MACAW:

A Media

Access
Vaduvur

Protocol
Bharghavan and

for

Wireless

LANs

Department

of Electrical University

Engineering of California

Computer

Science

at Berkeley edu Lixia Center com Zhang

bharghav@cs.berkeley. Alan Demers Palo {demers, Scott Alto Xerox shenker, Shenker

Research Corporation

lixia}@parc.xerox.

Abstract
In has digit for LAN tocols Xerox with Karn off. leads cantly recent years, a wide including will In variety of mobile adequate a new paper Alto access by and in such exchange algorithm. computing and of network generation media being first which Center. uses devices personal y wireless proat start by RTSbackperanalysis a signifi-

lation will

results be more

may generally media

only

apply that some applicable.

to

PARCs of the for next work basic

particular insight

radio gained can ac-

technology, emerged, these for the portables, require this Palo media refined exchange issues palmtops, Wireless typically cess. the For multiple by

we expect

access

protocols in the

a single section, is based protocol by to Biba network recognition

channel

al assistants. devices a single MACA later packet technology. Corporations [9] and Using

Providing

connectivity access developed We an proposed

be categorized reasons access Access, Karn [9] simulations

as either

token-based

or multiple

we explain approach. Collision and several in Karns later of the

we choose on MACA, first [3]. to guide We of its design followthe note the carthat, secfairly, entereach the incan contention proUsing our call geis

we study LAN protocol Biba [3] binary Research

1 Our

channel

wireless

a Multiple posed design, the based ing is rier in in at nealogical on the sense contrast fact, the Third, That learn access Karn packet-level resulting

Avoidance refined wireless in First the This

we suggest roots four [9] and receiver, approach to first

modifications MACAW, original [4, 12], that

MACA. Our observe, renders we wit bout

CTS-DATA formance and

exponential various Our

algorithm key

packet-level design protocol,

simulations, MACAW,

we examine protocols, which and uses

proposal we relevant

observations. not the sender.

to a new different

an RTS-CTS-

others

DS-DATA-ACK

message backoff

includes

inappropriate. congestion that, observation

Second, is location media

Ethernets,

dependent; access

Introduction
years, a wide including as stand-alone intended a new to generation variety of mobile While machines, as full of wireless network wireless computing digital first of these the many devices assisnew portables citizens. technolfor

is irrelevant to allocate must protocol rather independently. propagate periods, this be just so that means provides initiated levels access

ond. In recent have tants, were devices and designed are emerged, palmtops, personal prise. device media

we conclude congestion the media is,

learning congestion

about

be a collective should than having Fourth,

propagate

portable

computers. function adequate particular,

information about protocol about

explicitly congestion should In particular, not to attempt 5 sections. on PARCs protocol. MACA; data for

network network
cormectivitY

synchronize all that by

ation

Consequently,

formation for

contention should

devices the to

ogy is needed to provide these mobile devices. In works

ogy in

cent end effectively. bandwidth While device. formance it is merely there vide MACA our presenting our

cent ention sending perthat note

local enabling
mobile

area

net-

(LANs) be initially,

are expected

to be a crucial

technoldevices

proposed

protocol MACA), to deal In unresolved

enhanced these

traditional
media thus media protocols One the Computer

will

office settings where such and most heavily, utilized. network key questions paper, Our a media LANs. In this of the is how

(as compared an initial has access to remaining

we hasten with design Section radio

challenges; proon the by con4

The resource; shared access purpose. use Palo some wireless in in the

in a wireless one is controlled. in wireless goal network Science Center performance access

is a shared, we focus research access being goal issues our

and access has

scarce, to this a dual for

are many paper media some

issues.

This

2 we first
and

on media

background

network in Section these

We then, we motivate several

3, discuss changes

is to develop Laboratory [7, 8].

protocol

modifications simulation

wireless Research basic

infrastructure The other

developed is to explore inherent in simu-

different

network

at Xerox design While

Corporations

Alto

figurations. We discuss remaining design issues and summarize our findings in Section 5.
1 We make expect in future in-depth work to revisit the token-based

in Section

of the

and

media

protocols.

specific

approach

and

a more

comparison.

Permission to copy without fee all or part of this material is granted provided that the copies are not made or distributed for direct commercial advantage, the ACM copyright notice and the title of the publication and its date appear, and notice is given

that copying is by permission of the Association of Computing Machinery. To copy otherwise, or to republish, requires a fee and/or specific permission. SIGCOMM 94 -8/94 London England UK @ 1994 ACM 0-89791 -682 -4/94/0008 ..S3.50

212

2
2.1
The Palo radio

Background
PARCs
Computer Alto t ethnology effects, LAN. which complete and all The built wireless (the All the base

or base besides

station, explicit

to know to note hear

about that,

the

presence

of other

devices our B,

communication. in the absence hear this effect our of our access of noise, a station symmetry, of noise. overprotocol testing to a sinmultiple access This where Second, the frequently. or recovery algorithm, (CSMA). argue, approach In small ap First, is the cell This in curthe a it the if a station the may we design; but different these We are gamut and token multiple is carrier properties that the its station interfere will consider that done A can A. The with the

Nano-Cellular
Science [7]; and LAN portable description). base The near-field tow base with that each Given stations range signal r- its

Radio

Network
at Xerox 5 MHz frequency for consists and devices is a single is between Corporations near-field eliminates of base pads, (see 256kbps a pad together at the is region). small defined very small cell 3 to very [8] stafor chanand same 4 merapidly We thus (roughly and interin a a by an a then and

It is important technology station (e.g., our factor noise in noise in sources However, riding to in tolerate There gle channel. access preach multiple especially mobile pect size, would One rently next Karn the these or over B can

Laboratory low operating

is symmetric; displays) is not our well setting.

Research

Center thus

has developed it is suitable in the There ceiling,

presence

of noise

multipath wireless tions, are more nel,

use in an indoor which

simulations

infrastructure computing

so prevalent rather, we have ways chose typically

we make most

are installed

we design

custom

a noise-free

communication stations and of

are many Typically, token-based. the

to control the for

base station Ethernet). signal ters, (X obtain, 6 meters cell .-3, and

are connected pads transmit decays transmission strength in the far-field a very sharply are

approaches two

are either multiple more robust. reasons.3

strength. as opposed around

token schemes in the

approach a wireless mobile

access devices pads pads

important span will

environment and, hand-offs access sense and CSMA given

station, very the the cells

of reliability. leave cells

we ex-

in diameter)

boundaries:

to be highly enter frequent wireless radio, [4, 12], setting.

a nanocell. interference A range receive a receiver tions, station; (w Perhaps given are that typically this 2 meters in is not our but this collision of two signal multi-cell

is negligible, is quite when occurs transmitting from to only either reception cleanly occur This this stations than whose a minimum

aggregate

bandwidth is in the

necessitate common used section [9] and

environment

high. a receiver and reception to cleanly when stacloser is large of x to and distance over be relatively range of the the is unable

token-based

scheme. in packet others our

stations2, station. range receive if the ratio

Capture of two signal signal is rather

occurs transmitting from ratio hard the ratio

we discuss e for

following is in-

is in the is able can

appropriate 2.2 In ting; mission lisions the transmitter.

power

10db or more).
surprisingly, the base no gives

requires

a distance ceiling

1.5.
pads floor.

