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Crash Course on Tensor Analysis Department of Mathematics, IIT Madras

Avudainayagam A Sanyasiraju Y V S S Satyajitroy Usha R

Coordinator: Prof. Usha R

January 17 - 19, 2014

Contents
1. Introduction to Vector Algebra 2. Orthogonal Curvilinear Coordinates 3. Surface Geometry 4. General Curvilinear Coordinates 5. Tensor Calculus 6. Symmetric Tensors 7. Tensor Derivatives 8. Tensor form of Gradient 9. Cartesian Tensors 10. Calculus of Cartesian Tensors 11. Integral Theorems in Tensors 1 7 24 32 45 65 81 106 119 147 157

Chapter 1 Introduction to Vector Algebra


1.1 Introduction
(a) magnitude (b) direction Force and velocity are two typical examples of a vector. 2. Geometrically, a vector is represented by a directed line segment with the length of the segment representing the magnitude and the direction of the segment indicating the direction of the vector. 3. Magnitude of a vector is a non-negative real number. 4. Vectors are in-general denoted by bold letters (like a, v ), however, in writing, an over-bar may be used to represent them, for example, a , v etc. 5. The magnitude of a vector a is denoted by |a |. 6. The magnitude of the zero vector is zero 7. Two vectors are equal if they have the same magnitude and the same direction. 8. a , where is a scalar, is called a scalar multiple of the vector a . 9. The direction of a is that of a if > 0 and is that of a if < 0 10. Every vector can be written as a = |a |a , where a is the unit vector in the direction of a . 11. Two vectors a and b are collinear, if there exists a scalar such that a = b. 12. In a right handed rectangular system of Cartesian axes with xed origin O , x1 , x2 and x3 denote the axes and e 1, e 2 and e 3 denote the unit vectors(base vectors) along the corresponding coordinate directions. 1

1. A vector has two characteristics

2 13. Every vector can be expressed as a linear combination of the base vectors as a = a1 e 1 + a2 e 2 + a3 e 3 (1.1)

where a1 , a2 and a3 (real numbers referred to as the components of a ) represent the projection of a on the coordinates axes. A short notation, using summation convention for any repeated index, for (1.1) is a = ai e i 14. A typical ith component of a vector a is denoted by [ a]i , that is [ a]i = ai 15. In component form, the scalar multiple can be written as a = (a1 ) e i 1 + (a2 ) e 2 + (a3 ) e 3 = ( ai ) e Therefore [ a ]i = ai = [ a]i (1.5) (1.4) (1.3) (1.2)

1.2

Parallelogram law

If x and y are any two vectors, then x +y is dened by the parallelogram law shown in the Fig. 1.1.

Figure 1.1: Vector parallelogram law

1.3

Scalar product
a b = |a | | b| cos (1.6)

The scalar product of any two vectors a and b is given by

where is the angle between the direction of the vectors a and b. Remark : We have a b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 = ai bi , a e i = ai = [ a] i ai = |a| cos i where i is the angle made by the vector a with the xi -axis. Further, cos i for i = 1, 2, 3 are the direction cosines of a and ai for i = 1, 2, 3 are the direction ratios of a . For unit vectors, the components are the direction cosines.

1.4

Vector product
a b = |a | | b| sin n (1.7)

The cross product or vector product of any two vectors a and b is given by

where is the angle between the directions of the vectors a and b, n is the unit vector perpendicular to both a and b. The direction of n is that direction obtained by right handed screw rotation from a to b. Some properties of the cross product to be noted are: 1. a b= 0 means a and b are collinear 2. |a b| is the area of the parallelogram whose adjacent sides are a and b. 3. a b = (a2 b3 a3 b2 ) e 1 + (a3 b1 a1 b2 ) e 2 + (a1 b2 a2 b1 ) e 3 in component form. 4. a b= e 1 e 2 e 3 a1 a2 a3 b1 b2 b3 in determinant form.

