Writte n By (Hons.), MBA ngcheekin@gmail.com mrcheekin@blogspot.com.

au
All Rights Reserved 2012 Ng Chee Kin

Ng Chee Kin B.Sc.

Page 1

E X pP r eE sS S
CH!PTE "

2
&ine hair Epidermis 'ermis Pain receptor

The tongue(
+itter Sour Salty S%eet
1

The World through Our Senses

"#" 1 Sensory Organs Humans ha$e fi$e senses# Table " sho%s the senses, sensory organs and stimulus detected# Sense Touch Smell Taste Hearing 2 Sensory organ Skin Nose Tongue
Table 1 Ear

Heat receptor Pressure &atty layer receptor Cold receptor 2 The sensiti$ity of skin depends on( Touch )a* the closeness of receptors receptor

)b* the depth of receptors

Stimulus Touch, pressure, cold, heat, pain Chemical substances in air Chemical substances in food Sound

Chemical particles dissol$e in sali$a on the surface of the tongue

Taste pro,ections recei$e stimulus and send it to the taste receptors

3 4

Taste receptor sets off impulse .mpulse is sent to the brain to be interpreted as taste

"#1

Sense of Smell The roof of the nasal ca$ity has many sensory cells to detect smells#
4 .mpulses are sent to the brain 3

Taste bud

"#/ 1

Sense of Hearing The human ear(

0ssicles Semicircular canal Ear canal !uditory ner$e Cochlea Eardrum Eustachian tube 0$al %indo%

Each sensory organ to detect Sight Eye has receptors Light stimuli# 3 Path%ay from stimulus to responses( Stimuli responses 4 sensory organ effectors ner$es ner$es brain
Nasal ca$ity Nostril

Ner$e sends ner$e impulse to the brain to be interpreted Ner$e impulse eceptor cell detects smell and generates ner$e impulse Cilium contains mucus to dissol$e inhaled particles

Pinna

2 1

Ner$e impulses are electrical messages produced by receptors# 5 Effectors are organs %hich carry out responses# 6 esponses are reactions after recei$ing a stimulus# Sense of Touch The skin has fi$e receptors# %hich occur

To the brain .nto the lungs

The mechanism of hearing( Pinna auditory ner$e ear canal cochlea brain eardrum ossicles

"#2 "#1 1 1

Sense of Taste The surface of the tongue has many taste buds to detect chemical substances#

o$al %indo%

"#8 1

Sense of Sight The human eye(

:itreous humour Choroid etina Sclera ;ello% spot 0ptic ner$e

Supporti$e ligament .ris Lens Cornea Pupil !9ueous humour +lind spot

'e$ices to o$ercome the limitations of sight( <icroscope, telescope, magnifying glass, periscope, 75 ray, binoculars and ultrasound scanning de$ice 5 Stereoscopic $ision helps predators to detect the location of their preys accurately# 6 <onocular $ision helps prey to detect their enemies from all directions# "#= Sound and Hearing

"#> 1

Stimuli and %esponses in #lants Tropism is a gro%th response to e7ternal stimuli# Tropism Stimuli 3ater E ample The roots gro% to%ards a %ater source The roots gro% in the direction of gra$ity The shoots gro% to%ards sunlight The tendrils %rap around a solid structure

Hydrotropism

4eotropism

4ra$ity

Ciliary muscle

Con,uncti$a

2 3

The retina has photoreceptors to detect light# <echanism of sight( Cornea optic ner$e a9ueous humour retina lens

$itreous humour effectors ner$es

brain optic "#? 1 &ight and Sight

Properties of sounds( )a* they are produced by $ibrations of ob,ects# )b* they need a medium to tra$el, such as solids, li9uids or gases# )c* they cannot tra$el through a $acuum# )d* they can be absorbed by soft and rough surfaces# )e* they can be reflected by hard and smooth surfaces as echoes# 2 Stereophonic hearing helps to detect the location of the source of sound#

Phototropism

Light Touch )contact*

Thigmotropism

Nastic mo$ements are responses of plants to e7ternal stimuli %hich may come from any direction#

eflection of light happens %hen it bounces off the surface on %hich it falls# 2 efraction is the bending of light due to speed change as it tra$els through transparent medium of different densities# 3 'efects of $ision( !efects of "ision Short5 sightedness Symptoms #ossi$le causes Ways of correction