CSMA
CSMA, if the every station (CSMA again). the that at the carrier for in Figure hear station that more 1. However, signals testing station senses schemes Carrier signal is, the it collisions is the receiver and does the not the differ sense strength occur that sender provide Two the hear carrier then as to in presence the at the of are the examples B but A and C). not before the station the to vicinity receiver, two or when transmitdefers transcolnot more not of the

achieve,

are in the a meter radius

detects

carrier

higher in a cell

or so above is just will

transmission is tried by

Roughly, under Thus, and

pad-to-base capture

of just 3 meters. rare, of one another the of we

attempts

avoid

environment, design occurs station station, signal The a major capture which of if within one and range model no pad quite any only in and but rather factor

a primary

consideration. a receiver unable of the sharp rare and two if in our to decay is in cleanly slightly is out-of-range interfering environment, design. leads are either a station is exactly our range different for this below. is much known. source for the of a pad way
pads

transmitter; Since

Interference transmitting transmitting closer the makes do not simple or receives transmitter we often umptions other, stations. dios. is still in any tification the in that the It far and stations signal. it interference make model both other

when

interfering sion. co-located, information this picted station we know point in

constitutes typically

a colliappropriate illustrate deC, and

receiver sense detail. Station station collision

receive presence

because

avoidance. Consider A B but hear can not

in signal

strength and to

configuration by symmetry,

rather

in our

C can

A (and,

Ignoring out-of-range

interference stations and there In

a very

B can

both

in-range one active assof each base rabut model jusFirst, easier However. location to know from a pad,
and base 3 These in future then can ressons work, to we make are merely intuitive guides for design. We hope, explore a vahd the tokencomparison bssed approach between the more fully. Only two approaches.

another, of it.

successfully protocol, Figure cannot sults to mitting 1: when

a packet use this that that This is not from of our

designing by the are within

(xJ
Station each B can other. to terminal hear C attempts exposed to A when assume (perhaps not detect the A to

@J)@)
hear A both hidden scenario A and while C, but A and C reterminal results if scenario transmit A is transmitting B is trans-

accompanied base stations is within for but to poor our not range

additional

no two

of two model

is an extremely so poor realistic. simulations, of the the there the access of is pads.

far-field radios, naive intuitive

near-field used

it

B. An

We have algorithms a shared

C attempts is sending B or at and B.

to transmit. to thus B. to When some Cs C is other carrier station ready station), sense A did was to

we do use it for given media are

of some

Controlling locations our setting for station.

use

if

transmit it does this not

perhaps Station

various no

devices independent

carrier necessary

commences since

transmission;

produces provide

a collision

information baae
We stations. will

There

is no way there
to refer

information

it is leaving

a cell

except

through

loss of signal for

Furthermore,
the term stat]on

is no
to both

213

hidden nario. An that when fore out ment essary though sion. Carrier sions can that carrier ance

from exposed C is ready

it.

This terminal to

is the

classic

hidden results detect there than

terminal if now to carrier

sceCTS

In would

the not from

hidden hear station As station CTS the

terminal RTS B and data from Bs from

scenario station therefore transmission. hear A,

in would the and

Figure defer

I, would

station hear trans-

C the

A, but In the RTS thus This this avoid of the

scenario than it does However, other as we stated

we assume B. and station Then, thereto deA is environthe nec-

from

B is sending defers of Cs there

A rather

A sending

mit ting but not

during the

exposed from would

t ermiB, to the exat to the elicit by and This hear stacolhde station

to transmit, to a station (and, no Cs not

rral scenario, transmit desired Thus, change receiver, from other thus tion with B, it the could Bs CTS If station will collision mission. algorithm

C would station data to

station be free

transmission. range are Station

is no reason B since in from not to with our

fer transmission

during behavior. in enables not stations crucially then the receiver collide

transmission. carrier-sense, stations The to role that impending that to a CTS schedule that B.

is exactly RTS-CTS

earlier, did

interference carrier it collide since was

effects sense exposed

out-of-range B even transmiscolliso avoidbased

contrast nearby

stations). it

provide station Bs

collisions RTS can are in is

information would sense sender,

sender. the CTS,

or interfere information

whose

reception they

be used range

as an

indication the

provides but when not not

about

potential This is distributed other. collision approach

with

transmission. cannot cannot from for station

at the be not

at the receiver. configuration range the below.

information Because

depends

on symmetry; we assume transmission not time and uses this then the hear out binary

if a station

misleading all stations sense does which

the provide

are within we chose we describe

of each relevant another

an incoming eventually occurred, MACA to select

A does

in response waiting), packet the

information,

to seek

(i. e., stop exponential

assume retrans(BEB)

on MACA,

backoff

2.3 Karn native MACA and basic present details).

MACA
proposed to also the to that MACA traditional similar in Link and general description types (RTS) of the and it this sends would of the the packet receiving defers (which this used brief for use CSMA to the WaveLAN, Access and in packet media protocol and both Protocol does fixed-size to B; this data currently replies contains receiving station time (this as well ). Any of in both station station data with length some Any not radio access as an scheme in Here algorithm many packconwe proA resemble [2]. of the specify signaling RTS packet (which of the alter[9]. [3] the we

retransmission

time.

3 Our able
detads these

Designing
purpose in

MACAW
here is to re-evaluate and then wireless produce LAN. some The design
investigation

is somewhat Apple a very LocalTalk a brief uses two station

proposed

of the MACA and

basic version leaves

by

design suit-

choices

MACA in [9],
for

a revised

for use in PARCs

unspecified. details an

algorithm,
many defining

description

([9] is itself
MACA ets. When

as p~esented

is a preliminary We start our

initial

version. of this are

Appendix MACA. algorithm 30 occur number A this the a CTS of BO via bytes the if defines

gives

the

of short, packet

pseudo-code We mention the for control transmission station after domly tween The ter functions, an RTS, does the end

we used several time not of BO, of packets

to implement aspects (RTS, these CTS) packets

A wishes

to transmit

to station transmission. deferring with the the after includes as the station the the length CTS, the

B, it sends If station

here. long. slot and only RTS.

First, The time if times ranbetwo afa Re-

a Request-to-Send t ains the length B hears explain (CTS) posed defers CTS time a CTS packets). With defer ceive avoid the every may long the CTS the RTS, below), packet; data all

proposed it is not also

retransmissions.

Retransmissions receive the with last a CTS deferral BO adjusts an integer

immediately CTS Upon until have CTS for

a Clear-to-Send st ation associated time for

in response period.

to its

transmission chooses, 1 and backoff

are scheduled uniform

of slot station integer through the

transmission. its data. transmissions

immediately packet at

overhearing the

an RTS

distribution, represents the value Whenever

where and

backoff

counter.

finished packet st ation4 the

algorithm Fdec the backoff

transmission

turnaround overhearing expected RTS an station the assures and RTS can CTS data CTS will rewill Since us that

F,m..

is received function

counter

is adjusted

transmission

is contained any the Any returning receiver,

Fd~d BO := F~~c(~O). ter an RTS, the backoff

Whenever a CTS counter is adjusted

is not received afvia the function =

algorithm, so that CTS. from CTS the (it by

hearing hearing

enough returning is sent of the be in not out

transmitting

Fd.c(z) F tnc: BO := F,. C(BO). For BEB, F,nc(s) = MIN[2z, BO maz ] , w h ere BOmin resent and ate other lator ing base viding strength from to the ducing the lower and upper bounds for the respectively. We our cation For our simulations simulations The simulator we have of the we have

BO~,~

and

and BOmaz repbackoff counter,

chosen protocol

BOm,n = 2
to evaluof

colliding station not

wit h the capable received

transmission. the data

BOma. = 64.
use packet-level design of the decisions. network simulator we use is a modifiused in a number

symmetry though, stations

of colliding all

transmission that due the to CTS other

is in range transmissions an RTS but sender mission, they the data but are not

is possible, in-range

the area). Notice that stations that hear a CTS because they are in range of the of the after receiver the CTS they can has commence been sent; collide transsince with harm,

studies (for example, [5]) of wired networks. The simuis event-driven and contains the following components: generator The space (which simulator into source size. small at each to the can For be the can generate TCP, and approximates cubes cube center made then according of the arbitrarily data UDP, the to cube. streams media the small accordand by dithe due by redistance to various stations. the the statistical models), 1P, pads, computing Errors

of range

a traffic

without

in range

of the

receiver

cannot

transmission.
the reception of the CTS; of the RTS this includes

of a signal signal cube cube the approach

at

4 This turnaround time is the time from the receiving antenna to the transmission system delays as well as radio

operating

transients.

simulations

mentioned

in this

214

base station

/? o
Figure in range base 2: station

EIEilia
Table 1: The throughput, in Figure 2. in packets per second, achieved

PI
celI arrows pads second configuration and both indicate are and each pads the

o
other

P2
all stations data of the data for are to the data

by the

streams

A single (the The per

where direction U DP

of each

are sending

generating As shown tually other is at noted all pad

enough in Table pad This

UDP

traffic

to fully using at off the

consume BEB its cell the collision backed-off If

the

channel. evenand the counter behavior if then thereby keeps pads beis no will

1, when transmits

algorithm capacity backoff Ethernet

transmission). of 64 packets

generating

at a rate transport.

