Chapter I: Ancient Europe Ancient Greece Introduction The ancient civilizations of Geek and Rome prospered along the

shores of the Mediterranean Sea. Ancient Greece was located in the eastern part of this sea. The Greeks had an important influence upon the people of ancient Rome. The Romans were fearless conquerors and skilled empirebuilders. They took up Greek culture and e tended it to three continents. !. The geography of ancient Greece 2.1 The Aegean world The Aegean is a sea lying north of the eastern end of the great Mediterranean Sea" and the ci#ili$ation is known as the Aegean %orld. The Aegean world includes the shores of two continents &urope and Asia. The history of Greece was influenced by the fact that the '(Aegean %orld(( was made up countless peninsulas and islands. )rete and Rhodes are the largest of the Aegean *slands. 2.2. A rugged place I a ho e in sunny Greece! a rugged place "ut a good nurse of an! for y part I cannot thin# of a sweeter place to loo# at. These words are taken from an ancient poem that is about +,,, years old. According to the poet the lands of Greece are a '(rugged place((. *ndeed chains of mountains e tend into e#ery part of ancient Greece. The highest peak of it is -lympus. Greece does not ha#e much fertile farmland. .arrow #alleys make up most of its lands. These #alleys are watered by small mountain streams and small ri#ers. As result" early Greece farmers learned to culti#ate crops" such as oli#e trees and grapes" which could thri#e in a mountainous en#ironment. The Greek also raised sheep and goats. Such Animals can feed along the rocky hillsides. 2.$. The i portance of the sea The ancient Greek" were more than fascinated by the sea. They depended on it. *n the first place" the Greek had to look to the sea for food. *n the second place" sea tra#el was easier than tra#el on rugged land. Sea tra#el gradually linked ancient Greece to other societies. Greek sailors could go from one island to another and thus they reach the older" richer ci#ili$ations in Asia and Africa. /y 0,, /.). the Greek ships grew in number and became larger and faster. The ancient sailing #essel of ancient Greek was called a trireme" because it was powered by these banks of oarsmen. Greek merchants tra#eled all around the Mediterranean Sea. They traded grapes" wine" oli#es" oli#e oil" wool" pottery" tiles" marble" and works of art. 2.%. &editerranean 'olonies

The Greek were not the only seafaring traders in the Mediterranean Sea in ancient times. The people of 2hoenicia also had learned the ad#antages of sera tra#el. The 2hoenicians had become great sailors because their homeland also stretched along Mediterranean Shores. /oth the Greeks and 2hoenicians sailed in search of goods that their lands could not supply. The Greeks and the 2hoenicians sent groups of their people to settle in new lands. Such a settlement or colony helped trade. /y 34, /.). there were colonies in Asia Minor along the shores of the /lack Sea" in .orth Africa along the *talian and *berian 2eninsulas" and on many Mediterranean islands. -ften Greek and 2hoenicians competed for control of useful places. 2.(. The E)change of Ideas %hen different cultures meet" they often borrow ideas from one another. 5rom their contact with 2hoenician culture". The ancient Greeks learned a system of writing. The 2hoenicians de#eloped a unique alphabet around 6,, /.). 7uring their tra#els" the 2hoenicians needed a way to keep a record of the goods they bought and sold. )uneiform with its 8,, symbols took up too much space on a papyrus. Thus" the 2hoenicians in#ented a new alphabet with 9ust !! symbols. The 2hoenician alphabet was carried to trading centers all o#er the Mediterranean Sea. The Greeks borrowed many 2hoenician symbols. :ou can also see that the modern alphabet we use has its origins in the 2hoenician and Greek alphabets. As a result" more was written and ideas began to spread quickly. $. Gree# 'ity*+tates $.1 The polis /y 34, /.). Greece was made up of more than !,, city-states. The Greek called each city-state a polis. &ach polis had its own go#ernment. All the people who li#ed in the polis had to obey its laws and its leaders. Greek city-states grew up all o#er the '(Aegean %orld((. The most powerful of them were Sparta and Athens. $.2. +parta Sparta was located on the southern tip of 2eloponnesus. Sparta was a military or warlike city-state. *t had little trade and did not set up colonies. *nstead" Sparta gained wealth by conquering city-states around it. The Spartans were cruel to the people they conquered. )onquered people were forced to become sla#es called helots. ;elots had to farm the land and honor the Spartan polis. /ut the helots often rebelled against their Spartan masters. Thus" in order t keep control o#er the 2eloponnesus" the Spartans had to built and maintain a strong army. The Spartans also adopted a harsh code of laws designed to protect themsel#es from a large helot population. <ife in Sparta was harsh. 5rom birth to death" e#erything was controlled by the military go#ernment. The go#ernment wanted only the '(best(( people in Spartan society. Thus" a group of warriors e amined each baby. *f the child was 9udged to be strong" it was allowed to li#e. *f the child was considered weak" its parents were ordered to put the child on a mountainside to die.