CH!PTE 1

'utrition
1#" 1 (lasses of )ood Se$en classes of food )nutrients*( 'utrient Carbohydrates Proteins &ats Sources Sugar, starch, glucose <ilk, fish, eggs, chicken 0il, ghee, margarine, butter )unction 6 Supply energy to the body 6 &or gro%th 6 epair of body tissues 6 @eep the body %arm 6 Transport $itamins !, ', E and @ 6 Supply a lot of energy !eficiency disease +ody lacks energy, marasmus Stunted gro%th, k%ashiorkor +ody lacks energy

6 Can see near ob,ects clearly 6 Cannot focus on distant ob,ects Long5 6 Can see sightedness distant ob,ects clearly 6 Cannot focus on near ob,ects !stigmatism 6 See distorted images

6 Lens is too Conca$e thick lenses 6 Eyeball is too long 6 Lens is too Con$e7 thin lenses 6 Eyeball is too short 6 .rregular Cylindrical surface of lenses or the cornea through surgery

&ibre )roughage* 3ater

&ruits, $egetables, cereals &ruits, %ater $egetables, drinking

6 Helps peristalsis and remo$al of Constipation undigested food from the body 6 'issol$es chemicals in the body 6 Controls body temperature 'ehydration

'utrient :itamins :itamin ! :itamin + :itamin C :itamin ' :itamin E :itamin @ <inerals Calcium

Sources Carrot, fish li$er oil, green $egetables <ilk, eggs, meat, cereals Citrus fruit, $egetables

)unction 6 &or night $ision 6 Healthy skin 6 Healthy ner$ous system 6 &ormation of red blood cells 6 Healing of %ounds 6 esistance to diseases

!eficiency disease 6 Night blindness 6 Skin infections 6 +eriberi 6 !naemia 6 Scur$y 6 ickets

1#1

Human !igesti"e System

'igestion is the breakdo%n of large food molecules into smaller molecules that can be easily absorbed by the body# 2 'igestion occurs in the alimentary canal )or gut*( <outh optic ner$e oesophagus stomach duodenum

<ade by our body in sunlight, 6 Strong bones and teeth also found in eggs, milk Nuts, $egetable oil, %hole grains 6 &or healthy reproduction system 6 &ights against diseases

small intestine anus

large intestine 6 Sterility 3

<ade in the human intestine, 6 Helps blood clotting and stops 6 Prolonged bleeding also found in green $egetables bleeding <ilk, cheese, green $egetables 6 Strong bones and teeth 6 Healthy muscles and ner$e 6 Controls body fluid 6 Proper functioning of ner$es 6 ickets 6 0steoporosis 6 <uscle cramps 6 <uscular cramps

Peristalsis is the contraction and rela7ation of the muscles along the gut %all# 4 EnAymes are substances %hich generally act as catalysts to speed up the chemical reactions in our body#
0esophagus B Produces a %a$e5like action called peristalsis B Peristalsis helps to push bolus into the stomach <outh B Physical digestion occurs B Starch is broken do%n into maltose Stomach B Produces gastric ,uices B 4astric ,uice contains hydrochloric acid and protease B Proteins are broken do%n into polypeptides or peptones Pancreas produces pancreatic ,uice Large intestine ectum !nus 'uodenum B ecei$es bile from the gall blader and pancreatic ,uice B Starch is broken do%n into maltose B Proteins are broken do%n into polypeptides B &ats are broken do%n into fatty acids and glycerol Lo%er part of small intestine B Secretes intestinal ,uice B <altose is broken do%n into glucose B Polypeptides are broken do%n into amino acids B &ats are broken do%n into fatty acids and glycerol

Sodium .ron .odine

Table salt, cheese, meat <eat, green $egetables, eggs Seafood, iodised salt

6 &or the formation of haemoglobin 6 !naemia in the red blood cells 6 &or making hormones in the 6 4oitre thyroid glands 6 Strong bones and teeth 6 Stores energy 6 Proper functioning of ner$es 2 6 ickets 6 &atigue 6 Paralysis

