7 and k = 8 line-to-line voltage space vector equals zero. As expected, (2.60) is independent of time. Hence the time interval during which the space vector remains in one position is determined with the inverter switching frequency.
7,8
1 Re ()
4 5
Fig. 2.16 - Discrete values of the line-to-line voltage space vector.
Finally, let us consider phase to neutral voltages of the motor, whose wave-forms are given in Fig. 2.14. Table 2.3 summarises values of phase to neutral voltages for the six sixty degrees intervals.
Table 2.3 - Phase to neutral voltages

switching state 1 2 3 4 5 6 switches on 1,4,6 1,3,6 2,3,6 2,3,5 2,4,5 1,4,5 space vector v1phase (100) v2phase (110) v3phase (010) v4phase (011) v5phase (001) v6phase (101) Phase voltage va (2/3)VDC (1/3)VDC -(1/3)VDC -(2/3)VDC -(1/3)VDC (1/3)VDC Phase voltage vb -(1/3)VDC (1/3)VDC (2/3)VDC (1/3)VDC -(1/3)VDC -(2/3)VDC Phase voltage vc -(1/3)VDC -(2/3)VDC -(1/3)VDC (1/3)VDC (2/3)VDC (1/3)VDC
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Applying once more the same procedure, one finds the non-zero values of the space vector of the phase voltages as equal to:
v 1 phase = ( 2 3)V DC v 3 phase = ( 2 3)V DC exp( j 2 / 3) v 5 phase = ( 2 3)V DC exp( j 4 / 3) v 2 phase = ( 2 3)V DC exp( j / 3) v 4 phase = ( 2 3)V DC exp( j ) v 6 phase = ( 2 3)V DC exp( j 5 / 3)
(2.61)
The two remaining space vectors are again identically equal to zero. Hence
v 7 phase = v 8 phase = 0
(2.62)
Values of the space vector of phase voltages are identically equal to the values of the leg voltage space vector. Thus
v phase = ( 2 3)V DC exp j ( k 1)
k = 1,2,3,4,5,6
(2.63)
For k = 7 and k = 8 phase voltage space vector equals zero. Space vector values for the phase to neutral voltages are shown in Fig. 2.17, which is identical to Fig. 2.15.
3 7,8 4 1 Re () 2
Fig. 6.17 - Discrete values of the phase voltage space vector. As expected for a balanced three-phase system of voltages, line-to-line voltages have 3 larger amplitude than phase voltages and are leading corresponding phase voltages by 30 degrees. In all the cases so far the stationary reference frame was under consideration. Suppose now that the space vectors of phase to neutral voltages are to be represented in a synchronously rotating reference frame, a = , s = t . Then from (2.63) and (2.30)
v phase( synch ) = v phase e
j s
= ( 2 3)VDC exp j ( k 1)
exp( j s )
v phase( synch ) = ( 2 3)VDC exp j ( k 1)
k = 1,2,3,4,5,6
(2.64)
This is an interesting result. Recall that for sinusoidal voltage supply space vector is constant in the synchronously rotating frame, while it continuously changes in time in the stationary reference frame. In contrast to this, space vector of VSI is constant for any given k in the stationary reference frame, while it continuously changes in time in synchronously rotating reference frame. VSI is nowadays operated in PWM mode rather than in six-step mode. However, the discrete values of the output voltage are still those obtainable in six-step mode, with the addition of the possibility of connecting all the three phases simultaneously to either positive or negative rail of the DC link. Operation of a VSI in PWM mode yields two substantial benefits, when compared to operation in 180 degrees conduction mode. A diode rectifier can be used instead of a controllable rectifier, since the
E Levi, 2001
inverter is now capable of controlling both the frequency and the rms value of the fundamental component of the output voltage. Additionally, higher harmonics of the voltage are now of substantially higher frequencies, meaning that current is much closer to a true sine waveform. When a VSI is operated in the PWM mode, switching frequency is substantially higher than the output fundamental frequency. One special type of PWM, that is nowadays extremely frequently applied, is the so-called voltage space vector modulation. This PWM method is frequently used in vector controlled drives of so-called voltage-fed type, as will be discussed later. Once when the space vectors have been introduced, it becomes now possible to explain the principle of the voltage space vector modulation. The control system will always generate a reference voltage space vector, that corresponds to the ideal sinusoidal three-phase supply of certain frequency and amplitude. Hence the reference voltage space vector is in the stationary reference frame (superscript s is omitted once more):
v* = 2Ve s
jt
= 2Ve
(2.65)
On the other hand, the PWM inverter can generate only six discrete non-zero voltage vectors and two zero voltage vectors. It is therefore not possible to directly impose the required reference voltage vector (2.64). However, the reference value of the voltage space vector can be obtained on average, during one switching period, by imposing the two neighbouring available space vectors and a zero space vector for appropriate time intervals during the switching period. Consider the situation shown in Fig. 2.18. The reference voltage space vector is shown in a particular instant of time as being positioned in the first sextant of the plane. During the switching period this desired reference value can be achieved on average by imposing the available space vectors 1 and 2 and the zero voltage space vector for appropriate time intervals.
3 7,8
vs*
Re () 7,8
b v2
vs*
a v1
Re ()
Fig. 2.18 - The principle of voltage space vector modulation. According to Fig. 2.18,
v* = av 1 + bv 2 s
(2.66)
Let the switching period be Ts. Similarly, let the two zero voltage vectors be denoted as vo. In order to achieve during one switching period on average required reference voltage (2.65) by means of (2.66), it is necessary to impose non-zero voltage vectors 1 and 2 for the times a Ts and b Ts, respectively. Zero voltage vector will be imposed for the remainder of the switching period, i.e. for time interval c Ts. Therefore a+b+c=1 (2.67)
Proportions of the switching period during which appropriate switching vectors are imposed are governed by the amplitude and phase of the reference voltage space vector. It can be shown that
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HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 36 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------a= b= 3 2V sin( 3 ) 2 3 V DC sin 2 3 2V sin
2 V DC sin 2 3
(2.68)
c = 1 a b
where 2 V and are the amplitude and the phase of the reference space vector in particular instant. In essence, using voltage space vector modulation, one applies the following for the considered case:
v* = av 1 + bv 2 + cv 0 s 2Ve
j
=a
2 3
V DC + b
2 3
V DC e
j 3
+ c0
(2.69)
Substitution of (2.68) into (2.69) yields