Spartan boys were only se#en when they began their training. They 9oined a troop of boys of their own age and marched off to military camp. They learned to obey orders without question. &#erything was done to make the boys strong. They did not wear any clothing shoes. Their beds were piles of straw. They ate plain food. Spartan girls also led hardy li#es. =nlike girls in other Greek citystates" Spartan girls wrestled and played sports. They were trained to defend their polis. Spartan women had many rights but were not allowed to #ote. The Spartans became famous for their bra#ery and harsh way of life. &#en today a person who leads a simple" stern life is called '(Spartan((. $.$. Athens <ife in Athenian polis was #ery different from life in Sparta. Athens is on the peninsula of Attica. *t used its location near the sea to grow a s a centre of trade. Artisans from all o#er the Aegean flocked to Athens to practice their crafts. As a result of their long history of sea tra#el" Athenians were the most skillful sailors. The Athenian polis became an e citing and #ital place were new ideas were welcome. The Athenians belie#ed that life was empty unless people tried to gain new knowledge and li#ed freely. The central marketplace of Athens was called the agora Shops" temples and go#ernment buildings surrounded the agora. $.%. Acropolis The people of Athens built one of the world(s most magnificent landmarks of ci#ili$ations. )alled the Acropolis" it was a hill-top fortress. Acropolis is a Greek word meaning '(high city((. The acropolis was made up of many buildings. The citi$ens of Athens met in this '(high city(( to discus the affairs of their community. Acropolis also had a special" religious purpose. The largest building on the Acropolis was the 2arthenon. The 2arthenon was a temple dedicated to Athena" the Greek goddess of wisdom who was belie#ed to be the protector of Athens. /uilt in the 4th century /.). it has been called one of the world(s most beautiful buildings.

$.(. The ,ersian -ars Through Sparta and Athens differed greatly" an in#asion caused them to unite. A great empire had risen that was more powerful than Sparta. The empire tried to conquer ancient Greece > twice. /oth times it was not Sparta" but beautiful Athens" that forced the conquerors back. After 4,, /.). the 2ersian built a #ast empire. %e know a lot about the 2ersians" because of a Greek historian named ;erodotus. ;erodotus wrote a history of the wars fought by the Greeks with the 2ersians and is called the '( 5ather of ;istory((. ;erodotus wrote that in ?6, /.). !4,,, 2ersians landed on the plains of Marathon. Marathon is only about !4 miles @?, kmA from Athens. Athenians stood waiting shoulder to shoulder. The Athenians forced the 2ersians back into the /ay of Marathon. 4. The Birth of Democracy %.1. .uilding a govern ent

The people of most Greek city-states worked hard to build go#ernments. Go#ernment was an important part of the life of each polis. *n earliest times Athens was go#erned by monarchy. Monarchy is a Greek word meaning '(rule by one((. A go#ernment ruled by king or queen. *ts ruler is called a monarch. /ut monarchy did not handpicked a new leader and put him in power. This leader would often be forced to obey soldiers( whishes in order to remain in power. This system of go#ernment was called tyranny. Athenians belie#ed that tyranny was un9ust an oppressi#e. /y 0,, /.). Athenians had built a new go#ernment called oligarchy. An oligarchy is a go#ernment that is ruled by a few people > usually by members of rich" powerful families. -ligarchy is a go#ernment resting on the #alue of property" in which the rich ha#e power and the poor ha#e none. Many Athenians agreed that oligarchy was not a fair system. %.2. -hat is /e ocracy0 -f all the city-states" the citi$ens of Athens had achie#ed the greatest freedoms. A go#ernment run by the people" in which citi$ens make their own laws" is called a democracy. 7emocracy is a Greek word meaning '(power of the people(( Athens was the first place of democracy. The basic lawmaking body in any democracy is an assembly" or group of citi$ens. The Athenian Assembly was made up of male citi$ens o#er the age of 10. Any member of the assembly could speak up for or against any law. ;e could bring before the assembly any topic that seemed important.