5. a a = 0 and a b= b a 6. Since, for the base vectors, we have e i e j = ijk e k where is dened by 1 ijk = 1 0 if i, j and k are in cyclic order if i, j and k are in acyclic order if any two of i, j and k are equal, (1.9) (1.8)

4 therefore, the vector product also can be written as a b = (ai e i ) (bj e i e j ) = ai b j ( e j ) = ai bj (ijk e k) = ijk ai bj e i = ijk aj bk e i k = jki aj bk e th ijk aj bk is the i component of a b 7. Since a a = 0, we have ijk aj ak = 0 (1.10) (1.11)

1.5

Scalar triple product


a1 a2 a3 b1 b2 b3 c1 c2 c3

The scalar triple product of three vectors a , b and c is given by a ( bc ) = = (b2 c3 b3 c2 ) a1 + (b3 c1 c1 c2 ) a2 + (b1 c2 b2 c1 ) a3 (1.12)

Some properties of scalar triple product are 1. a ( b c ) = 0 means a , b and c are coplanar, that is, there exists two scalars and such that a =b+ c . 2. Since a b = ijk aj bk , ( a b) c = ijk aj bk ci = ijk ai bi ck

1.6

Vector triple product


a ( b c ) = ( a c ) b ( a b) c ( a b) c = ( a c )b (b c ) a (1.13) (1.14)

The vector triple product of three vectors a , b and c satises

1.7

Matrix product in index notation

let A = [aij ], B = [bij ] and C = [cij ] be three square matrices of order 3 such that C = A B then, we have 3 cij = aik bkj [aij ] [bij ] = aik bkj (1.15)
i=1

Some properties of matrix product 1. [aij ] [aij ] = aik akj 2. [aij ] [bij ]T = aik bjk 3. [aij ]T [bij ] = aki bkj

4. ([aij ] [bij ])T = [bij ]T [aij ]T = ajk bki

1.8
1.8.1

Some problems involving the index notation


Problem

Given (with usual notation for aij , bij and ij ) aij = ij bkk + bij then, express bij in terms of aij . Solution : From the given relation, for i = j , we have aij = bij . 1 That is, when i = j , we have bij = aij . For i = j , we have aii = 3(b11 + b22 + b33 ) + bii = (3 + )bpp . Therefore, when i = j , we have bpp = 31 a (Note that ii = 3) + pp Putting the above two statements together, we have bij 1 1 (aij ij bpp ) = = ( ij app aij 3 + )

1.8.2

Problem

aij = aji if and only if ijk ajk = 0. Solution : For i = 1, we have


3 3 j =1 k=1

ijk ajk = 1jk ajk = = =


3 j =1

1jk ajk

(1j 1 aj 1 + 1j 2 aj 2 + 1j 3 aj 3 ) (1j 2 aj 2 + 1j 3 aj 3 ) , since 1j 1 = 0

= 132 a32 + 123 a23 , since all the other terms are zero = a23 a32 Similarly, we have 2jk ajk = a31 a13 and 3jk ajk = a12 a21 . Using these three relations, it is easy to prove the given statement.

3 j =1

1.8.3

Problem
a i1 a i2 a i3 aj 1 aj 2 aj 3 ak1 ak2 ak3

Show that pqr aip ajq akr =

1.8.4

Problem
det(aij ) = pqr a1p a2q a3r = pqr ap1 aq2 ar3

Show that

1.9
1.

Some results which involve ijk


ijk pqr det(aij ) = aip aiq air ajp ajq ajr akp akq akr

2. ijk pqr = 3.

ip iq ir jp jq jr kp kq kr

ijk pqr = ip jq iq jp 4. ijk pjk = 2 ip 5. ijk ijk = 6 6. det(aij ) = 7. det(aij ) = 8. det(aij ) = 9. ijk det(aij ) = pqr aip ajq akr = pqr api aqj ark 1 ijk pqr aip + ajq + akr 6 1 ijk pqr api + aqj + ark 6

1 (aii ajj akk + 2aij ajk aki 3aij aji akk ) 6

Chapter 2 Orthogonal Curvilinear Coordinates


2.1 Introduction

For any physical space, a coordinate system, for example as shown in Fig 2.1, is necessary for dening the problem, locating the objects, evaluating the properties, providing a reference for discussion etc. Generally three coordinates are essential to dene the location of a particle in any 3D space. Similarly, two coordinates are sucient to locate a particle either moving or stationary in a plane.