2Ve 2Ve e e e
j j
= = 2 3 2 3 2 3
2 3 2 3
V DC a + be V DC
j 3
)
1
3 2V
2 V DC sin 2 3
( sin( )
3 + sin exp j 3
)
(2.70)
= = =
( sin(
( sin ( sin
3 + sin exp j 3
3cos cos 3 sin + sin cos 3 + j sin sin 3 3cos + j sin sin 3 =
)
j
3 2
(cos + j sin ) = e
Desired reference voltage space vector is therefore achieved on average, during one switching period. As time goes by, phase of the reference vector will change, so that coefficients a, b and c will have different values for different switching instants. Similarly, neighbouring vectors that are applied will change as well, from 1 and 2 to 2 and 3, then to 3 and 4, further to 4 and 5, and finally to 5 and 6 during one period of the output frequency. An important consideration is that for sextants other than the first, angle needs to be substituted with - 60 degrees for the second sextant, - 120 degrees for the third sextant, - 180 degrees for the fourth sextant, - 240 degrees for the fifth sextant and - 300 degrees for the sixth sextant in equations (2.68). Example: A three phase induction machine is fed from PWM VSI controlled using voltage space vector modulation. The inverter switching frequency is 10 kHz and the DC bus voltage at the inverter input is 530 V. The inverter output frequency is 40 Hz. Determine which of the space vectors will be applied and for how long when the reference voltage rms value is 190 V, for the following time instants: 1 ms, 5 ms, 7 ms and 12 ms. Solution:
The inverter switching frequency is 10 kHz. Hence one switching period is 0.1 ms. The stator voltage reference space vector has the amplitude of 2 x 190 = 268.7 V. Its phase is = t = 2 40 t = 251.33 t and for the given time instants has the following values: t = 1 ms = 0.25133 rad or 14.4 degrees t = 5 ms = 1.25665 rad or 72 degrees t = 7 ms = 1.75931 rad or 100.8 degrees t = 12 ms = 3.016 rad or 172.8 degrees As one sixth of the output voltage period (which is 25 ms for 40 Hz) is 4.1666 ms, then t = 1 ms means operation in the first sextant, t = 5 ms, corresponds to operation in the second sextant, t = 7 ms
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HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 37 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------is still in the second sextant, while t =12 ms is in the third sextant. The following voltage vectors will than be applied: t = 1 ms zero voltage vector plus vectors 1 and 2 t = 5 ms zero voltage vector plus vectors 2 and 3 t = 7 ms zero voltage vector plus vectors 2 and 3 t = 12 ms zero voltage vector plus vectors 3 and 4 Coefficient a will always apply to the first of the two neighbouring vectors in anticlockwise direction (direction of rotation of the reference space vector). Using expressions for calculation of the coefficients a, b and c 3 2V sin( 3 ) 268.7 sin( 60 ) a= = 15 . = 0.878 sin( 60 ) 2 VDC sin 2 3 530 0.866
b= 3 2V sin 2 VDC sin 2 3 = 15 . 268.7 sin 530 0.866 = 0.878 sin
c = 1 a b one gets: t = 1 ms t = 5 ms t = 7 ms t = 12 ms
= 14.4 degrees - 60 = 12 degrees - 60 = 40.8 degrees - 120 = 52.8 degrees
a = 0.627 a = 0.652 a = 0.288 a = 0.110
b = 0.218 b = 0.182 b = 0.574 b = 0.699
c = 0.154 c = 0.165 c = 0.138 c = 0.190
It is possible to determine the maximum value of the output fundamental rms voltage using the expressions for calculation of the coefficients a, b and c. Consider this same example, in which DC link voltage remains to be 530 V. For the maximum output voltage, duration of the application of the zero voltage vector will be zero (i.e. c = 0). Observe the instant for which = 30 degrees. In this instant reference voltage is exactly in the middle of the first sextant. Hence space vectors 1 and 2 need to be applied for the same time duration for maximum output voltage in this instant (i.e. a = b = 0.5). Then it follows that
2Vmax e 2Vmax e 2Vmax e 2Vmax e
max j 30
= ( 2 3)V DC 0.5 + 0.5e
(
(
j 60
)
)
1 3 3 ( +j ) 2 2 2
j 30
= ( 2 3)V DC 0.5 + 0.25 + j 0.5 3 / 2 = ( 2 3)VDC = = 1 3 1 VDC VDC e 3 2

