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E X pP r eE sS S
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&ine hair Epidermis 'ermis Pain receptor
The tongue(
+itter Sour Salty S%eet
1
Heat receptor Pressure &atty layer receptor Cold receptor 2 The sensiti$ity of skin depends on( Touch )a* the closeness of receptors receptor
Stimulus Touch, pressure, cold, heat, pain Chemical substances in air Chemical substances in food Sound
Taste receptor sets off impulse .mpulse is sent to the brain to be interpreted as taste
"#1
Sense of Smell The roof of the nasal ca$ity has many sensory cells to detect smells#
4 .mpulses are sent to the brain 3
Taste bud
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Each sensory organ to detect Sight Eye has receptors Light stimuli# 3 Path%ay from stimulus to responses( Stimuli responses 4 sensory organ effectors ner$es ner$es brain
Nasal ca$ity Nostril
Ner$e sends ner$e impulse to the brain to be interpreted Ner$e impulse eceptor cell detects smell and generates ner$e impulse Cilium contains mucus to dissol$e inhaled particles
Pinna
2 1
Ner$e impulses are electrical messages produced by receptors# 5 Effectors are organs %hich carry out responses# 6 esponses are reactions after recei$ing a stimulus# Sense of Touch The skin has fi$e receptors# %hich occur
The mechanism of hearing( Pinna auditory ner$e ear canal cochlea brain eardrum ossicles
"#2 "#1 1 1
Sense of Taste The surface of the tongue has many taste buds to detect chemical substances#
o$al %indo%
"#8 1
Supporti$e ligament .ris Lens Cornea Pupil !9ueous humour +lind spot
'e$ices to o$ercome the limitations of sight( <icroscope, telescope, magnifying glass, periscope, 75 ray, binoculars and ultrasound scanning de$ice 5 Stereoscopic $ision helps predators to detect the location of their preys accurately# 6 <onocular $ision helps prey to detect their enemies from all directions# "#= Sound and Hearing
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Stimuli and %esponses in #lants Tropism is a gro%th response to e7ternal stimuli# Tropism Stimuli 3ater E ample The roots gro% to%ards a %ater source The roots gro% in the direction of gra$ity The shoots gro% to%ards sunlight The tendrils %rap around a solid structure
Hydrotropism
4eotropism
4ra$ity
Ciliary muscle
Con,uncti$a
2 3
The retina has photoreceptors to detect light# <echanism of sight( Cornea optic ner$e a9ueous humour retina lens
Properties of sounds( )a* they are produced by $ibrations of ob,ects# )b* they need a medium to tra$el, such as solids, li9uids or gases# )c* they cannot tra$el through a $acuum# )d* they can be absorbed by soft and rough surfaces# )e* they can be reflected by hard and smooth surfaces as echoes# 2 Stereophonic hearing helps to detect the location of the source of sound#
Phototropism
Thigmotropism
Nastic mo$ements are responses of plants to e7ternal stimuli %hich may come from any direction#
eflection of light happens %hen it bounces off the surface on %hich it falls# 2 efraction is the bending of light due to speed change as it tra$els through transparent medium of different densities# 3 'efects of $ision( !efects of "ision Short5 sightedness Symptoms #ossi$le causes Ways of correction
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'utrition
1#" 1 (lasses of )ood Se$en classes of food )nutrients*( 'utrient Carbohydrates Proteins &ats Sources Sugar, starch, glucose <ilk, fish, eggs, chicken 0il, ghee, margarine, butter )unction 6 Supply energy to the body 6 &or gro%th 6 epair of body tissues 6 @eep the body %arm 6 Transport $itamins !, ', E and @ 6 Supply a lot of energy !eficiency disease +ody lacks energy, marasmus Stunted gro%th, k%ashiorkor +ody lacks energy
6 Can see near ob,ects clearly 6 Cannot focus on distant ob,ects Long5 6 Can see sightedness distant ob,ects clearly 6 Cannot focus on near ob,ects !stigmatism 6 See distorted images