Phosphorus <eat, eggs, cheese, milk, $egetables Potassium 2 )ood tests/ 'utrient Starch )a type of carbohydrate* 4lucose )a type of carbohydrate* Protein &at 1#1 1 Test .odine test +enedictCs test <illonCs test Emulsion test %esult +lue5black colour +rick5red precipitate ed precipitate <ilky solution +ananas, meat, nuts

Li$er 4all bladder produces bile

The energy re9uirement depends on the age, body siAe, se7, occupation, physical acti$ity, climate and state of health of an indi$idual# 3 Calorific $alue )or energy $alue* is the amount of energy released from one gram of a particular type of food# (lass of food Carbohydrates Proteins &ats Energy "alue *+,-g. "? "= ->

The 0mportance of a 1alanced !iet ! balanced diet contains se$en classes of food in the right amount#

1#2 1

3$sorption of !igested )ood

!bsorption is the diffusion of digested food from the gut into the bloodstream# 2 !bsorption mainly happens in the small intestine# 3 :illi on the inner %all of small intestine help to speed up the absorption# 1#/ 1 2 %ea$sorption of Water and !efecation

Plant kingdom can be di$ided into( )a* flo%ering plants )b* non5flo%ering plants 6 Classification of flo%ering plants( &lo%ering plants <onocotyledons 'icotyledons

Classification of non5flo%ering plants( Non5flo%ering plants

Conifers E7amples( 6 Pine tree 6 Casuarina tree

<osses E7amples( 6 StagCs horn fern

&erns E7amples( 6 Cup moss

!lgae E7amples( 6 See%eed 6 Phytoplankton

eabsorption happens in the large intestine# 3ater, %ith dissol$ed minerals and $itamins are reabsorbed into our body# 3 'efecation is the process of remo$ing faeces from the body through the anus# 4 'ifficulty in defecation is called constipation, %hich is caused by the lack of %ater and roughage in the diet# 1#8 1 Healthy Eating Ha$its

0ne cotyledon

T%o cotyledon

CH!PTE 2

! maiAe grain cut in half

0nterdependence among &i"ing Organisms and the En"ironment

2#" 0nterdependence among &i"ing Organisms !escription 0rganisms %ith common characteristics %hich can breed among themsel$es to produce fertile offspring ! group of organisms of the same species %hich li$e in the same place <any types of populations li$ing in the same place, interacting %ith one another The place or area %here an organisms li$e and reproduce The community of organisms li$ing in the same habitat, together %ith the non5li$ing en$ironment The study of relationship bet%een li$ing things and the en$ironment

! green bean )split into t%o*

3e should practice healthy eating habits to pre$ent diet5related diseases# 2 3e should eat a %ide $ariety of foods according to the recommended amounts in the food pyramid#

Net%ork5 $eined leaf

5ey terms Species

CH!PTE -

Parallel5$eined leaf Stem &ibrous root

&lo%er Stem Tap root

Population Community

1iodi"ersity
-#" 1 Organisms and Their (lassification +iodi$ersity )or biological di$ersity* refers to the %ide $ariety of organisms on earth# 2 0rganisms are classified into groups called kingdoms, such as animal and plant kingdoms# )a* $ertebrates )animals %ith backbones* )b* in$ertebrates )animals %ithout backbones* 4 :ertebrates are di$ided into fi$e groups( 2erte$rate &ish !mphibians eptiles +irds <ammals (haracteristic Slimy scales and fins E7posed and moist skin Hard dry scales &eathers and %ings Hair or fur

E7ample( <aiAe plant 6 &ibrous root system 6 Parallel5$eined lea$es 6 Non5%oody and soft stems 6 0ther e7amples( 4rass, orchid plant, sugar cane, paddy

E7ample( +alsam plant 6 Tap root system 6 Net%ork5$eined lea$es 6 3oody and hard stems 6 0ther e7amples( rubber tree, rose shrub, bougain$illea, sunflo%er plant

Habitat Ecosystem

Ecology

! balanced ecosystem is created %hen there is interdependence among li$ing organisms and the en$ironment#