j 30
j 30
+j
1 2 Vmax = 1 6 VDC = 0.408VDC
j 30
3 = 0.408VDC = 216.2 V
Locus of the maximum achievable voltage in VSI with space vector PWM is shown in Fig. 2.19.
vsmax* 4
Fig. 2.19 - Non-zero voltage vectors of the inverter and the achievable maximum output voltage locus.
E Levi, 2001
2.5.
PROBLEMS
Q1.
An induction machine has the following parameters (all rotor parameters are referred to the stator): R s = 10 Rr = 6.3 Ls = Lr = 0.04 H Lm = 0.4 H The machine has four poles and operates in the steady-state. The machine is fed from a three-phase voltage source, that can be regarded as sinusoidal. The phase voltages can therefore be represented as v a = 2V cos t v b = 2V cos(t 2 / 3) v c = 2V cos(t 4 / 3) (a) The machine operates at 1425 rpm and is supplied with 220 V rms, 50 Hz phase voltages. i) Derive and calculate the stator phase voltage d-q axis components and the stator phase voltage space vector in the synchronously rotating reference frame, that is firmly attached to the stator voltage space vector. ii) Calculate the stator current space vector in the synchronously rotating reference frame and the stator current d-q axis components. (b) The machine is now supplied with 110 V rms, 25 Hz phase voltages and the operating speed is 675 rpm. Calculate: i) stator phase voltage space vector and stator current space vector; ii) stator voltage d-q axis components and stator current d-q axis components, all in the synchronously rotating reference frame, for these operating conditions.
Q2.
An induction machine has the following parameters (all rotor parameters are referred to the stator): R s = 10 Rr = 6.3 Ls = Lr = 0.04 H Lm = 0.4 H The machine has four poles and operates in steady-state at rated speed of 1450 rpm. The machine is fed from a three-phase sinusoidal source of rated 380 V, 50 Hz and the stator winding is star connected. (a) Derive and calculate the stator phase voltage d-q axis components and the stator phase voltage space vector in the synchronously rotating reference frame, assuming that phase voltages are of the form v a = 2V cos t v b = 2V cos(t 2 / 3) v c = 2V cos(t 4 / 3) of rated rms value and frequency. The reference frame is firmly attached to the stator voltage space vector. (b) Calculate the stator current space vector in rotating reference frame and the stator current d-q axis components if the machine operates at rated speed and is fed with the voltages given in (a). (c) Calculate the rotor current space vector in rotating reference frame and then, using torque expression given in terms of stator and rotor current space vectors, calculate the electromagnetic torque that the machine develops.
Q3.
A high performance AC drive is fed from a current controlled PWM inverter. The inverter input voltage may be regarded as constant and equal to 580 V. (a) Sketch the power circuit of the voltage source inverter and explain its operation assuming 180 degrees conduction mode. Define possible switching states and associate with them corresponding leg voltage values and appropriate voltage space vectors. Calculate all the possible values of the legvoltage space vector (in a stationary reference frame) and represent them in the complex plane. (b) For the same switching states calculate values of the line-to-line voltages and appropriate values of the stator line-to-line voltage space vector. Represent the stator line-to-line voltage space vector values
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HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 39 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------in the complex plane and explain the differences when compared to the leg-voltage space vector values. (c) Express leg and line-to-line voltage space vectors in the reference frame that rotates at constant speed of 250 rad/s. An induction machine has the following parameters (all rotor parameters are referred to the stator): R s = 10 Rr = 6.3 Ls = Lr = 0.04 H Lm = 0.4 H The machine has four poles and operates in the steady-state at a rated speed of 1425 rpm. The machine is fed from a three-phase sinusoidal source of rated voltage 380 V, 50 Hz and the stator winding is star connected. (a) Derive and calculate the stator phase