6 Lens is too Conca$e thick lenses 6 Eyeball is too long 6 Lens is too Con$e7 thin lenses 6 Eyeball is too short 6 .rregular Cylindrical surface of lenses or the cornea through surgery
6 Helps peristalsis and remo$al of Constipation undigested food from the body 6 'issol$es chemicals in the body 6 Controls body temperature 'ehydration
'utrient :itamins :itamin ! :itamin + :itamin C :itamin ' :itamin E :itamin @ <inerals Calcium
Sources Carrot, fish li$er oil, green $egetables <ilk, eggs, meat, cereals Citrus fruit, $egetables
)unction 6 &or night $ision 6 Healthy skin 6 Healthy ner$ous system 6 &ormation of red blood cells 6 Healing of %ounds 6 esistance to diseases
!eficiency disease 6 Night blindness 6 Skin infections 6 +eriberi 6 !naemia 6 Scur$y 6 ickets
1#1
'igestion is the breakdo%n of large food molecules into smaller molecules that can be easily absorbed by the body# 2 'igestion occurs in the alimentary canal )or gut*( <outh optic ner$e oesophagus stomach duodenum
<ade by our body in sunlight, 6 Strong bones and teeth also found in eggs, milk Nuts, $egetable oil, %hole grains 6 &or healthy reproduction system 6 &ights against diseases
<ade in the human intestine, 6 Helps blood clotting and stops 6 Prolonged bleeding also found in green $egetables bleeding <ilk, cheese, green $egetables 6 Strong bones and teeth 6 Healthy muscles and ner$e 6 Controls body fluid 6 Proper functioning of ner$es 6 ickets 6 0steoporosis 6 <uscle cramps 6 <uscular cramps
Peristalsis is the contraction and rela7ation of the muscles along the gut %all# 4 EnAymes are substances %hich generally act as catalysts to speed up the chemical reactions in our body#
0esophagus B Produces a %a$e5like action called peristalsis B Peristalsis helps to push bolus into the stomach <outh B Physical digestion occurs B Starch is broken do%n into maltose Stomach B Produces gastric ,uices B 4astric ,uice contains hydrochloric acid and protease B Proteins are broken do%n into polypeptides or peptones Pancreas produces pancreatic ,uice Large intestine ectum !nus 'uodenum B ecei$es bile from the gall blader and pancreatic ,uice B Starch is broken do%n into maltose B Proteins are broken do%n into polypeptides B &ats are broken do%n into fatty acids and glycerol Lo%er part of small intestine B Secretes intestinal ,uice B <altose is broken do%n into glucose B Polypeptides are broken do%n into amino acids B &ats are broken do%n into fatty acids and glycerol
Table salt, cheese, meat <eat, green $egetables, eggs Seafood, iodised salt
6 &or the formation of haemoglobin 6 !naemia in the red blood cells 6 &or making hormones in the 6 4oitre thyroid glands 6 Strong bones and teeth 6 Stores energy 6 Proper functioning of ner$es 2 6 ickets 6 &atigue 6 Paralysis
Phosphorus <eat, eggs, cheese, milk, $egetables Potassium 2 )ood tests/ 'utrient Starch )a type of carbohydrate* 4lucose )a type of carbohydrate* Protein &at 1#1 1 Test .odine test +enedictCs test <illonCs test Emulsion test %esult +lue5black colour +rick5red precipitate ed precipitate <ilky solution +ananas, meat, nuts
The energy re9uirement depends on the age, body siAe, se7, occupation, physical acti$ity, climate and state of health of an indi$idual# 3 Calorific $alue )or energy $alue* is the amount of energy released from one gram of a particular type of food# (lass of food Carbohydrates Proteins &ats Energy "alue *+,-g. "? "= ->
The 0mportance of a 1alanced !iet ! balanced diet contains se$en classes of food in the right amount#
1#2 1
!bsorption is the diffusion of digested food from the gut into the bloodstream# 2 !bsorption mainly happens in the small intestine# 3 :illi on the inner %all of small intestine help to speed up the absorption# 1#/ 1 2 %ea$sorption of Water and !efecation
Plant kingdom can be di$ided into( )a* flo%ering plants )b* non5flo%ering plants 6 Classification of flo%ering plants( &lo%ering plants <onocotyledons 'icotyledons