a single

channel (i.e., to the single high

are using

is completely In such one co~lon have it first counter every

backed similar a multi-pad relatively is very and win

BOmac ).
in [11]. but every will its

is very

environment, counters and less-backed-off

paper In station base station the

the our

cubes

are A

1 cubic all at at all the

foot pads (which center strength

in size. are can of cubes. 6 feet be below either signal At station is greater and least refer to to 10 dB the the the a pad Whenever is added end than during set on 512 of here, 32 or bytes, Simulawith use a null protocol: exthe are to that to one of can correctly some than the packthe 64 and base or a a to the

pads

backoff that

simulations, station resides sending, signal the packet (the of the the from For

after pad reset coming

likely

height. station) start&

retransmit backoff after

the This the

a cube.

to BOrnin. collision, with win that to

phenomenon there

the

of the

recurring maximum permanently by having than pect the that

current the

nearby signal

decreasingly backoff, capture one other the pad backoff in the its and this views own there leads of the this,

likely the with even counter cell,

a collision. eventually This intuitively reflect same the for

transmission, receive threshold the entire We ets going station. devices packets the tions sum

designated if the other strength signals stream

receiving strength at 10 feet) by to sender simulations a constant data CTS, etc.) 500 The the basic our the total total turn and packets at times.

one can show channel. though

one pad backoff one ambient all pads. on its congestion having cell. algorithm the a station

dynamic

is driven counter would exlevel Each own inwidely by curhears counter. are from 1. Thus, in all this The havby of al-

signal

is greater

a significantly should is the

lower

pads,

packet use

transmission term a particular most second. packets run of the data at All (RTS,

of congestion pad is doing experience formation; varying including rent Thus, range pads value in of have a packet, To rectify

which

a particular reported of either are are 2000 30 bytes.

receiver

congestion is no to the level

calculation sharing different stations

based

of this in the backoff which its where own all

generate per

rate

of congestion modified a field into counter. value scenario each right counter. the

control

we have backoff that cell after backoff in

are typically period time. investigate algorithm protocol We should access also always the provide fairness6 easiest

between

and

seconds,

in the packet of the it our each the are copies single other, same shown

header

contains backoff stations

a warmup turnaround We the change. media and not often media user deliver backoff

of 50 seconds. two clearly fair over way areas and should access and optimal to optimize sharing the state to of

simulations media access

Whenever

RTS-CTS evaluation high media. network

message criterion: utilization goals (note over we choose These

successful The column dwseminated

transmission results of Table fair.

deliver when

algorithm throughput ing the the media Above gorithm adjustment the tion to

the is now

allocation congestion access

completely

compatible,

they

are not throughput the media

information protocol the

explicitly allocation backoff

throughput

produced basic

a fairer

in shared

resources. we modified allocate to the of the structure fairly. The it it An can BEB both also upon of the slightly backoff backs off bandwidth backoff protocol. rapidly; additional minor improve crdculaquickly backtransbackoff suca

is to eliminate exclusively).

computation

3.1
Recall

Backoff
that the to the level For in a cell,

Algorithm
MACA backoff minimal We now of fairness as depicted other (and
are value a precise

efficiency adjusts

extremely

uses

binary backoff show

exponential after after that the every every this simple case does where

backoff collision successful not

(BEB), and rean two is RTS-

in which duced CTS tions. pads range adequate

is doubled

when a collision is detected and OR counter to BOmin immediately mission. counter; cessful have period relevant for the This produces rather one-cell we return backoff there is high. such wild oscillations, are counter several to increase large in our simple transmission a minimal when media of contention

reduces the a successful in the after where This and we must a cell every

variations case then backoffs. in

exchange.

provide configuraare are each

our the

configuration, to the and the pads

in some in the

one-cell pads and

of on In

all stations repeat is mainly demand adopted backoff upon

Born..]

example,

consider

there

Figure base
on the

2; the station)
properties little effect

within pad

of each

5 These
however of the 6 We

parameters the specific give results.

based should

hardware, generality section any

To prevent a gentler interval success it

we have factor
=

instead the (1.5)

have

simulation do not

adjustment is increased is decreased

algorithm; by 1:

upon
Fine(z)

a collision, JflN[l.5z,

definition

of fairness,

this

by a multiplicative

and

intuitive notion of fairness there are deeper allocation definition of fairness.

is sufficient; ss we remark questions which do require

in Section 4, a more precise

and Fa..(z) crease and

= MAX[Z 1, BcL+I. This rnultb~cative inlinear decrease (MILD) still provides reasonably

215

base station

base station

(a

Figure in range base packets

3: station. per

A single of each Each second

cell

configuration All six pads UDP is generating using for

where data

all

stations data

are to the of 32 Figure in two base range 4: of the station. per A single cell and and configuration The the base third pad UDP where station all stations data to data at a rate are to the of 32 of each pads, Each second other. is sending data

other. and

are sending transport.

stream

at a rate

is sending for transport.

stream

is generating using

packets quick by not ing to escalation resetting repeat the in the the backoffs in when to the data two for BEB identical that with the backoff contention is high it avoids after in base but havevery Figure station. we can tion stations packets extent streams of to nications are likely This and BEB copy PI-B P2-B P3-B P4-B P5-B P6-B Table by the 2: The throughput, in F@re 3. MILD copy each then backoff We in pads data of MILD was essentially low interfere a clear the all counter tested

BOm,n
counters relative

escalation

at least equally); between possible, and not

state

that

in that to

a simple equally a stream allocate setting station,

single is the pair. bandwidth

cell

configurato all of is, to data the to

successful of these 3, which Table and The

transmission. algorithms has six the

performance

we want

to treat

all streams

(as opposed flow That This all wireless thus can base

configuration sending these

depicted to the MILD backoff

recall we want to the since source per the and treat contention each station,

a source-destination stations in our a base of many separate

2 shows illustrates performance above

from and

algorithms, algorithm. configlevel the

equally distinction commustations

advantage

themselves.

on the

two-pad the

is especially

relevant must to be the

uration contention BO~:n

because

go through of

is sufficiently = 2 does not

resetting

counters

streams. be implemented for send each (e.g., stream for after for streams be done the stacounter, destinatime. winner, streams a slight algothe If wait N independently to data pending can queues

performance.

notion running

stream backoff finds the that

fairness algorithm is allowed it the has media.

by keeping, queue.

in each When wait) we For a coin to

a station

a deferral destinations, when tion how tion. more second, achieved time, rather

2.96 3.01 2.84 2.93

3.00
3.05
in

6.10 6.18 6.05 6.12 6.14 6.09

per

station for with based

as N co-located This data on the an the have one RTS shortest the same of them may pending, backoff to this wait as the of this, have stream station.

resolving flips long It the than than

as follows.

destination before the sending one with picks a collision; in streams

to determine,

wait picks

then one

of these

shortest

packets

station from over be

randomly

streams

simulating streams seen in a fair

because station stream this of

originating advantage As 3.2 Let Our the head equally tion is sending is sending equally to can rithm of fair allocation packet BO of the allocates Consider pads; he pads, of the and of bandwidth. queue which packet the the the the at each cent rols at the

a multi-stream a single 3, Table allocation

multiple bandwidth

Multiple
us return initiaJ

Stream
to the

Model
notion backoff This there to two base gives and in

produces

among

competing design had (and queue. transmitting 4 where packets to the station a single FIFO parameter design stations. are three oft half station.

streams.

station, of

wit h a single the to all data each

Single B-Pi B-P2 P3-B Table by the 3: The

Stream 11.42 12.34 22.74

Multiple

Stream 15.07 15.82 15.64

transmission

retransmissions)

bandwidth configurastation pad the t bird bandwidth to base

in Figure

throughput, in Figure 4.

in

packets

per

second,

achieved

packets

Allocating bandwidth

streams

pad-to-base-station
bcme-station-to-pad

stream
streams,

a quarter this to

The data

to each of the two in Table 3 shows that each transmitshare and an equal 3.3 In the this role

when ting thus stream streams.

using station half and

a single (pad

queue

scenario, receives the two

or base station) bandwidth to each goes

Basic

Message

Exchange
the four basic RTS-CTS-DATA The and the CA material need for meson a

of the

pad-to-base-station base-station-to-pad is this fairness fair? for this

section of link

we examine and like here propose layer wisdom for

a quarter the allocation

of the to

sage

exchange

changes.

acknowledgment in the 802.11

Is this Certainly wireless

we want our ken

achieve; of

carrier-sense monly the material

functionaht

y (as in CSMA/

[2] ) is comwe repeat

defining setting

a general

definition at the

accepted

community;

is beyond

moment.