2#1 0nteraction $et6een &i"ing Organisms Type of interaction Prey5predator !escription 6 ! predator is an animal that hunts other animals for food 6 ! prey is an animal hunted and killed by predators for 6 Competition bet%een the same species of organisms E amples 6 4oat )prey* and tiger )predator* 6 &rog )prey* and snake )predator* 6 at )prey* and o%l )predator* 6 3ol$es compete %ith each other for food and mate

+iological control uses the prey5 predator relationship to control pests# )ood We$ 'escription 4reen plants %hich can produce food through photosynthesis# !nimals %hich eat plants and other animals 0rganisms that break do%n dead animal and plant materials into simpler substances %hich can be used again by the producers#

2#/ 1

(onser"ation Organisms

and

#reser"ation

of

&i"ing

2#-

@ey terms Producer Consumer 'ecomposer

Conser$ation is the %ise use of natural resources %ith the least disturbance to the ecosystem# 2 Preser$ation refers to the actions taken to maintain ecosystem in its balanced state# 3 Some steps to conser$e and preser$e ecosystem( Steps Controlling pollution <anaging natural resources ene%ing natural resources <anaging forest #urpose To minimise destruction of habitats of animals and plants To protect animals and plants by the establishment of sanctuaries, forest and %etland reser$es To restore destroyed habitats due to logging, mining and o$erfishing To minimise deforestation and illegal logging, and pre$ent forest fires To monitor commercial o$erfishing, and endangered species hunting, protect

Competition .ntra5specific competition

.nter5specific competition

Symbiosis

6 Competition 6 Cro%s and bet%een fo7 compete organisms of %ith each different other for food species Commensalism 6 .nteraction 6 emora fish bet%een )commensal* t%o and shark organisms )host* 6 The commensal recei$es benefits from the host 6 The host is not harmed <utualism 6 !n interaction 6 &ungi %hich )pro$ide benefits both shelter organisms to algae* and algae )produce food for fungi and itself* Parasitism 6 ! parasite 6 Tape%orm benefits by )parasite* li$ing in or on li$ing in the host the human 6 The host is intestine harmed by the )host* parasites

! pyramid of numbers sho%s the number of organisms at each stage of a food chain#
Le$el 2 )tertiary consumer* Le$el - )secondary consumer* Le$el 1 )primary consumer* Le$el " )producer*

Number of organisms decreases, SiAe of organisms increases !mount of energy decreases

Passing of legislation of %ildlife protection Educating the public

2#2 1

#hotosynthesis

Photosynthesis is a process of making food by green plants# 2 e9uirements for photosynthesis( )a* 3ater )b* Carbon dio7ide )c* Chlorophyll )d* Sunlight 3 Products of photosynthesis( )a* 07ygen )b* 4lucose Chlorophyll 3ater D Carbon dio7ide 07ygen D 4lucose Sunlight

To increase public a%areness on the importance of conser$ation and preser$ation of ecosystem 4 Technology %hich can help in the conser$ation and preser$ation of li$ing organisms( Technology 0mportance To increase the population of endangered species To pre$ent the e7tinction of the endangered species To detect fires in the ecosystem and pre$ent the destruction of natural habitats

Tissue culture )cloning technology* !rtificial insemination Satellite imaging

2#8 1

%ole of Humans in 7aintaining the 1alance of 'ature

E7amples of human acti$ities( )a* 'eforestation )b* Land o$eruse due to intensi$e farming )c* 0$erfishing and o$erhunting )d* .ndustrialisation )e* Poor solid %aste management 2 The effects of human acti$ities( )a* 4lobal %arming )b* 'estruction of habitats )c* E7tinction of species )d* Soil erosion )e* Pollution of air, %ater and soil

! %ater molecule contains t%o atoms of hydrogen and one atom of o7ygen# 3 Electrolysis is a method of breaking do%n %ater using electricity# 4 'uring electrolysis, o7ygen gas is released at the anode and hydrogen gas is released at the cathode# /#1 E"aporation of Water