%.$. The Age of ,ericles =nder 2ericles( leadership democracy had become the foundation of go#ernment in Ancient Greece. ;e was only !, when he went to the Assembly for the first time. *n ?81 /.). the Assembly elected 2ericles one of the Athens( ten generals. 2ericles dominated the life of ancient Greece for +! years. Thus" this period is known as the Age of 2ericles. 7uring this time" 2ericles passed laws to strengthen democracy. 5 or e ample" 2ericles in#ited all male citi$ens to ser#e on 9uries. Athenian 9uries were large" ranging from 1,1 to 4,1 9urors. 2ericles arranged for 9ury members to be paid" so that the poor could ser#e as easily as the rich. The right to a trial by 9ury was a great contribution to democracy. The punishments were quick and harsh in other societies. %.%. 1ot 2ustice for All This was only the beginning of the democratic form of go#ernment. 7emocracy in Athens did not gi#e freedom to e#eryone. 7emocracy under 2ericles did not mean '(9ustice for all((. Although women were citi$ens" they were not allowed to #ote. Sla#es" too" had no role in the go#ernment. Sla#ery was a common practice in ancient times %.(. The 3egacy of Athenian /e ocracy

The legacy of Athenian democracy left lasting impression. 7emocracy as a form of go#ernment is one of the greatest legacies gi#en to the world. Many modern go#ernments including our own" ha#e looked to the impressi#e Greek & ample. The Greek heritage The planB 1. The legacy of ancient Greece 1.1. Ancient Greek Religion 1.!. The Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Greece 1.+. ;omer(s &pics 1.+.1 The *liad 1.?. The -lympic Games 1.4. Theatre /egins 1.4.1 Tragedy and )omedy 1.8 The <o#e of %isdom 1.3 A =nifying 5orce !. The spread of Greek *deas !.1. The 2eloponnesian %ars !.! Ale ander the Great !.+. /lend of &ast and %est /ibliographyB -CC- p. 1?? > 146 1. The Greek Legacy 1.1 Ancient Gree# 4eligion The ancient Greeks were polytheists and thus belie#ed in many gods and goddesses. The Greeks de#eloped a rich set of myths" or stories about their gods. According to the Greek myths" the gods and goddesses controlled different parts of uni#erse. 5or e ample" Deus" the ruler of the gods" was in charge of the weather. The ancient Greeks belie#ed that when it thundered" Deus was at work. The ancient Greeks also belie#ed that the gods were not #ery different from humans. Deus was the father" and his wife" ;era was the mother. There were many children and relati#es. %hat was the basic difference between humans and godsE Most gods were stronger than humans. The main difference was mortality" or death. ;umans li#ed temporary li#es but the gods li#ed fore#er. 1.2. The Gods and Goddesses of ancient Greece The Athenians belie#ed that Athena was their special protector" but they also worshiped other gods. &ach god had a special role. Deus > the Ruler of Gods ;era > the queen of gods ;estia > goddess of home 2oseidon > god of sea 7imeter > goddess of agriculture ;ephaestus > god of fire Ares > god of war Athena > goddess of wisdom Aphrodite - goddess of lo#e Apollo - God of Music Artemis > Goddess of the moon ;ermes > messenger of the goods.