However,

completeness.

216

3.3.1
Many electronic transport UDP vide

ACK
of the layer was reliability. or by wait, are the timeout both timeout of the that upon applications require these used in In transport period local and at the Thus used reliable applications the MACA, by layer, TCP of 0.5sec, long can haul link-layer we have an from then data the the on mobile use TCP when noise, This data the devices, of data. such At to has to as the to prosuffer be a sighave chosen to is the
can

mail,

delivery

(as opposed packets error

which that

previous

simulations)

Figure range each and per

5: other. each

two The

cell pads using

configuration base are sending UDP for

where stations data data at transport. and

both also

pads in

are in of

of their stream and

respective

range

a collision, recovered nificant a minimum accommodate

corrupted current

to their a rate

base stations, of 64 packets

necessitates which data can was

is generating

as many

implementations

second

transmissions. be much to fit the the faster short basic only station only that matters. hear to hear its However, a returning any replies when Cs CTS. and transmission When thus B is initibenefit if C can is useless. get any simple

In contrast, because time packet, is not uled the the its the there not We a sirde v. modeled less of nation. original recovery when head
g~o

recovery media.

the

periods exchange is returned completion sender, If the the instead sending the The

be tailored

scales ACK,

amended

transmitting, ating and rapidly. relevant directional at both We defer because C cannot so does There carrier-sense defer carrier ensure ACK). chose carrier a station Every sion RTS-CTS transmissions (the that This sensing sends station is about a transfer does not With

C is unable

RTS-CTS-DATA immediately received for RTS backoff it ACK arrive. have

to include

acknowledgement to the sender If the indeed then ACK been when returns increases arrives when if does on is is sched-

7 Moreover,

C does

initiate incremes the only blour

receiver data was the The

response, uni-directional

backoff

counter with

of dat a reception. packet had not, sender packet

transmissions however, exchange, that data. not the was CTS, data. One it the

by the but

congestion ends of the

is at the transmission this

receiver; message line

ret ransmission. received for the ACK out;

RST-CTS-DATA conclude from while heard

congestion C should Note that and use must no is to We station

correctly

ACK

packet is sent,

is relevant. of reasoning and

retransmission

receiver or ACK its backoff the is not

associated times

of a CTS. an RTS,

transmission C has only tell not are if the two know

B is transmitting the RTS exchange transmitting to this useless slot slot do not CSMA/CA which sending Data-Sending this packet and that

if, after is received.

no CTS counter

before

sender backoff

decreases exchange

RTS-CTS

a success can

changed ACK noise noise (regarddestiFor to the The and

if B is indeed approaches sending until one

is a successful simulated

RTS-CTS the

but

problem. after time clobber

to avoid inclusion exposed

RTS s. A station detects air [2], not packet know that a data stations slot has of clear protocol does a DATA will

effects stream.

of intermittent Intermittent each at the its packet intended that

transmission

time

Dad-to-base-station as a given size) Table is not probability received the DATA noise layer. TCP inclusion vs. 40.41 1 packet results. and that

of a single terminals the

returning require packet, (DS). the all

cleanly resulting exchange, level The is much of the in the Given it ACK no

is essentially different hardware. a short which to

4 shows as the the

throughput. dramatic is due in severe. case),

the slow over-

a slightly

approach, Before 30-byte

RTS-CTSat the due

decresse throughput about when give noise that is the

in throughput ACK

increases less noise the that have exchange

decrease packet two

overhears these the

is included

exchange until

was successful occur; after ACK

transmisdefer passed.

to the PPS

is only algorithms

overhearing packet

(36.76 loss rate

the likelv

is only identical network data

in 1000 can

essentially effe~t for all

intermittent such decided should

to be KIresent. on th~ reliable

a deleterious P1-B1 P2-B2 Table by the 5: be used

RTS-CTS-DATA-ACK
46.72

RTS-CTS-DS-DATA-ACK
23.35 22.63 in packets per second, achieved

throughput, transmissions.

we have

augmented

RTS-CTS-DATA-ACK

o
The throughput, in Figure 5.

streams

Table

E!miima
4: The TCP presence throughput, data in packets between per second, and achieved by stream a pad a base station of noise.

Error

Rate

RTS-CTS-DATA

RTS-CTS-DATA-ACK

We the pad the loses tilely the next period

have

examined two-cell

the

performance of other packet, and when ACK is unable to the

of Figure

this 5.

protocol Here and of

in each

simple

configuration terminal the the period key after is that the it identify

is an exposed Table packet. first the losing (i.e., RTS)

should B only Now this its that

pad-to-base-station with one the next and to then the without the DS pads to fupacket the effecharm after the it is the the

stream. DS

5 shows Without contention The cannot slots

throughput DS

a single in the

proceeds

retransmit. pad the starts,

also if the we

without packet

contention before

therefore
note sender have after will that does included no not collide longer

compete
nOt

3.3.2 In the (Figure be free sender

DS
original 1), analysis we argued of the exposed that the even of the terminal configuration C should of the receiyer the

7 we sender CTS. packet, begins that B.

c ~E transmission not need the holds. the the with to receive

does

a packet after exposed then returned

ACK
If

packet the CTS,

DATA terminal possible A to

exposed though receiver

terminal A, and

assumption

to transmit B, it is out

because of range

it is in range

transmitting transmission

hearing

ACK

from

217

Figure range each

6: other.

two The

cell

configuration base stations each second stream and are

where stations is using and

both also

pads data for to data

are

in of

Figure range each pad UDP

7: other.

two Base

cell

configuration baae to base

where stations station and data B2. per

both also Each second

pads in Pl,

are

in of

of their

respective base and per

in range at

of their

respective station data at a rate

range stream and

sending generating UDP

their a

B1 is sending of 64 packets

to pad

and is using

respective

pads,

P2 is sending data transport. for

rat e of 64 packets

transport.

generating

tively pared data tially

for to most

access. the control of the its

Because packets, Thus, times during to time. RTS

DATA if the to the retry

packets losing it above, effectively, will

are stream station

large

comA secondary creasing We the ceives it then oft ral can problem it on solve both is that never of it the behalf B1s backoff a response problems B1. respond contention packet several to the first RTSs responds RRTS, to by (due period during with the Whenever counter from having a station to deferral), and the RTS). normal sends deferThe If mest o t he sender keeps P 1. P1 do reinbecause receives these of next cannot

an ongoing

is sending is essenend up data results pad and and must this fin-

picking

random which, Thus, packets for when it DATA other

usually

transmitting transmission in a collision. its This the following RTS send ish. in this informs of the add

middle

of an ongoing invariably the periods, start packet and section

contending an RTS contends

as we argued compete the data the during

to which during Request-t

contention transmissions

a Request-forhe RTS period, it

o-Send

(RRTS) received

requires

knowing need other control for configuration

(if it has received only responds in response times, long that a fair

synchronizing is supplied about In that packet), configurations. by the stations packet

information the DS existence next such

is crucial; (which length we will

recipient B1 sends defer shows for the

of an RRTS an RTS two slot

immediately to the

an RTS. an RRTS in Table

the

sage exchange RTS-CTS both

is commenced. occurs.