Similarities bet%een e$aporation and boiling( )a* both in$ol$e the change of state from li9uid to gas )steam* )b* both processes absorb heat Solution and Solu$ility !efinition ! product formed %hen a solute dissol$es in a sol$ent ! substance %hich dissol$ed in a li9uid ! li9uid %hich dissol$es a substance ! solution %hich has $ery little solute in it ! solution %hich has a lot of solute in it ! solution %hich has amount of solute in it ma7imum

/#2

5ey terms Solution Solute Sol$ent 'ilute solution Concentrated solution Saturated solution Suspension 1 'ifferences suspension(

E$aporation is the process by %hich a li9uid changes into %ater $apour# 2 &actors affecting the rate of e$aporation of %ater( )actors E planation The higher the temperature of the surrounding, the higher the rate of e$aporation of %ater The larger the surface area of %ater, the higher the rate of its e$aporation The lo%er the humidity, the higher the rate of e$aporation of %ater !ir mo$ement e$aporation increases the rate of

CH!PTE /

Water and Solution

/#" 1 #hysical (haracteristics of Water .mpurities can change the physical characteristics of %ater# +oiling point &reeAing point E FG E "FFGC E7pands upon freeAing

Temperature of the surrounding Surface area of %ater Humidity <o$ement of air 3

<i7tures %hich contains insoluble substances bet%een a solution and a

'ifferences bet%een e$aporation and boiling( E"aporation 1oiling ! fast process 0ccurs throughout li9uid 0ccurs at the boiling point of li9uid !ir bubbles obser$ed !ffected by air pressure, presence of impurities, rate of heating and $olume of li9uid

Solution Contains dissol$ed substances Homogeneous )uniform in colour and transparent appearance* Light can pass through it No residue is formed %hen filtered 2

Suspension Contains insoluble substances Non5homogeneous )opa9ue or cloudy appearance* Light cannot pass through it esidue is collected %hen filtered

0dourless, tasteless, colourless

Physical characteristics of pure %ater

! slo% process 'ensity E " gHcm- at 2GC 0ccurs at the surface of li9uid 0ccurs at all temperatures )belo% the boiling point of li9uid* Nothing $isible obser$ed !ffected by humidity, temperature of surrounding, surface area of %ater and air mo$ement

Poor electrical conductor

Poor thermal conductor

/#1 1

(omposition of Water 3ater is made up of hydrogen and o7ygen elements#

Solubility is the ma7imum amount of a solute in grams that %ill dissol$e in "FF g of sol$ent at a certain temperature#

&actors affecting the solubility of a solute( )actors E planation 'ifferent solutes ha$e different solubility in the same sol$ent The solubility of a solute %ith temperature $aries

.n neutralisation, an acid reacts %ith an alkali to produce to produce a salt solution# !cid D !lkali Salt D 3ater

/#= 1

#reser"ation of Water 9uality Causes and effects of %ater pollution( (auses Effects 3ater becomes muddy and ri$ers become shallo%er

Nature of solute Temperature 4

/#8

Water #urification #urpose To separate solid particles such as clay, sand and other insoluble particles To kill micro5organisms %ith heat energy To kill micro5organisms %ith chlorine To remo$e dissol$ed substances, insoluble particles and to kill micro5organisms To kill micro5organisms %ith ultra$iolet rays

Silt )mud and sand*

The rate of dissol$ing means the time taken by a solute to dissol$e completely in a li9uid# 5 &actors affecting the rate of dissol$ing( )actors Temperature ate of stirring SiAe of solute particles 6 E planation The higher the temperature of the sol$ent, the higher the rate of dissol$ing The higher the rate of stirring, the higher the rate of dissol$ing The smaller the siAe of solute particles, the higher the rate of dissol$ing

Water purification method &iltration +oiling Chlorination 'istillation Iltra$iolet )I:* treatment /#? 1

'omestic %aste )garbage Contains harmful micro5 and untreated se%age from organisms %hich can cause homes* cholera and typhoid !gricultural %aste )pesticides Causes rapid gro%th of algae and fertilisers* and therefore reduces o7ygen le$el in the %ater 0il spillage )from tankers in the sea* @ills a9uatic life and seabirds