eabsorption happens in the large intestine# 3ater, %ith dissol$ed minerals and $itamins are reabsorbed into our body# 3 'efecation is the process of remo$ing faeces from the body through the anus# 4 'ifficulty in defecation is called constipation, %hich is caused by the lack of %ater and roughage in the diet# 1#8 1 Healthy Eating Ha$its
0ne cotyledon
T%o cotyledon
CH!PTE 2
3e should practice healthy eating habits to pre$ent diet5related diseases# 2 3e should eat a %ide $ariety of foods according to the recommended amounts in the food pyramid#
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Population Community
1iodi"ersity
-#" 1 Organisms and Their (lassification +iodi$ersity )or biological di$ersity* refers to the %ide $ariety of organisms on earth# 2 0rganisms are classified into groups called kingdoms, such as animal and plant kingdoms# )a* $ertebrates )animals %ith backbones* )b* in$ertebrates )animals %ithout backbones* 4 :ertebrates are di$ided into fi$e groups( 2erte$rate &ish !mphibians eptiles +irds <ammals (haracteristic Slimy scales and fins E7posed and moist skin Hard dry scales &eathers and %ings Hair or fur
E7ample( <aiAe plant 6 &ibrous root system 6 Parallel5$eined lea$es 6 Non5%oody and soft stems 6 0ther e7amples( 4rass, orchid plant, sugar cane, paddy
E7ample( +alsam plant 6 Tap root system 6 Net%ork5$eined lea$es 6 3oody and hard stems 6 0ther e7amples( rubber tree, rose shrub, bougain$illea, sunflo%er plant
Habitat Ecosystem
Ecology
! balanced ecosystem is created %hen there is interdependence among li$ing organisms and the en$ironment#
2#1 0nteraction $et6een &i"ing Organisms Type of interaction Prey5predator !escription 6 ! predator is an animal that hunts other animals for food 6 ! prey is an animal hunted and killed by predators for 6 Competition bet%een the same species of organisms E amples 6 4oat )prey* and tiger )predator* 6 &rog )prey* and snake )predator* 6 at )prey* and o%l )predator* 6 3ol$es compete %ith each other for food and mate
+iological control uses the prey5 predator relationship to control pests# )ood We$ 'escription 4reen plants %hich can produce food through photosynthesis# !nimals %hich eat plants and other animals 0rganisms that break do%n dead animal and plant materials into simpler substances %hich can be used again by the producers#
2#/ 1
(onser"ation Organisms
and
#reser"ation
of
&i"ing
2#-
Conser$ation is the %ise use of natural resources %ith the least disturbance to the ecosystem# 2 Preser$ation refers to the actions taken to maintain ecosystem in its balanced state# 3 Some steps to conser$e and preser$e ecosystem( Steps Controlling pollution <anaging natural resources ene%ing natural resources <anaging forest #urpose To minimise destruction of habitats of animals and plants To protect animals and plants by the establishment of sanctuaries, forest and %etland reser$es To restore destroyed habitats due to logging, mining and o$erfishing To minimise deforestation and illegal logging, and pre$ent forest fires To monitor commercial o$erfishing, and endangered species hunting, protect
.nter5specific competition
Symbiosis
6 Competition 6 Cro%s and bet%een fo7 compete organisms of %ith each different other for food species Commensalism 6 .nteraction 6 emora fish bet%een )commensal* t%o and shark organisms )host* 6 The commensal recei$es benefits from the host 6 The host is not harmed <utualism 6 !n interaction 6 &ungi %hich )pro$ide benefits both shelter organisms to algae* and algae )produce food for fungi and itself* Parasitism 6 ! parasite 6 Tape%orm benefits by )parasite* li$ing in or on li$ing in the host the human 6 The host is intestine harmed by the )host* parasites
! pyramid of numbers sho%s the number of organisms at each stage of a food chain#
Le$el 2 )tertiary consumer* Le$el - )secondary consumer* Le$el 1 )primary consumer* Le$el " )producer*
2#2 1
#hotosynthesis
Photosynthesis is a process of making food by green plants# 2 e9uirements for photosynthesis( )a* 3ater )b* Carbon dio7ide )c* Chlorophyll )d* Sunlight 3 Products of photosynthesis( )a* 07ygen )b* 4lucose Chlorophyll 3ater D Carbon dio7ide 07ygen D 4lucose Sunlight