Stations enough The results access the 7 shows from does the

overhearing hear this media. not solve all column

another

provides

synchronizing

if a successful 6 protocol. such Now, conde-

information

exchange throughput have packet,

second to the

3.3.3 Consider where media. resulting porating B 1-PI B2-P2 (in that this riod. when receiving deferring can to arrive fact, the

RRTS
the each The from all stream stream it two-cell two first the the column version amendments is receiving section, same are all this confimration data in ~treams Table of the completely of its deDicted alo~e can in fully protocol so far. while throughput. configuration Figure 5 except streams packet of an only RTS of the RTS, it way (in pesize time the is B1 the Figure l~ad 6. the

streams The RRTS

however,

tention picted from ing the in the

problems. Figure version amendments is completely complete when time B1 can to of

Consider 7. Table the media

two-cell access

configuration protocol so far. the This incorporatThe P2-B2 is because by sending The its in is when gaps

of the

throughput

resulting B1-P1 stream most an only RTS

6 shows
access

throughput incorThe the

media

we have denied channel B 1 initiates

discussed access, while

we have

discussed access, requested as in

stream is getting of the RTS, time happens

is almost

denied

utilization. a data to P2s very and lack of knowing packet RTS. We

transfer transmission. short the

As in the

previous is the flows B2-P2 this, to initiates pad to the during data the

is a symmetric and the

P 1 cannot arrive data Again B1 are. hear

hear

it

due

configuration reversed) wins relatively transfer respond a transfer very and short the by with to

successfully during the key

initiate those is the

a transfer

one of the initizd large data most a CTS P2. in The its

between of P2s insince solve P1 this

case After B1

stream) to the of

contention

a completed next periods cannot problem. RTS. formation;

transmission no way RRTS incoming

transmission when the here yet to

due that

of synchronization contention

as compared

control

packets,

has The

a data data initiate those

sending

is irrelevant have

P 1 cannot

because

the

transmission

successfully data

is when gaps completion

happens a comP2s next

between

pleted CTS.

transmission

m
Table by the 7: The throughput, in Figure 7. in packets per second, achieved streams

Table
by the

6:

The

throughput,
in Figure 6.

in

packets

per

second,

achieved

streams

3.3.4
So far there

Multicast we have is a unique RTS-CTS others collisions only there cannot CTS. by discussed can be unicast packet. viable are likely we have multiple and being transmissions, For multicast for since the receivers where data multiwith such use an a packet,

receiver exchange For

for each

The mation; contention those not can

key

problem periods, start part

is again but

the

lack with no neither

of synchronizing B2 during way that of the of the very knowing DS packet base

inforshort when does stations

transmission, The each CTS ple receivers

B 1 is trying periods

to contend B 1 has or finish. of the

is no longer the time

coordinate having

to collide avoided

Notice other

solve hear

this any

problem

because

a multicast

transmission

streams

message

exchange.

218

. _
Figure cell two Cl counters 8: are A in leads two to cell

cl

L_._

@l
all

I
__ I

~/~\. PI
(offline)

P2

P3

configuration of pad P5. of backoff

where The

the of

pads

in the Figure range The data sending 9: A single base to the celJ configuration stations is sending base of 64 packets P1 is turned and data station. per off also in to each Each second after 300 where range pad, stream and all and using pads each are in other. pad is for

range loaded

copying values

backoff of the data at a rate Pad of each

leakage cells.

between

differently

base station

is generating UDP

RTS hearing

followed stations and DATA design, stations that not how work

immediately can identify therefore however, within any

by

the that

DATA the defer same RTS for

packet. is for the

The length

overof the Only and sender

a multicaat

transport.

seconds.

address, following This those those will signal out CTS rounds

all stations has the range range signal of

transmission. flaws sender but in the control without as CSMA. will not unicast yet defer, the the

were erage lower

no overhearing, backoff in C2. one copied value counter all value when the counter, However, another the two by leading from leading algorithm from different the P5 in

then would the leads cells. and

the

contention be rather high the that

level, in Cl border of the and counter

and and

the

avcan valP1 P6. high

much

are within

of a receiver to defer; packet. generated

fact to then A high

pads backoff from by

be given to make in the

case the to figure like several

overhear can All be

leakage backoff by now idle in Cl B2 have traverse have collisions. number problems. to another, accurately our

is delivered

by the receiver

CTS

We have

ues bet ween

messages involving

finally Similarly,

case of multicast

transmissions

C2 would to wasteful P6 can

an artificially the reverse

of contention.

backoff backoff to make Thus, the can

time.

a low route low

also

transmissions to wasteful creates one region counter in a cell. levels we use a single

an artificially

3.4 Due the

Backoff
to the

Algorithm
random MACAW of RTSS the they on the therefore earlier, The be the occur. nature

Revisited
of multiple a backoff are delayed The the access, algorithm, for a random and of this value collisions in are which

backoff

to model The even

congestion, backoff though the value the amSo

unavoidable. transmission of slots, collisions delay value media. As stated a high put crucial algorithm rat ely scribed to MILD level. tions we that single ways tention others. poorly tion and with near ally The other, C2. C2. the For also Notice how overall role reflect in to to streams.

uses

copying be copied have that

number to resolve random for the

to reduce once

probability backoff reflect the goal and backoff both the the counter;

of collision calculation the level

regions assured bient far There a CTS reflects a RTS close or the CTS there off the high the they ure (or

of congestion;

we are reflects

no longer

backoff level

is based should

of the backoff

contention we have then might to either receiver exchange the isnt

of contention is to achieve in MACAW For must from

is a second implicitly there fail to (so will sender is trying has In These made left

problem assumed However, return the never will any the cases, even

with that there

backoff and that

algorithm. fails this reasons collision why

if an RTS are other If there

to evoke an

of MACAW a fair algorithm of these backoff

both plays

has been

a collision, a CTS.

throughput achieving efficient, level

allocation goals. counters In Section computation

of througha backoff accuBEB sta3.1, ensures level wireless is heavy can the contention perform cells, the ( P5) Cl is to configuraborder by a is alLAN, conin 3. I we de-

congestion.

is a noise CTS each cell. then the

source RTSthough if to any a for region; in Figbase the P1. a cerbefore As we turned to

the sender

(so the RTS

returning After its in the which will

is corrupted) unsuccessful even Similarly,

is corrupted), backoff

of contention. backoff stable backoff will have

succeed. increase contention a pad there cell), this the

we modified

attempt,

to achieve a backoff use the

a more algorithm same

estimate all counter.

of the contention contending In Section that backoffs.

necessarily

to be fair, copying the the

a base station which base

to reach but

has been at all will contention of using in the

should contending that number,

be no response station have

introduced this This typically media cases.

a backoff stations design is only However, not in backoff some

scheme same contention

stations value

RTS both

is not sending there

related is little result level

contention. backoff media. are For

models

though

appropriate in our uniform. cells for counter

if congestion There

phenomena the ambient by the the and pad trying pad the base pads

are the congestion copying in a single each pad

a single

homogeneous. is for The in such depicted Cl C2 border to their near the the

multicell and light

number

to reflect example, to each

congestion

worse are three

algorithm. depicted The off. base cell. station

consider pad, time,

configuration

single

algorithm example, all one are two

9. There

Consider, 8. There four only pads two base

is sending station. base Every tain station RTS number

is sending

to the However, with after (in packet pad

in Figure contains cent ains

adjoining near of which are and the

Aft er some continues sent

P 1 is turned to communicate

(P1-P4), pads, of the pads

to the

results station of retries

in a timeout; gives on delay and B for up each

wit h C 1. All respective enough data border overhear

attempting are individuentire range channel.

of these the in packet; base slot

MACAW

transmit pads

stations are

we allow discarding discussed for the each earliest

a certain Section retry

number 3.2,

generating and

to consume (P I-P5) each others

see Appendix a random streams for stations is chosen

details). the stream Since

within

of each If there

interval

is chosen with there

so they

packets.

of the

transmission.