3ater is kno%n as the uni$ersal sol$ent# .t can dissol$e most substances# 4 0rganic sol$ents can also be used to dissol$e some solutes# 8 Characteristics of organic sol$ents( )a* $olatile )e$aporate easily* )b* carcinogenic )likely to cause cancer* )c* to7ic )poisonous to the li$ing cells* )d* flammable )easy to catch on fire* /#/ 1 3cid and 3l+ali Properties of acid and alkali( 3cid 6 Corrosi$e 6 Turns moist blue litmus paper red 6 Has a pH less than ? 6 Tastes sour 6 eacts %ith most metals to product hydrogen gas 2 3l+ali 6 Corrosi$e 6 Turns moist red litmus paper blue 6 Has pH greater than ? 6 Tastes bitter and feels soapy

Water Supply System Process of %ater treatment in a %ater treatment plant( Screening &iltration !eration Coagulation

.ndustrial %aste )chemical Poisons a9uatic life and cause and radioacti$e %astes from skin cancer factories* 2 3ays to control %ater pollution( E planation 6 Planning of proper se%age system in the ne% residential areas 6 Treating %aste%ater before discharging into the public se%age system 6 !$oid dumping rubbish or %aste into the %ater 6 .mposing fines and punishment for those %ho dump untreated %ater, garbage and chemical %astes into ri$ers 6 a% se%age should be treated and turned into safe effluent before discharging into the se%age system

Sedimentation

Chlorination and fluoridation #rocess of 6ater treatment Screening !eration Coagulation #urpose To remo$e large ob,ects )fish, branches and rubbish* To dissol$e o7ygen and to remo$e unpleasant smell and taste 6 !lum B To make small particles stick together to form larger and hea$ier lumps 6 Lime B To reduce the acidity of %ater To settle out and remo$e large lumps To remo$e the remaining solid particles 6 Chlorine B To kill harmful micro5 organisms 6 &luoride B To pre$ent dental decay

Ways of controlling 6ater pollution Pre$ention

Enforcement

Sedimentation &iltration Chlorination and fluoridation

<onitoring

+oth acid and alkali need %ater to sho% their properties#

CH!PTE 8

)actor :olume Temperature

%elationship !ir pressure increases %hen $olume decreases !ir pressure increases temperature increases %hen

!e"ice 'rinking stra%

!tmospheric pressure pushes the %ater up the stra% 3ater 'rinking stra%

E planation )a* !ir sucked from stra% causes lo% pressure in the stra%# )b* !ir pressure pushes li9uid into the stra% and the mouth#

3ir #ressure
8#" 1 3ir #ressure !ir pressure e7ists %hen the air around us presses on the surfaces of the ob,ects# 2 !cti$ities to sho% that air e7erts pressure( )a*
3ater Cardboard

8#1

3pplication of the #rinciple of 3ir #ressure !e"ice E planation )a*

Piston pulled up%ards

Syringe

3hen the hand is released, the %ater in the glass does not flo% out because air pressure presses on the under surface of the cardboard# )b*
Steam Steam Hot %ater Heat Co$er Cold %ater Steam condensed !tmospheric presure

NoAAle Li9uid

!tmospheric pressure forces the li9uid into the barrel

3hen the piston is pulled up, a lo%er pressure is created inside the barrel of the syringe# )b* The air pressure outside forces li9uid into the barrel of the syringe# )a* ! lo%er pressure is de$eloped in the tube# )b* The air pressure outside pushes %ater into the tube#

:as ;nder High #ressure 1 4ases can be compressed into li9uid under high pressure, and stored in gas tanks# 2 Safety measures %hen using gas under high pressure( )a* @eep aerosol cans a%ay from the sources of heat, such as open flames, sunlight and heaters# High temperature may cause an e7plosion# )b* 'o not dispose aerosol cans into incinerators as they may e7plode# )c* 'o not dent or puncture aerosol cans as they may e7plode# )d* 4as tanks must be kept in an open, cool and good $entilated place# )e* !l%ays place the gas tank upright to pre$ent gas from leaking# )f* Turn off the $al$e each time after use# )g* Perform regular gas leakage checks to ensure there are no leakages#

Siphon
educed pressure !tmospheric %hen %ater pressure pushes flo%s out of tube %ater into tube