1.$. 5o ers Epics About +,,, years ago" a blind poet named ;omer roamed the Aegean %orld. ;omer belie#ed he had a special purpose. ;e wished to tell his people the myths of celebrated gods and goddesses. ;omer wrote that '( the glorious lessons of the gods are not to be cast aside((. /ecause few Greeks during ;omer(s time knew how o read or write" people relied on the spoken word. ;omer wrote long" beautiful poems '(The *liad(( and '(The -dyssey(( both tell about the long war between Greeks and the Tro9ans. These epics are among yhr oldest works of literature. 1.$.1. The Iliad The Greeks" with the help of the goddess Athena" decided to play a trick on the Tro9ans. They built a great wooden horse and pretended it was an offering to the gods. /ut" secretly under the co#er of night" they hid a lot of their warriors" fully armed" inside of the wooden horse. The Tro9ans stood ama$ed when they found the horse outside their city gates. They mar#eled at its tremendous si$eF They placed wheels under the base of the horse" ropes were stretched about its neck. And while children sang sacred songs" it rolled into Troy. 5our times at the gate it halted. And the four times the clank of armor could be heard within. /ut" heedless and blind" the Tro9ans set the horse in city(s holiest place. Meanwhile" night rushed o#er the city and soon the Tro9ans lay deep in quiet sleep. At once" the Greek warriors hidden within the horse rushed out upon the sleeping city. Then" with braying of trumpets and shouting of men" they rushed through the city with sword and flame. So fell the ancient city. And the bodies of its children lay scattered in the streets. Today" we use the e pression '( a Tro9an ;orse(( to describe something that may seem good" but is really harmful. 1.4. The Olympic Games The 6ly pic Ga es ha#e their roots in ancient Greece. *n tradition of the game originated a festi#al to Deus in 338 /.). *n the green #alley -lympia" a young cook called )oroebus of &lis won the !,,-yards dash. 6ly pic competition was the glory of ancient Greece. &#ery four years" athletes from all o#er the Aegean %orld came to compete in the -lympic Games. Gictory in an -lympic e#ent brought the winner a crown of oli#e lea#es" *t also brought glory to the #ictor(s polis. Though many women athletes compete for their countries in the modern -lympic Games" women could not compete in ancient times. /ut" according to Greek law" women could win only the chariot races because the horse(s owner was the considered the winner. A Spartan woman" who owned the winning horse" won the -lympic chariot race in +6! /.). <ike other winners" she made generous gifts to the temple of Deus in honor of her #ictories. 1.5. Theatre begins Theatre also had its beginnings in ancient Greece. <ike the -lympic Games" theatre grew out of important religious festi#als. &ach spring thousands of Greeks gathered to honor 7ionysus" the good of pleasure.

As many as !,,,, people met at outdoor theatre car#ed into the slope of the Acropolis. Sitting close together on steep rows of stone seats" they watched a festi#al of plays. <ike the -lympic champions" the best writer recei#ed special honors. 1.5.1. Tragedy and Comedy Theatres were car#ed into hillsides all o#er the Aegean %orld. Though the festi#al was held in Athens" e#ery Greek 2olis had a theatre. Many of these theatres are still in use. -ne of the most famous writers of Greek plays was Aeschylus. ;e was well known because he won first pri$e in the festi#al 1+ times. Aeschylus lo#ed Athens and wrote plays to honor it. ;e had fought with his countrymen against the 2ersians. ;is e periences in war caused him to write plays called tragedies. A tragedy is a play in which life is treated seriously and usually has a sad ending. Aeschylus is known as the 5ather of Tragedy. Tragedies were performed only in the morning at the festi#als. )omedies or plays that are funny and usually ha#e funny endings" were performed late in the day. -ne of the most famous writers of comedy was Aristophanes. ;is comedies were loud" happy e#ents. Aristophanes liked it" when the crowds at his comedies talked around the theatre. Sometimes they would shout at the actors. A comedy in ancient Greece was full of 9okes. )omedies were also written to make fun of famous people. 1. . The lo!e of "isdom <ike theatre" philosophy is part of the Greek <egacy. 2hilosophy is a Greek word meaning '(lo#e of wisdom((. Through philosophy the Greeks searched for answers about their role in the uni#erse. The Athenians lo#ed ideas as much as they lo#ed freedom. Athens( most famous philosopher was a special man named Socrates. Socrates was well known in Athens because he dared to raise questions about Athenian #alues. ;e belie#ed that it was important to e amine law" social customs" an e#en religious #alues. ;is motto was '(Hnow thyself((. Many Athenians were angry that Socrates doubted the Glory of Athens. As result" in +66 /.). Socrates was accused by the go#ernment of '(forming an idea of re#olt(( among Athens( young people. A 9ury decided that Socrates was guilty and sentenced him to death. /ut guilty of whatE *s it wrong to ask questionsE <ater" when Socrates sat talking with his friends his 9ailer brought him a coup of hemlock to drink. This poisonous drink quickly killed Athens( first philosopher. -ne of those present at Socrates death was the brilliant student 2lato. To 2lato" Socrates was '(the wisest and most 9ust and best Athenian((. So 2lato carried on the work of his teacher by gathering together the ideas of Socrates and writing them down. ;e also founded the world(s first uni#ersity" known as the Academy. 2lato(s Academy lasted long after his death > in fact" for 6,, years. The Greek ideas spread from 2lato(s Academy to distant lands in &urope" Asia and Africa. 1.3. A =nifying 5orce Ancient Greece was made up of many different city-states. &ach polis had its own ruler and system of go#ernment. The democratic Athens became the center of the Aegean %orld. *n Athens" a magnificent