Figure 2.1: Coordinate system

2.2

Curvilinear Coordinates

Let (x1 , x2 , x3 ) be the rectangular coordinates of any point, say, P in a rectangular coordinate system (xi ), i = 1, 2, 3. 7

8 Expressing x1 , x2 , x3 in terms of some curvilinear coordinates u1 , u2 , u3 gives x 1 = x 1 ( u1 , u 2 , u 3 ) x 2 = x 2 ( u1 , u 2 , u 3 ) x 3 = x 3 ( u1 , u 2 , u 3 ) (2.1)

or conversely expressing the curvilinear coordinates u1 , u2 , u3 in terms of the rectangular coordinates x1 , x2 , x3 gives u1 = u1 ( x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ) u2 = u2 ( x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ) u3 = u3 ( x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ) (2.2)

Functions (2.1) and (2.2) are assumed to be single valued and have continuous partial derivatives so that the relation between x1 , x2 , x3 and u1 , u2 , u3 is unique. Thus, given a point P (x1 , x2 , x3 ), the corresponding unique set of coordinates (u1 , u2 , u3 ) can be obtained using (2.2) or the other way using (2.1). The coordinates (u1 , u2 , u3 ) are called the curvilinear coordinates of P .

2.2.1

Orthogonal Curvilinear Coordinates

Enormous simplications can be achieved by using dierent coordinate systems in many mathematical problems as in a Boundary value problems for Partial Dierential Equations with boundary conditions specied at the coordinate surfaces. One of them is the orthogonal system, wherein, at any point of the space, the vectors aligned with the three coordinate directions are mutually perpendicular. The variation of a single coordinate, in general, will generate a curve in space, rather than a straight line; hence the term curvilinear. The surfaces, shown in Fig 2.2, u1 = c 1 , u2 = c2 , u3 = c 3 (2.3)

where c1 , c2 and c3 are constants, are called coordinate surfaces. These are the surfaces generated by holding one coordinate constant and varying the other two. The intersection of any two of these surfaces generates a coordinate curve or line. If they intersect at right angles, then such a coordinate system is called orthogonal coordinate system. In what follows, we present some important results from the orthogonal curvilinear coordinate systems.

2.3
Let

Unit Vectors
r = x1 i + x2 j + x3 k (2.4)

Figure 2.2: Coordinate surfaces be the position vector of the point P . Using (2.1) in (2.4) gives r = r (u1 , u2 , u3 ) (2.5)

r is a tangent vector to the u1 curve at the point P . Then the corresponding unit and u 1 tangent vector e 1 in the direction of u1 is

e 1 = or

1
r | u | 1

r u1

(2.6)

r r = h1 e 1 , where h1 = u1 u1 Similarly, we have r r = h2 e 2 , where h2 = u2 u2 r r = h3 e 3 , where h3 = u3 u3

(2.7)

The unit vectors e 1, e 2 and e 3 are in the directions of increasing u1 , u2 and u3 , respectively. The quantities h1 , h2 and h3 are called the scale factors.

10

Figure 2.3: Tangent and normal unit vectors at a point P ui is a vector normal to the coordinate surface ui = ci for i = 1, 2, 3 at P and we denote i = ui , i = 1, 2, 3 E (2.8) |ui |

as the unit normal vectors to the surfaces ui = ci , i = 1, 2, 3 at P . Therefore, at every point P of a curvilinear system, there exists two sets of unit vectors (e 1, e 2, e 3 ) which are tangent 1 , E 2 , E 3 ) which are normal to the coordinate surfaces as to the coordinate curves and (E shown in Fig. 2.3. Note : In any orthogonal coordinate system (e 1, e 2, e 3 ) and (E1 , E2 , E3 ) are identical. of the rectangular coordinate system These two sets of vectors are analogous to the i, j, k but they may change from point to point unlike the latter.

2.3.1

Example :

r , r , r ) and (u1 , u2 , u3 ) constitute a reciprocal system of vectors, that Show that ( u 1 u2 u3 is { r 1, i = j (2.9) u j = 0, i = j ui

where i and j take any values of 1, 2, and 3. Proof : We have, from (2.5) dr = r r r du1 + du2 + du3 u1 u2 u3 (2.10)

11 Therefore u1 . d r = du1 = ( ) ( ) ( ) r r r du1 + u1 . du2 + u1 . du3 u1 . u1 u2 u3 r r r u1 . = 1, u 1 . = 0, u 1 . =0 u1 u2 u3

Similarly, the other relations can be obtained.