To increase public a%areness on the importance of conser$ation and preser$ation of ecosystem 4 Technology %hich can help in the conser$ation and preser$ation of li$ing organisms( Technology 0mportance To increase the population of endangered species To pre$ent the e7tinction of the endangered species To detect fires in the ecosystem and pre$ent the destruction of natural habitats
2#8 1
E7amples of human acti$ities( )a* 'eforestation )b* Land o$eruse due to intensi$e farming )c* 0$erfishing and o$erhunting )d* .ndustrialisation )e* Poor solid %aste management 2 The effects of human acti$ities( )a* 4lobal %arming )b* 'estruction of habitats )c* E7tinction of species )d* Soil erosion )e* Pollution of air, %ater and soil
! %ater molecule contains t%o atoms of hydrogen and one atom of o7ygen# 3 Electrolysis is a method of breaking do%n %ater using electricity# 4 'uring electrolysis, o7ygen gas is released at the anode and hydrogen gas is released at the cathode# /#1 E"aporation of Water
Similarities bet%een e$aporation and boiling( )a* both in$ol$e the change of state from li9uid to gas )steam* )b* both processes absorb heat Solution and Solu$ility !efinition ! product formed %hen a solute dissol$es in a sol$ent ! substance %hich dissol$ed in a li9uid ! li9uid %hich dissol$es a substance ! solution %hich has $ery little solute in it ! solution %hich has a lot of solute in it ! solution %hich has amount of solute in it ma7imum
/#2
5ey terms Solution Solute Sol$ent 'ilute solution Concentrated solution Saturated solution Suspension 1 'ifferences suspension(
E$aporation is the process by %hich a li9uid changes into %ater $apour# 2 &actors affecting the rate of e$aporation of %ater( )actors E planation The higher the temperature of the surrounding, the higher the rate of e$aporation of %ater The larger the surface area of %ater, the higher the rate of its e$aporation The lo%er the humidity, the higher the rate of e$aporation of %ater !ir mo$ement e$aporation increases the rate of
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'ifferences bet%een e$aporation and boiling( E"aporation 1oiling ! fast process 0ccurs throughout li9uid 0ccurs at the boiling point of li9uid !ir bubbles obser$ed !ffected by air pressure, presence of impurities, rate of heating and $olume of li9uid
Solution Contains dissol$ed substances Homogeneous )uniform in colour and transparent appearance* Light can pass through it No residue is formed %hen filtered 2
Suspension Contains insoluble substances Non5homogeneous )opa9ue or cloudy appearance* Light cannot pass through it esidue is collected %hen filtered
! slo% process 'ensity E " gHcm- at 2GC 0ccurs at the surface of li9uid 0ccurs at all temperatures )belo% the boiling point of li9uid* Nothing $isible obser$ed !ffected by humidity, temperature of surrounding, surface area of %ater and air mo$ement
/#1 1
Solubility is the ma7imum amount of a solute in grams that %ill dissol$e in "FF g of sol$ent at a certain temperature#
&actors affecting the solubility of a solute( )actors E planation 'ifferent solutes ha$e different solubility in the same sol$ent The solubility of a solute %ith temperature $aries
.n neutralisation, an acid reacts %ith an alkali to produce to produce a salt solution# !cid D !lkali Salt D 3ater
/#= 1
#reser"ation of Water 9uality Causes and effects of %ater pollution( (auses Effects 3ater becomes muddy and ri$ers become shallo%er
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Water #urification #urpose To separate solid particles such as clay, sand and other insoluble particles To kill micro5organisms %ith heat energy To kill micro5organisms %ith chlorine To remo$e dissol$ed substances, insoluble particles and to kill micro5organisms To kill micro5organisms %ith ultra$iolet rays
