1. Empirical: - Based on, concerned with, or verifiable by observation or experience rather than theory or pure logic. 2.

Measurement: - The process of observing and recording the observations that are collected as part of a research. Levels of Measurement: a. Nominal Data: observations of a qualitative variable can only be classified and counted. There is no particular order to the labels. b. Ordinal Data: Data classifications are represented by sets of labels or names (high, medium, low) that have relative values. Because of the relative values, the data classified can be ranked or ordered c. Interval Data: It includes all the characteristics of the ordinal level, but, in addition, the difference between values is a constant size. Data classifications are ordered according to the amount of the characteristic they possess. d. Ratio Data: The ratio level is the highest level of measurement. It has all the characteristics of the interval level, but in addition, the 0 point is meaningful and the ratio between two numbers is meaningful. 3. Reliability: - Reliability refers to the consistency of a measure. A test is considered reliable if we get the same result repeatedly.Aspects of Reliability: a. Test-Retest Reliability. Is a measure of reliability obtained by administering the same test twice over a period of time to a group of individuals. The scores from Time-1 and Time 2 can then be correlated in order to evaluate the test for stability over time. b. Parallel Forms Reliability. Is a measure of reliability obtained by administering different version of an assessment tool (both versions must contain the same characteristics) to the same group of individuals. c. Interrater Reliability: is a measure of reliability used to assess the degree to which different judges or raters agree in their assessment decisions. Inter-rate reliability is useful because human observers will not necessarily interpret answers the same way. 4. Validity: - Validity is the extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure. It is vital for a test to be valid in order for the results to be accurately applied and interpreted. Aspects of Validity a. Content Validity: A test has content validity if it measures knowledge of the content domain of which it was designed to measure knowledge. Another way of saying this is that content validity concerns, primarily, the adequacy with which the test items adequately and representatively sample the content area to be measured. b. Criterion-Related Validity: Criterion-related validity is a concern for tests that are designed to predict someones status on an external criterion measure. A test has criterion-related validity if it is useful for predicting a persons behavior in a specified situation. Two types: 1. Concurrent validation, the predictor and criterion data are collected at or about the same time. This kind of validation is appropriate for tests designed to asses a persons current criterion status. It is good diagnostic screening tests when you want to diagnose. 2. Predictive validation, the predictor scores are collected first and criterion data are collected at some later/future point. This is appropriate for tests designed to asses a persons future status on a criterion. c. Construct Validity: a test has construct validity if it accurately measures a theoretical, non-observable construct or trait. The construct validity of a test is worked out over a period of time on the basis of an accumulation of evidence. There are a number of ways to establish construct validity.