voltage - axis components and the stator phase voltage space vector in the stationary reference frame, assuming that the phase voltages are of the form v a = 2V cos t v b = 2V cos(t 2 / 3) v c = 2V cos(t 4 / 3) with rated rms value and frequency. (b) Calculate the stator current space vector in the stationary reference frame and the stator current axis components if the machine operates at rated speed and is fed with the voltages given in (a). (c) Calculate the rotor current space vector in the stationary reference frame and then, using the torque expression in terms of the stator and rotor current space vectors, calculate the electromagnetic torque that the machine develops.
Q4.
Q5.
An induction machine has the following parameters (all rotor quantities are referred to the stator): R s = 10 Rr = 6.3 Ls = Lr = 0.04 H Lm = 0.4 H The machine has four poles and rated power and rated speed of 0.75 kW and 1400 rpm, respectively, for the rated 380 V, 50 Hz three-phase supply with a star connected stator winding. (a) Give the complete time domain model of the machine in an arbitrary rotating reference frame in terms of d-q axis variables. (b) Derive the space vector model of the induction machine in an arbitrary reference frame, using the model given in (a) as the starting point. Sketch the dynamic space vector equivalent circuit of an induction machine in the arbitrary reference frame. (c) Derive and calculate the stator phase voltage d-q axis components and the stator phase voltage space vector, if the machine is fed with the sinusoidal phase voltages v a = 2V cos t v b = 2V cos(t 2 / 3) v c = 2V cos(t 4 / 3) of rated rms value and frequency, and the speed of the reference frame is selected as synchronous (daxis of the reference frame aligned with the stator phase voltage space vector). (d) Calculate the stator current space vector and the stator current d-q axis components in the synchronously rotating frame if the machine operates with rated load torque and is fed with the voltages given in (c).
Q6.
An induction motor is operated as a vector controlled drive. The source of supply is a voltage-source inverter, operated as a current-controlled PWM inverter. The inverter is fed from constant 400 V DC source. (a) Sketch the power circuit of the voltage source inverter and explain its operation. Define possible switching states and associate with them corresponding leg voltage values and appropriate stator voltage space vectors. Calculate all the possible values of the leg-voltage space vector (in a stationary reference frame) and represent them in the complex plane.
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(b) For the same switching states calculate values of the line-to-line voltages and appropriate values of the stator line-to-line voltage space vector. Represent the stator line-to-line voltage space vector values in the complex plane and explain the differences when compared to the leg-voltage space vector values. (c) Explain the principle of the PWM method called voltage space vector modulation. Q7. A three phase induction machine is fed from current controlled PWM VSI, operated using voltage space vector modulation. For the purposes of steady-state analysis in this question it may be assumed that the standard V/f = const. control law applies to the induction motor speed variation. The inverter switching frequency is 1 kHz and the DC bus voltage at the inverter input is 500 V. The inverter is to operate in full PWM mode, with maximum achievable output voltage at frequency of 50 Hz. a) Determine the maximum value of the inverter output phase to neutral fundamental rms voltage. You may treat this value as the motors rated voltage further on. Find the corresponding space vector of the reference voltages. b) Determine which of the space vectors will be applied and for how long when the output frequency is 50 Hz, for the following time instants: 1 ms, 5 ms, 7 ms, 10 ms, 13 ms, 15 ms and 20 ms. c) The motor is now to operate at 25 Hz. Determine the new reference space vector and determine which of the space vectors will be applied and for how long, for the following time instants: 1 ms, 8 ms, 12 ms, 18 ms, 26 ms, 30 ms and 38 ms.
E Levi, 2001