3hen cold %ater is poured o$er a heated tin, the tin is crushed and collapses# 3 The kinetic theory of gases can be used to e7plain the e7istence of air pressure# 4 !ccording to the kinetic theory of gases, )a* a gas has many particles %hich are far apart from each other )b* these gas particles mo$e freely and randomly, in all directions )c* these gas particles continuously collide %ith the %alls of the container and bounce back )d* a force is e7erted by the gas particles on the %alls of the container )e* the force produces a pressure on the %alls of the container 5 &actors affecting air pressure(

Tube filled %ith %ater

Spraying pump

educed !ir is compressed presure and pressure %hen air increases %hen comes out at Piston piston is pushed high speed

3hen the piston is pushed, the air inside the barrel is compressed,pressure increases and pushes air out of noAAle at &ine droplets high speed# Push Li9uid )b* The pressure reduces %hen air !tmospheric pressure pushes li9uid up the tube comes out at high speed# )c* !ir pressure pushes li9uid up and out as fine droplets#

)a*

CH!PTE ?

!ynamics
?#" 1 2 )orce ! force is a push or a pull acting upon an ob,ect# Effects of forces( )a* Can change shape )b* Can change position )c* Can change direction )d* Can change speed )increases or reduces speed*

'ifferent types of forces( Type !escription The force that causes ob,ects to fall to the ground The force that acts on magnetic materials at a distance The force that is caused by charged materials The force that is caused by surfaces in contact The force that is produced by running electricity through a magnetic material

<ethods to reduce friction( 7ethod 3pplication .n automobiles and machines Ho$ercrafts <o$ing gears, engine pistons, door hinges oller blades, trolleys, sofas, pianos, %heelchairs

CH!PTE =

4ra$itational force <agnetic force Electrostatic force &rictional force Electromagnetic force ?#1 1 2 ?#1 2

oller or ball bearings Layer of air cushion Lubricants )grease, oil* 3heels

Support and 7o"ement

=#" Support Systems in 3nimals E amples of animals 4rasshoppers, cockroaches, pra%ns, crabs Humans, elephants, horses, %hales Earth%orms, sea anemones, starfish

Support !escription System E7oskeleton !n outer skeleton )in in$ertebrates* %hich is made of hard materials )such as chitin* Endoskeleton )in $ertebrates* !n internal skeleton %hich is made of bones and muscle attachments Li9uid )mainly %ater* %hich supports and maintains body shape and turgidity

?#2 1

3pplication of Wor+ 3ork is done %hen a force is e7erted to mo$e an ob,ect in the same direction as the application of the force# 3ork )J* E &orce )N* K 'istance )m*

7easurement of )orce The S. unit for force is Ne%ton )Symbol( N*# Spring balance )or Ne%ton balance* can be used to measure force# 3pplication of )rictional )orce

Hydrostatic skeleton )in in$ertebrates*

&rictional force has a magnitude and a direction# The direction of the frictional force is parallel to the surface and in the opposite direction of motion# 3 &actors affecting magnitude of frictional force( )actor Type of surface !escription The rougher the t%o surfaces are, the greater the frictional force bet%een 3eight of ob,ect them The hea$ier the ob,ect, the greater the frictional force 4 !d$antages and disad$antages of friction( 3d"antages 6 Pro$ides a good grip and pre$ents ob,ects from slipping 6 Pro$ides resistance to motion, so that mo$ing ob,ects can stop 6 Produces heat, for e7ample striking a matchstick !isad"antages 6 3ears off surfaces in contact, such as shoe soles and tyres 6 Produces un%anted heat that can damage surfaces 6 Produces noise and causes noise pollution 6 3astes energy as more energy is needed to o$ercome friction

2 3

The unit for %ork is ,oule )J*# " ,oule of %ork is done %hen " ne%ton of force mo$es a distance of " metre, in the direction of the force# 3pplication of #o6er Po%er is the rate of doing %ork# 3ork done )J* Po%er )3* E BBBBBBBBBBBBBBB Time taken )s*

?#/ 1

!9uatic $ertebrates ha$e smaller endoskeletons compared to land $ertebrates# 2 !9uatic $ertebrates gain support from buoyancy# 3 +uoyancy is the force from %ater that enables ob,ects to float# =#1 Support Systems in #lants !escription E amples of plants