219

is a single equal selected, When base sion, the backoff for

base the

station

backoff chosen. wiIl other and be two

counter, Every increased streams out faster driven problem when The this high the the a high

all streams time by stream a factor

have B-PI of from

an is 1.5. the

finally the

successful). appropriate

Given ends

that

information, value according attempting should backoff value values

we then to to copying for of both backoff longer backoff to stations the

adjust usual

chance either station then backoff the

of being backoff of the is chosen backoff algorithm

backofi all

adjustment To nicate backoff except tion, each with value. now and packet

algorithms. fairness, same This there header. results the enables station to it. overall pad. the yet is stations station by our backoff backoff column commusame scheme, each ends stainto the by alare the receiving a separate the this This also The with right use the

emanating a successful by one. than

achieve

carries

transmisBecause the values. high value comis also staand but always eventuoverall 8.

counter increases

is reduced to very

is achieved insert

it decre~ess, high this

counter

is eventually to counter the by PI. other the The

we now

Because transmission of the backoff municates by the copied tion. the the ally and

P 1 is unreachable, is also used pads. i.e. pads

backoff is that the

is reasonable

of Table

8 shows affected copying be that

simulation algorithm; the for gorithm sending

per-destination is no station information to all per

copying

base station value the down station, will that the

throughput congestion

with used

problem backoff to

is exacerbated base

unresponsive a given

copying Successful

algorithm,

specific

transmitting bring back to backoff decreases high. in the As first

copied

transmissions is copied multiplicative backoff will as shown be

backoff base means

lowered fact all that the the

value the

increases a result, column

3.5

Preliminary

Evaluation
a detailed this

of MACAW
description to quantify in a cell In under and decrease a data which see by and noise. below, superior under that the rate MACAW is 78~0 this Note station. protocol of the the with Table the MACAW overhead a single 9, we original addi-

dominate thoughput

additive backoffs

Appendix protocol. introduced UDP show MACA tion by of

B contains We take by the from

is low,

of Table

opportunity to a base

MACAW a pad

stream the

packets-per-second RTS-CTS-DATA

transmitted exchange, exchange.

MACAWs the of throughput roughly achieves channel overhead cais in

RTS-CTS-DS-DATA-ACK the DS 870. which rate more presence However, than and ACK roughly MACA

packets achieves 201kbps, shall

217kbps, Table by the 8: The throughput, in Figure 9. in packets per second, achieved a data pacity. often the All three examples or receiver, and Figure strate to send separate earlier, requires stream. reflect sender. rately, but to each to then be used end that to the us The the These so that should in requires, not we must different backoff to (Figure 8, noise next to the sender 9) dLscussed in this section demonbetween station stream. of in the can when the at each the should As both message backoffs maintain we discussed exchange ends and estimated by the algorithm whether CTS sender we know we do In our not a CTS (this not returning the but of at the the The decisions results at when being and that not not know reat if at any In can is
BEB suffer has, the as Wo

is 84~0 channel as we

capacity.

of roughly

streams

compensated

performance

of congestion

differentiate pads. Each for for value at nature used both levels

used a Table

MACA

I RTS-CTS-DATA

] 53.07

MACAW
9: The

I RTS-CTS-DS-DATA-ACK
throughput, single in stream. packets per

I 49.07
second, achieved

counter account backoff

hi-directional

congestion

by a uncontested

a transmission destination be be shared computing the

should sepascenarios were from 10, four There C2 near other, they (P1-P5) of its The second, MACAW We remark using of to over handle data two The which pads only and the and can one C3 we used to simple. more scenario all (P5), (P6) is in border overhear their data rate the own motivate In has similar near which which range the this three to is near straddles of both are others station. to and data for each base B2 our various network cells Figure the the and within as shown 8. with Cl C2. design conin conC2 with beThe of howof the base to

congestion congestion this

should

information

coming,
backoff

extremely somewhat first (P1-P4), pad pad and

section

we present

be combined t ransmission.9 in the being there backoff fails, received is congestion RTS at any at the fails; at in is not the change sender

complicated

Estimating adjustment or to the but the at received, as well. the determining

congestion

figurations. Figure tains contains Cl. tween pads each ever, pads station B3. per the First, ment ity

is somewhat

an RTS-CTS the RTS ceived. we know the must there we will the change Appendix determine nation
8 In algorithm

exchange

it was due CTS is not, there

border

border border B3. range Each

If an RTS that If the

is received

is one

receiver.

C1-C2 so they only has cell. hear UDP Pad

(P1-P5)

be congestion is congestion not to make if the B, can

some

receiver, to the or the after

packets; from the stream

algorithms, estimate make fails. that exchange

the not

congestion we will if failed RTS-CTS

own and BEB by

streams in each

sender

an, RTS congestion we

similarly, detail the

of our

P6 is sending

a UDP stream

receiver an CTS

generation

is 32 packets each stream; with results. abilfor in the algorithm

describe RTS failed

algorithm

Table the

10 shows
performance

throughput MACA the has Thus, more Second, among than

if the only
sense,

determi-

we compare

of the aspects MACA has of

be definitive
this faster is

algorithm. on MACAW 37~0 in congestion a few over simulation yielded a superior compensated the streams an improve-

a problem than It

making; so would algorithm summing

decreases

increases,

the problem we describe here. Of course, the we have observed, problems of its own 9 we combine the congestion information backoff values.

throughput. overhead.

MACAWs a fairer

increased division

MACAW

has yielded

of throughput

220

, _
I

____

,__

_____

base cell, in cell

station the Cl,

in and

its the

cell, pads the an

and is such P4,

hearing that and P5,

all P7

other can

pads each data

in

their B 1 other.

configuration 11 shows achieves

hear hear TCP

P 1 and

P6 can in The and total

Table MACAW about a fairer streams put using

throughput improvement More capture

for each importantly, 46~o

stream. of P5-B3 achieves

throughput MACAW and

13% over distribution

MACA.

of throughput.

P7-B4

respectively

35~o

of the

through-

I I I
I C3 .
Figure levels 10: A configuration with

I I

32% and
mobility

MACA, while 24% respectively. was not prominent

with MACAW they receive only In this simulation, the impact of in either case.

MACA

I MACAW 2.39

.
three

.
cells

_
with varying

P1-B1

0.78

of congestion.

MACA

MACAW 3.45 3.84 3.27 3.80 3.83 3.72 3.72 3.59 7.82 7.80 25.16 per second, achieved In This Section data 3.3, 4 Table by the 11: The

TmnP2-B1 P3-B1 P4-B1 B1-P1 B1-P2 B1-P3 B1-P4 P5-B2 B2-P5 P6-B3 Table bythe 10: The throughput, Figure

9.61 2.45 3.70 0.46 0.12 0.01 0.20 0.66 2.24 3.21 28.40 in packets 10.

Eki_E!J
throughput, in Figure in packets per second, achieved 11.

streams

Future

Design

Issues
simulation the basic of including an ACK only way by packet to achieve the ACKS packets number the would on the had request did it We not have the queue the in it, could (by for of the sending wait CTS. results RTS-CTS the which sup-

we presented an the but ACK to importance requiring the

ported

adding shows ACK, exchange unless a bit onto which arrived had not for the in the

exchange. functionalbasic For in(through be piggyincluding most a stream station for the the a reat this. in every

isty of the message stance, setting backed field same 0.59 able can cell. packets to cope In for per with due MACA across higher data media second There Cl) and Cl the flanked a coffee (PI is due open error into the seconds - P4). to the area. rate into to and is 9.60 MACAW, any two second, packets highly the the maximum in in the MACA, Third, from losing difference same the cell between is only is and much of the Cl is about a area and tions the in Cl, by is there maximum MACAW too effect even C3 cells though where achieve cently a station would queue then piggy-backed throughput difference shield streams while per streamsin

is not the

specifically packet the than the at station one could sending subsequent

requested header), CTS sequence one packet ACK but

sender

indicated packet). more

Whenever

request a stream sending

merely next only

second.

acknowledgement a station would station a CTS, RTS. including

When

nonhomogeneous neighbors presence the level the is small.

congestion,

a single instead data a NACK tested merely are many yet

packet, of ACKS. as exback of here to exstaexin either note ways fully that data

uncontested

an ACK. receive send not We

throughput In both congestion has only the small PARC. (cell C3) cell in a much one same The

of a congested propagation than two Moreover,

neighbour.