2.4

Representation

can be represented in terms of the unit base vectors (e Any vector A 1, e 2, e 3 ) or (E1 , E2 , E3 ) as = a1 e A 1 + a2 e 2 + a3 e 3 3 = A1 E1 + A2 E2 + A3 E (2.11) (2.12)

in each system. Also, in terms where a1 , a2 , a3 , A1 , A2 , A3 are the respective components of A of the base vectors, A2 r A3 r = A1 r A + + h1 u1 h2 u2 h3 u3 r r r + C2 + C3 = C1 u1 u2 u3 3 Ai r = Ci i , Ci = , i = , h u i i i=1 = A

hi =

r ui

(2.13)

or

a1 a2 a3 u1 + u2 + u3 |u1 | |u2 | |u3 | 3 ai ci i , ci = = , i = ui |ui | i=1

(2.14)

and c1 , c2 and c3 are the covariant C1 , C2 and C3 are called the contravariant components of A . components of A

2.5

Arc length

The key to deriving expressions for curvilinear coordinates is to consider the arc length along a curve. From (2.5), we have dr = r r r du1 + du2 + du3 u1 u2 u3 = h1 du1 e 1 + h2 du2 e 2 + h3 du3 e 3

(2.15)

12

Figure 2.4: Volume in curvilinear coordinates Then the dierential of arc length ds is determined from ds2 = dr .dr . For orthogonal systems 2 2 2 2 ds = h1 du1 + h2 du2 + h3 du3 since e i .e j = Therefore, we have ds = (
3 i=1 2 h2 i (dui )

1, i = j 0, i = j )1/2

(2.16)

(2.17)

The fact that a space curve has an independent geometric signicance indicates that the quantity in brackets, in (2.17), must be invariant to the choice of the coordinate system. We will consider non-orthogonal systems or arc length in more general curvilinear systems later.

2.6

Volume element

Since u2 and u3 are constant along the u1 = const curve, we have dr = h1 du1 e 1, and similarly dr = h2 du2 e 2, dr = h3 du3 e 3, along u2 curve along u3 curve along u1 curve (2.18)

13 For a given orthogonal curvilinear coordinate system, the dierential volume element corresponds to the volume of a parallelepiped with adjacent sides h1 du1 , h2 du2 and h3 du3 is shown in the Fig 2.4. The volume is given by the scalar triple product, therefore dv = |(h1 du1 e 1 ) . (h2 du2 e 2 ) (h3 du3 e 3 )| = h1 h2 h3 du1 du2 du3 since we have |e1 .e2 e3 | = 1.

(2.19)

2.7

Surface element

Expressions for dierential surface elements are obtained by using the geometric representation of the cross product. If dsi refers to a surface on which the coordinate ui is held constant, we obtain ds1 = h2 du2 e 2 h3 du3 e 3 = h2 h3 du2 du3 ds2 = h3 du3 e 3 h1 du1 e 1 = h1 h3 du1 du3 ds3 = h1 du1 e 1 h2 du2 e 2 = h1 h2 du1 du2 (2.20) (2.21) (2.22)

2.8

The gradient

An expression for the gradient in orthogonal curvilinear coordinates is obtained by examining the dierential change in a scalar function associated with a dierential change in position. If d = f1 e (2.23) 1 + f2 e 2 + f3 e 3 then, our aim is to compute f1 , f2 and f3 . Letting = (u1 , u2 , u3 ), we have d = Also d = dr . = dui u i i ) ( .
j

(2.24)

hi e i dui

fj e j

hi fi dui

(2.25)

Comparing (2.24) and (2.25), we see that fi = Therefore = 1 h1 ui hi = ui (2.26)

This is the general expression for the gradient operator, valid for any orthogonal curvilinear coordinate system.

e i , h u i i i

(2.27)

14

2.9

Divergence of a vector

= (A1 , A2 , A3 ) in orthogonal curvilinear coordiExpression for the divergence of a vector A nates: From the derivation of the gradient operator, we have e e e e e 1 u1 2 u2 3 u3 1 u1 1 u1 = + + = = (2.28) h1 u1 h2 u1 h3 u1 h1 u1 h1 Similarly, we have e 1 = h 1 u 1 e 2 = h 2 u2 e 3 = h 3 u3 or or or
1 h 1 = |u1 | 1 h 2 = |u2 | 1 h 3 = |u3 |