The unit for po%er is %att )3* or ,oule per second )J sB"*# 0mportance of )orce in &ife

Support system +uttress roots

?#8 1

Large roots %hich ain tree, flame of form the base of the the forest stem to pro$ide e7tra support oots %hich gro% from the branches or the nodes of the stem oots %hich enable the plant to climb by gro%ing around and gripping its support +anyan tree, maiAe

0ur daily acti$ities cannot function %ithout force# 2 .mportance of force( )a* frictional force enables us to hold all ob,ects )b* magnetic force and electrical force make the machines %ork )c* gra$itational force allo%s ob,ects to stay on the ground

Prop roots

Clasping roots

0rchids, plant, plant

money pepper

Support system Tendrils

!escription

E amples of plants

2 3

Coiled structures that Cucumber, de$elop from the stem garden pea, or leaf# They %rap pumpkin around the support and help the plants to climb <odified braches that +ougain$illea cannot be remo$ed easily from the stem The outgro%th of the oses epidermis %hich can be easily remo$ed from the stem Pro$ide buoyancy and +ro%n alga help plants to stay afloat in %ater oots %hich de$elop <angro$e tree from the main stem of the trees

Thorns

! stable ob,ect does not topple easily# The centre of gra$ity of an ob,ect is the point at %hich the %hole %eight of the ob,ect seems to concentrate at# 4 The centre of gra$ity of an ob,ect is also the point of e9uilibrium of the ob,ect# 5 The centre of gra$ity of ob,ects can be determined using a plumb line# 6 &actors that affect the stability of an ob,ect( )actor Position of the centre of gra$ity +ase area !escription The lo%er the centre of gra$ity of an ob,ect, the more stable is the ob,ect The larger the base area of an ob,ect, the more stable is the ob,ect

Type of le"er Second5 class le$er

)eature

;se 6 6 6 6

E amples Nutcracker Paper cutter 3heelbarro% +ottle opener

L bet%een & and E To produce a large E force from a & small force
L

Prickles

Third5 class le$er

!ir sacs

E bet%een & and L To produce a large E mo$ement & from a small mo$ement
L

6 6 6 6

+room .ce tongs &ishing rod Human arm

>#1 1

0mportance of Sta$ility an 4 The moment of a turning effect of a force# force refers to the

Stilt roots

=#-

3ppreciating the Support System in &i"ing Organisms

Stability is important to ensure that ob,ect does not topple o$er# 2 Stability of an ob,ect can be increased by( )a* lo%ering its centre of gra$ity )b* increasing its base area

1 Physically disabled persons, aged people, in,ured persons use $arious ambulatory aids for additional support# 2 E7amples of ambulatory aids are( )a* Cane )%alking stick* )b* Crutches )c* 3alking frame 3 +eached and stranded %hales %ill die because their internal organs %ill be crushed by their o%n %eight#

CH!PTE "F

<oment of a force )N m* E &orce )N* K Perpendicular distance from the pi$ot to the force )m* 5 <oments in a le$er describe the opposing moments produced by the effort and the load in a le$er# 6 3hen t%o opposing moments are balanced( Load )N* K 'istance of load from the fulcrum )m* E Effort )m* K 'istance of the effort from the fulcrum )m*

Simple 7achine
"F#" 1 2 &e"ers Le$ers are simple machines# ! le$er consists of a rigid bar that turns freely about a fi7ed point )called fulcrum, &*, %hen a force )called effort, E* is applied to o$ercome the resistance force )called load, L*# 3 There are three classes of le$ers# Type of le"er &irst5 class le$er )eature ;se 6 6 6 6 E amples Pliers Scissors Cro%bar Cla% hammer

CH!PTE >

Sta$ility
>#" 1 Sta$ility The stability of an ob,ect refers to its ability to maintain its original position#

& bet%een E and L To produce a large E force from a & small force
L

"F#1 1

3ppreciating the 0nno"ati"e Efforts in the !esign of 7achines to Simplify Wor+

Le$ers can be used to design machines that help to simplify our %ork#