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HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 7 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2. MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF AN INDUCTION MACHINE AND THE SUPPLY

( iaiC + ibi A + iciB ) + sin +

HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 8 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 9 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Torque for no-load acceleration

HISTORY AND APPLICATIONS OF FIELD ORIENTED CONTROL

HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 10 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 11 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

PHASE-DOMAIN MODEL TRANSFORMATION

HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 12 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------v abc = Rs i abc + v ABC = Rs i ABC d

= L s i abc + L sr i ABC = Lr i ABC + Ltsr i abc

cos L sr = LaA cos cos + 2 3 2 3

Laa L s = Lba Lca

Lab Lbb Lcb

Lac Lbc Lcc

( iaiC + ibi A + iciB ) + sin +

HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 13 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

sin s + 1 2 cos r + sin r + 1 2

d dr ( a ) qr dt d qr vqr = Rriqr + + ( a ) dr dt d or vor = Rrior + dt vdr = Rridr +

where d-q-o axis flux linkages are given with

HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 15 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

The equation of mechanical equilibrium remains unchanged,

while electromagnetic torque may be expressed in terms of new variables as

HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 16 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

d-axis a r s 90 rotor q-axis stator

ds = Lsids + Lmidr qs = Lsiqs + Lmiqr

PLm idr iqs iqr ids

(2.24) (2.25) (2.26)

HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 18 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2.3.3. Space vectors and space vector models of an induction machine

HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 19 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

The scaling factor

2 present in equations (2.28) and in transformation matrices (2.10) is correlated with 3

Electromagnetic torque can be expressed in terms of space vectors as

HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 20 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 21 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

MODELLING OF THE SUPPLY

2.4.1. Sinusoidal three-phase supply

HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 22 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

vs = 2V ( cos t + j sin t ) = 2V exp( jt ) s v s = v s + v s = 2V

HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 23 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2V ( cost + a cos(t 2 / 3) + a 2 cos( t 4 / 3) )

HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 24 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 25 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------v s = vds + jv qs = v s e s

v s = 2V cos o j sin o vds = 2V cos o = const.

Re (d) a = vds s=t+25=45 vs s = t =20

Substituting (2.37) and using s = t one gets:

vqs = ( 2 / 3) 2V ( 0.5 sin 2t + 0.5 sin 2 (t 2 / 3) + 0.5 sin 2(t 4 / 3) )

HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 26 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

= is + ji s = 2 I ( cos( t ) + j sin( t ) ) = 2 I exp[ j ( t ) ] = 2 I exp( j s )

HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 27 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Substitution of flux linkage equations into voltage equations yields

Introducing reactances and slip s one further gets

HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 28 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 29 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2.4.2. Voltage source inverter (VSI)

IM Rectifier and inverter control

HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 30 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

120 180 240 300 360 t []

Leg voltages Line-to-line voltages va 2/3 VDC 1/3VDC

Phase to neutral voltages vc

HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 31 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------