culture blossomed and spread to e#ery Greek 2olis. Ancient Greece de#eloped a rich <egacy. The Aegean world was united by this common heritage. Ancient Greek religion" literature" theatre and philosophy affected e#ery polis. The people of ancient Greece were bound together by their common culture. <et(s come to the conclusionB The Greek legacy 7emocracy Trial by 9ury Myths &pic 2oetry -lympic games Tragedy and )omedy 2hilosophy Sculpture

#. The $pread of Greek %deas #.1. The &eloponnesian 'ars *n ?+3 /.). Sparta and the other 2eloponnesian city-states had united against Athens. They were 9ealous of Athens( riches and influence. 5or !3 years" the Athenians held back the enemies. At the first the Athenian fleet easily triumphed on the seas. /ut year by year their fleet was ruined and Athens had no more strength to fight. The Athenian polis was destroyed. *n ?,? /.). the Athenians lost their army" their power" and their democracy. /ut the legacy of Greek ci#ili$ation was not defeated. !.!. Ale ander the Great After !3 years of war" all of the Aegean %orld was open to in#asion. Suddenly" a new empire called Macedonia conquered Greek lands. Ale ander was the son of Hing 2hilip **" ruler of Macedonia" a small but powerful Greek Hingdom. %hen Ale ander was a boy he had been taught by a special teacher > Aristotle" a wise" famous philosopher from Athens. Aristotle taught Ale ander to lo#e philosophy and Greek ways. *n ++8 /.). Hing 2hilip was murdered and Ale ander became Hing" although he was only !, years old. ;is greatest wish was to spread the Greek legacy. Ale ander quickly pro#ed that he was one of the most talented generals of all time. /y +!+ Ale ander the Great had conquered most of known world and set up an empire that e tended from Asia Minor @now TurkeyA to *ndia. *n ++? he in#aded the Great 2ersian &mpire ruled by 7arius ***. /y a series of remarkable #ictories" Ale ander then went on to conquer the entire Middle &ast 5rom &gypt to *ndia. %hen he died at the age of only ++" Ale ander had led his armies more than 16+1! km and had encouraged the spread of Greek culture throughout the world. After Ale ander(s death" his empire was di#ided. /ut he is considered one of the greatest generals who ne#er lost a battle and eIwas ne#er forced to retreat. #.(. Blend of )ast and 'est The greatest Ale ander(s achie#ement was the spread of Greek culture. Thousands of Greek go#ernment officials" merchants" and artisans followed and settled the lands" Ale ander had conquered. %here#er he went" he built cities modeled on the Greek polis.

As many as 3, cities named Ale andria were set up across the empire. Ale andria encouraged the blend of Greek culture with the cultures of the Ancient Middle &ast. 5or e ample" he began to worship 2ersian as well as Greek gods and goddesses. ;e also adopted 2ersian customs and dress. Although Ale ander though of himself as Greek" he gained support from different cultures by adopting their ways. -f all the cities that Ale ander founded" one grew to become truly remarkable. )alled Ale andria like the other cities he built" this one was in the .ile 7elta. The &gyptian Ale andria attracted scholars" sailors" and merchants. *t had the world(s first museum and libraries. -ne library is said to ha#e contained more than 4,,",,, scrolls of papyrus.