(2.29)

(2.30) (2.31)

Using (2.30), we have

u2 u3 = So that

e e 2 e 3 1 = h2 h3 h2 h3

and

A1 e 1 = A 1 h 2 h 3 ( u2 u3 )

e 1 = h 2 h 3 ( u2 u3 ) ; e 2 = h 3 h 1 ( u3 u1 ) ; e 2 = h 1 h 2 ( u1 u2 ) ;

(2.32) (2.33)

. (A1 e 1 ) = . (A1 h2 h3 (u2 u3 )) = (A1 h2 h3 ) . (u2 u3 ) + A1 h2 h3 ( . u2 u3 ) e e 3 2 = ( A1 h 2 h 3 ) . h2 h3 after using (2.29), (2.30) and the fact that the div curl of a vector is zero ) e e e e e 2 3 2 3 1 + + ( A1 h 2 h 3 ) . . (A1 e 1) = h1 u1 h2 u2 h3 u3 h2 h3 1 = ( A1 h 2 h 3 ) h1 h2 h3 u1 Similarly, we also have 1 . ( A2 e ( A2 h 3 h 1 ) 2) = h1 h2 h3 u2 1 ( A3 h 1 h 2 ) . ( A3 e 3) = h1 h2 h3 u3 Putting all the three terms together gives ( ) 1 .A = (A1 h2 h3 ) + (A2 h3 h1 ) + (A3 h1 h2 ) h1 h2 h3 u1 u2 u3 (

(2.34)

which is the general formula for the divergence in the curvilinear coordinates.

15

2.10

Curl of a vector

The curl of a vector in curvilinear coordinates is expressed as follows: We have, from (2.29) A 1 e 1 = A 1 h 1 u 1 = ((A1 h1 )) u1 + a1 h1 u1 e 1 = ((A1 h1 )) h1 ( ) e e e e 1 2 3 1 = + + ( A1 h 1 ) h1 u1 h2 u2 h3 u3 h1

A1 e1 = Similarly A2 e2 A3 e3

( (

e 2 h3 h1

(A1 h1 ) u3

e 3 h2 h1

(A1 h1 ) u2 (2.35)

) ( ) e e 1 3 (A2 h2 ) (A2 h2 ) = h1 h2 u1 h3 h2 u3 ( ) ( ) e e 1 2 = (A3 h3 ) (A3 h3 ) h2 h3 u2 h1 h3 u1

When all the components are put together, the curl is written as a determinant form given by = A 1 h1 h2 h3 h1 e 1
u1

h2 e 2
u2

h3 e 3
u3

(2.36)

A1 h1 A2 h2 A3 h3

2.11

Laplacian in orthogonal curvilinear coordinates

We have, from the gradient = ( e e e 2 3 1 + + h1 u1 h2 u2 h3 u3 )

= in (2.34), we nd that By setting A 1 = . = h1 h2 h3 ( u1 ( h2 h3 h1 u1 ) + u2 ( h3 h1 h2 u2 ) + u3 ( h1 h1 h3 u3 ))

(2.37) This completes the results for orthogonal curvilinear coordinates. The remainder of this section is devoted to the useful special cases.

16

( , !, z)

Figure 2.5: Cylindrical coordinate system

2.12
2.12.1

Some orthogonal curvilinear coordinate systems


Cylindrical coordinate system

Circular cylindrical coordinates, denoted as (, , z ), are shown in the Fig 2.5. The cylindrical coordinates are related to the rectangular coordinates (using (x, y, z ) instead of (x1 , x2 , x3 )) as x = cos , y = sin , z=z (2.38)

where 0, 0 2 and < z < . This gives y = tan1 , = x2 + y 2 , x

z=z

(2.39)

Note that for the points on the z axis, that is when (x = 0, y = 0), is indeterminant. Such points are called singular points of the transformation. The coordinate surfaces are = C1 ; = C2 ; z = C3 ; The coordinate curves are intersection of r = C1 intersection of r = C1 intersection of = C2 and and and = C2 ; = C3 ; = C3 ; is a circle or point is a semi-circle forc1 = 0 is a line (2.43) (2.44) (2.45) coaxial cylinders with z axis as the axis planes passing through the z axis planes perpendicular to the z axis (2.40) (2.41) (2.42)