The rate of dissol$ing means the time taken by a solute to dissol$e completely in a li9uid# 5 &actors affecting the rate of dissol$ing( )actors Temperature ate of stirring SiAe of solute particles 6 E planation The higher the temperature of the sol$ent, the higher the rate of dissol$ing The higher the rate of stirring, the higher the rate of dissol$ing The smaller the siAe of solute particles, the higher the rate of dissol$ing
Water purification method &iltration +oiling Chlorination 'istillation Iltra$iolet )I:* treatment /#? 1
'omestic %aste )garbage Contains harmful micro5 and untreated se%age from organisms %hich can cause homes* cholera and typhoid !gricultural %aste )pesticides Causes rapid gro%th of algae and fertilisers* and therefore reduces o7ygen le$el in the %ater 0il spillage )from tankers in the sea* @ills a9uatic life and seabirds
3ater is kno%n as the uni$ersal sol$ent# .t can dissol$e most substances# 4 0rganic sol$ents can also be used to dissol$e some solutes# 8 Characteristics of organic sol$ents( )a* $olatile )e$aporate easily* )b* carcinogenic )likely to cause cancer* )c* to7ic )poisonous to the li$ing cells* )d* flammable )easy to catch on fire* /#/ 1 3cid and 3l+ali Properties of acid and alkali( 3cid 6 Corrosi$e 6 Turns moist blue litmus paper red 6 Has a pH less than ? 6 Tastes sour 6 eacts %ith most metals to product hydrogen gas 2 3l+ali 6 Corrosi$e 6 Turns moist red litmus paper blue 6 Has pH greater than ? 6 Tastes bitter and feels soapy
Water Supply System Process of %ater treatment in a %ater treatment plant( Screening &iltration !eration Coagulation
.ndustrial %aste )chemical Poisons a9uatic life and cause and radioacti$e %astes from skin cancer factories* 2 3ays to control %ater pollution( E planation 6 Planning of proper se%age system in the ne% residential areas 6 Treating %aste%ater before discharging into the public se%age system 6 !$oid dumping rubbish or %aste into the %ater 6 .mposing fines and punishment for those %ho dump untreated %ater, garbage and chemical %astes into ri$ers 6 a% se%age should be treated and turned into safe effluent before discharging into the se%age system
Sedimentation
Chlorination and fluoridation #rocess of 6ater treatment Screening !eration Coagulation #urpose To remo$e large ob,ects )fish, branches and rubbish* To dissol$e o7ygen and to remo$e unpleasant smell and taste 6 !lum B To make small particles stick together to form larger and hea$ier lumps 6 Lime B To reduce the acidity of %ater To settle out and remo$e large lumps To remo$e the remaining solid particles 6 Chlorine B To kill harmful micro5 organisms 6 &luoride B To pre$ent dental decay
Enforcement
<onitoring
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%elationship !ir pressure increases %hen $olume decreases !ir pressure increases temperature increases %hen
E planation )a* !ir sucked from stra% causes lo% pressure in the stra%# )b* !ir pressure pushes li9uid into the stra% and the mouth#
3ir #ressure
8#" 1 3ir #ressure !ir pressure e7ists %hen the air around us presses on the surfaces of the ob,ects# 2 !cti$ities to sho% that air e7erts pressure( )a*
3ater Cardboard
8#1
Syringe
3hen the hand is released, the %ater in the glass does not flo% out because air pressure presses on the under surface of the cardboard# )b*
Steam Steam Hot %ater Heat Co$er Cold %ater Steam condensed !tmospheric presure
NoAAle Li9uid
3hen the piston is pulled up, a lo%er pressure is created inside the barrel of the syringe# )b* The air pressure outside forces li9uid into the barrel of the syringe# )a* ! lo%er pressure is de$eloped in the tube# )b* The air pressure outside pushes %ater into the tube#
:as ;nder High #ressure 1 4ases can be compressed into li9uid under high pressure, and stored in gas tanks# 2 Safety measures %hen using gas under high pressure( )a* @eep aerosol cans a%ay from the sources of heat, such as open flames, sunlight and heaters# High temperature may cause an e7plosion# )b* 'o not dispose aerosol cans into incinerators as they may e7plode# )c* 'o not dent or puncture aerosol cans as they may e7plode# )d* 4as tanks must be kept in an open, cool and good $entilated place# )e* !l%ays place the gas tank upright to pre$ent gas from leaking# )f* Turn off the $al$e each time after use# )g* Perform regular gas leakage checks to ensure there are no leakages#