Alternatively, Whenever pected to that the these level plored after

also use NACKS would

MACAW, contention running,

a receiving of the

cells

originator alternative while the that various the not

stream scenario, of the are by room (P6 four

ACKing case for

schemes. is strong, and Section during by the

utilization. as depicted cells, (C4). which Each in Figure represent of the office source electronic effect from period of 3.3.1). (which 11, simulates at Xerox open (C2 cells in the the pads cell noise Pad P7 an Computer the in C2, There We of coffee presence 0.01 room the offices Science of two Laboratory researchers There are four

functionality not

of link-

acknowledgements functionality options. data transmit in the should We message

there we have 3.3.2 nearby inclusion However, also yet

portion

implement Similarly, changes. alently collisions. sensing of such The we have, ply the only

suggested ongoing one inhibits options, to explore

C2 and

C3 has one pad which

P5 in C3). a noise the C4) of a large (see (cell simulated

achieved exchange

this

of DS packets could RTS-RTS such the

is also simulate

pattern. many We

equivas

whiteboard

use full There

carrier-sense, are signals. in

which have

intermediate

a packet brought cell base 300

seconds

Section

clean

space

an uncontested is 2000

carrier

sense

mechanisms. Figure 7 poses a problem to which This requires some distribution but since it none seems of the difficult stations to in supthe

configuration

long).
station per of

Each
its

pad sends a TCP

with a data to In addition

data
pad

stream
rate hearing

to the
of 32 the

as yet,
information

no answer.
to

cell,

generation each

of synchronizing

information, B1

packets

second.

221

@J@J
_,
P

I
\

o 0
B4
l__
__l

o
_

PI

o
BI

I f J

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C2 I
at PARC.

Figure

11:

A configuration

based

onpartof

the

Computer

Science

Laboratory

congested Another with our The provement However, complex, scratched our options Unlike protocols tions our want in violate to

area unsolved simple backoff over the and the

are aware problem RTS-DATA algorithm the initial performance the and design in surface both

that

B 1 is attempting scheme single for multicast

to transmit. satisfied traffic. an improposal. merely of

tings be shared, media In this access from relied sender.

where highest. and is one paper

the The

demand media

for in

such such design LAN thus,

mobile indoor issues the s:

communication wireless in LANs access wireless of a new It design

will is a to this LANs. media process not the

is multicast; we presented of such space

we are not is certainly BEB

scarce, of the for earlier pieces relevant

resource; central wireless proposal, of insight.

controlling design MACAW.

backoff, algorithms

we have

discussed

is exceedingly We have the other any behavior algorithmic media Such access variato not more only are For service considered approaches Various or work. for and evaluating and fair locfllzed connonwell of two that neisuch who such Bewhat and is not altokenreservations,

protocol Karns on four the This and we have exchange

is derived

is enormous. the consider in our which initial territory. power

MACA

[9]. Our
is at the

in understanding

algorithm available. Karn which the

understanding not

First,

congestion due traditional the to the

receiver,

realization, suggests

Karn

[9] and
use of

others approaches an

[4,
RTS-

[9], we did
involved symmetry and so far we hope networks best-effort from to

12], argues
(CSMA), CTS-DATA reasons, ACK change. Second,

against message and

carrier-sense For a variety

variation principle thus on familiar consider are

power. psss

Appletalk-like this to first

was so central we did Nonetheless, variations offering networks model.

exchange. then an

of performance ex-

understanding, venture work as wired class the of future Just

generalized

an RTS-CTS-DATA-

RTS-CTS-DS-DATA-ACK a homogeneous varies according We It is inadequate parameter. for each was taken collisions. levels must should rely often notion packets. networks should The phenomenon. to the instead and

carefully. moving their We not from wireless service have not a single also instance, as well such other based service, tion

congestion level intended

is not receiver. backoff

Rather, congestion duced end for each Third, lective direct to the could ment.

the

of congestion

locaintrothen which

of the

to characterize stream, to identify

moving

towards protocol yet. the or We multiple

broadening in have service. also involving to explore that In access

by a single backoff of the end

[3] supports

synchronous considered polling in future criterion

separate of the

parameters Care

as asynchronous than

stream. about When

service

stream learning

was experiencing congestion each views from not only shared access station

approach.

be a colon its own leads

schemes,

those

enterprise. experience To rectify asymmetric

are possibilities Furthermore, the performance of that such However, For and up can both location set tings cept. defined, cells, ties ther a pad are

we hope we stated was as an in setting inst ante, therefore base can the range stations receive same of one bandwidth.

in estimating this, to other media contend implies by the at

congestion, of the

chance

our

highly backoff

a homogeneous

environof copying This but idea to also

utilization

of bandwidth homogeneous distributed LAN, is on base fairness the stations, fairness

we introduced wireless media. protocol

parameters and the can

overheard

Ethernet, the

is a well-defined

be relevant

geographically of a wireless a pad hear other allocation of the that both when

Ethernets Fourth, chronization all devices ample this just

homogeneous

propagate periods, is one Note should where the

synso that exthat not the

border (in

information

about effectively. that the

contention

essentially Should as pads Should

DS packet for In access cases

transmitting transmissions). of throughput base stations?

of providing be initiated

the synchronizing contention sender

information.

of them receive in only

observation

of data. receivers

congestion

is mainly

location,

sender

pads receive fore settling allocation

less, because they cause on a final design choice, policy we want to implement.

more congestion? we must decide

cannot contend data transmissions so that it congestion being These performance design is still are many the is in the

effectively are over. end to

since it cannot We introduced can be contend This even sent for

know when the the RRTS packet bandwidth packet also data when allows was not the our

receiving presence information various of

of congestion.

5
The bile will

Summary
emergence computing play in recent years devices suggests important particularly of a new generation that indoor wireless role in our in traditional of moLANs set-

when

communicated. changes the which media remain have access As significantly protocol. improved However, in Section

an increasingly infrastructure,

telecommuoffice

preliminary.

we discuss unresolved.

4, there

nication

issues

222

References
[1] D. less Allen,

1. When data

A packet

is

in to

IDLE B, it state. IDLE the

state sets

and a random

wants timer

to

transmit and goes

a to

LANs,

Hidden Terminal Problems in IEEE 802.11 Working Group

Wire-

the

CONTEND B is in A, it contains and goes

paper 2. When
from state machine of bytes For state timer, state state time and IDs to Data and receives a RTS (CTS) A, sets B packet packet and state. a CTS Data packet packet the a timer transmits number a Clear-To-Send send.

802.11/93-xx.
[2]

G. Sidhu,
AppleTalk,

R.

Andrews,

and Wesley,

A.

Oppenheimer,

Inside

which permitted value

of B and (WFData) receives the

Addison-

1989.

[3]

K.

A Hybrid Wireless MAC Protocol Supporting Delivery SerAsynchronous and Synchronous MSDU vices, IEEE 802.11 Working Group paper 802.11/9192, September, 1992.
Biba,

to Wait

3. When
from to

A is in WFCTS B, it clears resets the the

transmits to IDLE. and receives

B, and

[4]

D. Buchholz, Comments on CSMA, Working Group paper 802.11/91-49.

D.D.

IEEE

802.11

4. When
from

B is in WFData A, it clears the

a Data state

packet

and

resets when it

the

to IDLE.

[5]

Clark, S. Shenker, and L. Zhang, Supporting Rea2in an Integrated Services Packet Time Applications Network: Architecture and Mechanism, Proceedings of ACM SIGCOMM 92, August, 1992. in a Datagram S. Deering, Multicast Routing work, Tech. Report No. STAN-CS-92-1415, University, December, 1991.

5. If A receives
state, the The it sender Deferral clears

a RTS the goes are an and rules

packet timer, to the the RTS to for

is in state.