17 The position vector of any point P is expressed as r = x i + y j + zk = cos i + sin j + zk Using (2.7), we have r = cos i + sin j r = sin i + cos j r = 1 z Therefore, the scale factors are h1 = h2 = h2 = Since, we have e i =
1 r h1 ui

(2.46)

(2.47) (2.48) (2.49)

r = cos2 + sin2 = 1 r = 2 cos2 + 2 sin2 = r =1 z

(2.50) (2.51) (2.52)

for i = 1, 2, 3, the base vectors for the cylindrical coordinates are e 2 = sin i + cos j, e 3 = k (2.53)

e 1 = cos i + sin j,

Inverting the (2.53), the base vectors in the rectangular coordinate system, in terms of the base vectors of the cylindrical coordinate system are i = cos e 1 sin e 2, j = sin e 1 + cos e 2, =e k 3 (2.54)

The gradient, divergence, curl and Laplacian operators in cylindrical coordinate system are as follows: Gradient of a scalar function f e i f , h u i i i ui f e f 2 f + +e 3 z

f =

hi =

= e 1

= ( A1 , A 2 , A 3 ) Divergence of a vector function A ( ) 1 = (A1 h 2 h 3 ) + ( A2 h 3 h 1 ) + (A3 h1 h2 ) .A h1 h2 h3 u1 u2 ( ) 1 (A1 ) A2 A3 1 (A1 ) A2 (A3 ) + + + + = = u1 z u1 z

(2.55)

18

Figure 2.6: Volume and surface elements in cylindrical coordinate system = (A1 , A2 , A3 ) Curl of a vector function A

= A

1 h1 h2 h3

h1 e 1
u1

h2 e 2
u2

h3 e 3
u3

A1 h 1 A2 h 2 A3 h 3

1 =

e 1

e 2

e 3
z

(2.56)

A1 A2 A 3

Laplacian of a scalar function

( ( ) ( ) ( )) 1 h2 h3 h3 h1 h1 h1 = . = + + h1 h2 h3 u1 h1 u1 u2 h2 u2 u3 h3 u3 ( ) 2 2 1 1 (2.57) + 2 2+ 2 = z The dierential volume and surface elements are evaluated as dv = d d dz ds = d dz ; ds = d dz ; (2.58) (2.59)

dsz = d d

2.12.2

Some problems

Example : Prove that the cylindrical coordinate system is orthogonal.

19 Example : in cylindrical polar coordinates. = z Represent the vector A i 2x j + yk Example : Express the velocity and acceleration cylindrical polar coordinates. Example : Find the arc length in cylindrical polar coordinates.

2.12.3

Spherical coordinate system

Spherical polar coordinates, denoted as (r, , ), are shown in the Fig 2.7. These coordinates are related to the rectangular coordinates (using (x, y, z ) instead of (x1 , x2 , x3 )) as x = r sin cos , y = r sin sin , z = r cos (2.60) where 0 0, 0 2 and 0 . This gives

Figure 2.7: Spherical polar coordinate system r= x2 + y 2 + z 2 , = tan


1

y , x

= tan

The coordinate surfaces are r = C1 ; = C2 ; = C3 ;

x2 + y 2 z2

(2.61)

spheres having the center at the origin planes passing through the z axis cones having the vertex at the origin, lines if C3 = 0 or , xy plane if C3 = /2

(2.62) (2.63) (2.64)

20 The coordinate curves are intersection of = C1 intersection of = C1 intersection of = C2 and and and = C2 ; z = C3 ; z = C3 ; is a straight line (z curve) is a circle ( curve) is a straight line ( curve) (2.65) (2.66) (2.67)

The position vector of any point P is expressed as r = x i + y j + zk = r sin cos i + r sin sin j + r cos k Using (2.7), we have r = sin cos i + sin sin j + cos k r r = r sin sin i + r sin cos j r = r cos cos i + r cos sin j r sin k Therefore, the scale factors are h1 = hr = 1 ; Since, we have e i =
1 r h1 ui

(2.68)