Siphon
educed pressure !tmospheric %hen %ater pressure pushes flo%s out of tube %ater into tube
3hen cold %ater is poured o$er a heated tin, the tin is crushed and collapses# 3 The kinetic theory of gases can be used to e7plain the e7istence of air pressure# 4 !ccording to the kinetic theory of gases, )a* a gas has many particles %hich are far apart from each other )b* these gas particles mo$e freely and randomly, in all directions )c* these gas particles continuously collide %ith the %alls of the container and bounce back )d* a force is e7erted by the gas particles on the %alls of the container )e* the force produces a pressure on the %alls of the container 5 &actors affecting air pressure(
Spraying pump
educed !ir is compressed presure and pressure %hen air increases %hen comes out at Piston piston is pushed high speed
3hen the piston is pushed, the air inside the barrel is compressed,pressure increases and pushes air out of noAAle at &ine droplets high speed# Push Li9uid )b* The pressure reduces %hen air !tmospheric pressure pushes li9uid up the tube comes out at high speed# )c* !ir pressure pushes li9uid up and out as fine droplets#
)a*
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!ynamics
?#" 1 2 )orce ! force is a push or a pull acting upon an ob,ect# Effects of forces( )a* Can change shape )b* Can change position )c* Can change direction )d* Can change speed )increases or reduces speed*
'ifferent types of forces( Type !escription The force that causes ob,ects to fall to the ground The force that acts on magnetic materials at a distance The force that is caused by charged materials The force that is caused by surfaces in contact The force that is produced by running electricity through a magnetic material
<ethods to reduce friction( 7ethod 3pplication .n automobiles and machines Ho$ercrafts <o$ing gears, engine pistons, door hinges oller blades, trolleys, sofas, pianos, %heelchairs
CH!PTE =
4ra$itational force <agnetic force Electrostatic force &rictional force Electromagnetic force ?#1 1 2 ?#1 2
oller or ball bearings Layer of air cushion Lubricants )grease, oil* 3heels
Support !escription System E7oskeleton !n outer skeleton )in in$ertebrates* %hich is made of hard materials )such as chitin* Endoskeleton )in $ertebrates* !n internal skeleton %hich is made of bones and muscle attachments Li9uid )mainly %ater* %hich supports and maintains body shape and turgidity
?#2 1
3pplication of Wor+ 3ork is done %hen a force is e7erted to mo$e an ob,ect in the same direction as the application of the force# 3ork )J* E &orce )N* K 'istance )m*
7easurement of )orce The S. unit for force is Ne%ton )Symbol( N*# Spring balance )or Ne%ton balance* can be used to measure force# 3pplication of )rictional )orce
&rictional force has a magnitude and a direction# The direction of the frictional force is parallel to the surface and in the opposite direction of motion# 3 &actors affecting magnitude of frictional force( )actor Type of surface !escription The rougher the t%o surfaces are, the greater the frictional force bet%een 3eight of ob,ect them The hea$ier the ob,ect, the greater the frictional force 4 !d$antages and disad$antages of friction( 3d"antages 6 Pro$ides a good grip and pre$ents ob,ects from slipping 6 Pro$ides resistance to motion, so that mo$ing ob,ects can stop 6 Produces heat, for e7ample striking a matchstick !isad"antages 6 3ears off surfaces in contact, such as shoe soles and tyres 6 Produces un%anted heat that can damage surfaces 6 Produces noise and causes noise pollution 6 3astes energy as more energy is needed to o$ercome friction
2 3