CONTEND packet to

transmits WFData

a CTS

following. packet the from Bs A to CTS. B, and it goes sets a

[6]

InternetStanford

1. When from timer 2. When its value The its

C hears current value

state

QUIET

state,

sufficient a CTS to the for

A to hear from As

[7]

A. Demers, S. Elrod, Chris Kantarjiev, and E. Rlchley, A Nano-Cellular Local Area Network Using Near-Field Virginia Tech Symposium on Wheless RF Coupling, Personal Communications, to appear. C. Kantarjiev, A. Demers, R. Frederick, and R. Krivacic, Experiences with X in a Wireless Environment, Proceedings of the USENIX Mobile & LocationIndependent Computing Symposium, 1993. P. Karn MA CA - A New Channel Access Method for Packe Radio, ARRL/CRRL Amateur Radio 9th Computer Networking Conference, September 22, 1990. K. S. Natarajan, Access Control 802.11 Working 1992. C. C. Huang, and D. F. Bantz, Media Protocols for Wireless LANs, IEEE Group paper 802.11/92-39, March,

D hears state sufficient

packet QUIET hear

B to A, it goes from and sets a timer Data.

current

state,

B to are the

Timeout

rules

following. state to Send of A and A then and the timer packet the and expires, which goes requested

[8]

1. When it contains number

A is in CONTEND a Request IDs to send. the station of bytes state. other IDLE state, state. of rules. when

transmits

(RTS) B, and sets

a timer

[9]

to WFCTS 2. From goes The Control any to the

a timer

expires,

a station

[10]

descending rules, and

order Timer

precedence

is

Deferral

rules,

MACAW Message
in A MACA, rules, pad

[11]

S. Shenker Some Conjectures on the Behavior of Transmission Control of RanAcknowledgment-Based dom Access Communication Channels, Proceedings of ACM Sigmetrics 87, 1987.
Limitations C. Rypinski, oian Applications, IEEE per 802.11/91-46a. of

B.1
As

Exchange
MACAW Deferral Wait Wait Wait rules is in to

and Control
can also and can For For CTS be

Rules
described rules. one of eight Wait and for Wait QUIET. states: ConFor in terms of

Control IDLE, tend Data

rules,

Timeout be in (WFCTS), (WFACK)

running

MACAW

[12]

CSMA

802.11

in 802.11 RadiWorldng Group pa-

CONTEND, (WFCntend), (WFData),

DataSend following. and a random

(WFDS),

For

ACK

The A The

Control A packet

are the IDLE B, it state. B is in

MACA
Control and rules data and Let that the Backoff rules The B. Let station stations only A, govern A wants C and and the rules carrier govern to transD be two only

1. When
data the

state sets

wants timer

to

transmit and goes

a to

capture collision mit other B.

transmission. us assume C hears to station

Deferral

CONTEND station from B

avoidance. packet such stations

2. When
packet packet.

IDLE a timer

state and

and

receives to

a RTS (CTS) Wait for

a data

A, then (WFDS)

it

transmits sets state. state timer, data sets

a Clear-To-Send goes

D hears

DataSend

A pad running MACA can be in one of five states: IDLE, CONTEND, Wait For CTS (WFCTS), Wait For Data (WFData) and QUIET. The Control rules that goven the state transition are the following.

3. When
from DS WFACK

B, it clears
followed state by

A is in WFCTS the the and

and receives a CTS packet transmits back- tc-back a to B. A then enters

packets a timer.

223

4. When B is in WFDS state from A, it goes to WFData

5.

and receives a DS packet state and sets a timer.

and receives a data packet packet,

B.2
Each

Backoff
station

and Copying
keeps the

Rules
variables:

following

When
from then

B is in WFData A, it goes A clears to IDLE is in the

state timer, state.

transmits

an ACK

1. my.backoi%

the backoff pad:

value

at this

station.

2. For each remote

state the and receives an and ACK clears

6.

When packet the

WFACK resets

from

B, it

state

to IDLE,

local.backoff estimated

: the backoff by the remote : estimated

value at this station. backoff

station

as

timer. B is in packet again it IDLE state of CTS. packet CTS and state state. state goes and packet, to the receives it WFCTS a Request state to and sets and when to it is in CONTEND goes to and receives last time, a RTS it sends for a

7.

When data ACK

remote_backoff mote station.

value for the re-

acknowledged

the

instead a RTS state

8.

If A receives state, the it WFDS

exchangeseq_number ber used in packet tion. retry _count

(ESN) exchanges

: a sequence numwith the remote sta-

transmits

packet

the value.

sender,

: the number

of retransmissions.

a timer
receives

9.

If C is in QUIET the WFContend

an RTS,

it goes

to

When a pad P hears a packet, other than an RTS, from Q to R, P updates its estimate about Q and Rs contention levels by copying the local-backoff and remote.backoff In addition, P values carried in the packet, respectively.
also that copies the Qs backoff station level because precisely, remote-backoff, ignore value aa its around they own Qs the may backoff, backoff carry neighborhood. not the assuming supposedly RTS correct Q is a nearby congestion More backoff, == backoff backof f RTS, are ignored values. (local. packet Qs therefore

10.

If a station Request packet sets to To

is in IDLE Send value. rules are the a RTS to the for the sender,

(RRTS)

transmits

a RTS

reflects packets backoff

a timer

The

Deferral

following. from Bs from the A to B, it goes from and sets a timer CTS. A to B, it state, Data and packet goes and from then packet If else = local_backoff; ! = I. DONT_KNOH) = remote-backoff; if (remote-backoff Rs my-backoff When a Pad

1. When its value

C hears state sufficient C hears state for ACK.

packet QUIET

ESN)

current

state,

A to hear

2. When
its sufficient hear

a DS packet to the A to transmit

current Bs

QUIET

sets

a timer

= local-backoff; P receives eqnumber a new In should values the either be the own retry-count. when of its transmission case, and a packet haa increased, or the that Here with correct from Pad either Q to the P, if

3. When
its value

D hears state sufficient B hears state sufficient

a CTS to the for

packet QUIET

from As

B to A, it goes from and sets a timer data. from D, and it goes from

the haa in the ESN with

exchange= completed. the packet and resets used value other the backoff

packet carried the is f once of an

current

state,

is initiating

a successful backoff ones. Ps Ps of Qs, Thus

handshake P updates

B to hear

values

4. When
its value The 1.

a RRTS to the for

packet QUIET

increases

current

state

sets

a timer

local-backoff an exchange mv_backof

an RTS-CTS are the following.

exchange.

a variable O: . . its On the old sum packet, of the increases a successful

temporarily

attempting

Timeout

rules

is synchronized is done. if the value at which value value f, packet for hand,

handshake P assumes backoff from own backoff backoff its Qs values backoff

When expires, TEND

a station it sets state. a station it to (D), from may perform

is in

WFContend timer and

state goes

and

the

timer CON-

is a retransmission occurred at should Qs end, Because be the between

a random

to the

a collision of the two

and the same the

Q accordingly. ends the collision difference

2. When
expires, form packet sion state For

is in either

CONTEND transmit data

state a RTS

and packet (A) data

the to

timer per-

independently P upates sum packet and

end

has occurred,

as the

a sender-initiated depending IDLE

transmission it entered WFContend

or a RRTS transmis-

(as P estimated). remote_backof f; = remote-backof backof f; f; f, Esl?)

a receiver-initiated on whether state, or from

CONTEND state. a RTS B, and the

(local-backof

If

sender-initiated containing number sets D and to IDLE any to the other IDLE

transmission, the a timer transmits station value. IDs of bytes to send.

A transmits of A and A goes packet For

(ESN > ESN for Cl) Qs backof f = local-backof

if (remote_backoff Ps eh.ePs local-backof off my-back f

packet, requested state, goes

! = I. DONT-KNOW) = remote_

to WFCTS and then

receiver-initiated

transmission,

a RRTS

state. state, state when and a timer resets expires, the timer a station value. .

Ps local_backoff = my_backoff; ESN for q = ESN+ 1;

3. From
goes

Ps

.1..
Qs if

/*

retry-count the packet

with is

q = 1; a retransmission + retry I-DONT_KNOU) !=

*I _count * ALPHA;

backoff

= local_backoff

(remote-backoff

224

Ps else

local-backoff

= (local-backoff = rny.backoff;

+ renrote.backoff)

- Qs

backoff;

Ps local-backoff retry-count ++;

When values ESIJin the pad P sends packet, a packet local-backoff, way:

to Q, it assigns

the

parameter and

in the

rernotelrackoff,

following

If

(packet = RTS) /*or local-backoff (used

should it be at in communicating

the beginning of a new packet*/ with Q) = my_backoff;

remote.backoff local-backoff Send packet

When aPad

= Qs backoff = local-backoff vith local-backoff,

Ptimes outona

(or I-DONT-KNOW); used with Q; Remote-backoff,

packetto Q:

ESN;

Qs backoff += retry-count * ALPHA; If reached max-retry_count, Ps local-backoff used vith Q = MAX-BACKOFF; Qs backoff = I-DONT-KNOU;

225