YIELD LINE METHOD

For an under-reinforced section the capacity to develop curvatures between

the first yield of reinforcement and failure due to crushing of concrete is
considerable. For a slab which is subjected to increasing load, cracking and
reinforcement yield will first occur in the most highly stressed zone. This
will then act as a plastic hinge as subsequent loads are distributed to other
regions of the slab. Cracks will develop to form a pattern of 'yield lines' until
a mechanism is formed and collapse is indicated by increasing deflections
under constant load.

It is assumed that a pattern of yield lines can be superimposed on the slab,
which will cause a collapse mechanism, and that the regions between yield
lines remain rigid and un-cracked. Figure 1 show the yield line mechanism
which will occur for the simple case of a fixed ended slab spanning in one
direction with a uniform load. Rotation along the yield lines will occur at a
constant moment equal to the ultimate moment of resistance of the section,
and will absorb energy. This can be equated to the energy expended by the
applied load undergoing a compatible displacement and is known as the
virtual work method

Yield line
Fixed supprt
Plastic hinges

Considerable care must be taken over the selection of likely yield line
patterns since the method will give an upper bound solution, that is, either
a correct or unsafe solution. Yield lines will form at right angles to bending
moments which have reached the ultimate moment of resistance of the slab
and the following rules may be helpful:
(a) Yield lines are usually straight and end at a slab boundary.
(b) Yield lines will lie along axes of rotation, or pass through their points
of intersection.
(c) Axes of rotation lie along supported edges pass over columns or cut
unsupported edges.

Few patterns of yield lines:

Figure 2

A yield line caused by a sagging moment is generally referred to as a
positive yield line and represented by a full line. While a hogging moment
causing cracking on the top of the slab causes a negative yield line shown
by a broken yield line.











Virtual Work Method

Once the yield line have been chosen, some point on the slab is given a
virtual displacement, as shown in Figure 3.

c

Figure 3


The external work done by the load when displaced this amount is
External work =

} } o w dx dy
= (W
c
)
where w load on an element of area
deflection of that element
W total load on a plate segment

c
deflection of the centroid of that segment

The total external work is the sum of the work for each plate.

The internal work done by rotating the yield line is
Internal work = (m
b
l)

where m
b
bending moment per unit length of yield line
l length of the yield line
angle change at that yield line

The total internal work done during the virtual displacement is the sum of
the internal work done on each yield line.

The principle of virtual work states that for equilibrium
External work = internal work
(W
c
) = (m
b
l)



Yield line analysis for one way slab

m
x1
m
x1
m
x2
m
x2
2

c
a) Cross section
b) Plan
c) Deformed shape
A
B
C
D
E
F
b

Figure 4

The one way slab shown in the Figure 4 has reinforcement at the top at the
ends with a moment capacity m
x1
per unit width and reinforcement at the
bottom of the mid-span with capacity m
x2
per unit width. It is loaded with a
uniform load of w per unit area. Compute the moment capacity required to
support w.

Step 1- select axes and yield lines.
Axes and negative moment yield lines will form along the faces of the
supports and a positive moment yield line will form at a mid-span.
Step 2 Give a slab a virtual displacement
Some point in the slab is displaced downward by an amount . Line C-D had
been displaced .

Step 3 Compute the external work
The total load on plate segment A-B-C-D is W = w(bL/2). The displacement
of the resultant load W :
c
= /2. Therefore the external work done on plate
A-B-C-D is
W
c
=
4 2 2
o o wbL bL
w =
|
.
|

\
|

The total external work for the two plate segment is
External work =
|
.
|

\
|
4
2
o wbL


Step 4 Compute the internal work
The negative moment yield line at A-B rotates through an angle , where =
/ (L/2). The external work done in rotating through this angle is m
x1
b(2/L)
The total internal work done at all three yield lines is
Internal work =
|
.
|

\
|
+
(

|
.
|

\
|
L
b m
L
b m
x x
o o 4 2
2
2 1


Step 5 Equate the external and internal work

|
.
|

\
|
4
2
o wbL
= |
.
|

\
|
+
(

|
.
|

\
|
L
b m
L
b m
x x
o o 4 2
2
2 1

Thus

8
2
2 1
wL
m m
x x
= +

Any combination of m
x1
and m
x2
that equal wL
2
/8 will satisfy equilibrium.