The unit for %ork is ,oule )J*# " ,oule of %ork is done %hen " ne%ton of force mo$es a distance of " metre, in the direction of the force# 3pplication of #o6er Po%er is the rate of doing %ork# 3ork done )J* Po%er )3* E BBBBBBBBBBBBBBB Time taken )s*
?#/ 1
!9uatic $ertebrates ha$e smaller endoskeletons compared to land $ertebrates# 2 !9uatic $ertebrates gain support from buoyancy# 3 +uoyancy is the force from %ater that enables ob,ects to float# =#1 Support Systems in #lants !escription E amples of plants
The unit for po%er is %att )3* or ,oule per second )J sB"*# 0mportance of )orce in &ife
?#8 1
Large roots %hich ain tree, flame of form the base of the the forest stem to pro$ide e7tra support oots %hich gro% from the branches or the nodes of the stem oots %hich enable the plant to climb by gro%ing around and gripping its support +anyan tree, maiAe
0ur daily acti$ities cannot function %ithout force# 2 .mportance of force( )a* frictional force enables us to hold all ob,ects )b* magnetic force and electrical force make the machines %ork )c* gra$itational force allo%s ob,ects to stay on the ground
Prop roots
Clasping roots
money pepper
!escription
E amples of plants
2 3
Coiled structures that Cucumber, de$elop from the stem garden pea, or leaf# They %rap pumpkin around the support and help the plants to climb <odified braches that +ougain$illea cannot be remo$ed easily from the stem The outgro%th of the oses epidermis %hich can be easily remo$ed from the stem Pro$ide buoyancy and +ro%n alga help plants to stay afloat in %ater oots %hich de$elop <angro$e tree from the main stem of the trees
Thorns
! stable ob,ect does not topple easily# The centre of gra$ity of an ob,ect is the point at %hich the %hole %eight of the ob,ect seems to concentrate at# 4 The centre of gra$ity of an ob,ect is also the point of e9uilibrium of the ob,ect# 5 The centre of gra$ity of ob,ects can be determined using a plumb line# 6 &actors that affect the stability of an ob,ect( )actor Position of the centre of gra$ity +ase area !escription The lo%er the centre of gra$ity of an ob,ect, the more stable is the ob,ect The larger the base area of an ob,ect, the more stable is the ob,ect
)eature
;se 6 6 6 6
L bet%een & and E To produce a large E force from a & small force
L
Prickles
!ir sacs
E bet%een & and L To produce a large E mo$ement & from a small mo$ement
L
6 6 6 6
>#1 1
0mportance of Sta$ility an 4 The moment of a turning effect of a force# force refers to the
Stilt roots
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Stability is important to ensure that ob,ect does not topple o$er# 2 Stability of an ob,ect can be increased by( )a* lo%ering its centre of gra$ity )b* increasing its base area
1 Physically disabled persons, aged people, in,ured persons use $arious ambulatory aids for additional support# 2 E7amples of ambulatory aids are( )a* Cane )%alking stick* )b* Crutches )c* 3alking frame 3 +eached and stranded %hales %ill die because their internal organs %ill be crushed by their o%n %eight#
CH!PTE "F
<oment of a force )N m* E &orce )N* K Perpendicular distance from the pi$ot to the force )m* 5 <oments in a le$er describe the opposing moments produced by the effort and the load in a le$er# 6 3hen t%o opposing moments are balanced( Load )N* K 'istance of load from the fulcrum )m* E Effort )m* K 'istance of the effort from the fulcrum )m*
Simple 7achine
"F#" 1 2 &e"ers Le$ers are simple machines# ! le$er consists of a rigid bar that turns freely about a fi7ed point )called fulcrum, &*, %hen a force )called effort, E* is applied to o$ercome the resistance force )called load, L*# 3 There are three classes of le$ers# Type of le"er &irst5 class le$er )eature ;se 6 6 6 6 E amples Pliers Scissors Cro%bar Cla% hammer
CH!PTE >
Sta$ility
>#" 1 Sta$ility The stability of an ob,ect refers to its ability to maintain its original position#
& bet%een E and L To produce a large E force from a & small force
L
"F#1 1
Le$ers can be used to design machines that help to simplify our %ork#