(2.69) (2.70) (2.71)

h2 = h = r ;

h = r sin

(2.72)

for i = 1, 2, 3, the base vectors for the spherical coordinates are e r = sin cos i + sin sin j + cos k e = cos cos i + cos sin j sin k e = sin i + cos k (2.73) (2.74) (2.75)

Inverting the (2.73), the base vectors in the rectangular coordinate system, in terms of the base vectors of the spherical coordinate system are i = sin cos e r + cos cos e sin e j = sin sin e r + cos sin e + cos e = cos e k r sin e The line elements are dx2 dy 2 dz 2 ds2 = = = = sin cos dr + r cos cos d r sin sin d sin sin dr + r cos sin d + r sin cos d cos dr r sin d dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2 = dr2 + r2 d2 + r2 sin2 d2 (2.79) (2.80) (2.81) (2.82) (2.76) (2.77) (2.78)

The gradient, divergence, curl and Laplacian operators in spherical coordinate system are as follows:

21 Gradient of a scalar function f e i f , hi ui i ui f f e e f + + r r r sin

f =

hi =

= e r

(2.83)

= ( A1 , A 2 , A 3 ) Divergence of a vector function A ( ) 1 (A1 h 2 h 3 ) + ( A2 h 3 h 1 ) + ( A3 h 1 h 2 ) h1 h2 h3 u1 u2 1 (A1 r2 ) 1 A2 sin 1 A3 = 2 + + r r r sin r sin

= .A

(2.84)

= (A1 , A2 , A3 ) Curl of a vector function A h1 e 1


u1

= A

1 h1 h2 h3

h2 e 2
u2

h3 e 3
u3

A1 h1 A2 h2 A3 h3

1 = 2 r sin

e r
r

re

r sin e

(2.85)

A1 rA2 r sin A3

Laplacian of a scalar function ( ( ) ( ) ( )) 1 h2 h3 h3 h1 h1 h1 = . = + + h1 h2 h3 u1 h1 u1 u2 h2 u2 u3 h3 u3 ( ) ( ) 2 1 1 1 (2.86) r2 + 2 sin + 2 2 = 2 r r r r sin r sin 2 The dierential volume and surface elements are evaluated as dv = r2 sin dr d d dsr = r2 sin d d; ds = r sin dr d; ds = r dr d (2.87) (2.88)

2.12.4

Parabolic cylindrical coordinates

The parabolic cylindrical coordinates are denoted by (u, v, z ). These are related to the rectangular Cartesian coordinates as 1 x = (u2 v 2 ), y = uv, z = z 2 where < u < , v > 0 and < z < . Therefore, the scale factors are h u = h v = u2 + v 2 , hz = 1 (2.89)

(2.90)

The traces of the coordinate surfaces on the xy plane are shown in the Fig. 2.9. These are confocal parabolas with common axis.

22

Figure 2.8: Volume and surface elements in spherical coordinate system

x = (u uv v)/2, y = u v, z = 0

1 0.5 0 0.5
y

1 0.5
x

0.5

Figure 2.9: Parabolic cylindrical coordinate system

23

2.12.5

Parabolic coordinates

The parabolic coordinates are denoted by (u, v, ). These are related to the rectangular Cartesian coordinates as x = uv cos , y = uv sin , 1 z = ( u2 v 2 ) 2 (2.91)

where u 0, v 0 and 0 < 2 . Therefore, the scale factors are h = uv h u = h v = u2 + v 2 ,

(2.92)

2.12.6

Elliptic cylindric coordinates

The elliptic cylindric coordinates are denoted by (u, v, z ). These are related to the rectangular Cartesian coordinates as x = a cosh u cos v, y = a sinh u sin v, z=z (2.93)

where u 0, 0 v < 2 and < z < . Therefore, the scale factors are hu = hv = a sinh2 u + sin2 v, hz = 1

(2.94)

2.12.7

Prolate spherical coordinates

The prolate spherical coordinates are denoted by (, , ). These are related to the rectangular Cartesian coordinates as x = a sinh sin cos , y = a sinh sin sin , z = a cosh cos (2.95)

where 0, 0 < and 0 < 2 . Therefore, the scale factors are h = h = a sinh2 + sin2 , hz = a sinh sin

(2.96)

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