Square slab

The simply supported square slab has a positive moment capacity, mx = my.
Compute the value of m required to support a uniform load w.

Steps 1 select the axes and yield lines
Yield lines will form along the diagonal which as shown in Figure 5 are
lines of the maximum moment. The segments will rotate about axes along
the four supports.

A
B C
D
E
F
G
L
L
1
1
1
2

B
E
D

2
L
2
L
Section 1-1

Figure 5

Step 2 give a slab a virtual displacement
Point E is displaced downward by an amount of .

Step 3 Compute the external work
Load on plate segment A-B-E W =
4
2
L
w
Deflection of centroid of plate
3
o
= A
c

External work done on plate A-B-E
3 4
2
o
|
|
.
|

\
|
= A
wL
W
c

Total external work
3 4
4
2
o
|
|
.
|

\
|
= A
wL
W
c


Step 4 Compute the internal work
Consider the yield line A-E. Length l = L/2. The rotation of yield line A-E
is

2 1
u u u + =
Where

2 1
2 u
o
u = =
L

= u
L
o
2 2
The internal work on line A-E = m
b
l and m
b
is equal to m
x
and m
y
. Thus
m
b
l = m(L/2)(22/L) = 2m. The total work on all four yield lines is
) 2 ( 4 ) ( o u m l m
b
=

Step 5 equate the external and internal work
o
o
m
wL
8
3
2
= and
24
2
wL
m =
Thus the reinforcement in both direction should be designed for

24
2
L
w m m
f ry rx
= =
Where w
f
is the factored uniform load














Calculation of the load capacity of a reinforced concrete slab

m
1
m
1 m
2
m
3
= 15 kNm/m
m
1
= 10 kNm/m
m
1 m
2
= 20 kNm/m
m
3
3 m
1.5 m 1.5 m 1.5 m
(a) Reinforcement at top of slab
m
5
= 5 kNm/m
m
4
= 5 kNm/m
0.5 m
0.5 m
0.5 m 0.5 m
2 m
3.5 m
(b) Reinforcement at bottom of slab
A B
C D
E F
(c) Assumed yield line pattern

Figure 6
Figure 6 shows a rectangular slab that is fixed on four sides and has negative
moment (top) reinforcement with the capacities shown in Figure 6(a), and
positive moment (bottom) reinforcement as shown in Figure 6(b). Compute
the load w corresponding to failure of this slab.

Step 1 Select axes and yield lines
Axes will form along the four sides of the slab.

Step 2 Give a slab a virtual displacement
Line E F is given a virtual displacement of

Step 3 Compute the external work
Panel A-C-E

3 2
5 . 1
3
o
|
.
|

\
|
= A x w W
c
= 0.75w kNm
Panel A-B-F-E
o
o o
w w w W
C
875 . 1
2
) 5 . 1 5 . 1 (
3 2
5 . 1
) 5 . 1 5 . 1 ( = + |
.
|

\
|
+ = A kNm
Total external work = 2 x 0.75w + 2 x 1.875 w = 5.25 w kNm

Step 4 Compute the internal work

Panel A-C-E
m
x
L
y

y
= (15 x 3 x /1.5) + (5 x 2 x /1.5) = 36.67 kNm

Panel A-B-F-E
m
Y
L
X

X
= (10 x (1.5 + 1.5) x /1.5) + (20 x 1.5 x /1.5) + (5 x 3.5 x /1.5)
= 51.678 kNm

Total internal work = 2 x 36.678 + 2 x 51.678 = 176.78 kNm

Step 5 equate the external and internal work

5.25 w = 176.78 so w = 33.6 kN/m
2